ME398 Industrial Management

Productivity &
Work Study
KMM
 Productivity
A common mistake is to use productivity synonymous to measures of production, which
refers to the amount of a product or service produced. As a result of this confusion, people
tend to believe that increased production, means increased productivity. This is not
necessarily true. Its important to keep in mind is that productivity is a relative concept, which
cannot be said to increase or decrease unless a comparison is made, either of Variations from
competitors or other standards at a certain point in time, or of changes over time. Basically,
improvements in productivity can be caused by five different relationships:
• Output and input increases, but the increase in input is proportionally less than the increase in output.
• Output increases while input stays the same.
• Output increases while input isreduced.
• Output stays the same while input decreases.
• Output decreases while input decreases even more
Almost any transformation process within a manufacturing company is fed with several types
of input (e.g. labour, capital, material and energy) and emits more than one output (e.g.
product A, product B). In turn we must be able to separate partial productivity (i.e. output
related to one type of input) from total productivity (i.e. output related to multiple types of
input). Effectiveness is usually described as ‘doing the right things’, while efficiency means
‘doing things right’.
Efficiency: Measures the resources expected to be consumed
to the resources actually consumed.
Hence, it focuses on the input side of the system. (To what degree
did the system utilize the “right” things.)

Effectiveness: Measures what the system sets out to

accomplish (objective) with what was actually accomplished;
plan vs. actual
Hence, effectiveness is an output measure. (Is the output “right” -
right quality, right quantity, on time, etc.)

Quality: Degree to which the outputs (products and services)

from the system conform to requirements or meet customer
expectations.
The focus is on quality attributes (e.g., conformance, performance,
convenience, responsiveness, perceived quality.)
 Productivity
Productivity is the ratio between output and input.
PRODUCTIVITY = [OUTPUT / INPUT]
Output : may be a desired product or service.
Input : Man, machine, material, etc.
It may be noted that PRODUCTION (which is number of
products) is different from PRODUCTIVITY.

WORK STUDY IS A TOOL OF PRODUCTIVITY

ENHANCEMENT.
It simplifies a job
TO REDUCE UNNECESSARY OR EXCESS WORK,
WASTEFUL USE OF RESOURCES and sets up
STANDARD TIME for performing that job.
Systems Concept

Inputs Outputs
Transformations Customers
Land & Bldg. Goods
people and
SYSTEM
capital Services
materials
facilities
equipment O
tools I
energy
information Productivity
Productivity is a measure of effectiveness (doing the right thing efficiently),
which is outcome-oriented rather than output-oriented.
 Value added: The difference between the cost of
inputs and the value or price of outputs.
Value added

Inputs Transformation / Outputs

Material Conversion Process Goods
Labor Services
Capital

Feedback

Control
Feedback Feedback

Profitability is the overriding goal for the success and growth of any business and is
generally defined as a surplus of revenue over cost (i.e. Revenue - Cost). Productivity is
the relationship between a given amount of output and the amount of input needed to
produce it. Profitability results when money is left over from sales after costs are paid.
Productivity Improvement
Productivity Improvement (PI) is the result of
managing and intervening in transformation or
work processes.
Productivity Improvement will occur if:

O O O O O
I I I I I
Measuring Productivity

Static: P=O/I in a given period of time (t).

Useful for benchmarking purposes.
Dynamic: p(1)=O(1)/I(1); p(2)=O(2)/I(2);
then p(2)/p(1) yields a dimensionless index
that reflects change in productivity between
periods.
((p(2)-p(1))/p(1))*100 yields the percentage
change between periods.
Measuring Productivity (Continued)

Partial-Factor: Uses a single “I” factor; e.g.,

output/labor-hour, sales/employee
Multi-Factor: Uses more than one “I” factor;
e.g. output/direct costs (labor, materials, and
overhead).
Total-Factor: Uses all “I” factors.
(Note: Total-Factor captures “trade-offs”
between input factors.)
Measurement Problems

Multiple products/services (aggregation-O)

Varied categories, types, and levels of input
resources (aggregation-I)
Price/cost changes of outputs & inputs
Redesigned products, services, processes
“Hard-to-measure” factors (e.g., quality)
 Productivity’s relation to profitability
Higher productivity refers to doing the work in shortest possible time, with
least expenditure of inputs without sacrificing quality and with minimum
wastage of resources
Productivity is a fairly specific concept (related to the ratio between output
and input), while performance includes almost any objective of competition
and manufacturing excellence such as cost, flexibility, speed, dependability
and quality. However, as illustrated in figure various performance
objectives can have a large effect on the productivity in an operation
 USE OF PRODUCTIVITY MEASURES
• It has been said that the challenge of productivity has become a challenge of
measurement. Productivity is difficult to measure and can only be measured
indirectly, that is, by measuring other variables and then calculating
productivity from them. This difficulty in measurement stems from the fact
that inputs and outputs are not only difficult to define but are also difficult to
quantify.
• Productivity is a required tool in evaluating and monitoring the
performance of an organization, especially a business organization. When
directed at specific issues and problems, productivity measures can be very
powerful. In essence, productivity measures are the yardsticks of effective
resource use.
• Managers are concerned with productivity as it relates to making
improvements in their firm. Proper use of productivity measures can give the
manager an indication of how to improve productivity: either increase the
numerator ofthe measure, decrease the denominator, or both.
• Managers are also concerned with how productivity measures relate
to competitiveness. If two firms have the same level of output, but
one requires less input thanks to a higher level of productivity, that
firm will be able to charge a lower price and increase its market share
or charge the same price as the competitor and enjoy a larger profit
margin.
• Within a time period, productivity measures can be used to compare
the firm's performance against industry-wide data, compare its
performance with similar firms and competitors, compare
performance among different departments within the firm, or
compare the performance of the firm or individual departments
within the firm with the measures obtained at an earlier time (i.e., is
performance improving or decreasing over time?).
• Productivity measures can also be used to evaluate the
performance of an entire industry or the productivity of a country
as a whole. These are aggregate measures determined by
combining productivity measures of various companies,
industries, or segments of the economy.
A company produces 160 kg of plastic moulded parts of acceptable quality by
consuming 200 kg of raw materials for a particular period. For the next period, the
output is doubled (320 kg) by consuming 420 kg of raw material and for the third
period the output is increased to 400 kg by consuming 400 kg of raw material. Analyse
the case.

During the first period:

Productivity = output / Input = 160 / 200 = 0.80

During the second period:

Productivity = output / Input = 320 / 420 = 0.76

During the third period:

Productivity = output / Input = 400 / 400 = 1.00

Though production for the second period has doubled, productivity has decreased
from 0.80 to 0.76 (from 80% to 76%).

For the third period production has increased by 150% and productivity increased from
80% to 100%.
 Following information is given pertaining to a firms performance for the last four
periods. Compute the partial productivity and total productivity indexes for the
company for each of the four periods.

Particulars Period 1 Period 2 Period 3 Period 4

Output
1) Finished Goods produced
2) Work-in-process
Competing on Productivity

At the national level, growing productivity

leads to a higher standard of living,
holds inflation in check,
enhances international competitiveness.
The annual GDP growth is partially due to
growth in productivity,
growth in inflation
 Dynamics of Productivity Change
Improvement in
Productivity

More Output
Increase in wages

Better Machines
Reduction in Product Increase in Demand
Cost for Goods & Services

Lowering of Prices Greater Employment

More Profits More Savings Higher Investments

Reasons for low per capita GDP in India

❑ Highly bureaucratic governance – licence raj

❑ Poor enforcement of copyright and patent laws
❑ Poor infrastructure – roads, shipping, airports,
electricity.
❑ Wrong priorities
❑ Highly controlled economy leading to large scale
corruption.
❑ Lot of under-skilled labour force
❑ Social and Cultural factors
Examples of Partial Measures of Productivity
For Improving the STANDARD OF LIVING, of its citizens, the
concerned nation must raise its PRODUCTIVITY for
economic growth. For any organization, its input-output
system can be represented as follows:

• With increasing complexities of the technological world,

the need to simplify the work system has been
increasing day by day.
• Work study is an area of knowledge that addresses the
problem of work simplification with the basic objectives of
1. PRODUCTIVITY ENHANCEMENT, and
2. HUMAN COMFORT & SAFETY
PRODUCTIVITY measures the extent to which a certain
OUTPUT can be extracted from a given INPUT 15
 FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO
PRODUCTIVITY IMPROVEMENT
A way to effect improvement in productivity measures is reduce the time
required to produce one unit of an output.
a) Time required to produce one unit.
b) The difference between the actual input that has gone into the
production process and the required input calculated from the actual
output and the unit time.

Reduction in (a) involves factors related to design of the product or the

process. Reduction of (b) can be achieved by the reduction of operational
inefficiencies.

Factors important for raising productivity:

a) Product Design factors:
Standardisation of components, Quality standards, Provision of high
production machineries where possible.
b) Process Design factors:
Specifications of operating conditions, interaction among men and
machines, working methods of the operatives.
 Factors contributing to productivityimprovement
Two issues assume importance in the context of raisingproductivity
of Labour and Capital:
a) The time required to produce one unit of an output, and
b) The difference between the actual input that has gone into
production process, and the required input as calculatedfrom
data.
Any factor effecting reduction on either of the above basically
contributes to productivity improvement. Reduction of (a) involve
factors related to design of the product or process, while reduction
of (b) could be achieved by removing operationalinefficiencies.
Land & Building Management obtains the Facts
PLANS
Materials DIRECTS GOODS
COORDINATES &
CONTROLS SERVICES
Plant & Machinery
MOTIVATES
Land & Building In order to produce
 FACTORS AFFECTING PRODUCTIVITY
There is quite a variety of factors which can affect productivity, both positively and
negatively. These include:
1. Capital investments in production
2. Capital investments in technology
3. Capital investments in equipment
4. Capital investments in facilities
5. Economies of scale
6. Workforce knowledge and skill resulting from training and experience
7. Technological changes
8. Work methods
9. Procedure
10. Systems
11. Quality of products
12. Quality of processes
13. Quality of Management
14. Legislative and regulatory environment
15. General levels of education
16. Social environment
17. Geographic factors
The first 12 factors are highly controllable at the company or project level. Numbers
13 and 14 are marginally controllable, at best. Numbers 15 and 16 are controllable
only at the national level, and 17 is uncontrollable.
Concept of Work Content
The amount of work contained in a given job is referred
to as work content and is measured in man-hours or
machine-hours.

• BASIC Work Content: is the irreducible

minimum time theoretically required to do a job or
operation. This cannot be reduced. This results only if (i)
the design and the specifications are perfect, (ii)
process of manufacture is exactly followed and (iii) no
loss of working time occurs due to any reason.
• The actual time required to complete an operation or
job is more than the basic time in practical situations.
This additional portion is called the excess work
content.
 Techniques for Productivity Improvement
How Manufacturing Time is made up

BWC
Total Time of Operation under Existing Conditions Basic Work Content

Total Work Content

of Product / operation

Work Content Added

A

ExcessTime
by defects in design/Specs
of product
Work Content Added
B by inefficient methods of
manufacture / operation
Total IneffectiveTime

Ineffective Time due to

C shortcomings of the
management

D Ineffective Time within

the control of theworker
 Techniques for Productivity Improvement contd.

Reasons for ExcessWork Content and ineffective time

A. Work content added due to defects C. Ineffective time added due to
in design or specs of a product shortcomings of management
i. Bad design of product i. Bad working conditions, ii) frequent
ii. Lack of standardisation of prod. Interruptions due to
components breakdown, iii)poor prod. planning
iii. Incorrect specs & quality and control, iv) lack of safety
standards measures, v) lack of quality
iv. Faulty design of components mindedness, vi) lack of instruc-tion
B. Work content added due to vii) frequent changes in set-ups,
inefficient methods of manufacture viii) lack of performance standards,
i. Improper selection of ix) shortage of materials / tools.
manufacturing process/machine D. Ineffective time added due to
ii. Wrong selection of tools reasons attributed to workmen
iii.Improper layout of the i. Unauthorised absence from work,
shop/factory
ii)substandard performance,
iv.Inefficient methods of material iii) careless-ness in working,
handling
iv)unnecessary wastage of time /
idleness.
 Techniques for Productivity Improvement contd.

Techniques to reduce Work Content or ImproveProductivity

A. Mgmt technique to reducework C. Mgmt techniques to reduce ineffective
content due to product time due to shortcomings of
management
i. Product development,
i) Product standardisation and
ii. standardisation,
simplification, ii) product
iii. value analysis, specialisation, iii) standardisation of
iv. market/consumer research components, iv) production planning
& control, v) materials control,
B. Mgmt technique to reduce work vi) plant maintenance, vii) safety
content due to process/methods measures and improved working
conditions.
i. process planning ,
D. Mgmt techniques to reduce ineffective
ii. method study
time within the control of the workers
i) soundpersonnel policies,
ii) Operators training,
iii) safety training,
iv) financial incentives.
The important functions of production management are setting up most
effective method of performing the operation and control the effective
utilisation of resources.
 Techniques for Productivity Improvement contd.
How Management Techniques can reduce ExcessWork Content
Basic Work Content
Techniques to reduce Excess Work Content
A1. Bad Design of Product A1. Product Development & Value Analysis
prevents use of most economic reduce excess work content due to design defects
processes
A2. Lack of Standardization
A2. Specialisation & Standardisation
prevents use of high productive enable high production processes to beused
processes
Excess Work Content

A3. Incorrect Quality Standards A3. Market, Consumer & Product

cause unnecessary work Research ensure correct quality standard

A4. Design demands removal of Excess A4. Product Development & Value Analysis
Material reduce work content due to excessmaterial

B1. Process Planning ensure selection of

B1. Wrong Machine used correct machines

B2. Process Not Operated B2. Process Planning & Research ensure correct
Correctly or in badcondition operation of processes

B3. Process Planning & Method Study

B3. Wrong Tools used
ensure correct selection of tools
B4. Bad Layout causing wasted B4. Method Study reduces work content due to bad
movement layout
B5. Operative’s Bad Working B5. Method Study and Operator Training
Methods reduce work content due to bad workingmethods
 Techniques for Productivity Improvement contd.
How Management Techniques can reduce Ineffective Time
Basic Work Content
ExcessWork Content eliminated Techniques to reduce Ineffective Content
C1. Excessive Product Variety adds idle time C1. Marketing & Specialisation reduce idle time due to
due to short runs product variety
C2. Lack of Standardisation adds idle time
C2. Standardisation reduces idle time due to shortruns
due to short runs
C3. Design Changes add ineffective time due C3. Product Development reduces ineffective time due to
to stoppages & rework changes in design
C4. Bad Planning of work and orders adds idle C4. Production Control based on Work Measurement
time of men & machines reduces idle time due to bad planning
C5. Lack of Raw Materials due to bad C5. Material Control reduces idle time due to lack of raw
planning adds idle time of men & machines materials
C6. Plant Breakdown add idle time of men & C6. Maintenance reduces ineffective time of men & machines
Ineffective Time

machines due to breakdown

C7. Plant in Bad Condition adds ineffective C7. Maintenance reduces ineffective time due to plant in bad
time due to scrap & rework condition
C8. Bad Working Conditions add ineffective C8. Improved Working Conditions enable workers to work
time through forcing workers torest steadily
C9. Accidents add ineffective time through
C9. Safety measures reduce ineffective time due to accidents
stoppages & absence
D1. Absence, Lateness & Idleness add D1. Sound Personnel Policy & Incentives reduce ineffective
ineffective time time due to absenceetc.
D2. Careless Workmanship adds ineffective D2. Personnel Policy & Operator Training
time due to scrap & rework reduce ineffective time due to carelessness
D3. Accidents adds ineffective time through
D3. Safety Training reduces ineffective time due to accidents
stoppages & absence
Management approach to deal with Productivity

• To eliminate the excess work content

• To reduce the ineffective time
The technique is known as Work Study.

Work study and the Worker

• Why workers resist the work study:

– It will change their familiar work methods.

– Many workers resent being timed.

– Fear of being fired.

 IMPROVING PRODUCTIVITY:

A firm or department may undertake a number of key steps toward

improving productivity. William J. Stevenson (1999) lists these steps to
productivity improvement:
1) Develop productivity measures for all operations; measurement is the
first step in managing and controlling an organization.
2) Look at the system as a whole in deciding which operations are most
critical, it is the over-all productivity that is important.
3) Develop methods for achieving productivity improvement, such as
soliciting ideas from workers (perhaps organizing teams of workers,
engineers, and managers), studying how other firms have increased
productivity, and reexamining the way work is done.
4) Establish reasonable goals for improvement.
5) Make it clear that management supports and encourages productivity
improvement. Consider incentives to reward workers for contributions.
Measure improvements and publicize them.
 Direct means of raising Productivity
How quickly Extent of Role of
Type of
S.No Means Cost can results improvement Work
Improvement
be achieved in productivity study
Method study to
Development of Basic or applied
1 new process research, pilot plant
HIGH Generally, years No obvious limits improve ease of
operation

Install modern/ Method study in

plant layout &
high-capacity Purchase, No obvious limits
2 Plant & Eqpt. Or Process research
HIGH On Installation ease of
operation when
modernize. modernizing.

Reduce work Product / process Not high Method study to

research, Quality, compare improve design
3 content of Method study, d to 1
Generally, months Limited
for ease of
product Value analysis and 2 production.
Process research, Method study to
Reduce the work Process planning, Pilot reduce wasted
Limited, but often of
4 content of the plant, Method study, LOW Immediate
higher order
effort and time
process Operator training, in operating the
Value analysis process
Work measurement, Work
Marketing policy, measurement to
Standardisation, PPC, investigate
Material control, May start slowly, existing practice
Reduce Limited, but often of
5 Ineffective time
Maintenance, LOW but effect grows
higher order
and locate
Personnel policy, quickly ineffective time
Improved working and set
conditions, Operator standards of
training, Incentives performance
Components of Work Study

It has three aspects

1. More effective use of plant & equipment
2. More effective use of human effort
3. Evaluation of human work
 WORK STUDY
• Work study is simply the study of work.
• It’s a management tool to achieve higher
efficiency. It provides us a scientific approach to
investigate into all forms of work with a view to
increase productivity.
• Concerned primarily with manual work
• Any industry to survive, must use latest
technology & most efficient method, improvised
with a consistent aim of producing quality goods
at lower prices.
• One way to improve is by efficient use of
plant, equipment and labour.
 WORK STUDY
• It is analysis of work, dividing it into smaller parts followed by
rearrangement of these parts to give the same effectiveness at a
lesser cost.
• Work study examines both the method and duration of the
work involved in the process.
• Work study is a powerful tool for simplification of work
• Robert Owen, Taylor and Bedeaux gave their contributions to this
topic.

Definition:
• Work Study is primarily concerned with discovering the best
ways of doing the job and establishing standards based on such
methods.
• Work Study is the technique of Method Study and Work
Measurement employed to ensure the best possible use of
human and material resources in carrying out a specified
activity. -ILO
 Objectives of Work-Study
Primary function of work study is to increase the
productivity and reduce the waste. So, it should be
capable to:
1. Investigate and analyze the situation.
2. Examine weaknesses in production process
3. Most efficient use of existing plant.
4. Recommend & implement improvements
5. Efficiently use human effort.
6. Set measurement of work values.
7. Set standards for labor cost control.
8. Initiate & maintain incentive bonus schemes
9. Standardize material and machines used
10. Determine the time required by an ideal
operator to perform the task with efficiency.
Advantages of Work Study
 Applications of Work Study
❑ Industries: production operations, research and
development
❑ Marketing: sales & distribution.
❑ Offices: stores & warehouses.
❑ Material handling
❑ In designing field
• Building & other construction
• Transport
• Hospital
• Army
• Agriculture
 Work Study - BasicProcedure
8 step process

SELECT Job or process to be studied

RECORD All details concerning Job using various techniques

EXAMINE Recorded facts critically by asking questions

DEVELOP Most economical method

MEASURE Amount of work involved & set

standard time to do the job
New method & standard
DEFINE
time

New method as a
standard practice INSTALL

New method as
MAINTAIN
agreed standard
 METHOD STUDY
Method Study (MS) is the systematic recording and
critical examination of existing and proposed ways of
doing work, as a means of developing and applying
easier and more effective methods and reducing costs.

• MS aims at determining the most effective method of

performing the job, most logical layout of manufacturing
facilities, uninterrupted flow of materials throughout the
organization. It is concerned with reduction of work content
and establishing the one best way of doing the job.
• MS is a collection of analysis techniques focusing on
improving the effectiveness of man and the machine.
 Method Study
• Methods engineering /work design
• Breakdown of operation into components
• Systematic analysis of each component
• Eliminates unnecessary operations
“It is systematic recording & examination of existing methods
of doing work and developing more effective methods” - BSI

MS addresses three broad areas:

1. It is a diagnostic tool (location of faults)
2. It is a remedial tool (improvesituation)
3. It is a constructive tool (setstandards)
 OBJECTIVES OF METHOD STUDY
1. Improvement of processes and procedures
2. Improvement in the design of plant and equipment
3. Improvement of layout
4. Improvement in the use of men, materials and machines
5. Economy in human effort and reduction of unnecessary
fatigue
6. Improvement in safetystandards
7. Methods standardisation
8. Development of better physical workingenvironment
9. Improvement of safety standards.
Can be used to determine best sequence of doing work, smooth material flow,
improve plant & material utilisation, eliminate waste & unproductive operations,
reduce manufacturing costs by reducing cycle time, improve working conditions,
reduce monotony of work
 Method Study Method
Study
Flow Chart

Method Study is the technique of systematic

recording and critical examination of existing and
proposed ways of doing work and developing an
easier and economical method.
• Method study examines the way a task (changing
the clutch on a car, preparing a flower bed for
planting, cleaning a hotel room) is done. The
industrial engineer has an eye on operational
efficiencies and costs, quality of processes,
service reliability, staff safety etc. Method study
techniques are applicable from factory/workshop
manufacturing to cabin crew activities.
 PROCEDURE FOR METHOD STUDY
Method
The basic procedure for conducting Study
Flow Chart
method study is as follows:
1. Select the work to be studied.
2. Record all facts aboutthe method by
direct observation.
3. Examine the above facts critically.
4. Develop the most efficient an
economic method.
5. Define the new method.
6. Install the new method as std. practice
7. Maintain the new method by regular
checking.
 PROCEDURE FOR METHOD STUDY Contd.
Selecting the work to be studied
There are three factors that should be kept in mind
while selecting a job for method study:
1. Economic or cost-effective considerations.
2. Technical considerations.
3. Human considerations.

1. Economic considerations:
It is obviously a waste of time to start or continue a
long investigation if the economic importance of
a job is small.
Questions that should always be asked are:
• Will it pay to begin a method study of this job? Or
• Will it pay to continue this study?
 Obvious choices for study are:
A. Key profit-generating or costly operations or ones with the largest
Scrap/waste rates.
B. Bottlenecks which are holding up other production operations, or
lengthy operations that consume a great deal of time.
C. Operations involving repetitive work using a great deal of labour and
ones that are likely to run for a long time.
D. Movements of material over long distances between workstations,
those involving the use of a relatively large proportion of labour or which
require repeated handling of material.
Select – Possible Results:
* Increased production rate * Reduced cost
* Less labor, materials, or equipment * Improved quality
* Improved safety * Reduced scrap
* Improved standards of cleanliness
• One of the easiest techniques that can be used to identify key operations as
listed in part (A) is the Pareto analysis (sometimes also referred to as “the
ABC analysis of value analysis”).
• The same observation can be extended by saying that among all the
operations in a given plant a small number account for the largest share of
cost or of profit, or the largest percentage of waste.
 2. Technical or technological considerations:
One of the important considerations is the desire by management to
acquire more advanced technology, i.e., in equipment or in processes.
• Therefore, management may want to computerize its office paperwork
or its inventory system, or to introduce automation in the production
operations.
• Before such steps are taken, a method study can point out the most
important needs of the enterprise in this respect.
• The introduction of new technology should therefore constitute an
important factor in the choice of methods of work to be investigated.
• Based on the technical knowledge of the process
• Jobs having inconsistent quality, Operations generating lot of scrap,
Frequent complaint from workers, Extensive paperwork, Repetitive
work (automation), Hazardous work etc.
 3. Human considerations:
Human considerations are the most difficult to foretell,
because of mental and emotional nature.
• Certain operations are often a cause of dissatisfaction by
workers.
• Select an unpopular job - That may bring on fatigue or
monotony or may be unsafe to operate or inconsistent
earnings.
• The level of satisfaction should point to a need for method
study. In a similar fashion, a choice of a particular job for study
may lead to anxiety or ill feeling. The suggestion given here is
to leave it alone.
2. Record: All the details about the existing method are
recorded. This is done by directly observing the work.
Records are useful for BEFORE and AFTER comparison
to assess effectiveness of proposed method. Recording
techniques are designed to simplify & standardize
recording work.
COMMONLY USEDRECORDINGTECHNIQUES
Man Type
1. Outline Process Charts
2. Flow Process Chart Material Type
3. Two Handed ProcessChart Equipment Type
4. Multiple Activity Chart USING TIME SCALE
5. Simo Chart
6. Flow Diagrams
7. String Diagrams
8. Cyclegraph
9. Chronocyclegraph
10. Travel Chart
 Typical Industrial problems and appropriate method study technique
Type of Job Examples Recording Technique
Complete Manufacture of an electric Outline Process Chart
sequence of motor from raw material to Flow Process Chart
manufacture dispatch Flow Diagram
Factory Layout: Movement of diesel engine Outline Process Chart
Movement of cylinder head through all Flow Process Chart (Mat)
materials machining operations Flow Diagram
Travel Chart, Models
Factory Layout: Cooks preparing meals in a Flow Process Chart (Men)
Movement restaurant kitchen String diagram
of Workers Travel Chart
Handling of Putting materials into & Flow Process Chart (Mat)
Materials taking them out of stores Flow Diagram
String diagram
Workplace layout Light assembly work on a Flow process Chart (Man)
bench Two handed process Chart
Multiple activity Chart
Simo Chart, Cyclegraph
 Typical Industrial problems and appropriate method study technique
Type of Job Examples Recording Technique
Automatic machine Assembly line, operator Multiple activity chart
operation looking after semi- Flow Process Chart (Eqpt)
automatic lathe
Movement of operativesat Female operatives on Films, Film analysis,
work short-cycle repetition work Simo Chart
Memotion photography
Micromotion analysis
Symbols are used to represent the activities like
operation, inspection, transport, storage and delay.
Grouping of activities: Five sets of activities can be grouped in two
categories
Those in which something actually happens to the work-piece (it is
moved, worked upon or examined)
Those in which it is not being touched (in storage or in delay)
❖ Objective is to maximize proportion of “do” activities.
❖ All other activities, however necessary, are considered “non-productive”
 Symbols used in Charts
OPERATION: A large circle indicates operation. An operation takes
place when there is a change in physical or chemical
characteristics of an object. Occurs when an object is
intentionally changed in one or more of its characteristics. An
assembly or disassembly is also an operation. When information
is given or received or when planning or calculating takes place
it is also called operation.
Example: Reducing the diameter of an object on a lathe.
Hardening the surface of an object by heat treatment. Drilling,
Painting, Chemical reaction, Data Entry, Cutting, Sorting, etc.

INSPECTION: A square indicates inspection. Inspection is

checking an object for its quality, quantity or identifications.
Example: Checking the diameter of a rod. Examine the quantity or
quality, read steam gauge on boiler, detect the defectives.
Counting the number of products produced. of an object by heat
treatment.
 Symbols used in Charts – contd.
TRANSPORTATION: An arrow indicates transport. This refers to the
movement of an object or operator or equipment from one place to another.
When the movement takes place during an operation, it is not called
transport.
Example: Moving the material by a trolley Operator going to the stores to get
some tool, Using elevator, carrying, moving with material handling devices
DELAY: A large capital letter D indicates delay. This is also called as
temporary storage. Delay occurs when an object or operator is waiting for
the next activity. Occurs when the immediate performance or the next
planned action does not take place.
Example: An operator waiting to get a tool in the stores. Work pieces
stocked near the machine before the next operation. Work In Process
inventory waiting to be processed, Employee waiting for an elevator,
Waiting for accumulation of a certain quantity for packaging
STORAGE: An equilateral triangle standing on its vertex represents storage.
Storage takes place when an object is stored and protected against
unauthorized removal.
Example: Raw material in the store room, finished products inventory,
archived documents.
ASME Standard Symbols
 BASIC PROCEDURE FOR METHOD STUDY
3. Examine: Critical examination is done by questioning
technique. This step comes after the method is recorded by
suitable charts and diagrams. The individual activity is examined
by putting a number of questions.
• Critical examination is conducted wherein each activity, in turn, being
subjected to a systematic and progressive series of questions.
The questioning sequence used follows a well-established
pattern which examines:

The PURPOSE for which

The PLACE at which
The SEQUENCE in which the activities areundertaken.
The PERSONby whom
The MEANS by which
 PRIMARY QUESTIONS
In the first stage of the questioning technique, the purpose, place,
sequence, person and means of every activity recorded are systematically
questioned, and a reason for each reply is required.
 SECONDARY QUESTIONS
The secondary questions cover the second stage of the questioning
technique, during which the answers to the primary questions are
subjected to further query to determine whether possible alternatives of
place, sequence, persons and means are practicable and preferred as a
means of improvement upon the existing method.
Primary Questions Secondary Questions
What is done? What else might be done?
PURPOSE
Why is it done? What should be done?
Where is it done? Where else might be done?
PLACE
Why is it done there? Where should be done?
When is it done? When else might be done?
SEQUENCE
Why is it done then? When should be done?
Who does it? Who else might do it?
PERSON
Why does that person do it? Who should do it?
How s t done? How else might it be done?
MEANS
Why is it done that way? How should it be done?

These questions, in the above sequence, must be asked systematically every time a
method study is undertaken. They are the basis of successful method study.
 BASIC PROCEDURE FOR METHOD STUDY
4. Develop : Answer to the questions will result in
the development of alternatives and of a better
method. Develop the most efficient and economic
method.
Ex: Sending letters to customers.
5. Define: Once a complete study of a job has been
made and a new method is developed, it is
necessary to obtain the approval of the
management before installing it. The work study
man should prepare a report giving details of the
existing and proposed methods, reasons for
change, advantages, limitations, savings
expected, tools & equipment required etc..
 DEFINING THE IMPROVED METHOD
The report should show:
1. Relative costs in material, labour and overheads of the
two methods, and savingsexpected.
2. The cost of installing the new method, including the
cost of new equipment and of re-laying out shops or
working areas
3. Executive actions required to implement the new
method.

It should also give details regarding :

1. The tools and equipment to beused
2. A description of the method
3. A diagram of the workplace layout, jigs /fixturesetc.
 BASIC PROCEDURE FOR METHOD STUDY
6. Install: This step is the most difficult stage in method
study. Here the active support of both management and
trade union is required. Here the work study man requires
skill in getting along with other people and winning their
trust.
a) Gaining acceptance of the change by the Management
b) Gaining acceptance of the change by theworkers
c) Maintaining close contact with the progress of the job until satisfied
that it is running as intended

7. Maintain: The work study man must see that the new
method introduced is followed. The workers after some
time may slip back to the old methods. This should not be
allowed. The new method may have defects. There may be
difficulties also. This should be rectified in time by the work
study man.
 Recording techniques
Recording
techniques for
Method Study

Charts Diagrams

Macro Motion Micro Motion 1.Flow Diagram

charts charts
2.String Diagram

1.Operations Process Chart

SIMO Chart
2.Flow Process Chart
3.Two Handed Process Chart
4.Multiplle Activity Chart
 Why Charts?
• It gives a complete picture of what is being done and
helps to understand the facts and its relationship to
one another.
• Details on the chart must be obtained from direct
observation. Should not be from memory.
• Neatness and accuracy is important.
• Increased value, if following is included:
1. Product, equipment details (code#, drawing#)
2. Job or process being carried out
3. Location and time (date) of the study
4. Observer’s name
5. Chart reference number
 Typical Industrial problems and appropriate method study technique
Type of Job Examples Recording Technique
Complete Manufacture of an electric Outline Process Chart
sequence of motor from raw material to Flow Process Chart
manufacture dispatch Flow Diagram
Factory Layout: Movement of diesel engine Outline Process Chart
Movement of cylinder head through all Flow Process Chart (Mat)
materials machining operations Flow Diagram
Travel Chart, Models
Factory Layout: Cooks preparing meals in a Flow Process Chart (Men)
Movement restaurant kitchen String diagram
of Workers Travel Chart
Handling of Putting materials into & Flow Process Chart (Mat)
Materials taking them out of stores Flow Diagram
String diagram
Workplace layout Light assembly work on a Flow process Chart (Man)
bench Two handed process Chart
Multiple activity Chart
Simo Chart, Cyclegraph
 (A) MACRO MOTION CHARTS
1. Operation Process Chart
➢ Also called Outline process chart
➢ Bird’s eye view of whole process
➢ Records only major activities and inspections
Uses only two symbols i.e., Operations & Inspection
➢ Constructed by placing symbols one below another

Uses

❖ Visualize sequence of operations & inspections in

process
❖ Know where operations selected fits into the entire
process
 OPERATION PROCESS / OUTLINE PROCESS Chart:
Example : Manufacture of Electric Motor
Conventions followed in
preparing the chart
1. Write title at the top of the chart.
2. Begin the chart from the right hand
side top corner.
3. Represent the main component at
the right extreme.
4. Represent the sequence of
operations and inspections by their
symbols. Connect them by vertical 7 1
flow lines.
5. Record the brief description of the 14 1 7 1
activity to the right side of the 1 4
symbols.
4
6. Note down the time for each activity 4

to the left of the symbol.

7. Number all operations in one serial
order. Start from the right hand top
(from number 1).
8. Similarly number all inspections in
another serial order (starting from 1).
9. Continue numbering, till the entry of
the second component.
10. Show the entry of purchased parts
by horizontal lines.
Ex: Outline process chart of Plywood manufacture
 2. Flow Process Chart
• A flow process chart is a graphical representation of the sequence of all the activities
(operation, inspection, transport, delay and storage) taking place in a process.
• It is the detailed version of outline process chart recording all the events.
• Process chart symbols are used here to represent the activities.
• Gives sequence of flow of work.
• Constructed same as operation process chart 1. The details must be obtained by
direct observation—charts
Three types must not be based on memory.
1. Material type 2.All the facts must be correctly
(records how the material is handled or treated). recorded.
3.No assumptions should be made.
2. Man type
4.Make it easy for future reference.
(records what the worker does).
5.All charts must have the following
3. Equipment type details:
(records how the equipment or machine is (a)Name of the product, material or
used). equipment that is observed.
• Reduce idle time and delays (b)Starting point and ending point.
(c)The location where the
Uses • Reduce distance travelled activities take place.
• Reduce production cycle time (d)The chart reference number,
sheet number and number of
• To relocate inspection stages total sheets.
• To elminate unnecessary processes (e)Key to the symbols used
must be stated.
Ex: Machine/ Equipment Flow Process Chart: Biscuit Making
Ex: Flow Process Chart – Emergency ward
Process: Emergency room admission Summary
Subject: Ankle injury patient Number Time Distance
Beginning: Enter emergency room Activity of steps (min) (ft)
Ending: Leave hospital
Operation 5 23 —
Insert Step Transport 9 11 815
Append Step
Inspect 2 8 —
Delay 3 8 —
Remove Step Store — — —

Step Time Distance

no. (min) (ft) Step description

1 0.50 15 X Enter emergency room, approach patient window

2 10.0 - X Sit down and fill out patient history
3 0.75 40 X Nurse escorts patient to ER triage room
4 3.00 - X Nurse inspects injury
5 0.75 40 X Return to waiting room

6 1.00 - X Wait for available bed Go to ER

7 1.00 60 X bed
8 4.00 - X Wait for doctor
9 5.00 - X Doctor inspects injury and questions patient Nurse takes
10 2.00 200 X patient to radiology

11 3.00 - X Technician x-rays patient Return to

12 2.00 200 X bed in ER
13 3.00 - X Wait for doctor to return
14 2.00 - X Doctor provides diagnosis and advice Return to
15 1.00 60 X emergency entrance area

4.00 -
16 X Check out
2.00 180 X
17 Walk to pharmacy Pick up
4.00 -
18 X prescription Leave the building
1.00 20 X
19
Flow Process Chart - Example
 3.Two Handed Process Chart
• It is the process chart in which the activities of two hands of the operator are recorded.
• Motions of both hands of worker are Right hand-Left hand chart recorded independently.
• It shows whether the two hands of the operator are idle or moving in relation to one another,
in a timescale.
• It is generally used for repetitive operations.
• Confined to work carried out at a single workplace
• Visualize complete sequence of activities in repetitive task
• Study work station layout
• Operation: Represents the activities grasp, position, use, release etc. of a tool, component
or material.
• Transport: Represents the movement of the hand or limb to or from the work or a tool or
material.
• Delay: Refers to the time when the hand or limb is idle.
• Storage (Hold): The term ‘hold’ is used here instead of storage to refer to the time when the
work is held by hand.
The activity ‘inspection’ by hand is considered as an operation. Hence, the symbol for inspection
is not used in this chart. Two-handed process chart can be used for assembly, machining and
clerical jobs.
Uses: To visualise complete sequence of activties (for repetitive, short duration activties)
To study work-bench layout
 Ex: Two-Handed Process Chart
1. Provide all
information about
the job in the chart.
2. Study the operation
cycle a few times
before starting to
record.
3. Record one hand
at a time.
4. First record the
activities of the
hand which starts
the work first.
5. Do not combine the
different activities
like operations,
transport etc.

Summary of the number of each activity can be tabulated at the bottom of the chart. The chart is first
drawn for the existing method. This chart is analyzed and if it is found that one hand is over loaded
than the other, modification are done in the layout of the workplace or in the sequence of activities.
Then a new chart is made for the proposed cycle. This assists in finding a better method of
performing the task and to train the operator in the preferred method.
Micromotion Study – Example of a Two-Handed Process
Chart: (Existing method of Cutting Glass Tubes)
Example of a Two-Handed Process Chart:
(Improved method of Cutting Glass Tubes)

SUMMARY
PRESENT PROPOSED
Method
LH RH LH RH
Operation 8 5 2 2
Transport 2 5 1 1
Delays
Holds 4 4 2 1
Inspections
TOTAL 14 14
 4. Multiple Activity Chart or Man-machine Chart
• A man-machine/ Multiple Activity Chart chart is a chart in which the
activities of more than one worker or machine are recorded.
• Activities are recorded on a common time scale to show the inter-
relationship.
• It is used when a worker operates a number of machines at a time. It
is also used when a number of workers jointly do a job. (Determine
number of machines handled by one operator).
• The chart shows the idle time of the worker or machine during the
process. (Study idle time)
• Workload is evenly distributed among the workers or machines by this
the idle time of worker or machine is reduced. Multiple activity chart is
very useful in planning teamwork in production or maintenance.
(Determine no. of operators required).
• Only two symbols are used in man-machine/ Multiple Activity Chart :

Working Idle
 Purpose of Multiple Activity Chart
• To detect the idle time on machine and workers (The chart shows
the exact time relationship between the working cycle of the person and
operating cycle of the machine).
• To optimize work distribution between workers and machines.
• To decide number of workers in a group.
• To balance the work team
• To examine the activities.
• It is used for recording the complex movements of material or
men.
• Used to find out the most economical route.
Application of Multiple Activity Chart:
– Planning teamwork.
– Plant repair & maintenance.
– Job construction.
– It is used to check whether the work station is correctly located.
Example of Multiple ActivityChart:
Facing & Centering Operations
Ex: Worker-Machine Chart for a Gourmet Coffee Store
 Diagrams
➢ Diagrams gives pictorial view of the layout of workplace on which
locations of different equipment, machines etc. areindicated.

➢ The movement of subject(man or machine) is then indicated on the

diagram by a line or astring.

➢ The diagram are valuable in highlighting the movement so the analyst

can take steps to simplify or reduce it so as to obtain saving in time.

➢ The most commonly used method study diagrams are:

o Flow diagram
o String diagram
o Travel chart
o Cyclegraph and Chronocyclegraph
 Types of LAYOUT

FOURMAJOR TYPESOFLAYOUT:
(A)layout by FIXEDposition, material to be processed don’t
travel round the plant but stays in one place. When product is
bulky, heavy and only few units are made (Ship Building,Aircraft
construction, Manufacture of large Dieselengines)

(B)layout by PROCESS,Operations of the same nature are

grouped together. Cutting in garment industry, stitching in
another area. This is mostly chosen where great manyproducts
share the same machine.

(C)Layout by PRODUCT,or LINE layout (Mass production) all m/c

& equipment necessary is set in the same area and in the
sequence of manufacturing process.

(D) layout by GROUP.Group production methods.

1.Flow diagram
• Drawing of working area & showing location of various activities
• Shows the route followed and selects the optimum one
• Study different layout and selecting optimum one
• Study traffic and frequency over different routes
Procedure :
•Layout of workplace is drawn to scale
•Relative positions of the m/c tools, storage &inspection benches are
marked on the scale
•Path followed by the subject under study is tracked by drawinglines
•Each movement is serially numbered & indicated by arrow for direction
•Different colors are used to denote different types ofmovements
 Flow diagram
➢ It’s a top view of the work area correctly indicating the positions of
machining and other locations affecting the movement of subject.
➢ Therefor it gives “on-the-spot observation” of the paths of movement
of product sometimes using symbols of process charts.

73
2. String diagram
•Scale layout drawing
•Length of a string is used to record extent & pattern of movements of a
worker within a limited area.
•Movements difficult to trace on flow diagram can be shown
•Shows the route followed and selects the optimum one
•Study different layout and selecting optimum one
•Study traffic and frequency over different routes

Procedure :
• A Layout of workplace is drawn to scale
• Pins are fixed into boards to mark locations ofworkstations
• Pins are also driven at turning points of theroutes
• A measured length of thread is taken to trace themovements
• The distance covered by object is obtained by measuring the
remaining part of the thread and subtracting it from original length
 END

START

76
 FOLD

DRILL+CUT RIVET

MARK
OQC

IQC

SHEET STACK
METAL END
START
 Comparison
Scale 1cm = 2 feet
Before After
• SHEET METAL–CHECK = 10 ft • SHEET METAL – IQC = 2.8 ft.
• CHECK – CUT = 12ft • IQC – MARK = 5 ft.
• CUT – DRILL = 9 ft • MARK –DRILL &CUT = 6ft
• DRILL – FOLD = 10 ft • DRILL & CUT – FOLD = 6 ft.
• FOLD – RIVET = 10 ft • FOLD – RIVET = 5 ft.
• RIVET – CHECK = 14 ft • RIVET – OQC = 5 ft.
• CHECK – STACK = 12 ft • TOTAL = 30 ft.
• TOTAL = 67 ft
 Principles of Motion Economy
The principles of motion economy form a set of rules
and suggestions to improve the manual work in
manufacturing and reduce fatigue and unnecessary
movements by the workers which can lead to the
reduction in the work-related trauma. These principles of
motion economy were first used by Frank Gilbreth. The
principles are grouped under the headings of:

A. Use of the human body

B. Arrangement of the workplace
C. Design of tools and equipment

79
 Principles of Motion Economy
➢ The principles of motion economy comprise guidelines that can be
used to help determine work method, workplace layout, tools and
equipment.
➢ The principles are used during method study, when examining and
designing workstation and workplace layouts.
➢ They are simple and empirical hints on work design that are based on
a combination of simple ergonomic principles and common sense.
➢ The principles relate to both the design of the workplace and the
design of the work. They make repetitive tasks easier, more efficient
and more effective.
➢ These principles help to achieve productivity and their objective is to
maximise efficiency, minimise worker fatigue, and reduce cumulative
trauma. (Use of gravity, easy movement – minimum, symmetrical,
simultaneous, natural, rhythmical and continuous).
 Benefits of Motion Economy
1. It helps to improve the ability of workers by application of
good methods, using of good tools and eliminating
unnecessary activities.
2. Extended life of machines.
3. Reduces exhaustion/ fatigue of workers.
4. Decreases labour costs due to less wastage in factories or
plants.
Use of Human Body
1) Both hands should be fully utilized (both hands used as equally as
possible, overcoming the natural tendency to use their preferred hand).
2) The two hands should begin and end their motions at the same time
(design the method such that the work is evenly divided between the
right-hand side and the left-hand side of the workplace).
3) The motions of the hands and arms should be symmetrical and
simultaneous. (minimise the amount of hand-eye coordination
required by the worker).
4) The work should be designed to emphasise the worker’s preferred
hand (If the work cannot be allocated evenly between the two hands,
then the method should take advantage of the worker’s best hand).
5) The worker’s two hands should never be idle at the same time (balance
the workload between the right and left hands, to avoid having both
hands idle at the same time).
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82
83
 CLASSIFICATION OF MOVEMENTS

Class Pivot Body member(s) moved

1 Knuckle Finger

2 Wrist Hand and Finger

3 Elbow Forearm, hand and fingers

4 Shoulder Upper arm, forearm, hand and

fingers
5 Trunk Torso, Upper arm, forearm, hand and
fingers
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89
90
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95
96
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98
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100
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102
103
104
105
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Types of LAYOUT
Principles of Plant Layout:
While designing the layout of a plant, the following principles should be
kept in mind:
(i) Principle of Minimum Movement:
Materials and labour should be moved over minimum distances; saving
cost and time of transportation and material handling.
(ii) Principle of Space Utilization:
All available cubic space should be effectively utilized – both
horizontally and vertically.
(iii) Principle of Flexibility:
Layout should be flexible enough to be adaptable to changes required
by expansion or technological development.
(iv) Principle of Interdependence:
Interdependent operations and processes should be located in close
proximity to each other; to minimize product travel.
(v) Principle of Overall Integration:
All the plant facilities and services should be fully integrated into a
single operating unit; to minimize cost of production.
(vi) Principle of Safety:
There should be in-built provision in the design of layout, to provide
for comfort and safety of workers.

(vii) Principle of Smooth Flow:

The layout should be so designed as to reduce work bottlenecks
and facilitate uninterrupted flow of work throughout the plant.

(viii) Principle of Economy:

The layout should aim at effecting economy in terms of investment
in fixed assets.

(ix) Principle of Supervision:

A good layout should facilitate effective supervision over workers.

(x) Principle of Satisfaction:

A good layout should boost up employee morale, by providing
them with maximum work satisfaction.
 Work Measurement:
Improve Productivity, Reduce Costs, Improve Profits

Work measurement is the application of a set of techniques

designed to establish the quantum of work to be done in a given
time for a qualified worker to carry out specified jobs, under
specified conditions at a defined level of performance.
 Work Measurement
Work Measurement (WM) is the application of techniques
designed to establish the time for a qualified worker to carry
out a specified job at a defined level of performance.
(British Standard Glossary of Terms in Work Study)

The purpose of WM is to reveal the nature & extent of

ineffective time so that action can be taken to reveal and
eliminate it and then set standards of performance.
Two critical issues in work study:
1. Method study should precede the work measurement,
always.
2. Elimination of management controllable ineffective time
should precede the elimination of the ineffective time
within the control of the workers.
 PURPOSE OF WORK MEASUREMENT
• Toreduce the amount of ineffective time
• Provides management with a means of identifying the causes of
ineffective time. Use of Work Measurement:
1. To find ineffective time in a process 1. Assessment of manpower
2. To set standard for output level requirements
2. Planning
3. To plan workforce needs 3. Estimation of Production
4. To evaluate workers performance costs
5. To determine available capacity 4. Cost reduction and cost
6. To determine price or cost of product control
5. Improved methods
7. To compare work methods
6. Basis for Incentives
8. To facilitate operations schedules 7. Comparing alternative
9. To establish wage incentive schemes methods
10. Training of new employees 8. Standard data
11. Checking employee progress 9. Performance appraisal
10. Training needs assessment

General criteria where WM can be applied for measurablejobs:

1. Work should be identifiable in terms of No. of units a worker performed,
2. Work should be performed ina reasonably consistent manner, and
3. There should be considerable volume of work to justify performing the study.
THE TECHNIQUES OF WORK MEASUREMENT

1. Stop-watch time study Direct observational

2. Work sampling methods

3. Predetermined time standards(PTS) Indirect

methods
4. Standard Data

The choice of technique depends on:

– The level of details desired and
– The nature of work itself
Steps in Work Measurement
Select – the job to be timed (Bottleneck operations, repetitive jobs, jobs with great amount of manual
labour, frequent overtime, new job/component, if cost of operation is high, introduce/revise incentive scheme etc)

Standardise the method of working; Select Operator

Record – all the relevant data relating to the circumstances in which the work is
being done, the method and the elements of activity in them
Examine – the recorded data and the detailed breakdown critically examine to
ensure that the most effective method and motions are being used and
that unproductive and foreign elements are separated from productive
elements
Measure – the quantity of work involved in each element, in terms of time,
using the appropriate work measurement techniques
Compile – the standard time for the operation which will include time
allowances to cover relaxation, personal needs, contingencies, etc.
Define – precisely the series of activities and methods of operations for which the
time has been compiled and issue the time as standard for the activities and
methods specified.
 TIME STUDY
Basic Steps
1. Obtaining and recording all available information about the job,
operator and the surrounding conditions likely to affect the
execution of the work
2. Recording the complete description of the method, breaking
down the operation into 'elements'
3. Measuring with a stopwatch and recording the time taken by the
operator to perform each 'element' of the operation.
4. Assessing the rating
5. Extending observed time to 'basic times'
6. Determining the allowances to be made over and above the
basic time for the operation
7. Determining the 'standard time' for the operation.
 Time Study
“Time Study is the application of WM technique to establish
time for a QUALIFIED WORKER to carry out a SPECIFIED
TASK under SPECIFIED CONDITIONS and at the DEFINED
LEVEL OF PERFORMANCE”. How much time one should take to reach Wgl Stn?
➢To separate productive & non-productive time ➢Each element should have definite beginning & end
➢To assess rating of the worker ➢Element should be as short as possible to be conveniently
➢To identify different types of elements & to timed (0.04 min)
measure their timings ➢ Manual & M/c elements should be separately timed
➢To determine fatigue allowance ➢ Constant separate from variable
➢To prepare detailed work specifications ➢Occasional & foreign to be timed separately
➢To fix Std. time for repetitive elements

* Breaking into the work elements

* Time for each work element
* Rate of performance
* Time of similar work elements should be compared to keep the
standard time constant
* Study a number of cycles instead of one or two
* Extreme values to be discarded
 Steps in Work Measurement (Contd.)

• Divide the job into elements. The division of jobs

is necessary for the following reasons.
Ex: Dividing Drilling into elements
1. Provide better understanding. 1. Selecting the work piece and
placing it in jig.
2. Break the study into manageablesize. 2. Tightening the screw
3. Workers efficiency through out job. 3. Advancing the drill towards
the work piece
4. Distinguish between various parts. 4. Drilling
5. Withdrawing the drill from the
5. Isolate man and machines.
operation
6. Loosening the screw
7. Removing piece from jig
8. Removing the chips

• Time the elements. Stopwatch is generally used in the

system. Either of continuous or Fly-back method is used for
recording time.
 Types of elements
• A repetitive element is an element which occurs in every work cycle of the
job.
• An occasional element does not occur in each work cycle of thejob,
butwhich may occur at regular or irregular intervals. e.g., machine setting.
• For a constant element, the basic time remains constant whenever
it is performed. e.g., switch themachine on.
• Avariable element is an element for which the basic time variesin relation to
some characteristics ofthe product, equipment or process, e.g., dimensions,
weight, quality etc. e.g., push trolley of parts to nextshop.
• A manual element is an element performed by a worker.
• A machine element is automatically performed by a power-driven
machine (or process).
• A governing element occupies a longer time than any of the other elements
which are being performed concurrently. e.g. boil kettleof water, while
setting out teapot andcups.
• A foreign element is observed during a study which, after analysis, is not
found to be necessary part of the job. e.g. degreasing a part that has still
to be machinedfurther.
 Steps in Work Measurement (Contd.)
• The number of cycles to be timed. There should be sufficient
readings to get reasonably accurate results. It depends on
1. Variation in times of element.
2. Degree of accuracy required.
3. Prescribed level of confidence.
• Rating of operator. RATING is gauging and comparing the pace
or the performance of a worker against a STD performance level
set by the TS Engineer.
Objective rating. Here emphasis is laid on speed and difficulty
experienced in performing a job. At first operator is rated on normal
speed and movement. Then other factors are considered. (based on
(i) the amount of body used (ii) foot movement involved (iii) eye-hand
coordination (iv) weight moved or lifted (v) handling requirements
etc.).

• Allowances.
 Uses of time standards
• To provide information on which the planning and
scheduling of production can be based, including the
plant and labour requirements for carrying out the
program of work and utilization of resources.
• To provide information on which estimates for tenders,
selling prices and delivery promises can be based.
• To set standards of machine utilization and labour
performance which can be used for incentive scheme.
• To provide information for labour-cost control and to
enable standard costs to be fixed and maintained.
 Work Sampling
Work sampling was invented by L.H.C.Tippet (for a textile manufacturing
unit). Work sampling is the process of making sufficient random
observations of an operator’s activities to determine the relative amount
of time the operator spends on the various activities associated with the
job.
The major goal of work sampling is to determine how long, or how much
of the work day, is spent on specific types of work. Work sampling may
identify the fact that certain operators spend a large portion of their time
waiting for work, or performing paperwork tasks, or even performing
activities that are not included in their job descriptions.

✓ It is based on probability and statistics.

✓ It can also be used to set time standards

✓ Several work-sampling studies can be conducted simultaneously by

one observer.

✓ The observer need not be a trained analyst

 A FAIR DAY'S WORK
Amount of work that can be produced by a qualified employee when
working at normal pace and effectively utilizing his time where work is
not restricted by process limitations.
Qualified Worker is one who is accepted as having the necessary physical
attributes, who possesses the required intelligence and education, and
has acquired the necessary skill and knowledge to carry out the work in
hand to satisfactory standards of safety, quantity and quality. (Choose
the operator among many doing the job under study).
STANDARD PERFORMANCE
It is the rate of output which qualified workers will naturally achieve
without over-exertion as an average over the working day or shift,
provided that they know and adhere to the specified method and
provided that they are motivated to apply themselves to their work.
STANDARD RATING
Rating is the assessment of the worker's rate of working relative to the
observers' concept of the rate corresponding to standard pace.
FACTORS AFFECTING RATE OF WORKING
(outside the control of worker)
1. Variation in the quality of materials used
2. Changes in the operating efficiency of the equipment
3. Changes in climatic and surrounding conditions of
operation.
FACTORS WITHIN THE CONTROL OF WORKER
a. Acceptable variations in the quality of the product
b. Variations due to his ability
c.
Variations due to his attitude
SCALES OF RATING
100-133
60-80
75-100
0-100
 Sample Size: Number of Observations required
For the statistical method, we have to first take a number of preliminary
readings (n’). We then apply the following equation for the 95.45 confidence
level and a margin of error of ± 5 per cent:
2
 40 n'  x - ( 
2
x) 
2
Sample Size n =
 
 x 
Where n = sample size we wish to determine,
n’ = number of readings taken in thepreliminary study
 = sum of values
x = value of the readings

If the accuracy level required is ± 10 %the coefficient is 20; for ± 5 %it is 40

and for ± 2.5% it is80.
i.e., for an accuracy level of ± 10 %(the coefficient being 20), thesample size
n is obtained by the expression:  2 
2

 20 n'  x - (  x) 
2
Sample Size n =
 
  x

Example:
At a preliminary level, five observations of an elemental task was made with individual
observation being 7, 6, 7, 7 and 6 units of time. (1 unit of time = 0.01 minutes). Calculate the
number of observations (sample size) required for a confidence level of 95% and an accuracy
level of (a) ± 10 %; (b) ± 5 %, and (c) ± 2.5%.

Given: No. of preliminary observations (n’) =5

x = 7 + 6 + 7 + 7 + 6 = 33 x 2
= 49 + 36 + 49 + 49 + 36 = 219
2
Use the equation  20
 n'  x - ( 
2
x) 
2

Sample Sizen = 

For (a) ± 10 %accuracy
 2
x 
 20 5 (219) - 33 2 
Sample Size n =   = 2.4 observations
 33 
 
(b) ± 5 %accuracy
2
 40
 5 (219) - 33  2
Sam ple Size n = = 8.815observations
 33 
 
5 (219) - 33 
2
(c) ± 2.5 %accuracy 80 2
Sample Sizen = = 35.276observations
 33 
 
 Rating factor

• The figure 100 represents standard performance.

• If the operator is apparently performing withless effective
speed, than the assigned factor is less than 100.
• If, on the other hand, the effective rate of working is above
standard, the operator gets a factor abovehundred.
• Essential idea being:

Observed time x Rating = Constant

Performance Rating
(Standard rating)
 10. Calculating standard time of the job
Standard time is used in:
• Costing the labor component of products
• Tracking employee performance
• Scheduling & planning required resources
Constituents of Standard Time

Basic constituents of Normal Time

Personal
Standard Time are: Needs
Allowance
– Elemental times (Observed Total
Relaxation
times) Allowance Allowance

– Compensation for the Fatigue

Allowance
difference in operatives Policy Standard
pace of performance and Allowance Time
standard performance.
– Relaxation allowance Interference
Allowance
– Interference and
Contingency allowances
Contingency
– Policy allowance Allowance
 Standard Time
Normal or Basic Time of elements of the job when added, gives
BASIC TIME of the job. Because nobody can work continuously
some additional time (given as allowances) is required to be
added to Basic Time to arrive at Standard Time.
Standard Time is calculated by taking the Normal Time and
adding allowances for Personal Needs, Fatigue, Contingency,
Interference etc.
Normal or Basic Time
Or
Normal or Basic Time
The expression often used in practice for Standard Time
is: Standard Time = Normal Time x ( 1 + Allowances)
Sometimes the allowances are allowed to be applied to the total
work period, then
Standard Time = Normal Time ÷ ( 1 - Allowances)
 Illustrated Examples: 1
The time study of a work operation at Grand Restaurant yielded an average
observed time of 4.0 minutes. The analyst rated the observed worker at 85%.
The firm uses 13% as total allowances. The restaurant wants to compute the
Normal Time and the Standard Time for this operation. Also find the number
of such work operations the worker is capable of doing in an 8 hour shift.
Use the equation: NormalTime

= (4.0) x (85 / 100)

= 3.4 min.
We also know that,
Standard Time = Total Normal Time ÷ ( 1 -Allowances)
= (3.4) ÷ ( 1 - 0.13)
= 3.908 min.
No. of operations the worker can perform in 8 hours
= Total time / time taken for single operation
= (8 x 60) / 3.908
= 122.825 units or say 122 units.
 Illustrated Example 2
An industrial operation consists Ele Observed Performa Normal
me Time n ce or Basic
of FIVE elements with nt (Min.) Rating (%)
following observed times and Time
(Min)
the performance ratings:
A 0.20 85
Element Observed Performance
Time Rating (%) B 0.08 80 0.064
(Min.) C 0.50 90 0.450
A 0.20 85
D 0.12 85 0.102
B 0.08 80
E 0.10 80 0.080
C 0.50 90
0.866
D 0.12 85
E 0.10 80

Assuming rest and personal

allowances as 15% and
contingency allowance as 2%
of the basic time, calculate
standard time per piece.
Standard Time computation of an ordinary manual operation:
An operator working on a Pillar Drill performed the following elements for whichthe
observed times and ratings are given hereunder:
Element Element Description Obseved Rating Relaxation
Code Time allowance
A Position job into a drill jig 0.20 80 11%
B Switch on the M/c &lower drill 0.008 100 11%
C Drill hole 2.20 90 13%
D Raise drill and switch off M/c 0.05 80 11%
E Remove job from jig 0.10 110 11%
(i) Calculate normal time of each element and normal time ofthe job,
(ii) Also calculate standard time of the job.
Element Element Description ObsdT Rating Relaxa Work content/
Code ime allowan Std time
A Position job into a drill jig 0.20 80 11% 0.1776
B Switch on the M/c &lower drill 0.008 100 11% 0.0888
C Drill hole 2.20 90 13% 2.2374
D Raise drill and switch off M/c 0.05 80 11% 0.0444
E Remove job from jig 0.10 110 11% 0.1221
Standard Time of the Job 2.6703 min
Effect of extension on the time of an element
ObservedTime x ObservedRating
Basic Time=
Standard Rating
Extensionis calculation of Basic Time fromObservedTime
OTx(R-100)
Observed Time (OT)
100

Performance above standard

Basic or Normal Time Performance below standard

OTx(R- 100)
Observed Time (OT)
100

How the Standard time for a simple manual job is made up

Rating Relaxation Contingency Allowance
Unavoidable
Observed Time (OT) factor Allowance
WORK delays

Basic or NormalTime
Work Content
StandardTime
 Work content
• The work content of a job or operation is defined as:
basic time+ relaxation allowance+ any allowance for
additional work (e.g. the part of relaxation allowance
that is work related).
• Standard time is the total time in which a job
should be completed at standard performance –
i.e. work content, contingency allowance for delay,
unoccupied time and interference allowance.
• Allowance for unoccupied time and interference may
not be frequently included in the standard time
calculations; however, the relaxation allowance is.
 Standard time constituents
• A contingency allowance is a small allowance of time
which may be included in a standard time to meet
legitimate and expected items of work or delays, precise
measurement of which is uneconomical because of their
infrequent or irregular occurrence.
• Contingency allowance for work should include
fatigue allowance; whereas the allowance for delay
should be dependent on the workers.
• Typically contingency allowances are very small and
are generally expressed as percentage of the total
repetitive minutes of the job.
• Contingency allowance should not be more than 5%,
and should only be given where the contingencies
cannot be eliminated and are justified.
 Standard time constituents
• Relaxation allowance is an addition to the basic time
intended to provide the worker with the opportunity to
recover from the physiological and psychological effects
of carrying out specified work under specified conditions
and to allow attention to personal needs.
• The amount of the allowance will depend on the nature
of the job.
• One of the major additions to the basic time.
• Industrial fatigue allowance, in turn, forms a major
portion of the relaxation allowance.
• Relaxation allowances are also given as percentages
of the basic times.
 Standard time constituents
• Typical values of relaxation allowance are 12-20%.
• In addition to including relaxation allowances, short
rest pauses could be added over the period of
work for an operator.
Other allowances
• Start-up / shut-down allowance
• Cleaning allowance
• Tooling allowance
• Set-up / change-over allowance
• Reject / excess production allowance
• Learning / training allowance
• Policy allowance is an increment, other than the bonus
increment, applied to standard time to provide a satisfactory
level of earning for certain level of performances under
exceptional conditions.
 Work Sampling

Work Sampling is a technique in which a large number of

instantaneous observations are made over a period of time of
a group of machines, processes or people. Work sampling is a
method of finding the percentage occurrence of a certain
activity by statistical sampling and random observations.

Each observation records what is happening at that instant and

the percentage of observations recorded for a particular
activity or delay is a measure of the percentage of time during
which that activity or delay occurs. (Also known as Activity Sampling,
Ratio – Delay Study, Observation – Ratio Study, Snap – Reading Method
and Random Observation Method)
A few words about sampling
• Sampling is mainly based on probability. Probability has been
defined as “the degree to which an event is likely to occur”.
• A simple and often-mentioned example that illustrates the point is
that of tossing a coin.
• The law of probability says that we are likely to have 50 heads and
50 tails in every 100 tosses of the coin. The greater the number of
tosses, the more chance we have of arriving at a ratio of 50 heads
to 50 tails.
• The size of the sample is therefore important, and we can express
our confidence in whether or not the sample is representative by
using a certain confidence level.
 Number of observations in Work Sampling
• One of the basic foundations of statistical sampling theory is the
concept that the larger the sample size, the results will be more
accurate.

• In work sampling, a sufficient number of observations must be

made to be sure that the results accurately summarize the work
performed. There are statistical formulas to help determine how
many observations should be made.
For 95 % accuracy (confidence level) –
Using Work Sampling

Make tours of observations on representative of normal

working days

Tours should be carried out in random intervals, random

numbers could be generated to decide on the order

Familiarity of the observer with the process is not critical,

though beneficial.
Determination of sample size
• As well as defining the confidence level for our observations we
have to decide on the margin of error that we can allow for these
observations.
• Let us look at our example about the productive time and the idle
time of the machines in a factory. There are two methods of
determining the sample size that would be appropriate for this
example: the statistical method and the nomogram method.

Statistical method. The formula used in this method is:

A few words about sampling
• Sampling is mainly based on probability. Probability has been
defined as “the degree to which an event is likely to occur”.
• A simple and often-mentioned example that illustrates the point is
that of tossing a coin.
• The law of probability says that we are likely to have 50 heads and
50 tails in every 100 tosses of the coin. The greater the number of
tosses, the more chance we have of arriving at a ratio of 50 heads
to 50 tails.
• The size of the sample is therefore important, and we can express
our confidence in whether or not the sample is representative by
using a certain confidence level.

Establishing confidence levels

• Let us go back to our previous example and toss five coins at a time,
and then record the number of times we have heads and the
number of times we have tails for each toss of these five coins. Let
us then repeat this operation 100 times.
• To make things easier, it is more convenient to speak of a 95 per cent confidence
level than of a 95.45 per cent confidence level.
• To achieve this we can change our calculations and obtain:
– 95 per cent confidence level or 95 per cent of the area under the curve = 1.96 σp
– 99 per cent confidence level or 99 per cent of the area under the curve = 2.58 σp
– 99.9 per cent confidence level or 99.9 per cent of the area under the curve = 3.3 σp

• In this case we can say that if we take a large sample at random we can be
confident that in 95 per cent of the cases our observations will fall within ± 1.96 σp
Number of Samples

p(1 - p)
e=z
n

Probability that true

proportion will fall
within confidence interval

p-e p p+e
Confidence interval
 Number of Samples
Desired
Confidence (%) z

( ) p(1 - p)
z 2
n= 90 1.65
e 95 1.96
n = required sample size 96 2.05
97 2.17
p = estimate of proportion time an activity takes place
98 2.33
z = number of standard deviations for desired confidence 99 2.58
e = maximum error allowable

p(1 - p)
e=z
n
• Let us assume that some 100 observations were carried out as a preliminary
study and at random, and that these showed the machine to be idle in 25 per
cent of the cases (p = 25) and to be working 75 per cent of the time (q = 75).
• We thus have approximate values for p and q; in order now to determine the
value of n.
• Let us choose a confidence level of 95 per cent with a 10 per cent margin of
error (that is, we are confident that in 95 per cent of the cases our estimates
will be ± 10 per cent of the real value).
1. The Manager of TIN Welfare Office estimates that her employees
are idle 20% of the time. It is proposed to take a work sample, what
should be the sample size for the result to be accurate within 3% and
with 95.45% confidence level. If the confidence level increases to
99.73%, how does the sample size change?

2: A library administrator wants to determine the proportion of time the

circulation clerk is idle. The following info was gathered randomly by using
work sampling:
If the administrator wants a 95% confidence level and a degree of
precision of 4%, how many observations are needed?
DAY No. of times the clerkis

Busy Idle
Monday 8 2
Tueday 7 1
Wed 9 3
Thu 7 3
Fri 8 2
Saturday 6 4
Example:
The Manager of TIN Welfare Office estimates that her employees are idle
20% of the time. It is proposed to take a work sample, what should be the
sample size for the result to be accurate within 3% and with 95.45%
confidence level. If the confidence level increases to 99.73%, how does the
sample size change?

 pq  z 2 p (1 - p)
We use the equation: E= z  or n = 2
 n  E
22 (0.20)(1- 0.20)
n= 2
= 711.11observations
0.03

or say 712 observations

If the confidence level increases to 99.73% ( z ≈ 2.8), then
n = 2.82 (0.20) (0.80) / 0.032 = 1393.77 or say 1394 observations.
Example: A library administrator wants to determine the proportion of time the circulation
clerk is idle. The following info was gathered randomly by using work sampling:
If the administrator wants a 95% confidence level and a degree of precision of 4%, how
many observations are needed?
Solution:
Total Number of observations made = 45 + 15 = 60
% occurance of Clerk being idle(p) = 15 / 60 = 0.25 or 25%
Given: E= 4% or 0.04; z = 1.96 (for probability = 95%)

 pq  z 2 p (1 - p)
DAY No. of times the clerkis
We know E = z   or n =
Busy Idle n  E2

Monday 8 2
Tueday 7 1
Therefore
Wed 9 3
n = (1.96)2 (0.25) (1 – 0.25) / (0.04)2
Thu 7 3
Fri 8 2
= 0.7203 / 0.0016
Saturday 6 4
= 450.187 or say 451observations
TOTAL 45 15
 Advantages of Work Sampling

• Can be used to measure activities that are

impractical to measure by direct observation
• Multiple subjects can be included
• Requires less time and lower cost than continuous
direct observation
• Training requirements less than DTS or PMTS
• Less tiresome and monotonous on observer than
continuous observation
• Being a subject in work sampling is less demanding than
being watched continuously for a long time
 Disadvantages and Limitations
• Not as accurate for setting time standards as other
work measurement techniques
• Usually not practical to study a single subject
• Work sampling provides less detailed information about
work elements than DTS or PMTS
• Since work sampling deals with multiple subjects,
individual differences will be missed
• Workers may be suspicious because they do not
understand the statistical basis of work sampling
 Review Questions
1. What is productivity? Mention the factors influencing productivity. Explain how each factor affectsproductivity
and the techniques to reduce workcontent.
2. What is productivity? Mention the factors influencing productivity and explain how each factor affects
productivity.
3. Discuss the benefits of productivity and mention the techniques for productivity improvement?
4. Distinguish between Method Study and Work Measurement.
5. Discuss the principles of motion economy.
6. Describe a flow process chart with a suitableexample.
7. Describe a two handed process chart with a suitableexample.
8. Bond Cement Co. packs 50 kg bags of concrete mix. Time study data for the filling activity are shown in the
table. Because of high physical demands of the job, the company’s policy of allowances for workers are: (i)
Relaxation allowance of 15%, (ii) contingency allowance of 5% and (iii) Special allowance of 3%.
Observations(seconds)
Element 1 2 3 4 5 Performance Rating(%)
Grasp and place the 8 9 8 11 7 110
bag
Fill bag 36 41 39 35 39 85

Seal bag 15 17 13 20 18 105

Place bag on conveyor 8 6 9 7 8 90

a) Compute the standard time for thebag-packing task.

b) How many observations are necessary for the elements (a) ‘Grasp and place the bag’, and (b) ‘Sealbag’
for 95% confidence, within ±5%accuracy?
9. The Manager of a firm estimates that his employees are idle 30% of the time.
Determine how many observations are required for a work sample that is
accurate within 3% with a confidence level of 95.45% (i.e., z=2) in the results.

10. The two major processes of preparing Chocolate candy bars are moulding and
packaging. The moulding machine operator is rated at 110% and the packer is
rated at 80%. Personal fatigue and delay allowances are set at 15%. Observed
times per batch are given below.
Observed time for Batch (in minutes)
1 2 3 4
Moulding 26 30 29 31
Task

Packing 45 50 35 30
Determine the Normal and standard times for both tasks.

11. A total of 15 observations were taken on a head baker. The numerical breakdown
of the baker’s four activities is:
Make Ready Do Clean Up Idle
2 6 3 4
Based on this information, how many work-sampling observations are required to
determine how much of the baker’s time is spent in “Doing”. Assume a 5%
desired absolute accuracy and 95% confidence level.