UNIT - III

INTRODUCTION

Fluid is a substance which is capable of flowing (eg) liquids, gases and vapours etc., The study of fluids at
rest is known as fluid statics. The study of fluids in motion without considering the pressure forces are known
as fluid kinematics. The study of fluids in motion where pressure forces are also considered is known as fluid
dynamics.

The study of fluid dynamics of compressible flows is generally referred to as Gas dynamics. It deals with the
analysis of dynamics and thermodynamics of compressible flows.

The applications of Gas Dynamics are

1. Used in steam and gas turbines

2. High speed aerodynamics.
3. High speed turbo compressors.
4. Jet, rocket and missile propulsion systems.
5. Transonic, sypersonic and hypersonic flows.

The fluid dynamics of compressible flow problems which involves the relation between force, velocity, density
and mass etc. Therefore, the following laws are frequently used for solving the Gas Dynamics problems.

(i) Steady flow energy equation (derived from first law of Thermodynamics)
(ii) Entropy relations (derived from second law of Thermodynamics)
(iii) Continuity equation (derived from law of conversation of mass)
(iv) Momentum equation (derived from Newton’s second law of motion)

Mach number (M)

It is a non-dimensional number and is defined as

𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑀2 =
𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

𝜌𝐴𝑐 2 𝜌𝑐 2
= =
𝐾𝐴 𝐾

Where K = bulk modulus = 𝜌a2

𝜌𝑐 2 𝑐 2
∴ 𝑀2 = =
𝜌𝑎2 𝑎2
c
∴𝑀=
a

This gives an another definition of mach number and it is the ration of fluid velocity (c)to the local velocity of
sound (a). Mach number is an important parameter in the analysis of compressible fluid flows.

VARIOUS REGIONS OF FLOW

The adiabatic energy equation for a perfect gas is derived in terms of fluid velocity (c)and sound velocity
(a). Then it is plotted graphically in the x axis ‘c’ and y axis ‘a’ respectively.

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From adiabatic energy equation

𝑐2
ℎ0 = ℎ +
2

We know that,

𝛄 𝑎2
h = 𝐶𝑝𝑇 = 𝑅𝑇 =
𝛄−1 𝛄−1

By substituting this in equation (1.28), we get

=constant

At T=0h=0a=0 and c = c max

Therefore equation (1.33) becomes

At c = 0; a =a0

Therefore, from equation (1.33)

= =
constant
Equation (1.36) is an another form of adiabatic energy equation. By substituting different values of (c) and (a) in the
above equation and by plotting the values, a steady flow ellipse is obtained. It is shown in Fig. There are five
different regions on the ellipse and the regions are

(i) Incompressible flow region

The region of flow close to the axis ‘a’ is an incompressible flow region. The fluid velocity is
much smaller than the sound velocity which is shown in fig. Therefore the Mach number is M<<1 and
is very close to zero.
(ii) Subsonic flow region

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 It is the region on the right of the incompressible region and upto a mach number which is less
than unity.
(iii) Transonic flow region
When the Mach number of flow is unity, the flow is sonic flow. A small region slightly
less than unity and just above the sonic point is referred to as a transonic flow region. The mach
number in this region is in between 0.8 to 1.2
(iv) Supersonic flow region
It is the region on the right side of the transonic flow region. The mach number in this region is
always greater than unity and is up to 5.
(v) Hypersonic flow region
In this region ,the flow velocity is very high compared to the sound velocity and hence the
mach number is very high i.e., above 5.The region close to the ‘c’ axis is called hypersonic region.

ACOUSTIC VELOCITY (or) SOUND VELOCITY

It is the velocity of sound in a fluid medium or the speed with which a small disturbance is transmitted
through the fluid. Consider a stationary fluid in an insulated cylinder fitted with a frictionless piston. The piston and
gas in the tube are at rest originally at t a pressure P. Let the parameters across the wave front (is a plane across
which pressure and density changes suddenly and there will be a discontinuity in pressure, temperature and density)
be as shown in fig.

If a small impulse is give to the piston

the gas immediately adjacent to the piston will experience a slight rise in pressure (dp) or in other words it will be
compressed. The change in density (dp) take place because the gas is compressible and therefore, there is a lapse of
time between the motion of the piston and the time this (motion of piston) is observed at the far end of the tube.
Thus it will take certain time to reach far end of the tube or in other words there is a finite velocity of propagation
which acoustic velocity. It is shown in fig. In this case the stagnant gas at pressure p on the right side moving with
velocity ‘a’ towards left and thus its pressure is raised to (p+dp) and its velocity lowered to (a-dc). This is because
of the velocity of the piston (dc) acts opposite to the movement of gas (a).

Before deriving the equation, the following assumptions are made.

1. The fluid velocity is assumed to be acoustic velocity.

2. There is no heat transfer in the pipe and the flow is through a constant area pipe.
3. The changes across an infinitesimal pressure wave can be assumed as reversible adiabatic (or) isentropic.

Applying momentum equation between the two sides of the wave

pA – (p+dp)A = m [[a-dc)-a)]

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Pressure force = Impulse force …(1.37) [m=𝜌Aa]

A [p-p-dp] = 𝜌Aa[a-dc-a] [ A=constant]

-dp = -𝜌 a dc

dp = 𝜌 a dc …(1.38)

From continuity equation for the two sides of the wave

m = 𝜌 A a = ( 𝜌 + d 𝜌 ) A (a - dc)

𝜌 a = 𝜌 a + a d 𝜌 - ρdc - d 𝜌 dc

The product of the d𝜌dc is very small, hence it is ignored. The equation (1.39) becomes

A d p = 𝜌 dc

Substituting this in equation (1.38), we get

dp = a2d 𝜌

dp
∴𝑎 = s = c isentropic
𝑑𝜌

(or)

For an isentropic flow,

p
Pvϒ = C (or) = constant
𝜌ϒ

p 𝜌-ϒ = constant

Differentiating the above equation

P[-𝛄 𝜌 -ϒ-1 d 𝜌 ] + 𝜌-ϒ (dp) = 0

𝛄p
-p 𝛄 𝜌 -ϒ x 𝜌 -1 d 𝜌 + 𝜌-ϒ dp = 0 dp = xd𝜌
𝜌

dp p
∴ =𝛄
d𝜌 𝜌

dp
= 𝛄RT
d𝜌

Substituting this in equation (1.40)

dp
a = = 𝛄RT
d𝜌

This is an important equation for solving gas dynamic problems. The velocity of sound in air at normal ambient
temperature is about 340 m/s.

MACH ANGLE AND MACH CONE

When a body moves through a fluid or when fluid flows past a body with in the walls of a duct, each
element of solid surface tends to divert the fluid from its direction of flow. For example, in case of projectile
moving through air, each element of the projectile’s surface area pushes the neighboring air out of the way, and this
local disturbance creates a pressure pulse which propagates in to the exterior air. The pressure field created by the

THERMAL ENGG Page 4

most elementary type of moving disturbance is called “Point source of disturbance”. Point source be imagined to
emit infinitesimal pressure wave which spreads. Spherically from the point of emission with the speed of sound
relative to the fluid.

Fig (a, b, c and d) show the movement of a source of disturbance ‘O’ at a velocity c in a fluid from right to
left. The disturbance travels distance of a, 2a and 3a meters when time is 1,2 and 3 unit times respectively.

In an incompressible flow fig ‘a’ the velocity of source disturbance ‘c’ is negligibly small compared to the
velocity of sound ‘a’ The sound waves generated and travel at a velocity ‘a’ in all directions. The wave propagation
will be a set of concentric circles as shown in fig.

In a subsonic flow, the point source travels with a velocity c<a shown in fig. (b). At the reference time, the
point of disturbance is assumed to be a O. At unit time later, the point source will have move to 1 and the
corresponding distance is ct. At time 2 units later, the source will have moved to 2 ct and so on. It is observed that
the wave fronts move ahead of the point source and the intensity is not symmetrical.

The practical use of this is the case of automobiles, which move with c<a. the horn is heard before the
vehicle reaches a person standing on the road.

In a sonic flow [M=1], the point source travels with the same velocity as that of the wave. The fronts are
always coincides with the point source and cannot move ahead of it. We won’t hear any sound at the upstream side
is called “zone of silence” and the downstream side is “Zone of action”.

In a supersonic flow, all the pressure disturbances are included in a cone which has the point source at its apex and
the effect of the disturbance is not felt upstream of the source of disturbance. i.e., that the point source is always
ahead of the wave fronts. The cone with in which the disturbances are confined is called Mach Cone and the half
angle ‘𝛼’ of this cone is known as Mach angle. The space (or) zone outside the Mach Cone is called as Zone of
silence i.e., there is no effect of disturbance in this region. While the region inside the Mach cone is called Zone of
action. In this region the fluid properties are affected by the disturbance.

THERMAL ENGG Page 5

From fig.
at a 1
sin 𝛼 = = =
𝑐𝑡 𝑐 𝑀

1
Mach angle 𝛼 = sin-1
𝑀

REFERENCE VELOCITIES

In compressible fluid flow analysis, it is often convenient to express the fluid velocity in non-dimensional
forms. The various reference velocities used are

(i) Local velocity of sound, a

(ii) Stagnation velocity of sound, a0
(iii) Maximum velocity of fluid, cmax
(iv) Critical velocity of fluid / sound, c* = a*

(i) Local Velocity of sound (a)

It is the speed at which the sound travels in air. The local velocity of sound

dp
𝛼= 𝛄RT = s=c
d𝜌

(ii) Stagnation velocity of sound, a0

It is a sound velocity at the stagnation conditions, and its value is constant. In an adiabatic flow for a given
stagnation temperature

a0 = 𝛄RT0

(iii) Maximum velocity of fluid, c max

𝒄𝟐
From adiabatic energy equation h0 =h+ . It has two components one is static enthalpy (h) and the another
𝟐
𝒄𝟐
is kinetic energy When the static enthalpy is zero (or) when the entire energy is made up of kinetic energy
𝟐
only the above equation becomes

h = 0 and c = c max

ℎ0 = c2max Cmax = 2h0

2
𝛄
= 2CpT0 = 2x RT0
𝛄−𝟏

𝟐
Cmax = a0
𝛄−𝟏

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 𝟐
∴ Cmax =
𝛄−𝟏
a0

(iv)Critical velocity of fluid / sound, c*=a*

It is the velocity of fluid at which the Mach number is unity.

𝒄∗
i.e., M critical = =1
𝒂∗

c* = a* = 𝛄RT*

Where T* = critical temperature

At the critical state, the adiabatic energy equation becomes

𝑐 ∗2
ℎ0 = ℎ ∗ +
2
𝑐 ∗2
CpT0 = Cp T* + Divide throughout by ‘Cp’
2

𝑐 ∗2
T0 = T* +
2Cp

C* = 2C p (T0-T*)

We know that,

To (𝛄−𝟏)
= 1+ M2
T∗ 𝟐

To (𝛄−𝟏) 𝟐+𝛄−𝟏 𝛄+𝟏

∴ = 1+ = =
T∗ 𝟐 𝟐 𝟐

𝟐𝐓𝐨
T* =
𝛄+𝟏

By substituting this in equation (1.44)

ϒ 2To
c* = 2x R T0 -
𝛄−𝟏 𝛄+1

2ϒRTo 𝟐
= 1-
ϒ−1 𝛄+𝟏

𝟐 𝛄+1−2
=a0
𝐲−𝟏 𝛄+1

𝟐(𝐲−𝟏) 2
C* = a0 (𝛄−𝟏)(𝛄+𝟏)
= a0
𝛄+1

2
c*=
𝛄+1

Divide equation (1.43) by (1.45), we get

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 𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 ao 𝟐 (𝛄+𝟏)
∗ = x
𝑎0 c∗ 𝛄−𝟏 𝟐

(𝛄+𝟏)
Cmax = c*
(𝛄−𝟏)

𝑐 2 max
We know that h0 =
2

By substituting this in eqn. (1.46), we get

𝑐 ∗2 (𝛄+𝟏)
h0 =
2 (𝛄−𝟏)

Therefore equation (1.36) becomes

𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝒂𝟐 𝐨 𝐜 𝟐 𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝑎 ∗2 (𝛄+𝟏)
𝒉𝟎 = + = = =
𝛄−𝟏 𝟐 𝛄−𝟏 𝟐 2 (𝛄−𝟏)

Non-dimensional Mach Number (M*)

This is an another type of mach number and is defined as the ratio between the local velocity of fluid to the
critical velocity of sound.
𝐜 𝐜
i.e. M* = =
𝒄∗ 𝒂∗

𝑐2
M*2 =
𝑐 ∗2

Multiply both sides by a2

𝑐2 𝑎2 𝑎2
M*2 = x = M2
𝑎 ∗2 𝑐 ∗2 𝑎 ∗2

It is more convenient to use M* instead of M because

Cmax 𝛄+𝟏
(i) at high fluid velocities M approaches infinity. But M* max = =
c∗ 𝛄−𝟏

Therefore, for doing calculations it is very difficult if M = 𝛼.

𝐜
(ii) M* = since a* is constant for any process, M* is proportional to the fluid velocity only. But M
𝒂∗
𝐜
= where M is not proportional to the fluid velocity alone.
𝐚

Relationship between M* and M

From equation (1.48)

𝒂𝟐 𝒄𝟐 𝑎 ∗2 (𝛄+𝟏)
+ =
𝛄−𝟏 𝟐 2 (𝛄−𝟏)

𝟐𝒂𝟐 + 𝒄𝟐 (𝛄−𝟏) 𝑎∗2 (𝛄+1)

=
𝟐(𝛄−𝟏) 2(𝛄−𝟏)

2𝑎2 𝑐2
+ (𝛄 -1) = (𝛄 +1)
𝑎 ∗2 𝑎 ∗2

THERMAL ENGG Page 8

 2𝑎2 𝒄𝟐
x + M*2 (𝛄 -1) = (𝛄 +1)
𝑎 ∗2 𝒄𝟐

2𝑀 ∗2
+ M*2 (𝛄 -1) = (𝛄 +1)
𝑀2

2
M*2 +( 𝛄 -1) = (y+1)
𝑀2

2+𝑀2 (𝛄−1)
M*2 = (y+1)
𝑀2

𝑀2 (𝛄−1)
M*2 = …(1.49)
2+𝑀2 (𝛄−1)

Comparison of M and M*

M = 0M* = 0

M < 1M* < 1

M = 1M* = 1

M> 1M* > 1

ϒ+1 Cmax
M= 𝛼M*max = √ =
ϒ−1 𝑐∗

Crocco Number [Cr]

Crocco number is a non-dimensional fluid velocity which is defined as the ration of actual fluid velocity to
its maximum fluid velocity.

C 𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
Cr = ==
Cmax 𝑀𝑎𝑥.𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦

Multiply both Nr. and Dr. by C*

𝑐 𝑐∗ 𝛄−𝟏
Cr = x = M*
𝑐∗ Cmax 𝛄+𝟏

(𝛄−𝟏)
C2r = M*2
(𝛄+𝟏)

By substituting equation (1.49) in (1.50)

M2 (𝛄+𝟏)(𝛄−𝟏)
C2r =
[𝟐+𝑀2 (𝛄−𝟏)] (𝛄+𝟏)

2C2r + C2rM2(𝛄 -1) = M2(𝛄 -1)

2C2r = M2(𝛄 -1) – C2rM2 (𝛄 -1)

2C2r = M2(𝛄 -1) [1-C2r]

2𝐶 2 r
M= (𝟏−𝐶 2 r)(𝛄−𝟏)

We know that,

To (𝛄−𝟏)
= 1+ M2
T 𝟐

THERMAL ENGG Page 9

 (𝛄−𝟏) 2𝐶 2 r
=1+ x (𝟏−𝐶 2
𝟐 r)(𝐲−𝟏)

To 1−𝐶 2 r+𝐶 2 r 1
= =
T 𝟏−𝐶 2 r 𝟏−𝐶 2 r

To 1
∴ =
T 𝟏−𝐶 2 r

p: 1 An air jet at 400k has sonic velocity. Determine (1) Velocity of sound at 400K ( 2) Velocity of sound at
stagnation conditions (3) Maximum velocity of jet (4) stagnation enthalpy (5) Crocco number

Given data :

T = 400 K At sonic condition M = 1 and c = a, ϒ = 1.4

Velocity of Sound a = √ϒ𝑅𝑇

= √1.4*287*400

= 400.89 m/s

𝑇0 (ϒ−1) (ϒ+1)
=1+ 𝑀2 =
𝑇 2 2

2.4
TO = ∗ 400 = 480 K
2

Velocity of sound at stagnation condition

𝑎𝑜 = √ϒ𝑅𝑇𝑂

= √1.4 * 287 * 480

= 439.16 m/s

From adiabatic energy equation

2
𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑎02
=√
2 ϒ−1

2𝑎𝑜2
𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 = √
ϒ−1
= 982 m/s
2
𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥
Stagnation enthalpy ℎ𝑜 = = 482.16
2

𝑐 400.89
Crocco number 𝑐𝑟 = = = 0.408247
𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 982

2. Air flows from a reservoir at 550 kpa and 70°c. Assuming isentropic flow, calculate the velocity, temperature,
pressure and density at a section where M = 0.6

Given data

In a reservoir the fluid is in a stagnation state i.e. the velocity of the fluid c = 0

𝑝𝑜 = 550 𝑘𝑝𝑎 𝑇𝑂 = 343 𝐾

THERMAL ENGG Page 10

since the flow is isentropic, from isentropic table

ϒ = 1.4 and M = 0.6

𝑇 𝑃
= 0.933 = 0.784
𝑇𝑂 𝑃𝑂

T = 320.019 K & P = 4.312 bar

𝑐
𝑀=
𝑎

𝑐 = 𝑀√ϒ𝑅𝑇

= 0.6√1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 320.019

= 215.151 m/s

𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇

𝑃
𝜌=
𝑅𝑇
431.2
𝜌= = 4.698 kg/m3
0.287∗320.019

3. An air stream at 1 bar and 400 k flowing with a velocity of 400 m/sec is brought to rest isentropically. Determine
the stagnation pressure and temperature

Given data: P = 1 bar , T = 400 k, c = 400m/s

𝐶 𝑐
Mach number M = =
𝑎 √ϒ𝑅𝑇

400
=
√1.4∗287∗400

= 0.99775

WKT,

𝑇0 (ϒ−1)
= 1+ 𝑀2
𝑇 2

(0.4)
= [1 + ∗ (0.997752 )]*400
2

= 479.64

From adiabatic relations

𝑇𝑂 𝑃
= ( 𝑂 )(ϒ−1)/ϒ
𝑇 𝑃

𝑇𝑂 𝑃
= ( 𝑂 )(ϒ-1)/ϒ
𝑇 𝑃

476.64 1.4/0.4
=( ) *1
400

𝑃𝑂 = 1.8879

THERMAL ENGG Page 11

4. Air enters a straight axisymmetric duct at 27°c, 3.45 bar and 150 m/sec and leaves 4°c, 2.058 bar and 260 m/sec
under adiabatic flow conditions, for an inlet cross sectional area of 500 sq.cms, estimate the stagnation temperature,
maximum velocity, mass flow rate and the exit area.

T1 = 300 K, P1 = 3.45 bar, C1 = 150 m/s

T1 = 277 K, P2 = 2.058 bar, C2 = 260 m/s

A1 = 500 cm2

𝐶1
𝑀1 =
√ϒ𝑅𝑇
𝑇𝑂 (ϒ−1)
= 1+ 𝑀12
𝑇1 2

0.4
𝑇𝑂 = (1 + ∗ (0.432)2 ) ∗ 300
2

T0 = 311.2 K

we know that 𝑎𝑜 = √ϒ𝑅𝑇𝑂

= √1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 311.2

= 353.61 m/s
2
𝑐𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
𝑎𝑜
=
2 ϒ−1

2
𝑎𝑜
c𝒎𝒂𝒙 = √ ∗2
ϒ−1

c max = 790.69 m/s

Mass flow rate m = ρ1 A1 C1

3.45∗105 500
= ∗ ∗ 150
287∗300 104

= 30.052 kg/s

m = ρ2 *A2* C2
𝑃2
= ∗ 𝐴2 * 𝐶2
𝑅𝑇2

𝑚𝑅𝑇2 30.05∗287∗277
𝐴2 = = = 0.044649 𝑚2
𝑃2 ∗𝐶2 2.058∗105 ∗260

5. Find the stagnation properties of air by calculation if the static pressure is 250 kpa and static temperature is 125°c
and velocity is 200 m/s

P = 250 kpa , T = 398 k, C = 200 m/s

𝐶 𝑐 200
M= = = = 0.50013
𝑎 √ϒ𝑅𝑇 √1.4∗287∗398

𝑇𝑂 (ϒ − 1) 2
=1+ 𝑀
𝑇 2

THERMAL ENGG Page 12

 0.4
𝑇𝑂 = (1 + ∗ (0.50013)2 ) * 398
2

= 417.91 K

𝑃𝑂 𝑇𝑂
= ( )ϒ/(ϒ−1)
𝑃 𝑇
1.4
417.91
PO = ( . )0.4 * 250
398

= 296.57 Kpa
ϒ−1
𝑇𝑂 𝑃 𝜌
= { 𝑂} . ϒ = { 0 } .ϒ−1
𝑇 𝑃 𝜌

ρO = 2.472 kg/𝑚2

6. An air jet has a velocity temperature equal to twice its static temperature . The static pressure and temperature
are 2 bar and 300 k respectively. Determine 1) Mach numbers M and M* (2) Stagnation temperature and pressure
(3) Critical velocity of flow and sound

TC = 2T, P1= 200kpa, T1 = 300 K, ϒ = 1.4

𝐶2
𝑇𝑂 = 𝑇 + = 𝑇 + 𝑇𝐶
2𝐶𝑃

= 3T = 900 K
𝑇𝑂 900
= =3
𝑇 300

4
M =√ = 3.1622
ϒ−1

WKT

𝑀2 (ϒ + 1)
𝑀 ∗2 =
2 + 𝑀 2 (ϒ − 1)

3.16222 ∗ 2.4
𝑀 ∗2 =
2 + (3.1622)2 ∗ 0.4

𝑀 ∗2 = 4

M* = 2
ϒ
𝑃𝑂 𝑇
= { 𝑂} .ϒ−1
𝑃 𝑇

1.4
𝑃𝑂 = (3)0.4 *200 = 9353.07 Kpa

WKT

𝑇∗ 2
=
𝑇𝑂 (ϒ+1)

2
T* = ∗ 900
2.4

= 750K

THERMAL ENGG Page 13

𝐶 ∗ = 𝑎 ∗ = √ϒ𝑅𝑇 ∗ = 548.95 m/s

7. An accelerating duct increases the mach number of air from 0.2 to 0.9 between inlet and exit. If the static
temperature of air at inlet is 500 k. calculate the following after assuming isentropic flow.(1) stagnation temperature
(2) critical temperature (3) Static temperature at exit (4) Area ratio A 1/A2 of the duct.

M1 = 0.2, M2 = 0.9 , T1 = 500 K, ϒ = 1.4

From isentropic table ϒ = 1.4, M1 = 0.2

𝑇1 𝑃1 𝐴1
= 0.992, = 0.973, = 2.964
𝑇0 𝑃𝑂 𝐴∗

𝑇1
𝑇0 = = 504.03 𝐾
0.992

2
𝑇∗ = ∗𝑇
(ϒ + 1) 𝑂

= 420.0266 K

From isentropic table ϒ = 1.4, 𝑀2 = 0.9

𝑇2 𝑃2 𝐴2
= 0.861, = 0.591, = 1.009
𝑇0 𝑃𝑂 𝐴∗

𝑇2 = 0.861 ∗ 504.032

= 433.971 K

𝐴1 𝐴1 /𝐴∗ 2.964
Area ratio = = = 2.937
𝐴2 𝐴2 /𝐴∗ 1.009

2. ISENTROPIC FLOW WITH VARIABLE AREA

INTRODUCTION

A steady one dimensional flow in variable area passage is called variable area flow. The following
assumptions are made in this chapter.

1. The flow is assumed to be a steady flow

If the flow parameters do not vary with time is referred to as steady flow
∂p ∂𝜌 ∂m ∂q
i.e., = = = =0
∂t ∂t ∂t ∂t
2. The direction of flow is one-dimensional
If the flow parameters do not vary in direction normal to the flow direction is called one –
dimensional flow.
3. The flow is assumed as isentropic flow
It is assumes that the heat transfer is negligible and there are no other irreversibilities due to fluid
friction etc.
But the real systems deviate from the above assumed isentropic process. Therefore it is used as a
standard reference for comparing the actual one.

COMPARISION OF ISENTROPIC AND ADIABATIC PROCESSES

THERMAL ENGG Page 14

Fig. shows adiabatic and isentropic expansion of a perfect gas between two states 1 and 2.

The initial state is common for both adiabatic and isentropic processes. The static temperature, velocity energy and
𝐶12
stagnation temperature are T1, and T01 respectively.
2

𝐶22
The final temperature and velocity energy in an isentropic process are T 2' and .
2

The exit kinetic energy and stagnation pressure in an adiabatic process is less than isentropic process. This is
because of friction and irreversibilities, therefore there is an increase in entropy in an adiabatic process. But the
stagnation enthalpy is constant for both and cases.

1-2Adiabatic expansion 1-2’  Isentropic expansion

Fig shows adiabatic and isentropic compression of gases between 1 and 2. Here also there is an increase in entropy
in an adiabatic process, because of friction and irreversibilities. Therefore P o2<Po2’ .

1-2Adiabatic compression 1-2’Isentropic compression

MACH NUMBER VARIATION

From adiabatic energy equation

𝑐2
ℎ0 = ℎ + = constant …(2.1)
2

Differential form of equation (2.1) is

THERMAL ENGG Page 15

 2𝑐𝑑𝑐
𝑑ℎ + = 0
2

𝑑𝑝
In an isentropic flow 𝑑ℎ =
𝜌

𝑑𝑝
∴ + cdc = 0
𝜌

(or) 𝑑𝑝 = - 𝜌𝑐 𝑑𝑐 …(2.2)

From continuity equation

𝑚 = 𝜌𝐴𝑐 = constant

Taking log and differentiating the above equations, we get

In 𝜌 + In A + In c = constant

d𝜌 dA dc
+ + =0 …(2.3)
𝜌 A c

dc d𝜌 dA
=- +
c 𝜌 A

d𝜌 dA
dc = -c +
𝜌 A

Substituting this in equation (2.2)

d𝜌 dA
𝑑𝑝 = -𝜌𝑐 −𝑐 +
𝜌 A

d𝜌 dA
𝑑𝑝 = 𝜌c2 +
𝜌 A

d𝑝 d𝜌 dA −dc
∴ + + = …(2.4)
𝜌𝑐 2 𝜌 A c

dA dp d𝜌
= −
𝐴 𝜌𝑐 2 𝜌

dp d𝜌
= 1- x c2
𝜌𝑐 2 𝑑𝑝

dp
But we know that, = a2 = ϒRT
𝑑𝜌

dA dp 𝑐2
∴ = 1−
𝐴 𝜌𝑐 2 𝑎2

dA dp 𝑐
= [1 −M2] …(2.5) ∴ =M
𝐴 𝜌𝑐 2 𝑎

dp dc
From equation (2.4), =-
𝜌𝑐 2 c

Substituting this in the above equation, we get

dA dc
= [M2 - 1] …(2.6)
𝐴 c

The above equations (2.5) and (2.6) are the dynamic equations which are used for accelerating and
decelerating type of flow.

THERMAL ENGG Page 16

Expansion in Nozzles

Expansion of gases in nozzles is an acceleration process (ie.,) increase in velocity by decreasing the
pressure. The shape of the nozzle depends on the local mach number. By substituting M values in equation (2.6), we
get the three different passages,

dA
(i) When M < 1 and ‘dc’ is positive, becomes negative. It means that decrease in area of cross section.
𝐴
Therefore the type of nozzle is convergent. It is shown in figure (a).
dA
(ii) When M = 1; = 0 (i.e) there is no change in area of cross section. The type of nozzle is sonic and
𝐴
the section. It is shown in figure (b).
dA
(iii) When M >1 and ‘dc’ is positive, is also positive. Therefore the type of nozzle is divergent and is
𝐴
shown in figure (c).

Compression in diffusers

Diffusers are used to increase the pressure and decrease the velocity of the gases. The shape of the diffuser
on the local mach number and by substituting M value in equation (2.6), we get three different possible conditions.

dA
(i) When M<1 and ‘dc’ is negative, will be positive. The shape of the diffuser will be a divergent type
𝐴
and is shown in figure (a).
dA
(ii) When M=1; = 0 (ie.,) there is no change in area of cross section. Therefore, there is no change in
𝐴
the passage and the section is throat section which is shown in figure (b).
dA
(iii) When M>1 and ‘dc’ is negative, is negative. Therefore, the shape of the diffuser is convergent and
𝐴
is shown in figure (c).

THERMAL ENGG Page 17

 It may be noted that, continuous acceleration and deceleration is possible if the shape of the nozzle and diffuser
is a convergent –divergent type.

STAGNATION (0) AND CRITICAL STATES (*)

Stagnation states are derived for isentropic process in the previous chapter i.e.,

To (𝛄−𝟏)
= 1+ M2 [both isentropic and Adiabatic]
T 𝟐

ϒ
Po (𝛄−𝟏)
= 1+ M2 .ϒ−1
p 𝟐

1
𝜌o (𝛄−𝟏)
= 1+ M2 .ϒ−1
𝜌 𝟐

At the critical state, the mach number M is unity.

c
i.e., M = =1
a

∴ 𝑐 ∗ =a* = 𝛄RT*

Comparison of adiabatic and isentropic expansion processes

Figure is shows the comparison of adiabatic and isentropic expansion processes. It is assume that the initial state is
common for both the process (stagnation state) and the temperature after expansion is also same for both the
processes.

1-2Adiabatic expansion 1-2’Isentropic expansion

The temperature at the critical state is same for both adiabatic and isentropic processes. But the pressures
and stagnation pressures are different.

P*’ > P*

P0*’>P0* and

P2’>P2

P02’ > P02

We know that,

THERMAL ENGG Page 18

To (𝛄−𝟏)
= 1+ M2
T 𝟐

At the critical state, Mach number M=1, By substituting this in the above equation

To (𝛄+𝟏)
=
T∗ 𝟐

T∗ 𝟐
=
To 𝛄+𝟏

ϒ
P∗ 𝟐
= [. . ] .ϒ−𝟏
Po 𝛄+𝟏

𝟏
𝜌∗ 𝟐
= .ϒ−𝟏
𝜌o 𝛄+𝟏

The above equations give the relationship between stagnation and critical states. To find the relationship
To Po 𝜌o
between the critical and static conditions, multiply the above equations by , and respectively.
T P 𝜌

T∗ To 𝟐 (𝛄−𝟏)
∗ = 1+ M2
To T 𝛄+𝟏 𝟐

T∗ 𝟐 (𝛄−𝟏)
= + M2
T 𝛄+𝟏 (𝛄+𝟏)

ϒ
P∗ 𝟐 (𝛄−𝟏)
= + M2 .ϒ−1
P 𝛄+𝟏 (𝛄+𝟏)

1
𝜌∗ 𝟐 (𝛄−𝟏)
= + M2 .ϒ−1
𝜌 𝛄+𝟏 (𝛄+𝟏)

AREA RATIO AS A FUNCTION OF MACH NUMBER

Area ration is also a useful quantity like temperature, pressure and density ratios. Here local conditions are
compared with critical conditions.

m= 𝜌Ac = 𝜌 ∗ A* c*

A 𝜌 ∗𝑐 ∗
=
A∗ 𝜌𝑐

We know that,

(𝛄+𝟏)𝑀 2 𝑐2
M*2 = =
𝟐+(𝛄−𝟏)𝑀 2 a∗2

𝑎∗ 𝑐∗ 1 𝟐+(𝛄−𝟏)𝑀 2
∴ = = =
𝑐 𝑐 𝑀∗ (𝛄+𝟏)𝑀 2

𝑐∗ 1 𝟐 (𝛄−𝟏)
∴ = + M2 ½
𝑐 𝑀 (𝛄+𝟏) (𝛄+𝟏)

Substituting equations (2.14) and (2.12) in equation (2.13) we get

1
𝐴. 𝟐 (𝛄−𝟏) 𝟏 𝟐 (ϒ−𝟏)
= + M2 .ϒ−1 * [ + 𝑴𝟐 ] .𝟏/𝟐
𝐴∗ 𝛄+𝟏 (𝛄+𝟏) 𝑴 ϒ+𝟏 (ϒ+𝟏)

THERMAL ENGG Page 19

 1 𝟐 (𝛄−𝟏) 𝛄+𝟏
= + M2 …(2.15)
𝑀 𝛄+𝟏 (𝛄+𝟏) 𝟐(𝛄−𝟏)

𝟏 𝟏 𝛄+𝟏
am x an = a m+n ∴ + =
𝛄−𝟏 𝟐 𝟐(𝛄+𝟏)

By substituting different values of ‘M” (subsonic to supersonic), it yields a graph as shown in figure.

AP
The function is used for many compressible flow problems
A ∗ Po

ϒ+1
A 1 𝟐 (𝛄−𝟏)
+ M2 .2(ϒ−1)
A∗ 𝑀 𝛄+𝟏 (𝛄+𝟏)

ϒ
Po (𝛄−𝟏)
1+ M2 .ϒ−1
P 𝟐

ϒ+1 ϒ+1
1 𝟐 𝛄−𝟏
.2(ϒ−1) 1+ M2 .2(ϒ−1)
𝑀 𝛄+𝟏 𝟐

ϒ
𝛄−𝟏
1+ M2 .ϒ−1
𝟐

𝛄+𝟏 𝛄 𝟏 𝛄+𝟏−𝟐𝛄
- =
𝟐(𝛄−𝟏) 𝛄−𝟏 𝛄−𝟏 𝟐

𝟏 (𝟏− 𝛄) −( 𝛄−𝟏) 𝟏
= x = =-
(𝛄−𝟏) 𝟐 ( 𝛄−𝟏)𝐱𝟐 𝟐

The above equation becomes

THERMAL ENGG Page 20

 ϒ+𝟏 1
𝟏 𝟐 (𝛄−𝟏)
= .𝟐(ϒ−𝟏) ( 1+ M2 ). −2
𝐌 (𝛄+𝟏) 𝟐

𝟏 𝟐 𝛄+𝟏
A P 𝐌 𝛄+𝟏 𝟐(𝛄−𝟏)
x = (𝛄−𝟏) 2 1
…(2.22)
A∗ Po
(𝟏+ M ).2
𝟐

MASS FLOW RATE

From continuity equation

m = 𝜌𝐴𝑐

For isentropic flow

Po ϒ−1 𝜌o P 1
. 1 = .(ϒ−1) ∴ 𝜌 = ρ.0 .ϒ …(2.23)
P 𝜌 Po

From adiabatic energy equation

𝑐2 𝑐2
h0 = h + = CpT + = CpT0
2 2

𝑐2
∴ = Cr’ (T0 - T)
2

𝛄𝐑
c2 = 2Cp (T0 - T) Cp =
(𝛄−𝟏)

ϒ−1
𝟐𝛄𝐑𝐓o T T P
= 1- = .ϒ
𝛄−𝟏 To To Po

ϒ−1
𝟐𝛄𝐑𝐓o p
c= 1-( ). ϒ
𝛄−𝟏 po

We can also express the mass flow rate in four different non-dimensional forms and are

(i) Mass flow rate interms of pressure ration

(ii) Mass flow rate interms of area ration
(iii) Mass flow rate interms of Mach number and
(iv) Numerical value of mass flow parameter

FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES

As we have studied in this chapter, convergent nozzles are used for sonic and subsonic flows. They can
also be used as flow regulating and flow measuring devices.

Convergent – divergent nozzles are used for super sonic flows. They are used in compressors and turbine
blade rows etc.

Convergent nozzles

The flow from an infinite reservoir to an exhaust chamber through a convergent nozzle is shown in figure.
The stagnation conditions (p0, T0 etc) in the reservoir is kept constant, but the exhaust chamber pressure can be
varied by using a value.

THERMAL ENGG Page 21

 The pressure variations along the length of nozzle and the exhaust chamber is shown in Figure. When there
is no flow, the stagnation pressure (p0) is equal to the chamber pressure Pb (curve a). When the chamber pressure is
reduced by opening a valve, flow will takes place and the pressure decreases along the nozzle and up to the nozzle
Pb
exit. But the nozzle exit pressure and the chamber pressure both are equal (curves b and c). The pressure ratios
Po
𝑝∗
in curves a, b and c are above the critical pressure ratio and the curve ‘d’ corresponds to the critical pressure
po
ratio. For these curves (a,b, c and d) the pressure at the exit of the nozzle (p e) is same as the pressure in the exhaust
champer (Pb) is shown in figure. (Regime-I). when the exhaust chamber pressure (Pb) is reduced further (below the
critical value), the nozzle exit pressure is equal to the critical pressure but the chamber pressure which is shown is
Pe
curve e in the Regime –II. Fig (a) and (b) show the variations of the nozzle pressure ratio and mass flow
Po
Pb
parameter against the chamber pressure ratio
Po

Pb
When there is no flow, mass flow rate is zero and chamber pressure ratio is one. When the chamber
Po
pressure is reduced, the nozzle exit pressure is also reduced and the mass flow parameter increases is shown in
curves b and c. this increase in mass flow rate goes upto the critical state (curve d) and the chamber pressure is
equal to the nozzle exit pressure is shown in Regime I. When the chamber pressure is reduced further, nozzle exit
pressure is not reduced and there is no increase in mass flow rate which is shown in Regime II. The maximum mass
flow occurs at point d and after that the mass flow parameter is constant.

THERMAL ENGG Page 22

Convergent – divergent nozzles

Figure shows the flow from an infinite reservoir through a convergent – divergent nozzle to an exhaust
chamber. The experiment is similar the one above, except that a converging – diverging nozzle is to be used. In
curves a, b and c acceleration takes place in the convergent part and upto the throat. The diverging part acts as a
diffuser through which the pressure rises to the chamber pressure Pb. Hence these curves acts as a “Venturi”. The
pressure ration at the throat is critical for the curve ‘c’.

Continuous acceleration takes place in curve ‘g’ hence it is a design curve but other curves are off-design
curves. When back pressure the further lowered, the velocity is supersonic after the throat to a point where
discontinuity in the flow occurs. In curves d and e, flow discontinuous and eddies are formed after the throat which
results sudden increase in pressure (shock wave) so that back pressure is reached.

When the back pressure is lowered further, the shock wave moves downstream till it reaches the exit as in curve f.
The back pressure increases suddenly through a shock wave and is above the nozzle exit pressure (Pe). When the
back pressure is lowered further, the chamber pressure is reduced but the nozzle exit pressure is same as the design
pressure is shown in figure in curve ‘h’.

Pe
Figure (a) and (b) shows the variation of the nozzle exit pressure and mass flow parameter with
Po
Pb
chamber pressure . The chamber pressure and nozzle exit pressure is same in curves a,b,c,d and e. Therefore,
Po
the points a,b,c,d and e on the line is inclined at 45 degrees. At point 𝜑 the nozzle exit pressure is reduced and then
it is constant even though the chamber pressure is reduced further (point h)

THERMAL ENGG Page 23

When the back pressure is reduced, mass flow rate increases and it goes upto the critical state (c ) and then there is
no further increase in mass flow with decrease in back pressure. This condition of flow is called chocked flow. The
necessary conditions for this flow is (i) the pressure ratio must be equal to the critical pressure ratio and the
corresponding Mach number M=1.

Over expanding and under-expanding in nozzles

If the back pressure is greater than the design pressure, the nozzle is said to be over expanding and if it is
less, the nozzle is said to be under expanding.

Nozzle efficiency

It is defined as the ration of the actual change or drop in enthalpy to the isentropic change or drop in
enthalpy.

𝐴𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦

𝑛N =
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 𝑖𝑛 𝑒𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦

h0 −h2
=
h0 −h2,

T0 −T2
For a perfect gas (𝑛N ) =
T0 −T1
2

It measures the fraction of available energy of expansion that is converted into kinetic form.

FLOW THROUGH DIFFUSERS

Diffusion process is the deceleration of flow with rise in pressure figure shows both reversible and
irreversible diffusion of supersonic flow. The convergent part is supersonic and the divergent part is subsonic. In an
isentropic diffusion, continuous rise in static pressure takes place. In practical cases this king of diffusion is not
possible hence a shock is introduced at the throat section which increases the pressure suddenly. The mach number
after the shock is subsonic (M>1).

THERMAL ENGG Page 24

Diffuser efficiency

For a small pressure rise

𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 P2 −P1

𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑒𝑟 𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 = = …(2.32)
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 P′2 −P1

For a large pressure rise

𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 C2 −C′2 h′2 −h1

𝑛𝐷 = = = 2(C12 2 = …(2.33)
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑘𝑖𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 1− C2 ) h2 −h1
2

1. A conical diffuser has an inlet diameter of 40 cm and an exit diameter of 80 cm. Air enters the diffuser with a
static pressure of 200 kpa, state temperature 37°c and a velocity of 265m/sec calculate (1) Mass flow rate (2)
properties at exit (3) What will be the change in force exerted on the diffuser wall.

Given data

d1 = 0.4 m, d2 = 0.8 m, p1 = 200 kpa

T1 = 310 K, C1 = 265 m/s

m = ρ1 A1 C1 = P1/RT1 * A1 * C1

2∗105 ∗(0.4)2 ∗265

= ∗𝜋
4∗287∗310

THERMAL ENGG Page 25

= 74.858 kg/s

From isentropic table M1 = 0.75, ϒ = 1.4

𝑇1 𝑃1 𝐴1 𝐹
= 0.898, = 0.688, = 1.062, = 1.031
𝑇01 𝑃01 𝐴∗ 𝐹∗
𝜋
(0.4)2
𝐴∗ = 4
= 0.11832 m2
1.062

𝜋 2
𝐴2 4 (0.8)
= = 4.248
𝐴∗ 0.11832
𝐴2
From Isentropic table ϒ = 1.4, = 4.248
𝐴∗

In table A/A* = 4.248 Which lies in between 4.182 and 4.497

There fore by linear interpolation

(4.497-4.182) = 0.315

0.988 - 0.986 = 0.002

0.002∗0.249
(4.497- 4.248) = 0.249 = = 0.00158
0.315

𝑝
= 0.988 − 0.00158 = 0.98642
𝑝0

𝑝2 𝑝01
𝑝2 = ∗ ∗ 𝑝1
𝑝02 𝑝1
0.98642
𝑇2 = ∗ 200
0.688

= 286.75 Kpa

𝑇2 𝑇01
𝑇2 = ∗ ∗ 𝑇1
𝑇02 𝑇1
0.99612
= ∗ 310
0.899

= 343.48 K

𝐶2 = 𝑀2 ∗ √ϒ𝑅𝑇2

= 0.1379√1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 343.489

= 51.25 m/s

Force exerted on the diffuser walls τ = F2 - F1

At the throat section M = 1, ϒ = 1.4

𝑇∗ 𝑃∗ 𝑃1
= 0.834 = 0.528 = 0.688
𝑇𝑂 𝑃𝑂 𝑃01

THERMAL ENGG Page 26

 𝑃∗
𝑃01 0.528
= = 0.767441
𝑃1 0.688
𝑃01

𝑃 ∗ = 153.4883 Kpa = 𝑝1∗ = 𝑝2∗

We know that

𝐹1∗ = 𝐹2∗ = 𝑃1∗ 𝐴1∗ (ϒ + 1)

= 153.4883 Kpa * 103 *0.118327(2.4)

= 43588.51 N

τ = F2 - F1
𝐹2 𝐹1
= ∗ 𝐹2∗ - ∗ 𝐹1∗
𝐹2∗ 𝐹1∗

𝐹2 𝐹1
= 𝐹∗ [ − ] (𝐹1∗ = 𝐹2∗ = 𝐹 ∗ )
𝐹∗ 𝐹∗

= 43588.512(3.39433 - 1.031)

= 103014.038 N

2. A Supersonic diffuser, diffuses air in an isentropic flow from a mach number of 3 to a mach number of 1.5. The
static conditions of air at inlet are 70 kpa and -7°c If the mass flow rate of air is 125 kg/s. determine (a) the
stagnation conditions (b) areas at throat and exit (c) static conditions of air at exit.

Given data

M1 = 3, M2 = 1.5, P1 = 70 kpa, T2 = 266 K, m = 125 kg/s

From isentropic table M1 = 3, ϒ = 1.4

𝑇 𝑃
= 0.357, = 0.0272
𝑇𝑂 𝑃𝑂
𝐴
𝑇01 = 745.09 K , 𝑃01 = 2573.529 𝐾𝑝𝑎, = 4.235
𝐴∗

WKT
𝑃1
m = ρ1 * A1 * C1 = ∗ 𝐴1 𝑀1 √ϒ𝑅𝑇1
𝑅𝑇1

𝑃1 ∗ 𝐴1 ∗ 𝑀1 √ϒ
=
√𝑅𝑇1

𝑚√𝑅𝑇1
𝐴1 =
𝑃1 𝑀1 √ϒ

125√287 ∗ 266
=
70 ∗ 103 ∗ 3√1.4

= 0.138997 𝑚2
𝐴1
𝐴∗ = = 0.032821 𝑚2
4.235

THERMAL ENGG Page 27

From isentropic table ϒ = 1.4, 𝑀2 = 1.5

𝑇 𝑃 𝐴
= 0.689, = 0.272, ∗ = 1.176
𝑇0 𝑃𝑂 𝐴

𝑇2 = 513.372, 𝑃2 = 700 𝐾𝑝𝑎, 𝐴2 = 0.03859 𝑚2

𝐶2
𝑀2 =
√ϒ𝑅𝑇2

C2 = 681.25 m/s

3. The pressure, velocity and temperature of air at the entry of a nozzle are 200kpa, 145 m/sec and 330k, the exit
pressure is 150 kpa

(1) What is the shape of the nozzle (2) Determine for s = c flow the mach number at entry and exit. Also determine
the flow rate and maximum possible flow rate.

Given Data

p1 = 200 kpa, C1 = 145 m/s, T1 = 330k, P2 = 150 kpa

𝐶1 145
M1 = =
√ϒ𝑅𝑇1 √1.4∗287∗330

= 0.3982

From isentropic table ϒ=1.4, 𝑀1 =0.4

𝑇1 𝑃1 𝐴1
= 0.965, = 0.895, = 1.59
𝑇01 𝑃01 𝐴∗

𝑇𝑂1 = 340.5572𝐾, 𝑃01 = 223.46 𝐾𝑝𝑎

Since entropy s = constant, therefore the flow is isentropic

T01= T02 = 340.55 K ,

P01 = P02= 223.46 kpa

𝑝2 150
= = 0.6712
𝑝02 223.46
𝑝 𝐴2
From isentropic table corresponding to = 0.6712 the mach number M2 = 0.775 & = 1.0495
𝑝𝑜 𝐴∗

𝑚
Flow rate/area = = 𝜌1 *𝐶1
𝐴1

𝑃1
= ∗ 𝐶1
𝑅𝑇1

200∗103
= ∗ 145
287∗330

𝑚
= 306.197 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2 𝑠
𝐴1

ϒ+1
𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 2 ϒ 𝑃𝑂
Maximum possible flow rate = ( ) .2(ϒ−1) ∗ √ *
𝐴∗ ϒ+1 𝑅 √𝑇𝑂

THERMAL ENGG Page 28

 2.4
2 1.4 223.46∗103
= ( ) .0.8 ∗ √ ∗
2.4 287 √340.557

= 489.43 kg/s * 𝑚2

𝐴1
𝐴∗ = 1.59 = 1.515
𝐴2 1.0495
𝐴∗

𝐴1 = 1.515𝐴2

Since 𝐴1 >𝐴2 Therefore, the shape of the nozzle is convergent type

4. A stream of air at a given temperature passes from a duct of uniform cross section of 0.001 m 2 through a
converging diverging diffuser correctly designed so as to increase the air pressure. The air enters the diffuser at
0.105Mpa and 75°c with a velocity of 600 m/sec. Assuming that the flow is isentropic and inlet and exit has equal
area of 0.001 𝑀2 ,estimate the exit pressure of air. Find the throat area and mass flow rate

Given data:

p1 = 105 kpa, A1 = A2 = 0.001 m2, T1 = 348 K, C1 = 600 m/s

𝐶1
𝑀1 =
√ϒ ∗ 𝑅 ∗ 𝑇

600
=
√1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 348

= 1.6045

Mass flow rate m = ρ1A1C1

𝑃1
= ∗ 𝐴1 ∗ 𝐶1
𝑅𝑇1

105∗103
= ∗ 0.001 ∗ 600
287∗348

= 0.630782 Kg/s

From isentropic table ϒ = 1.4, 𝑀1 = 1.6

𝑇 𝑃 𝐴
= 0.661, = 0.235, = 1.25
𝑇0 𝑃𝑂 𝐴∗

𝐴1
𝑃𝑂 = 446.808 𝐾𝑝𝑎, 𝐴∗ = = 8 ∗ 10−4 𝑚2
1.25
𝐴2 0.001
= = 1.25
𝐴 8 ∗ 10−4
𝐴
From isentropic table ϒ = 1.4, and = 1.25 The corresponding mach number 𝑀2 = 0.555
𝐴∗

𝑃2
= 0.811
𝑃𝑂

Exit pressure 𝑝2 = 362.36 kpa

THERMAL ENGG Page 29

5. The stagnation properties of air entering a convergent nozzle are 200 kpa and 400k. The throat area is 5c𝑚2 Find
the mass flow rate for the following back pressure (1) 105.6 kpa (2) 95 kpa (3) 130 kpa

Given Data

𝑝01 = 200𝑘𝑝𝑎, 𝑇0 = 400 𝐾, 𝐴∗ = 5 𝑐𝑚2

1) When the back pressure 𝑝𝑏 = 105.6 kpa

𝑝𝑏 105.6
The chamber pressure ratio = = 0.528
𝑝0 200

𝑝∗
Which is equal to the critical pressure ratio = 0.528 (𝑀 = 1)
𝑝𝑜

The mass flow rate per area

𝑚 𝑃𝑂 2ϒ 𝑃 2 𝑃 ϒ+1
= √ [(. ).ϒ − ( ). ϒ ]
𝐴 √𝑅𝑇0 ϒ − 1 𝑃𝑂 𝑃𝑂

200 ∗ 103
2.8 2 2.4
= √
[(0.528).1.4 − (0.528). 1.4 ]
√287 ∗ 400 0.4

= 404.184 kg/s/𝑚2

When the back pressure 𝑝𝑏 = 95 kpa

𝑃𝑏
The chamber pressure ratio = 0.475 which is less than the critical pressure ratio
𝑝0

𝑝∗
= 0.528 Further decrease in pressure will not change the mass flow rate and is constant
𝑝0

𝑚 𝑘𝑔
= 404.18 /𝑚2
𝐴 𝑠

3. When the back pressure 𝑝𝑏 = 130 kpa

𝑝𝑏 𝑝∗
The chamber pressure ratio = 0.65 which is above the critical pressure ratio = 0.528
𝑝0 𝑝𝑜

There fore mass flow rate per area

2 ϒ+1
𝑝𝑜 2ϒ 𝑝 𝑝
= √ [. [ ] .ϒ − [ ] . ϒ .]
√287∗400 ϒ−1 𝑝𝑜 𝑝0

2 2.4
200∗103 2.8
= √ [(0.65)1.4 − (0.65).1.4 ]
√287∗400 0.4

= 390.700 kg/s/𝑚2

6. Air is supplied to a convergent-divergent nozzle at 𝑝𝑜 = 5 bar and TO = 1000 K, The throat area is 10cm2 . What is
the maximum mass flow rate. If the same nozzle is used for carbon di oxide (ϒ=1.18. R= 189 J/KgK ) What is the
value of stagnation pressure required for the same value of mass flow rate and stagnation temperature.

Given Data

𝑝𝑜 = 500 𝑘𝑝𝑎, 𝑇0 = 1000 K, 𝐴∗ =10 cm2

THERMAL ENGG Page 30

For air (ϒ=1.4, R = 287 J/Kgk)

WKT

𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑇 ϒ+1
√ 𝑂 ϒ 2
=√ [ ] .2(ϒ−1) = 0.0404
𝐴∗ 𝑃𝑂 𝑅 ϒ+1

0.0404 ∗ 10 ∗ 10−4 ∗ 500 ∗ 103

𝑚.𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
√1000

= 0.63878 kg/s

For carbon di oxide (ϒ = 1.18 , R = 189 J/Kgk)

𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 √𝑇𝑂 ϒ 2 ϒ+1

= √ [ ] .2(ϒ−1)
𝐴∗ 𝑃𝑂 𝑅 ϒ+1

2.18
1.18 2
√ ∗[ ] .2(0.18) = 0.04688
189 2.18

0.63878∗ √1000
=
10∗10−4 ∗0.04688

= 4.3088 bar

7. A nozzle in a wind tunnel gives a test section mach number of 2. Air enters the nozzle from a large reservoir at
0.69 bar and 310°k. The cross sectional area of the throat is 1000cm 2
determine the following quantities for the tunnel for one dimensional isentropic flow
(a) pressure, temperature and velocity at the throat and test section
(b) Area of cross section at the test section
(c) Mass flow rate
(d) power required to drive the compressor

Given Data:
𝑝0 = 0.69 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝑇0 = 310 𝐾, 𝐴∗ = 1000 𝑐𝑚2 , 𝑀𝑡 = 2

At the throat section mach number M =1, From isentropic gas table ϒ = 1.4
𝑇∗ 𝑃∗
= 0.834, = 0.528
𝑇𝑂 𝑃𝑜
𝑇 ∗ = 0.834 ∗ 310 = 258.54 𝐾

𝑃 ∗ = 0.528 ∗ 0.69 = 0.36432 𝑏𝑎𝑟

𝑐 ∗ = 𝑎∗ = √ϒ𝑅𝑇 ∗

= √1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 258.54

= 322.3 m/s

At the test section Mach number Mt = 2

From isentropic table ϒ = 1.4, M1 = 2

𝑇 𝑃 𝐴
= 0.555, = 0.128, ∗ = 1.687
𝑇𝑂 𝑃𝑂 𝐴

𝑇𝑡 = 172.05 𝑘, 𝑝𝑡 = 0.08832 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝐴𝑡 = 1687 𝑐𝑚2

THERMAL ENGG Page 31

 𝑐𝑡 = 𝑀𝑡 √ϒ𝑅𝑇1

= 2√1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 172.05

= 525.85 m/s

Mass flow rate m = 𝜌∗ 𝐴∗ 𝐶 ∗

𝑃∗
= ∗ 𝐴∗ ∗ 𝐶 ∗
𝑅𝑇 ∗
0.36432∗105 ∗1000∗322.3
=
287∗258.54∗104

=15.82463 kg/s

Power required to drive the compressor

𝑃 = 𝑚 ∗ 𝑐𝑝 ∗ (𝑇0 − 𝑇)

1005
= 15.824 * [310 − 172.05]
1000

= 2193.92 kw

8. Air flowing at the rate of 1.15 kg/sec with an approach velocity of 80 m/sec, is expanded in a convergent-
divergent nozzle. The static properties of air at inlet are 412 kpa and 160°c. The static pressure at exit is 103 kpa.
Calculate the required throat and exit area for isentropic flow
If the isentropic efficiency of the nozzle is 85% and if the loss occurs only in the divergent section find the loss in
total head pressure.
Given data

m = 1.15 kg/s
c1 = 80 m/s
p1= 412 kpa
T1 = 433 K
P2 = 103 Kpa

𝐶1 80
𝑀1 = =
√ϒ𝑅𝑇1 √1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 433

= 0.19179

From isentropic table ϒ = 1.4, M1 = 0.19

𝑇 𝑃 𝐴
= 0.993, = 0.975, = 3.112
𝑇0 𝑃0 𝐴∗

𝑇01 = 436.052𝐾, 𝑃01 = 422.56 𝐾𝑝𝑎

At the throat section M = 1

From isentropic table ϒ = 1.4 and M=1

𝑇∗ 𝑃∗
= 0.834, = 0.528
𝑇𝑂 𝑃𝑂

𝑇 ∗ = 363.66 𝐾, 𝑃 ∗ = 223.11 𝐾𝑝𝑎

THERMAL ENGG Page 32

 m = ρ1 * A1 * C1 = ρ* A* C*

𝑚 𝑚 𝑅𝑇 ∗
A* = =
𝜌∗𝑐∗ 𝑃∗ 𝐶 ∗

𝑚𝑅𝑇 ∗ 𝑚√𝑅𝑇 ∗ 1.15√287∗363.66

= = =
𝑃∗ √ϒ𝑅𝑇 ∗ 𝑃∗√ϒ 223.111∗103 √1.4

𝐴∗ = 14.07 cm2

𝑇 ∗ −𝑇2
Nozzle efficiency(ɳN) =
𝑇 ∗ −𝑇2,

∗
𝑃𝑂 −𝑃02
ɳN = 1 - [ , ]
𝑃1∗ −𝑃2

𝑃0∗ − 𝑃02
= 1 − 0.85 = 0.15
𝑃1∗ − 𝑃2,

𝑃0∗ − 𝑃02 = 0.15[2.2311 − 1.03]

= 0.180166 bar

𝑝02 = 𝑝01 − 0.180166

= 4.04547 bar
𝑝2 1.03 𝑝
= = 0.2546 from isentropic table corresponding to the mach number
𝑝02 4.04547 𝑝0

𝐴2
M2 = 1.55, = 1.211, 𝐴2 = 17.043 𝑐𝑚2
𝐴∗

THERMAL ENGG Page 33

 UNIT-IV

FLOW WITH NORMAL AND OBLIQUE SHOCK WAVES

INTRODUCTION

A shock wave is a special king of steep finite pressure wave in which the changes in flow
properties across the wave are abrupt. When the shock waves are at right angles to the flow, they are called normal
shock if it is inclined at an angle, then oblique shocks. Normal shocks may be treated as one dimensional but
oblique shocks require tow dimensional approach. There will be an increase in static pressure and entropy, but loss
in stagnation pressure across the shock. The flow changes form supersonic to subsonic with sudden increase in
pressure.

The application of shock waves are

(i) Used in shock tubes and supersonic compressors.

(ii) Used in supersonic aircraft to obtain high pressure ratio in an axial compressor.

DEVELOPMENT OF A NORMAL SHOCK WAVE

In an off-design values of pressure ratio, the variation in fluid properties is sudden and the flow changes
from supersonic to subsonic. It occurs in the divergent portion of a convergent divergent nozzle is shown in figure
in the previous chapter. This is due to the formation of finite shock waves at this section. The thickness of the shock
wave is 0.001mm.

Fig (b) shows a constant area duct which contains gas initially at rest. When the piston moves rightward,
the pressure pulses (infinitesimal pressure waves) are transmitted through the gas to the right. The growth of
pressure wave at time t1,t2,t3… is shown in fig (a) and it travels towards right with the speed of sound relative to
the gas. The gas nearer to the piston moves with a high velocity than the gas in the downstream. Similarly the
pressure of the gas nearer to the piston is higher than the regions in downstream. Therefore, the pressure waves
nearer to the piston travel at higher velocities on account of higher gas velocity and speed of sound. Thus the
upstream waves are continuously overtaking the downstream region.

On account of the above phenomena the weak pressure wave generated at time t=t1 grows stronger and
steeper when it moves towards right. When this growth continuous, at some stage t=t 5, the form of wave is vertical.
This vertical wave front is called Normal shock wave across which the changes in pressure, density, temperature,
velocity and mach number are abrupt.

THERMAL ENGG Page 34

GOVERNING EQUATIONS

Figure shows a a normal shock wave in a frictionless constant area duct contained in a control volume. The
governing equations used in normal shock waves are

(i) Continuity equation

(ii) Momentum equation
(iii) Energy equation and
(iv) Equation of state

The properties of gas in the upstream side is ‘x’ and the downstream is y.

From continuity equation, the mass flow rate

m= 𝜌 xAxcx = 𝜌 yAycy [Ax = Ay = A = constant]

𝐦
∴ = 𝝆 xcx = 𝝆 ycy ..(3.1)
𝐀

It is assumed that, there is no heat transfer and the shaft work is zero. Therefore, the adiabatic energy equation for
the control volume containing the shock gives.

h0x = h0y = h0 = constant

𝐜𝟐𝐱 𝐜𝟐𝐲
∴hx + = hy + ..(3.2)
𝟐 𝟐

From momentum equation

(px – py) A = m (cy – cx)

𝐦
(px – py) = (cy – cx) ..(3.3)
𝐀

By substituting equation (3.1) in equation (3.3), we get

(px-py) = 𝝆 yc2y – 𝝆 x c2x

px + 𝝆 cc2x = py + pyc2y ..(3.4)

∴Fx = Fy = constant ..(3.5)

[∴F = pA+ 𝝆 Ac2 where A = constant]From equation of state

h= f (s, 𝝆)

s = f (p, 𝝆) ..(3.6)

THERMAL ENGG Page 35

The above equations are used to define the two important curves known as Fanno and Rayleigh curves.

Fanno Line

Fanno line gives an adiabatic flow process in a constant area duct with friction. Since there is a friction, therefore
the process is irreversible. The stagnation enthalpy and mass flow rate per unit area remains constant. The
governing equations used for Fanno flow are continuity equation, energy equation and equation of state.

From equation (3.1), (3.2) and (3.6)

𝐦 𝟏
𝝆𝒀 =
𝐀 𝑪y

C2 y
hy = h0 - ..(3.8)
2

sy = f (py, 𝝆 y) ..(3.9)

By substituting different values of cy, we will get a line called fanno line on the h-s diagram as shown in figure.
Figure shows the constant pressure lines also. The entropy is maximum at point ‘F” where the mach number M=1 is
derived below. From adiabatic energy equation

C2
h0 = h + = constant
2

By differentiating this

2cdc
dh + =0
2

dh+c dc = 0 [energy equation]

In an isentropic flow,

𝐝𝐩
dh =
𝝆

𝐝𝐩
∴ + c dc = 0
𝝆

𝐝𝐩
= -c dc
𝝆

− 𝐝𝐩
∴dc = ..(3.10)
𝝆𝒄

From equation (3.1) ρc = constant By differentiating this we get

ρdc + cdρ = 0

By Substituting equation (3.10) in the above equation

−𝑑𝑝
ρ( ) + 𝑐𝑑𝜌 = 0
𝜌𝑐

𝑑𝑝
cdρ =
𝑐

𝑑𝑝 𝑑𝑝
C2 = = a = c =√( )
𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜌

Rayleigh Line

THERMAL ENGG Page 36

Rayleigh line describes a frictionless flow process in a constant area duct with heat transfer. The mass flow rate per
unit area remains constant. The governing equations used for Rayleigh flow are continuity equation, momentum and
equation of state. From equations (3.1), (3.4) and (3.6)

𝐦 𝟏
𝜌y = …(3.7)
𝐀 𝑪y

Py = (px + pxc2x) – 𝜌yc2y …(3.12)

Sy = f(𝜌y, py) …(3.13)

By substituting different values of cy’ we will get a line called Rayleigh line on the h – s diagram as shown in
figure. The entropy is maximum at point ‘R’ where the mach number M = 1 is derived below.

From momentum equation, p + 𝜌c2 = constant

By differentiating the equation

dp + 𝜌 x 2c dc +c2 d𝜌 = 0

From equation (3.1), 𝜌 c = constant

By differentiating 𝜌 dc + c d 𝜌 = 0

𝜌 dc = - c d 𝜌

By substituting this in equation (3.14)

dp + 2c [-c d 𝜌] + c2 d 𝜌 = 0

dp – 2c2 d 𝜌 + c2 d𝜌 = 0

∴ dp = c2 d 𝜌

𝐝𝐩
∴c= s=c
𝐝𝝆

𝐝𝐩
we know that, a = s=c
𝐝𝝆

𝐝𝐩
∴c=a= s=c … (3.15)
𝐝𝝆

THERMAL ENGG Page 37

 Therefore at the maximum entropy point (R) on the Rayleigh line is sonic i.e., M =1. The upper side of the
curve represents subsonic flow and the lower side is supersonic. But X-Y is a shock line.

MACH NUMBER DOWNSTREAM OF THE NORMAL SHOCL WAVE

Mx = Mach number before the normal shock (or) upstream Mach number

My = Mach number after the shock (or) Downstream Mach number

𝟐
We know that, a* = X a0
𝛄+𝟏

𝟐 𝟐
a*2 = x a20 = x γ RT0
𝛄+𝟏 𝛄+𝟏

From equation (3.19),

a*2 = cxcy By substituting this in the above equation

THERMAL ENGG Page 38

 𝟐
cxcy = x γ RT0 …(3.21)
𝛄+𝟏

THERMAL ENGG Page 39

THERMAL ENGG Page 40
THERMAL ENGG Page 41
THERMAL ENGG Page 42
1.A gas ϒ =1.4, R= 287J/kgk at a mach number of 1.8, p = 80kpa and T = 373 k passes through a normal shock
wave . Determine its density after the shock. Compare this value in an isentropic compression through the same
pressure ratio

(b) A jet of air at 273 k and 69 kpa has an initial mach number 2. If it passes through a normal shock wave
determine at downstream of the shock the following. Mach number, pressure, temperature, density, speed of sound
and jet velocity.

(A) 𝑀𝑋 = 1.8 𝑃𝑋 = 80 kpa, 𝑇𝑋 = 373 K, ϒ = 1.4, R = 287 J/kgk

𝑝𝑥
𝜌𝑥 = = (80 *103 ) / (287 * 373)
𝑅𝑇𝑋

= 0.7473 Kg/m3

From Normal Shock Table 𝑀𝑋 = 1.8, ϒ = 1.4

𝑃𝑌 𝑇𝑌
𝑀𝑌 = 0.616, = 3.613, = 1.532
𝑃𝑋 𝑇𝑋

𝜌𝑌 𝑃𝑌 3.613
= = = 2.3583
𝜌𝑋 𝑅𝑇𝑌 1.532

𝜌𝑌 = 1.7623 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3

In an isentropic flow

𝜌𝑦 𝑝𝑦 𝐼
= { } .ϒ
𝜌𝑥 𝑝𝑥
1
ρy = (3.613).1.4 * 0.7473

ρy = 1.87 kg/m3

(B) Given 𝑇𝑋 = 275 K , 𝑃𝑋 = 69 KPA, Mx = 2

From normal Shock table 𝑀𝑋 = 2 ϒ = 1.4

𝑃𝑌 𝑇𝑌
𝑀𝑌 = 0.577 , = 4.5, = 1.687
𝑃𝑋 𝑇𝑋

𝑃𝑌 = 4.5 ∗ 69 = 310.5𝑘𝑝𝑎

𝑇𝑌 = 1.687 * 275 = 463.92 K

𝑃𝑋
𝜌𝑋 = = 0.8742 Kg/m3
𝑅𝑇𝑋

𝜌𝑦 𝑝𝑦 𝑇𝑋 4.5
= ∗ = = 2.6674
𝜌𝑥 𝑝𝑥 𝑇𝑌 1.687

𝜌𝑌 =2.332 Kg/m3

speed of sound 𝑎𝑦 =√ϒ𝑅𝑇 = 431.746 m/s

cy = 𝑀𝑦 ∗ 𝑎𝑦

= 0.577 * 431.745 = 249.117 m/s

THERMAL ENGG Page 43

2. An air plane having a diffuser designed for subsonic flight, has a normal shock attached to the edge of the
diffuser when the plane is flying at a certain mach number. If at the exit of the diffuser the mach number is 0.3 What
must be the flight mach number assuming isentropic diffusion behind the shock. The area at inlet is 0.25 m 2 and
that at exit is 0.44m2

𝑀2 = 0.3, 𝐴𝑋 = 𝐴𝑌 = 0.29 m2
𝐴2 0.44
= = 1.51724
𝐴𝑌 0.29

From isentropic table 𝑀2 = 0.3, ϒ = 1.4

𝑇2 𝑃2 𝐴2
= 0.982, = 0.939, = 2.035
𝑇02 𝑃02 𝐴∗2

𝐴2 𝐴2 ∗𝐴∗𝑌
= = 1.51724
𝐴𝑌 𝐴2∗ 𝐴𝑌

𝐴2
𝐴𝑌 𝐴∗2 2.035
= 𝐴2 = = 1.3412
𝐴∗𝑌 1.51724
𝐴𝑌

From isentropic table corresponding to A/A* = 1.34, the Mach number MY =0.5, From normal shock table My = 0.5

the corresponding upstream mach number MX = 2.64

3. A convergent -divergent nozzle has an exit area to throat area ratio of 2. Air enters the nozzles with a stagnation
pressure of 6.5 bar and a stagnation temperature of 93°c . The throat area is 6.25 sq.cm. If there is a normal shock
wave standing at a point where M = 1.5 determine the pressure, temperature on either side of the plane of shock and
the mach number on the down stream side of the plane. find also the exit mach number of the nozzle.

Given
𝐴2
= 2 A* = 6.25 cm2
𝐴∗

A2 = 12.5 cm2

po1 = pox = 650 kpa

T01 = Tox = TOY = TO2 = 366 K

Mx = 1.5

From Isentropic Table M1 = 1.5, ϒ = 1.4

𝑇 𝑃 𝐴𝑋
= 0.689, = 0.272, = 1.176
𝑇0 𝑃𝑂 𝐴∗

Tx = 0.689 * 366 = 252.174 k, PX = 1.768 bar, Ax =Ay =7.35 cm2

From Normal Shock Table Mx = 1.5, ϒ = 1.4

𝑝𝑦 𝑇𝑌
My = 0.701 = 2.458 = 1.32
𝑝𝑥 𝑇𝑋

Py = 2.458 * 1.768

= 4.34574 bar

THERMAL ENGG Page 44

From Isentropic Table corresponding to mach number 0.701

𝐴𝑌
= 1.094, 𝐴∗𝑌 = 6.7184 𝑐𝑚2
𝐴∗𝑌

𝐴2 12.5
= = 1.8605
𝐴∗2 6.7184

𝐴
From isentropic table corresponding to = 1.865, the mach number M2 = 2.115
𝐴∗

5. Air enters a converging-diverging nozzle with a pressure of 29 bar and temperature 50°c. In the diverging part at
a section just before a normal shock, the pressure is 5 bar. What is the pressure just behind the shock. Find the air
flow rate per unit area at the throat.

Given

p01 = 29 bar, = 𝑝0∗ = 𝑝𝑜𝑥 , 𝑝𝑥 = 5𝑏𝑎𝑟

T01 = 𝑇0∗ = 𝑇0𝑋 = TOY = 323 K

𝑃𝑋 5
= = 0.172413
𝑃𝑂𝑋 29

𝑝
From isentropic table corresponding to = 0.172413 , ϒ = 1.4
𝑝0

MX = 1.81

From normal shock table Mx =1.81, ϒ = 1.4

𝑝𝑦
My = 0.614, = 3.6555
𝑝𝑥

𝑝𝑦 = 18.2775 bar

At the throat section

𝑚 √𝑇𝑂𝑋
∗ = 0.0404
𝐴∗𝑋 𝑃𝑂𝑋

𝑚𝑚𝑎𝑥 0.0404 ∗ 29 ∗ 105 𝑘𝑔

= = 6518.9567 /𝑚2
𝐴∗𝑋 √323 𝑠

6. A supersonic nozzle is provided with a constant diameter circular duct at its exit. The duct diameter is same as the
nozzle exit diameter. nozzle exit cross section is three times that of the throat. The entry conditions of the gas(ϒ =
1.4, R= 0.287 Kj/kgk) are 𝑝𝑜 = 10 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝑇𝑜 = 600 𝑘. Calculate the static pressure , mach number and the velocity
of the gas in the duct.

(a) When the nozzle operates at its design conditions

(b) When a normal shock occurs at its exit,

𝐴
(c) When a normal shock occurs at a section in the diverging part where the area ratio =2
𝐴∗

Given

THERMAL ENGG Page 45

Given
𝐴2
= 3, ϒ = 1.4, 𝑅 = 0.287𝐾𝑗/𝑘𝑔𝑘, 𝑃𝑂 = 10 bar, 𝑇𝑂 = 600 𝐾
𝐴∗

When the nozzle operates at its design condition

𝐴
From isentropic Table = 3, ϒ = 1.4
𝐴∗

𝑇 𝑃
M = 2.635 = 0.418, = 0.04745
𝑇𝑂 𝑃𝑂

T = 250.8 K, P = 0.4745 bar

c = M√ϒ𝑅𝑇 = 2.635 √1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 250.8 = 836.468 m/s

(b) When a normal shock occurs at its exit

𝐴
From isentropic table = 3, ϒ = 1.4
𝐴∗

𝑇 𝑃
Mx = 2.635, = 0.481 , = 0.04745
𝑇𝑂 𝑃𝑂

𝑇𝑋 = 250.8 𝐾 , 𝑃𝑋 = 0.4745 𝑏𝑎𝑟

From normal shock table 𝑀𝑥 = 2.635 ϒ = 1.4

𝑝𝑦 𝑇𝑌
𝑀𝑦 = 0.5005, = 7.934, = 2.274
𝑝𝑥 𝑇𝑋

Py = 3.7648 bar

𝐶𝑌 = 𝑀𝑌 √ϒ𝑅𝑇𝑌

= 239.5896
𝐴
(c) When a normal shock occurs at a section in the diverging part where the area ratio =2
𝐴∗

𝐴
From isentropic table = 2, ϒ = 1.4
𝐴∗

𝑃 𝑇 𝑃𝑂𝑌
𝑀𝑋 = 2.2, = 0.0935, = 0.508, = 0.628
𝑃𝑂 𝑇𝑂 𝑃𝑂𝑋

𝑃𝑋 = 0.935, 𝑇𝑋 = 304.8 𝐾, 𝑃𝑂𝑌 = 6.28 𝑏𝑎𝑟

From normal shock table 𝑀𝑋 =2.2 , ϒ=1.4

𝑀𝑌 =0.547

From Isentropic table M = 0.547, ϒ=1.4

𝐴𝑌
= 1.2625
𝐴∗𝑌

𝐴2 𝐴2 𝐴𝑌 𝐴∗𝑋
= ∗ ∗
𝐴∗𝑌 𝐴∗𝑋 𝐴∗𝑌 𝐴𝑋

3∗1.2625
= = 1.89375
2

THERMAL ENGG Page 46

 𝐴
From Isentropic table corresponding to ∗ = 1.89375, ϒ = 1.4
𝐴𝑌

𝑃 𝑇
𝑀2 = 0.325 = 0.9295, = 0.9785
𝑃𝑂𝑌 𝑇𝑂

𝑃2 = 5.83726 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝑇2 = 587.1 𝐾

𝐶2 = 𝑀2 √ϒ𝑅𝑇2

= 0.325√1.4 ∗ 287 ∗ 587.1 = 157.85 m/s

FLOW IN CONSTANT AREA DUCTS WITH FRICTION

Flow in a constant area duct with friction in the absence of work transfer and heat transfer across the boundaries is
known as Fanno Flow.

Fanno flow accours in many engineering industrial plants, air craft propulsion systems, air conditioning systems,
transport of fluids in chemical process plants and various types of flow machinery, etc.

FANNO CURVES

The following assumptions are made to represent the locus of the state point occurring in a Fanno flow.

(i) Constant area duct.

(ii) One dimensional steady flow with friction.
(iii) Perfect gas with constant specific heats and molecular weight.
(iv) Adiabatic flow.
(v) Absence of heat transfer, work transfer and body forces.

From continuity equation,

m = 𝝆 Ac
𝐦
= 𝜌 c = G = mass flow density
𝐀

𝐆
∴c= …(4.1)
𝜌

From energy equation,

𝐜𝟐
h0 = h +
𝟐

Substituting for c in the above equation,

𝐆𝟐
h0 = h +
𝟐𝛒𝟐

𝐆𝟐
∴ h = h0 - …(4.2)
𝟐𝛒𝟐

ρ= F(s,h)

Substituting equation (4.3) in (4.2) …(4.3)

𝐆𝟐
∴ h = h0 - …(4.4)
𝟐[𝐟(𝐬,𝐡)].𝟐

The above equation is a fanno line equation

THERMAL ENGG Page 47

The given mass velocity (G), stagnation enthalpy (h 0) and density values are substituted in the above equation and a
curve is drawn in the h – s plane is shown in figure.

The velocity of F is sonic velocity a* and the velocity in between A to F is subsonic are shown in figure. When the
initial velocity is subsonic (A to F), the effect of friction increases the velocity and decreases the pressure and it
goes upto the maximum entropy point F. On the other hand, when the initial velocity is supersonic (B to F), the
effect of friction increases the pressure and decreases the velocity as it goes upto the sonic point M =1. The process
in the direction F to A and F to B are not possible. Because, during that process the change in entropy will be
negative. This violates second law of thermodynamics.

Form the above, it is seen that the upper branch of the Fanno line represents subsonic whereas the lower branch
represents supersonic. But the final state for both the processes ends with sonic state. Fanno curves are drawn for
different values of mass flow density (G) are shown in Figure. When ‘G’ increases velocity increases and pressure
decreases in the subsonic region when ‘G’ increases, the pressure increases and velocity decreases in the supersonic
region.

FANNO FLOW EQUATIONS

Figure shows the variation of flow properties in Fanno flow processes along the insulated duct. An infinitesimal
element of flow considered at a distance ‘x’ form state 1.

THERMAL ENGG Page 48

The changes between states 1 and 2, 1 and F and 2 and F are finite but across the control volume the changes are
infinitesimal.The changes in flow properties in the above processes are shown in the h – s diagram in figure. The
pressure and stagnation pressures for different states are shown in figure on subsonic region only. The same can be
shown for supersonic region also. The following differential flow parameters are expressed as follows.

We know that,

G=𝜌c

Logarithmic differentiation gives

lnG = ln 𝜌 + lnc

𝐝𝜌 𝐝𝐜
+ =0 [∴G constant]
𝜌 𝐜

𝐝𝜌 − 𝐝𝐜 −𝐝[𝐜 𝟐 ]
= = … (4.5)
𝜌 𝑐 𝟐𝒄𝟐

From equation of state, p = 𝜌 RT

Logarithmic differentiation gives [∴R constant]

lnP = lnρ + lnR +lnT

𝐝𝐩 𝐝𝜌 𝐝𝐓
= +
𝐩 𝜌 𝑇

𝐜
We know that M=
𝛄𝑅𝑇

𝐜𝟐
M2 =
𝛄𝑅𝑇

Logarithmic differentiation gives

ln (M2) = ln [c2] - ln (γR) - ln T [∴ 𝛄T = constant]

𝐝𝐌 𝟐 𝐝𝐂 𝟐 𝐝𝐓
= - ..(4.7)
𝐌𝟐 𝐂𝟐 𝑇

The energy equation for a perfect gas is

THERMAL ENGG Page 49

 C2
h0 = h + = constant
2

Differentiating the above equation,

𝟐𝐜𝐝𝐜
dh + =0
𝟐

C2
CpdT + d =0
2

γR 1
dT + d [𝐶 2 ] = 0
(γ−1) 2

T
Multiply throughout by (γ-1) and in the first term, the above equation becomes
T

𝐝𝐓 γ−1
a2 +( )dc2 = 0
𝑇 2

𝐂 𝟐 𝐝𝐓 (γ−1)
+ dc2 = 0
𝐌𝟐 𝑇 2

𝐝𝐓 (γ−1) d(C2 )
= M2 =0
𝑇 2 C2

The non-dimensional friction factor is given by ... (4.8)

𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠
F= = τW
𝑑𝑦𝑛𝑎𝑚𝑖𝑐 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑
𝜌 c2
2

𝝆 𝐂𝟐
∴ 𝜏𝑊 = f x …(4.9)
𝟐

The wetted area of the duct within the control surface

dAw = Perimeter x Length

= P x dx

πDx4D πD2 4 4A
P= = x =
4D 4 D D

4A
∴dAw = dx ..(4.10)
D

Applying momentum equation between the upstream and downstream side of the infinitesimal section.

THERMAL ENGG Page 50

Applying momentum equation between the upstream and downstream side of the infinitesimal
section.

THERMAL ENGG Page 51

THERMAL ENGG Page 52
THERMAL ENGG Page 53
THERMAL ENGG Page 54
THERMAL ENGG Page 55
THERMAL ENGG Page 56
THERMAL ENGG Page 57
 1

1.Air having a mach number of 5 is decelerated in a 7.5 cm internal diameter pipe to mach number 3. compute the
length of the pipe which will cause this deceleration if F=0.055 and k = 1.4

M1 = 5

D =0.075 m

f = 0.005

M2 = 3

From Fanno Table M1=5, ϒ=1.4

4𝑓̅ 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 0.694
𝐷

From Fanno Table M1=3, ϒ=1.4

̅
4𝑓 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 0.522
𝐷
̅
4𝑓 𝐿
̅
= {4𝑓 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝐷}. 𝑀1 − {4𝑓𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝐷}.𝑀2
𝐷

= 0.694 -0.522 = 0.172

0.172∗𝐷 0.172∗0.075
L= = = 0.645 m
4𝑓̅ 4∗0.005

THERMAL ENGG Page 58

2. Air flowing in an insulated constant area duct, experiences an increase in mach number from 0.2 to 0.6 as a result
of friction. The initial pressure and temperature are 1.4 bar and 21°c. what are the final pressure and final velocity.

Given data

M1 = 0.2, M2 =0.6 m, P1 = 1.4 bar, T1 = 294 k

Since the mach number increases due to friction there fore the flow is fanno flow

c1 = M1√ϒ𝑅𝑇1 = 68.73 m/s

From Fanno Table M1 = 0.2, ϒ=1.4

𝑝1 𝑐
∗
= 5.455, ∗ = 0.218
𝑝 𝑐

From Fanno Table M2 =0.6, ϒ=1.4

𝑃2 𝐶
= 1.763, ∗ = 0.635
𝑃∗ 𝐶

𝑃2 𝑃 ∗ 1.763
𝑃2 = ∗
∗ 𝑃1 = ∗ 1.4 = 0.452465 𝑏𝑎𝑟
𝑃 𝑃1 5.455
0.635
𝑐2 = ∗ 68.739 = 200.228 𝑚/𝑠
0.218

3. A circular duct passes 8.25 kg/s of air at exit mach number of 0.5. The entry pressure and temperature are 345
kpa and 38°c respectively and the coefficient of friction 0.005. If the mach number at entry is 0.15 determine (a)
The diameter of the duct (b) Length of the duct (c) pressure and temperature at exit (d) Stagnation pressure loss

Given data

m = 8.25 kg/s, M2 = 0.5, P1 = 345 kpa, T1 = 311 k, 𝑓 ̅ = 0.005, M1 = 0.15

(a) Diameter of the duct

m = ρ1A1C1
𝑃1
= ∗ 𝐴1 𝑀1 √ϒ𝑅𝑇1
𝑅𝑇1

𝑝1 𝐴 √ϒ ∗ 𝑀
1 1
m=
√𝑅𝑇1

𝑚 √𝑅𝑇1 8.25 √287∗311

𝐴1 = = = 0.0402532
𝑃1 𝑀1 √ϒ 345∗ 103 ∗0.15 √1.4

D = 0.226389

(B) Length of the duct

From isentropic table M1 = 0.15 , ϒ = 1.4

𝑝1 345
= 0.984, 𝑝01 = = 350.609 𝑘𝑝𝑎
𝑝01 0.984

THERMAL ENGG Page 59

From Fanno table M1 = 0.15 and M2 = 0.5, ϒ = 1.4

M 𝑃 C 𝑇 𝑃𝑂 ̅
4𝑓𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝑃∗ C∗ 𝑇∗ 𝑃𝑂∗ 𝐷
0.15 7.3195 0.164 1.1945 3.928 28.35
0.5 2.138 0.534 1.143 1.34 1.069

4𝑓̅ 𝐿 4𝑓 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 ̅
̅
= (4𝑓𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝐷).𝑀1 − ( ).𝑀2
𝐷 𝐷

= 28.354 - 1.069

4∗0.005∗𝐿
= 27.285
0.226389

L = 308.85 m

(C) Pressure and Temperature at exit

𝑃2
𝑃∗2 2.138
𝑃2 = 𝑃1 ∗ 𝑃𝐼 = ∗ 345 = 100.773 Kpa
7.3195
𝑃∗𝐼

𝑇2 𝑇1∗ 1.143
𝑇2 = ∗ 𝑇1 = ∗ 311 = 297.591 𝐾
𝑇2∗ 𝑇1 1.1945

Stagnation pressure loss

𝑝02 ∗
𝑝𝑜1 1.34
𝑝02 = ∗ ∗ ∗ 𝑃01 = ∗ 350.609 − 119.6 = 231.009 𝐾𝑝𝑎
𝑝02 𝑃01 3.928

4. A 30 cm diameter duct conveys a gas at 10 bar and 400 k with a mach number 3. Estimate the length of the pipe
required such that the mach number at the exit of the pipe is 1. Find also the mass flow rate. The specific heat ratio
for the gas is 1.3 and the value of R is 287 j/kgk..The friction factor for the pipe surface is 0.002.

D = 0.3, 𝑝1 = 10 bar 𝑇1 = 400 K

M1 = 3, M2 = 1

ϒ = 1.3, R = 287 J/KgK

From Fano Table ϒ = 1.3

M 𝑃 𝐶 𝑇 𝑃𝑂 4𝑓 ̅𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥/𝐷
𝑃∗ 𝐶∗ 𝑇∗ 𝑃𝑂∗
3 0.233 2.099 0.489 5.16 0.628
1 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0 0

4𝑓𝐿
= {4𝑓𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝐷}.𝑀1 − {4𝑓𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝐷 }.𝑀2 = 0.628 - 0 = 0.628
𝐷

0.628∗0.3
L= = 23.55𝑚
4∗0.002

THERMAL ENGG Page 60

(2) Mass Flow Rate
𝑃1
m = ρ1A1C1 = * A𝑀1 √ϒ𝑅𝑇1
𝑅𝑇1

𝑃1 10∗105 ∗𝜋 (0.3).2
= ∗ 𝐴𝑀1 √ϒ = * 3 √1.4
√𝑅𝑇1 4√287∗400

= 740.536 Kg/s

5. A circular air duct is to deliver 225𝑚3 /min of air at 20 °c and 1.25 bar. If it is necessary to hold the length of pipe
to 30 m with diameter 15cm, determine the required inlet condition Take 4f = 0.02

Given Data

Q = 225/60 = 3.75 𝑚3 /𝑠 𝑇2 = 293 K, 𝑃2 = 125Kpa

L = 30 m, D = 0.15 m, 4𝑓 ̅ = 0.02

WKT

Q = 𝐴2 𝐶2

𝑄 3.75∗4
𝐶2 = = = 212.2065
𝐴2 𝜋(0.15).2

𝐶2 212.2065
𝑀2 = = = 0.6184 = 0.62
√ϒ𝑅𝑇2 √1.4∗287∗293

From fanno table ϒ = 1.4, 𝑀2 = 0.62

𝑃2 𝐶2 𝑇2 4𝑓̅ 𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥
= 1.703, = 0.654, = 1.114, = 0.417
𝑃∗ 𝐶∗ 𝑇∗ 𝐷

𝑚
𝑃 ∗ = 73.399 kpa 𝑐 ∗ = 324.474 , 𝑇 ∗ = 263.016 𝐾
𝑠

We Know That,

̅
4𝑓𝐿
= {4𝑓 ̅𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝐷}.𝑀1 − {4𝑓𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝐷}.
̅ 𝑀2
𝐷

4𝑓 ̅𝐿
̅
{4𝑓𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥|𝐷}.𝑀1 =
̅
+ {4𝑓𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥│𝐷}.𝑀2
𝐷
0.02∗30
= + 0.417
0.15

{4𝑓 ̅𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥│𝐷}.𝑀1 = 4.417

From fanno table corresponding to {4𝑓 ̅𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥│𝐷}.𝑀1 = 4.417, the mach number M1 = 0.32

𝑝1 𝑇1 𝐶1
= 3.388, = 1.176, ∗ = 0.347
𝑝∗ 𝑇∗ 𝐶

𝑃1 = 248.675 𝑘𝑝𝑎, 𝑇1 =309.30 K, C1 =112.59 m/s , M1 = 0.32

THERMAL ENGG Page 61

 5. FLOW IN CONSTANT AREA DUCTS WITH HEAT TRANSFER
AND WITHOUT FRICTION

The one-dimensional flow in a constant area duct with heat transfer and without friction is referred to as Rayleigh
flow. The flow in many thermal systems (compressors and turbines under normal conditions) may be assumed to
be adiabatic. In the case of combustion chambers, regenerators, heat exchangers and inter coolers such an
assumption are not valid. Therefore, the effect of heat transfer between gas flow and its surroundings are considered
in this case. But the flow is assumed to be frictionless.

RAYLEIGH LINE

The locus of all state points of properties during a constant area frictionless flow with heat exchange is
called the “Rayleigh line”. It satisfies the equations of state, momentum and continuity equation. The assumptions
made in Rayleigh flow are:

(i) Constant area duct,

(ii) Perfect gas with constant specific heats and molecular weights,
(iii) One-dimensional, steady frictionless flow with heat transfer.
(iv) Absence of body forces.
(v) The mass velocity (G) is given by
m G
G= = 𝜌 c; ∴c =
A 𝝆
The momentum equation for a constant area duct in the absence of friction gives

p + 𝜌 c2 = constant

G2
p+𝜌 = constant
𝝆𝟐

G2
p+ = constant
𝝆

From equation of state …(5.1)

p = p (h, s) and 𝜌 = 𝜌 (h, s)

Substituting the above two equations in equation (5.1)

G2
p(h, s) + = constant …(5.2)
𝝆 (ℎ, 𝑠)

THERMAL ENGG Page 62

 The above equation represents the Rayleigh line on the h-s diagram shown in figure 5.1

The upper branch of the Rayleigh line represents subsonic flow and the lower branch represents supersonic
flow. The direction of heating process are towards the limiting point R i.e., A to R and B to R. During heating, the
entropy increases and it goes up to the limiting point R. But beyond ‘R’ is not possible because, decrease in entropy
violates the second law of thermodynamics. Therefore the limiting point for subsonic and supersonic branches is the
maximum entropy point ‘R’ where the mach number M * = 1.

The maximum enthalpy and entropy are at point H and R in the constant enthalpy and entropy lines as
shown in figure. The stagnation temperature is different for subsonic and supersonic branches is also shown in
figure. It is maximum at point ‘R’ because there is no further heating beyond this point.

In subsonic branch when gas is heated, both velocity energy and enthalpy increases upto the point ‘H’ and the
pressure drop is proportionate to the velocity. When the heat continuous, the velocity energy increases at a faster
rate and the pressure drop is more but the static enthalpy decreases. Therefore, heating beyond the maximum
enthalpy point (H), the static temperature decreases upto the limiting point ‘R’. when gas is cooled, the drop in
velocity energy is more but the pressure and temperature increases upto the point ‘H’ and then it decreases.
Therefore it is possible for the temperature of a gas increase while it rejects heat and it happens in the Rayleigh line
between R and H as shown in figure.

Slope of the Rayleigh Line

The equation (5.2) for two state points along the Rayleigh line is

P1+G2 u1 = p2+G2 u2
1
(p1 - p2) = - G2 (u1 - u2) =v
𝝆

…(5.3)

p1 −p2 dp
∴ -𝐺 2 = = R
u1 −u2 dv

THERMAL ENGG Page 63

In the p-v diagram, the slope of a line

dp
tan ϴ =
du

dp
∴ tanø = R= - G2
du

= - 𝜌2c2 = - 𝜌2M2a2 … [G = 𝜌C]…(5.4)

The slope (ϴ) of the Rayleigh line is shown in figure

Constant Entropy Lines

The constant entropy line in the h – s is straight vertical and it touches at point ‘R’ in the Rayleigh line is
shown in Figure. The entropy is maximum at this point and the entropy line is tangential to the Rayleigh line. Three
constant entropy lines on the p – v plane are shown in figure. The maximum entropy line which is tangential to the
Rayleigh line at the limiting point ‘R’ where M = M* = 1.

The directions of heating and cooling and the subsonic and supersonic branches of the Rayleigh line are
shown in figure. The states of gas move away from the limiting point during cooling and towards the limiting point
during heating.

The slope of the constant entropy line is

dp dp dp 1 1
tan 𝛼 = = 1 = - 𝜌2 ∴ d( ) = - d𝜌
du d d𝝆 ρ ρ2
p

But at constant entropy (Isentropic) process

dp
s = const = a2
d𝜌

∴tan 𝛼 = - ρ2a2 … (5.5)

At the limiting point ‘R’ the slopes of the constant entropy line and Rayleigh line are same.

∴tan ϴ = tan 𝛼

THERMAL ENGG Page 64

Therefore, equating equations (5.4) and (5.5)

-𝜌2M2a2 = -𝜌2a2

M = 𝑀∗ = 1

Therefore, the Velocity of gas at the maximum entropy point is sonic

Constant Enthalpy Lines

The constant enthalpy line in the h – s plane is straight horizontal and it touches at point ‘H’ in the
Rayleigh line is shown in figure. The enthalpy is maximum at this point and the constant enthalpy line which is
tangential to the Rayleigh line. Three constant enthalpy liens on the p – v plane are shown in figure. The maximum
1
enthalpy line (hmax) which is tangential to the Rayleigh line at ‘H’ where M=
γ

The directions of heating and cooling process are same as the previous section 5.12

For a perfect gas at constant enthalpy

pv = RT = constant

The slope of the constant enthalpy line

dp p
tan 𝛽 = ( ) =− =-pρ
dU u

We know that the velocity of soind

ϒp
a2 = ϒRT = ϒpu =
ρ

ρa2
∴p =
ϒ

ρ2 a2
Therefore, tan 𝛽 = − .. (5.6)
ϒ

At the maximum enthalpy point ‘H’ the slopes of the constant enthalpy line and the Rayleigh line are same.

i.e., tan ø = tan 𝛽

THERMAL ENGG Page 65

Therefore equating equations (5.4) and (5.6)

−ρ2 a2
-𝜌2M2a2 =
ϒ

1
∴M= = M*t .. (5.7)
ϒ

1
Therefore, at the maximum enthalpy point H, the Mach number M =
√ϒ

GENERAL EQUATIONS IN RAYLEIGH FLOW PROCESS

The flow parameters in a finite process at entry and exit of a constant area duct is
shown in figure. The changes in flow parameters occur due to heat transfer Q. The
general equations in Rayleigh flow process are:

THERMAL ENGG Page 66

THERMAL ENGG Page 67
THERMAL ENGG Page 68
THERMAL ENGG Page 69
THERMAL ENGG Page 70
1. A gas at a pressure of 69 Kpa and temperature 278 k enters a combustion at a velocity of 60 m/sec. The heat
supplied in the combustion chamber is 1.4056 MJ/Kg. Determine the mach number, pressure, temperature and
𝐾𝐽
velocity of the gas at the exit. Assume 𝐶𝑃 = 1.004 and ratio of specific heat is 1.4 for the gas.
𝐾𝑔𝑘

𝑃1 = 69 Kpa, 𝑇1 = 278 𝐾, 𝐶1 = 60 m/s

𝑘𝑗
Q = 1405.6KJ/Kg, ϒ=1.4, 𝐶𝑝 = 1.004
𝑘𝑔𝑘

ϒ𝑅 𝐶𝑃 ∗(ϒ−1)
𝑐𝑝 = , 𝑅= = 0.286857 𝐾𝑗/𝑘𝑔𝑘
ϒ−1 ϒ

𝐶1
𝑀1 = = 0.1795692
√ϒ𝑅𝑇1

From Isentropic Table 𝑀1 =0.18, ϒ=1.4

𝑇
= 0.994, 𝑇01 = 279.678 K
𝑇0

Q = 𝑐𝑝 (𝑇02 -𝑇01 )

𝑄 1405.6
𝑇02 = + 𝑇01 = + 279.678 = 1679.678 K
𝐶𝑃 1.004

From Rayleigh Table 𝑀1 =0.18, ϒ = 1.4

𝑝 𝑝0 𝑇 𝑇0 𝐶
= 2.295, ∗ = 1.241, ∗ = 0.171, = 0.143, = 0.074
𝑝 ∗ 𝑝0 𝑇 𝑇𝑂∗ 𝐶∗

𝑇0 ∗
𝑇01
∗ = 0.143, 𝑇01 = = 1955.79 𝐾
𝑇0 0.143

∗ ∗
Since 𝑇01 =𝑇02 = 𝑇0∗

𝑇02 1679.67
∗ = = 0.85822
𝑇02 1955.79

𝑇0 𝑃
From Rayleigh table corresponding to = 0.859, the mach number 𝑀2 = 0.64 and the other properties are =
𝑇0∗ 𝑃∗
𝑇 𝐶
1.525, = 0.953, = 0.625
𝑇∗ 𝐶∗

𝑃2 𝑃 ∗
𝑃2 = ∗ ∗ 𝑃1
𝑃∗ 𝑃1

1.525
= ∗ 69 = 45.849 𝑘𝑝𝑎
2.295
0.953
Similarly, 𝑇2 = ∗ 278 = 1549.32 𝐾
0.171

0.625
𝐶2 = ∗ 60 = 506.75 𝑚/𝑠
0.074

THERMAL ENGG Page 71

2. Air is moving in a constant area duct with a temperature of -50°c and a pressure of 52.5 kpa . The velocity at
this section is 167 MPS. Find (1) Stagnation properties at the inlet (2) the maximum stagnation temperature if fuel is
burned in this air. The properties at this section (3) the properties at a section where static temperature is maximum.

Given Data

T1 = -50 +273 = 223 K, 𝑃1 = 52.5 𝐾𝑝𝑎, 𝑐1 = 167 𝑚/𝑠

𝐶1
𝑀1 = = 0.5579
√ϒ𝑅𝑇1

From Isentropic Table 𝑀1 = 0.56, ϒ=1.4

𝑇 𝑃
= 0 .941, = 0.808
𝑇0 𝑃𝑂

T01 =236.981 K, 𝑃01 = 64.97 kpa

From Rayleigh Table 𝑀1 = 0.56, ϒ = 1.4

𝑃 𝑃0 𝑇 𝑇0 𝐶
= 1.668, = 1.09, = 0.872, = 0.773, = 0.523
𝑃∗ 𝑃0∗ 𝑇∗ 𝑇0∗ 𝐶∗

𝑇01
Maximum stagnation temperature 𝑇0∗ = = 306.57 𝐾
0.773

𝑃1 𝑇1
𝑃∗ = = 31.474 𝐾𝑝𝑎, 𝑇 ∗ = = 255.733 𝐾
1.668 0.872

𝐶 ∗ = 319.311m/s

From Rayleigh Table 𝑀2 = 0.845, ϒ = 1.4

𝑃 𝑇 𝐶
= 1.2, = 1.028, = 0.857
𝑃∗ 𝑇∗ 𝐶∗

𝑃2 = 1.2 * 31.474 = 37.769 Kpa, 𝑇2 = 262.894 K, 𝑐2 = 273.65 m/s

3. Air enters a constant area duct at 𝑀1 =3, 𝑃1 = 1 atm, and T1 = 300k. Inside the heat added per unit mass is Q = 3
*105 J/Kg. Calculate the flow properties M2, P2, T2, ρ2, T02, P02 at exit

Given Data

M1 = 3, P1 = 1atm, = 1.01325 bar, T1 = 300 K, Q = 3 * 105 J/Kg

From isentropic table ϒ=1.4 and M1=3

𝑇1 𝑃1
= 0.357, = 0.0272
𝑇0 𝑃0

𝑝1
𝑇01 = 840.336 K, 𝑃01 =37.251 bar, ρ1 = = 1.1768 kg/𝑚3
𝑅𝑇1

From Rayleigh table ϒ = 1.4, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 M1 = 3

𝑃1 𝑃01 𝑇1 𝑇0 𝜌∗
= 0.176, = 3.424, = 0.281, = 0.654, = 1.588
𝑃∗ 𝑃0∗ 𝑇∗ 𝑇0∗ 𝜌

THERMAL ENGG Page 72

𝑃 ∗ = 5.757 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝑝0∗ = 10.879 𝑏𝑎𝑟. 𝑇 ∗ = 1067.615 𝐾, 𝑇0∗ = 1284.917 𝐾, 𝜌∗ = 1.8674 Kg/𝑚3

wkt

Q = Cp(𝑇02 -𝑇01 )
𝑄
𝑇02 = + 𝑇01
𝐶𝑃

3∗105
= + 840.33 = 1138.84 K
1005

𝑇02 1138.843
∗ = = 0.8863
𝑇0 1284.917

𝑇0
From Rayleigh table ϒ = 1.4 and = 0.8863
𝑇0∗

𝑃2 𝑃0 𝑇2 𝜌∗
𝑀2 = 1.6, = 0.524, ∗ = 1.176, = 0.702, = 1.34
𝑃∗ 𝑃0 𝑇∗ 𝜌

𝑃2 = 3.0166 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝑇2 = 749.46 𝐾, 𝑃02 = 12.794 𝑏𝑎𝑟, 𝜌2 = 1.3935

4. In a certain heat exchanger, the stagnation temperature of air is raised from 93°c to 426°c. If the inlet mach
number is 0.3, determine the final mach number and percentage drop in pressure.

Given Data

𝑇01 = 366 𝐾, 𝑇02 = 699 K, 𝑀1 =0.3

From Rayleigh Table 𝑀1 = 0.3, ϒ = 1.4

𝑃 𝑇01
= 2.131, = 0.347, 𝑇0∗ = 1054.755 K
𝑃∗ 𝑇0∗

𝑇02 699
= = 0.6627
𝑇0∗ 1054.755

𝑇0
From Rayleigh table corresponding to = 0.661, The mach number 𝑀2 = 0.48
𝑇0∗

𝑃2
= 1.815
𝑃∗
𝑝1 𝑝2
∗− ∗
Percentage drop in pressure = ( 𝑝 𝑝1𝑝 ) ∗ 100
𝑝∗

2.131−1.815
= ∗ 100
2.131

= 14.828 %

THERMAL ENGG Page 73

 UNIT-V

JET PROPULSION

Jet propulsion

Aircraft flying required lifting off the ground and propelling the craft forward (propulsion). To lift the aircraft
lift force is required and to move forward, propulsive force (thrust) is required to overcome the drag force due to
air resistance. fig shows the aerofoil blade, lift and drag force etc.

It is clearly shows that when a body is to be accelerated, a force is required to produce this acceleration in the
body. At the same time, there is an equal and opposite reaction on the body which is known as thrust. Hence,
the principle of jet propulsion is obtained from the application of Newton’s law of motion, (i.e.) based on
reaction principle. Therefore , jet propulsion is the propulsion of jet aircraft by the reaction of jet coming out
with high velocity. It is used where the oxygen is obtained from the surrounding atmosphere. It consists of air
plus combustion products. Since all the aircraft engines breaths air from the surrounding atmosphere, hence it
called air –breathing engines. When the unit consists of its own oxygen supply for combustion purposes the
engine is called rocket engines.

From the above discussion it is clear that the jet propulsion engines are broadly classified in to (i) air breathing
engines and (ii) rocket engines. In the chapter , only air breathing engines are discussed. The air breathing
engines are further classified into two groups (i) reciprocating or propeller engine and (ii) gas turbine
engines.

Reciprocating internal combustion engines

Early aircrafts employed successfully the reciprocating internal combustion engine (petrol engine) for driving the
aircraft Propellers. The reciprocating type I.C engines were extensively used for military operations during the two
world wars. Piston engine was widely used to drive the propellers and the power to the propeller was transmitted
throng a reduction gear unit. The engine performance drops at higher Altitude because the mass of air inducted into
the engine depends on its density. This AN account of reduced quantity of oxygen available for combustion. This
problem is overcome in super charged engines by supplying correct quantity of air to the engine from an exhaust
gas turbine.

However due to large drop in power with higher altitude, difficult cooling and lubrication problems, larger
frontal area, the reciprocations I.C engine became too complicate therefore, now its use is restricted in the
propulsion of low speed aircrafts flying at lower altitudes due to its use is restricted in the propulsion of low speed
aircrafts the engine output can be increased by increasing the cylinder sizes or by increasing the number of

THERMAL ENGG Page 74

cylinders. But the above change will increase the engine weight and the frontal area of the aircraft propulsion., gas
turbine engines are widely re widely used.

Gas Turbine Engines.

Gas turbine technology was developed after the second world war. Now a days, all the modern aircrafts are
fitted with gas turbine. Fig 6.2 shows the general arrangement of a simple gas turbine power plant for aircraft
propulsion. This works on a simple open circuit joules or brayton cycle.

The T.S diagram for ideal and actual cycles are shown in fig (a) and (b) respectively. The processes and the
components are

i – 1 – inlet diffuser 1’-2'-isentropic compression

1 – 2 - air compressor 1-2-Actural compression

2 – 3 – combustion chamber 3-4’ –Isentropic expansion

3 – 4 – turbine 3-4-Actural expansion

4 – e – nozzle or tail pipe

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The above engine consists of an inlet diffuser, compressor, combustion chamber turbine and an exhaust
nozzle. The function of a diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of entering air (ambient air) into a small pressure
rise. The air from the diffuser is sucked by the compressor (axial or centrifugal) and it is compressed into a high

THERMAL ENGG Page 75

pressure. This compressed high pressure air is delivered in to a combustion chamber. A fuel nozzle inject fuel
continuously and continuous combustion takes place inside the chamber at constant pressure.

The hot gases from the combustion chamber enters into a turbine where in the designed pressure and
temperature expand adiabatically to provide drive power for the turbine. Since the turbine is directly connected to
the compressor through a shaft, the turbine power is used to drive the compressor, fuel pump and other auxiliary
devices. The exhaust hot gasses from the turbine expand further in the exhaust nozzle and are ejected with very high
velocity than the flight velocity to produce thrust for propulsion.

CLASSIFICATION OR AIR BREATHING ENGINES

Air breathing engines are further classified into

(i) Turbo jet engine (ii) Turbo prop engine (iii) Turbo fan engine (iv) pulse jet or flying bomb and (V) Ram jet
engine.

Turbo jet engine

TURBO JET ENGINE

Turbo jet is the most common type of air breathing engine which is used extensively. The simple gas
turbine plant is already discussed in fig. 0.2 the entire engine is housed in a cylindrical shell like casing is shown in
fig.6.4
The engine consists of the following components (i) inlet diffuser (ii) mechanical compressor
(iii) combustion chamber (iv) mechanical turbine and (v) exhust nozzle or tail pipe.
The function of the inlet diffuser is to convert the kinetic energy of the entering air into a static pressure
rise. The function of the nozzle is to convert the pressure energy of the hot gases coming out from the combustion
chamber into the kinetic energy.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

Ambient air from the atmosphere enters in to the diffuser. It converts the velocity energy of the entering air
into pressure energy. Then the air enters through the mechanical compressor in which the air is further compressed.
The high pressure air flows in to the combustion chamber in which the fuel is injected by a suitable injector and
complete combustion takes place at constant pressure. The high temperature and high pressure gases are entered in
to the turbine, where they expand partially to provide drive power for the turbine.

THERMAL ENGG Page 76

 Since the turbine is directly connected to the compressor, the generated power by the turbine is wholly
used to drive the compressor, fuel pump and other auxiliary devices. The exhaust hot gases from the turbine expand
further in the nozzle (pressure energy is converted in to kinetic energy). Hence hot gases are coming out from the
exhaust nozzle with very high velocity. Due to this, a reaction of thrust is produced in the opposite direction which
propels the aircraft, since the turbo jet engine is employed in high speed airerafts the static pressure rise through the
inlet diffuser is significant.

THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

The P – V and T – S diagrams of the basic thermodynamic cycle of a turbo jet engine is shown in fig. 6.5
This is Joule or brayton cycle. In the analysis of turbo jet engine the following assumptions are mode.

i. The specific heat is constant

ii. Power developed by the turbine is just sufficient to drive the compressor and other auxiliary services.
iii. There is no pressure loss in the combustion chamber.

PERFORMANCE OF A TURBO JET ENGINE

It is possible to estimate the performance of a turbo jet engine taking in to account of efficiencies and other
parameters. Fig 6.6 shows the thrust specific fuel consumption (TSFC) for various compressor pressure rations
at three different mach numbers. When the pressure ration (rp) increases, the fuel consumption decreases up to a
point, after that further increases in pressure ratio will not improve the fuel economy (i.e) increase in pressure
will also increase the fuel consumption.

Figure shows the flight speed Vs thrust specific fuel consumption, thrust power and thrust for a turbo jet engine.
When the flight speed increases, TSFC decreases where as the thrust power increases.

THERMAL ENGG Page 77

 When the altitude increases, the thrust decreases due to decrease in density, pressure and temperature of the
air, however, the rate of decrease of thrust is less than the rate of decrease of density with altitude. The turbo jet
engine is most efficient at higher altitudes with relatively high speeds. The operational range of turbo jet engine
is about 250 to 1200 km/h and is about 1 to 1.6 kg/thrust hour and the altitude limit is about 1000m.

ADVANTAGES

1. Lower Frontal Area Due To The Absence Of Fan And Liquid Cooling. Therefore The Drag Is Less.
2. Suitable for long distance flights at higher altitudes and speeds.
3. Since this engine has a compressor, it is capable of operating under static conditions
4. Reheat can be possible to increase the thrust
5. Lower weight per unit thrust at design speed and altitude
6. Since a diffuser is at the inlet, part of the compression is done by it without any work input
7. The speed of a turbo jet is not limited by the propeller and it can attain higher flight speeds than turbo prop
aircrafts.

DISADVANTAGES

1. propulsive efficiency and thrust are lower at lower speeds.

2. Thrust specific fuel consumption is high at low speeds and altitudes.
3. It is not economical for short distance flights.
4. Long runway is required due to slower acceleration
5. Sudden decrease of speed is difficult to achieve.
6. It has low take-off thrust and hence poor starting characteristics.

APPLICATIONS

Turbo jet engines are used in military aircrafts, funded missiles and piloted air crafts,etc.

Turbo prop engine.

It is similar to turbo jet engine, the major difference being that the turbine is designed so that it develops
shaft power for driving a propeller to prove most of the propulsive thrust (90%), and only a small amount of jet
thrust is produced by the exhaust nozzle.

WORKING PRINCIPLE

The details of turbo prop engine is shown in fig the engine consists of a diffuser, compressor, combustion
chamber, turbine, exhaust nozzle, reduction gear and a propeller. The diffuser, compressor and combustion
chamber functions are as same as the turbo jet engine. However, in the turbo prop engine, the turbine extracts much
more power than the turbo-jet engine, because the turbine provides power for both the compressor and the propeller.
When all of this energy is extracted from the high temperature gases, only little energy is left out for producing jet
thrust thus the turbo-prop engine drives most of its propulsive thrust from the propeller and drives only a small
portion (10 to 25) from the exhaust nozzle.

THERMAL ENGG Page 78

Since the shaft rotation speed of gas turbine engine is very high, a reduction gear must be placed between the
turbine shaft and the propeller to enable the propeller to operate efficiently.

THERMODYNAMIC CYCLE

The thermodynamic cycle of a turbo prop engine is similar to a pure jet engine except that more energy is
used in the turbine. The T – S diagram of a turbo prop engine is shown in figure.

The total thrust produced by the engine is the sum of thrust produced by the propeller and the thrust produced by the
exhaust nozzle.

Total thrust = propeller thrust + Nozzle thrust

= maci + ma (cj - cj)*

PERFORMANCE

The power developed by the turbo prop engine remains same at high altitudes and high speeds because as
speed increases ram effect also increases. The specific fuel consumption increases with increase in speed and
altitude. The thrust produced is high at take-off and reduces at increased speed.

THERMAL ENGG Page 79

ADVANTAGES

1. Propulsive efficiency is very high

2. The frontal area is less so that the drag is reduced
3. High acceleration at lower speed enables to a shorter run way
4. Thrust reversal is possible by varying the blade angle, this gives the advantage of decreasing the speed
drastically.
5. Used for shorter distance travels (c < 600Kmph)
6. Maintenance is easy and has lower noise and vibrations.
7. Higher thrust at take-off and better fuel economy

DISADVANTAGES

1. Heavier propeller, compressor and turbine decreases pay load capacity.

2. A reduction gear is required to transmit the power from the turbine shaft to the propeller shaft which
increases the cost
3. If the speed of the engine increases above 600 Kmph, the efficiency drastically decreases.
4. The frontal area is being blocked on account of large diameter propeller which increases the co-efficient of
drag.
5. Engine is heavier and more complicated.

APPLICATIONS

It is widely used in commercial and military aircraft due to its high flexibility of operation and good fuel
economy

Turbo Fan Engine

Fig 6.10 shows a turbo fan engine with a low pressure ducted fan. The air passing though the fan is divided
into two streams (i.e) primary air and secondary air. The primary air goes through the engine consisting of the
compressor, combustion chamber, turbine and the exhaust nozzle. The secondary air (by pass air) relatively at lower
pressure passes through the duct around the turbo fan engine and expands in the annular fan nozzle. Thus the thrust
is developed by the by pass air issuing as a cold jet at lower velocity.

The primary air is compressed by the compressor and then it goes to the combustion chamber. Complete
combustion takes place in the combustion chamber and the hot gases leave the fan nozzle with high velocity. The
total thrust developed by the engine is the sum of thrust produced by the primary air and the secondary air. This
total thrust is used to propel the air craft. The ratio of mass flow rate of cold air (secondary) and the hot air
(primary) is known as by pass ratio.

THERMAL ENGG Page 80

ADVANTAGES

1. Short take-off roll due to increased thrust at low speeds.

2. Weight per unit thrust is lower than the turbo prop engine
3. Thrust developed is higher than the turbojet engine
4. Less noise than the turbo prop engine
5. Comparatively quieter engine

DISADVANTAGE

1. Thrust specific fuel consumption is higher than the turboprop engine

2. Engine is heavier and the construction is more complicated compared to the turbojet engine.
3. Increased frontal area and drag
4. Lower speed limit (M<1) than that of the turbojet engine.

Energy Relations And Efficiencies In A Turbo Jet Engine.

The energy equations and efficiencies for various processes are written in this section . Refer the T-s
diagram is shown in Fig for ideal and actual Brayton cycle

INLET DIFFUSER

The isentropic and adiabatic compression of air through the inlet diffuser (i-1) and the compressor (1-2) is
shown in fig.

Ambient air enters into the inlet diffuser at a temperature T i ,pressure Pi, and velocity ci respectively. In the
diffuser pressure increases and velocity decreases. Since energy transformation takes place in the diffuser, the
stagnation enthalpy is constant ie., hoi = h01 the diffuser efficiency can be considered in two ways

i-1’=isentropic diffusion

i-1=Adiabatic diffusion

i-2’=Isentropic compression

i-2=Asiabatic compression

For Small Pressure Rise.

The efficiency for a small pressure rise is defined as

THERMAL ENGG Page 81

 Static pressure rise in the actual process
ɳD =
static pressure rise in the isentropic process

P1 −Pi
= ,,
P1 −Pi

P1 −Pi
=ρ
(c2 2
i −c1 )
2

𝐜𝐢𝟐 −𝐜𝐢𝟐
Where ( ) = change in kinetic energy.
𝟐

The above expressions are used for subsonic flows.

(b) FOR LARGE PRESSURE RISE

The efficiency for a large pressure rise is defined as

𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑝𝑖𝑐 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛

ɳ𝐷 =
𝐸𝑛𝑡ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑝𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

The above equation can be expressed as a function of mach number at the diffuser inlet (or) flight mach number.

Compressor

Air enters the compressor at a pressure p1, reduced velocity c1 and mach number M1 is compressed to a pressure P2
temperature T2 and velocity C2 respectively. The increased static enthalpy and the stagnation enthalpies for actual
and isentropic compression are shown in fig.6.15.

The actual work done by the compressor on air

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Combustion Chamber

The compressed air from the enters the combustion chamber at a pressure P 2 temperature T2 and velocity
C2 During combustion, the enthalpy of air-fuel mixture increases. The mass of air-fuel mixture coming out from the
combustion chamber is

Turbine

The high temperature combustion products enter the turbine at a temperature T3 pressure p3 and velocity c3 the
expansions of gases through the turbine and nozzle is shown in fig.6.16. Since, there is a shaft work in the turbine,
therefore the stagnation enthalpy is not constant.

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THERMAL ENGG Page 84
Exhaust Nozzle.

Exhaust gases (after expansion ) from the turbine enter the propelling nozzle at a temperature T 4 pressure p4 and
velocity c4 since energy transformation takes place in the nozzle, the stagnation enthalpy is constant the gases
expand adiabatically in the

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THRUST

The force which propels the aircraft forward at a given speed is called as propulsive force or thrust. This propulsive
force is mainly depends on the velocity of gases at the exit of the nozzle in turbo jet engines and from the propeller
in turbo prop engines.

Jet Thrust (TURBO JET ENGINE)

The two sections 1-1 and 2-2 of an imaginary control surface for a turbo jet engine is shown in fig 6.17 the flow of
air (internal and external) is separated by the solid boundaries of the engine casing.

Ambient air enters the jet engine at a pressure p a and velocity ‘u’ and after expansion hot gases leave from the
nozzle at a pressure pe and high velocity ce if pe = pa the expansion is complete i.e., ce = cj (jet velocity)

Mass flow rate at inlet of the engine is ma and the mass flow rate at exit is (ma + mf)kg/s. part of the air flow at
section 1-1 is swallowed by the jet engine and experiences change in momentum flux, the remaining air flows
through the engine without any change in the momentum flux.

The net thrust on the engine = momentum thrust + pressure thrust

Momentum thrust F = Fmom + Fpr

Momentum thrust Fmom = (ma + mf) ce - mau

Pressure thrust Fpr = (pe - pa)Ae

Net thrust F = (ma + mf)ce - mau + Ae(pe – pa)

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Propeller Thrust.

Figure shows the air flow takes place across the propeller of a turbo prop engine the air flow pattern before and
after the propeller is shown in fig. a flow boundary similar to the walls of a duct which separates the fluid at rest and
fluid in motion

The pressure at section 1-1 and outside the boundary is ambient. Therefore, the thrust on the propeller and the
aircraft is due to the change in momentum flux between inlet and outlet section.

The thrust on the propeller F = ma (cj - u)

Cj = jet velocity and

U = flight speed

The flight to jet velocity ratio or effective speed ratio

𝑢
𝜎=
𝑐𝑗

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THERMAL ENGG Page 88
Case (a): When the speed of aircraft u = 0, the propulsive efficiency n p = 0, but the specific thrust is maximum.
Maximum thrust is needed during take-off period.

Case (b): When the speed of aircraft equals to the speed of jet i.e., u – cj, np=100% but the specific thrust is zero.
Therefore ‘cj’ must be always greater than ‘u’ when the aircraft is flying. In normal conditions when the speed ratio
(σ) increases, the propulsive efficiency (np) will also increases. The propulsive efficiency can be increased by
increasing the jet velocity close the flight speed where as the thrust power can be increased by increasing the mass
flow rate of air or gas through the propulsive device. The propulsive efficiency versus speed ratio for turbo jet, turbo
fan and turbo prop engine is shown in figure.

Thermal Efficiency (ɳth)

The thermal efficiency of the engine can be defined by

𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒

nth =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙

Overall Efficiency (ɳ0)

Overall efficiency of the propulsion system is defined by

THERMAL ENGG Page 89

SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION

It is the ratio between the fuel consumption rate per unit thrust. Since the output is in the form of thrust,
a thrust fuel consumption is

It is an important parameter to compare the engine performance of different types of aircraft propulsion system.

Substituting equation (6.31) in (6.29), we get,

SPECIFIC THRUST

It is defined as the thrust produced per unit mass flow rate through the propulsive device.

F
Fsp =
m

It is an another useful parameter for comparing different types of proplusion devices.

SPECIFIC IMPULSE

It is defined as the thrust produced per unit weight flow rate through the propulsive device. It is
also an another useful performance parameter in aircraft propulsion devices.

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Problem - 1: A turbo jet plane has two jets of 250 mm diameter and net power at the turbine is 3000 kw The fuel
consumption per kWhr is 0.42 kg with a fuel of calourific value 49 Mj/kg. When flying at a speed of 300 m/sec in
atmosphere having a density of 0.168 kg/m3 the air fuel ratio is 53. Calculate
(a) the absolute velocity of jet (b) the resistance of drag of the plane (c) the overall efficiency of the plane (d) the
efficiency of turbine.
Given Data
n = 2 jets, D = 0.25 m, P = 3000kW

mf = 0.42 kg/kWhr, C.V = 49000 KJ/kg, u = 300 m/s

𝑚𝑎
ρ = 0.168 kg/m3 , = 53
𝑚𝑓

𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑓 = 0.42 ∗ 3000 = 1260
ℎ𝑟

1260 𝑘𝑔
𝑚𝑓 = = 0.35
3600 𝑠

𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑚𝑓

𝑚 18.9
Volume of air/sec Q = = = 112.5 𝑘𝑔/𝑚2
𝜌 0.168

𝑄 = 2 ∗ 𝐴𝐽 ∗ 𝐶𝐽

𝑄 112.5 ∗ 4
𝐶𝐽 = =
2𝐴𝐽 2 ∗ 𝜋 (0.25).2

= 1145.9155 m/s

Absolute Velocity of jet c = 𝑐𝑗 − 𝑢 = 845.9155 m/s

Resistance (or) drag of the plane F = mcj - 𝑚𝑎 u

= 18.9 * 1145.9155 - 18.55 * 300

= 16.0928 kN

𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝐹∗𝑈

ɳ𝑂 = =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑖𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑓𝑢𝑒𝑙 𝑚𝑓 ∗𝐶.𝑉

16092.804∗300
= = 28.15 %
0.35∗49000∗ 103

2𝑢
ɳ𝑃 =
𝑐𝑗 + 𝑢
2 ∗ 300
ɳ𝑝 = = 41.49 %
1145.915 + 300

ɳ𝑜
ɳ𝑡ℎ = = 67.837
ɳ𝑝

THERMAL ENGG Page 91

P-2 A turbo jet engine takes in 50 kg/sec of air and propels an aircraft with uniform flight speed 880 km/hr.
Isentropic enthapy change for nozzle is 188 Kj/kg and its velocity coefficient is 0.96. The fuel air ratio is 1.2%
combustion efficiency is 95%, calorific value of fuel is 44000 KJ/Kg. Find out
(a) Thermal efficiency of the engine (b) Fuel flow in kg/hr (c) propulsive efficiency (d) Overall efficiency

Given data

880 𝑚
𝑚𝑎 = 50 kg/s, u = = 244.44
3.6 𝑠

𝑚𝑓
∆h' = 188* 103 , cv = 0.96, = 0.012
𝑚𝑎

ɳ𝐶𝐵 = 0.95, 𝐶. 𝑉 = 44000 𝐾𝑗/𝑘𝑔

𝑚𝑓
= 0.012
𝑚𝑎

𝑚𝑓 = 0.012 ∗ 50 = 0.6 𝑘𝑔/𝑠

𝑐𝑒, = 𝑐𝑣 √2∆ℎ′

= 0.96 √2 ∗ 188 ∗ 1000

= 588.66 m/s

Fuel flow in kg/hr = 0.6 * 3600 = 2160 kg/hr

𝑚
Since the expansion in the nozzle is isentropic, Therefore the velocity of jet 𝑐𝑗 = 𝑐𝑒′ = 588.66
𝑠

2𝑢
ɳ𝑝 = = 58.68 %
𝑐𝑗 + 𝑢

m = 𝑚𝑎 + 𝑚𝑓 = 50.6 kg/s

Thrust Power = (m𝑐𝑗 - 𝑚𝑎 𝑢) 𝑢

= (50.6 * 588.66 - 50 *244.44) *244.44

= 4293.4134 kW

𝑇ℎ𝑟𝑢𝑠𝑡 𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 4293.41∗103

ɳ𝑂 = = = 17.11 %
𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 0.6∗44000∗103 ∗0.95

ɳ0
Thermal efficiency of the engine ɳɳ𝑡ℎ = = 29.1719
ɳ𝑝

3. The diameter of the propeller of an aircraft is 2.5 m. It flies at a speed of 500 Kmph at an altitude of 8000 m for
flight to jet speed ratio = 0.75 Determine (a) the flow of air through the propeller (b) thrust produced (c) specific
thrust (d) specific impulse (e) thrust power.

Given Data

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 500
d = 2.5 m, u = = 138.888 𝑚/𝑠
3.6

σ = 0.75, Z = 8000 m

𝑢 𝑢
𝜎= , 𝑐𝑗 = = 185.1851
𝑐𝑗 𝜎

Velocity of air flow at the propeller disc

𝑐𝑗 + 𝑢
𝑐= = 162.037 m/s
2

From Gas Table Z = 8000 m, ρ = 0.525 kg/m 3

From continuity equation 𝑚𝑎 = 𝜌 𝐴 𝑐

𝜋 𝑘𝑔
= 0.525 * (2.5).2 ∗ 162.037 = 417.583
4 𝑠

Thrust power F = 𝑚𝑎 (𝑐𝑗 − 𝑢)

= 19332.529 N

Thrust power = F * u = 2685.073 kW

𝐹 𝑘𝑔
Specific thrust Fsp = = 46.29 𝑁/( )
𝑚𝑎 𝑠

𝐹𝑆𝑃
Specific impulse Isp = = 4.719 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑔

SPACE PROPULSION (ROCKET PROPULSION)

13. Give an Introduction about space propulsion and compare engines

It is the propulsion of an aircraft by the reaction of jet gases coming out with very high velocity. Rocket
engine works on the basic principle of Newton’s third law of motion (i.e) to every action there is equal and opposite
reaction. Since the altitude of the rocket engine is very high, enough air is not available at the surrounding
atmosphere for combustion purposes. Hence a separate tank is filled with oxygen and another tank is filled with
fuel. In this case the jet consists of exhaust gases only, and it is produced directly by the combustion process without
the use of mechanical devices. Thus the thrust is obtained from the ejection of microscopic particles generated from
the substance carried within the system.

COMPARISON BETWEEN AIR-BREATHING ENGINES AND ROCKET ENGINES

Sl.No. Jet Propulsion Rocket Propulsion

1. Oxygen is obtained from the surrounding The problem unit consists of its own oxygen
atmosphere for combustion purpose supply for combustion purpose.
2. Jet consists of air plus combustion products. Jet consists of the exhaust gases only.
3. Altitude limitation No altitude limitation, space travel possible.
4. Thrust decreases with altitude. Thrust improves slightly with altitude.
5. Rate of climb decreases with altitude Rate of climb increases with altitude.
6. Mechanical device are also used. Mechanical devices are not used.

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14. Write a note on Classification Of Rocket Engines.

Rocket engines are classified in the following manner.

I. Classification based on fuel used

a. Chemical rockets (They are widely used. Heat energy developed during combustion is used to propel
the rocket.)
b. Nuclear rockets (The heat energy generated by fission and fusion are utilized to propel the rockets)
c. Solar rockets ( The heat energy derived from sun is utilized to propel the rocket)

II. Classification based on propellants used

(a) Liquid propellant rockets

(b) Solid propellant rockets
(c) Hybrid rockets

III. Classification based on applications

(a) Weather forecasting rockets (remote sensing)

(b) Military rockets (spying rockets, missiles)
(c) Space exploration rockets (voyager)
(d) Booster rockets (They are multi stage rockets. As the stage increases, the working elevation will
increase. Booster rockets are generally elevate the main rocket to a greater height).
(e) Retainer or sustainer rockets. (These rockets are generally small rockets which
Imparts low thrust for long duration for supplying additional energy to the space
Vehicle).
(f) Retro-rockets (These rockets are fired in the opposite direction to decrease the speed
of a main rocket like braking).

IV. Classification based on Number of stages.

(a) Single stage rockets

(b) Multi-stage rockets

V. Classification based on the size and range

(a) Short range rockets

(b) Long range rockets

Solid Propellant Rocket Engine.

Rockets which use solid fuels and oxidizers are known as solid propellant rockets. Propellant is
nothing but fuel and oxidizer. Fig. shows a solid propellant rocket. Solid fuel (plastic or resin material) and
oxidizer (perchlorates, nitrates) are mixed in a single propellant and is packed inside the shell.

When the ignites, combustion starts from the centre of the combustion chamber to its outer periphery due
to the star shaped combustion chamber . A liner is provided between the shell and the propellant to protect the
shell from high temperature developing inside the propellant layers.
After the fuel is completely burned, the combustion products (gases) come out of the nozzle with very
high velocity. Hence it propels the rocket in the forward direction.

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 Solid Propellants and its properties.

The types of solid propellants used in rocket engines are:

1. Composite or heterogeneous propellants and
2. Homogeneous mixtures of organic substances
Composite solid propellants are nitrates and perchlorates as oxidizer and fuels such
As plastic, polymers, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) and some metals. Some additives and inhibitors are
also added with fuel and oxidizers to regulate the burning rate. Inhibitors are also used to regulate the
propellant grain of its surface.
Homogeneous mixture of organic substances are nitroglycerine and cellulose nitrate, etc.

Properties of Solid Propellants

The following properties are required for their applications in rocket engines.
1. It should be easily available raw materials which are cheap.
2. Physical and chemical properties should not change during combustion.
3. It must release large amount of heat energy during combustion.
4. It must have higher density and comparatively lower molecular weight.
5. It should not be poisonous and hazardous.
6. It should be non-corrosive, so that handling and storage is easier.
7. It should be stable for a long period of time and should not deteriorate physically or chemically during
storage.
8. The exhaust should be non-toxic and non-luminous.
9. The propellant should resist erosion.

17. Explain the working principle of liquid propellant rocket engine with neat sketch.

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Construction
• The construction of liquid propellant rocket engine is shown in figure

• Liquid fuel(refined petrol, liquid hydrogen, hydrazine etc) and liquid oxygen are used in this engine

• Liquid fuel and liquid oxygen are stored separately in two different tanks

• Pre-heater is used to heat the fuel and oxidizer

• Nozzle is used to increase the velocity and decrease the pressure of the gases

Working

• Liquid fuel and liquid oxygen are pumped separately into a combustion chamber through control valves.
• Since the liquid fuel and liquid oxygen are stored at very low temperature , they are preheated in the
preheated to a suitable temperature
• The pre-heater fuel-oxidizer mixture is injected into the combustion chamber through suitable injector and
combustion takes place.

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 • When the combustion takes place in the combustion chamber , very high pressure and temperature gases
are produced
• The highly heated products of combustion gases are then allowed to expand in nozzle section.
• In the nozzle, pressure energy of the gas is converted into kinetic energy. So the gases coming out from the
unit with the very high velocity.

Due to high velocity of gases coming out from the unit , a force or thrust is produced in the opposite direction. This
thrust propels the rocket.

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