PRELIMINARY

What is Thermodynamics?

Thermodynamics is a branch of physical sciences that treats various phenomena of energy

and the related properties of matter, especially of the laws of transformation of heat into other
forms of energy and vice-versa.

TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE

 Temperature is an indication or degree of hotness and coldness and therefore a

measure of intensity of heat

The Six Temperature Scales

1. Celsius or Centigrade
2. Fahrenheit
3. Kelvin
4. Rankine
5. Reamur
6. Ligem

Absolute Temperature – is the temperature measured from absolute zero

Absolute Zero – is the temperature which the molecules stop moving

Temperature Interval – is the difference between two temperature readings from the same
scale, and the change in temperature throughwhich the body is heated

THE ABSOLUTE PRESSURE AND GAGE PRESSURE

 Absolute Pressure – is the true pressure measured above a perfect vacuum

 Gage Pressure – is the pressure measured from the level of atmospheric pressure by
most pressure recording instrument like pressure gage and open-ended manometer
 Atmospheric Pressure – is the pressure obtained from barometric reading
 Pabs = Pgage + Patm

where:

 Pabs = absolute pressure

 Pgage = gage pressure
 Patm = atmospheric pressure
 Patm = 101. 325 Kpa = 1.013 x 10^6 dyne/cm^2
= 14.7 psi
= 1. 032 kg/cm^2
= 29.92 in. Hg Note: Pgage = negative (-)
when the pressure is vacuum.
= 760 mmHg = 760torr
The pressure in perfect
= 1.013 bar
vacuum is -101.325Kpa
 STEAM GENERATORS (STEAM BOILERS)
Steam Generator or Steam Boiler – is a pressurized vessel in which water is vaporized to
steam by heat transferred from a source of higher temperature usually the products of
combustion from burning fuels.

Primary Classification of Boilers:

1. Water Tube (Tubulous) Boiler – type of boiler in which the water is inside the tubes
while the water is outside the tubes.
2. Fire Tube (Tubular) Boiler - type of boiler in which the hot gasses pass inside the
tubes while the water is outside the tubes.

Types of Boilers and Pressure Vessels:

1. Power Boiler is a closed vessel in which steam is generated at a pressure of more than
1.055 kg/cm2 gage by the direct application of heat.
2. Portable Boiler is an internally fired boiler which is self contained and primarily
intended for temporary location and the construction and usage is obviously portable.
3. Low Pressure Heating Boiler is a boiler operated at pressure not exceeding 1.055
kg/cm2 gage steam, or water temperature not exceeding 121 C.
4. Hot Water Boiler is boiler furnishing hot water to be used externally to itself.
5. Locomotive Boiler is a boiler mounted on a self-propelled track locomotive and used
to furnish motivating power traveling on rails.
6. Miniature Boiler is any boiler which does not exceed any of the following limits: 405
mm inside diameter, 1,065 mm overall length of outside to outside of heads at center
1.85 m2 of water heating surface, 7.03 kg/cm2 maximum allowable working pressure.
7. Unfired Pressure Vessel is a vessel in which pressure is obtained from an external
sources or from an indirect application of heat.

Limits of Package type boilers:

1. Fire Tube:

17.6 kg /cm2 gage ; 9072 kg steam /hr

2. Water Tube:

17.6 kg /cm2 gage; 22,680 kg steam /hr

Large Boilers – has capacity 45,360 kg steam /hr or higher

Low Pressure Large Boilers: 28.1 kg /cm2 gage and below

High Pressure Large Boilers: 28.1 kg /cm2 gage and above.

7.ASME Evaporation Units is the heat output of the boiler or the rate at which the heat is
transformed.

8. Factor of Evaporation, FE = is the actual heat absorption per kg of steam generated divided
by 2257 kJ/kg (hfg from and at 100 C)
11. Equivalent Specific Evaporation is the product of Actual Specific Evaporation and the
Factor of Evaporation.

Equivalent Specific evaporation = Boiler Economy x FE

12. Boiler Efficiency or Overall Thermal Efficiency is the measure of ability of a boiler or
steam generator to transfer the heat given it by the furnace to the water and steam.

a) Rated Bo. Hp = = 169 Bo. Hp

b) Operating Bo. Hp = = 449 Hp

c) Percent Rating = 66
d) Equivalent Evaporation = Ms FE = 6800( = = 7034 kg/hr
Boilers and its Accessories:

1. Stoker – is the combustion equipment for firing solid fuels.

2. Burner – is the combustion equipment for firing liquid and gaseous fuels.
3. Feedwater Pump – is a device used to deliver water into the boiler.
4. Economizer – is a feedwater preheating device which utilizes the heat of the
flue gases.
5. Feedwater Heater – is a preheating device which utilizes steam mixed with
the feedwater.
6. Air Preheater – is a heat exchanger which utilizes the heat of the flow gases
to preheat the air needed for combustion.
7. Breeching – is the duct that connects the boiler and the chimney.
8. Blowdown Valve – is the valve through which the impurities that settle in the
mud drum are removed.
9. Draft Fans (Forced draft and Induced draft fans) – it supply air needed for
combustion and create the draft required for the flow of gases in the boiler.
10. Soot Blower – a device which uses steam or compressed air to remove that
has accumulated in the boiler tubes and drums.
11. Furnace – it encloses the combustion equipment so that the heat generated
will be utilized effectively.
12. Baffles - it directs the flow of the hot gases to effect efficient heat transfer
between the hot gases and the heated water.
 13. Fusible Plug – a metal plug with a definite melting point through which the
steam is released in case of excessive temperature which is usually caused by
low water level.
14. Temperature gauge – an instrument that indicates the temperature of the
steam in the boiler.
15. Pressure Gauge – an instrument that indicates the pressure of the steam in the
boiler.
16. Gage Glass (Water Column) – indicates the water level existing the boiler.
17. Safety Valve – a safety device that automatically releases the steam in case of
over pressure.
18. Water Walls – water tubes installed in the furnace to protect the furnace
against high temperature and also serve as extension of heat transfer area for
the feedwater.

FUEL BED FIRING

Fuel Bed Firing is applicable for solid fuels such as coal, coke, wood, and refuse.

Grate- holds the fuel bed at the furnace.

Stoker Mechanism - places the fuel on the grate automatically.

Important parameters of combustion:

1. high flame temperature

2. turbulent mixing of air and fuel

3. correct ratio of air and fuel

4. enough time to complete burning process.

Method of feeding coal to the grates:

1. overfeed

2. underfeed

Types of Traveling grate stokers:

1. chain grate

2. bar grate

SUSPENSION FIRING

Suspension Firing – uses burner (as mixing device for air and fuel) such as pulverized coal,
liquid fuel, gas fuel. Ignition takes place in the furnace.
Pulverized Coal System – reduces coal sizes to powdered size before it is feed to the burner.

Oil Burning System- usually uses Bunker. Atomization of fuel into fine spray occurs in the
burner.

Gas Burning System – usually uses natural gas if available. No atomization is needed using
burner as mixing device.

EXAMPLE:

A circular oil tank 9 m long with a 1.4 m diameter is used for oil storage. Calculate
the number of days oil supply the tank can hold for continuous operation at the following
conditions:

HHV by ASME Formula;

HHV = 41130 + 139.6 (API)

=41130+139.6 (34)

HHV = 45876.4 KJ/kg

4 5
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3 5 + 𝐴𝑃𝐼
3. Exhaust Pressure:
Advantages of steam turbine over that of reciprocating steam are:

Engine

a. Much higher speeds may be developed and far greater speed range is possible than in
the case of reciprocating engine.
b. Perfect balance is theoretically possible.

Turbine

a. A turbine is able to convert into useful work the energy the energy in the steam up to
the lowest limit imposed by nature.
b. Turbine allow an enormous concentration of power and the materials of construction
are used to their best advantage.

In fact when properly designed and constructed, the steam turbine is the most durable
prime-mover on earth. e. Unlike the reciprocating engine, the steam consumption of turbine
does not increase with years of service.
STEAM CONDENSER

Steam Condenser is a device used to maintain vacuum conditions on the exhaust of a steam
prime mover by transfer of heat to circulating water or air at the lowest ambient temperature.

Functions:

a. To create vacuum at turbine exhaust and to increase the turbine power.

b. To convert the steam to liquid so that it can be pumped back to the boiler.
1.0. Surface Condenser is a heat transfer device in which steam and cooling water do not
mix; commonly used design is the shell-and-tube.

The exhaust enthalpy may be found from the turbine condition line:
In Surface Condenser:

Terminal Temp. Difference = Steam Temp. – Cooling water exit Temperature

Terminal Temp. Difference (TTD) is usually 2.8 deg C (5 F) or more.

FEEDWATER HEATERS

Feedwater Heaters are device used to heat the feedwater before it enters the
boiler for the purpose of increasing the thermal efficiency.

Types of feedwater heater:

1. Contact type

2. Surface Type

SUPERHEATERS, REHEATERS, AIR PREHEATERS, ECONOMIZERS

Attemperator is a desuperheater . Control by attemperation means that the temperature of the

steam is reduced by removing energy from the steam.

Types of Attemperators:

a) tubular type

b) water injection type