CHAPTER THREE

FLOW THROUGH PIPES

Introduction

A pipe is a closed conduit (generally of circular section) which is used for carrying fluids
under pressure. The flow in a pipe is termed pipe flow only when the fluid completely fills
the cross-section and there is no free surface of fluid. The pipe running partially full (in such
a case atmospheric pressure exists inside the pipe) behaves like an open channel.

Loss of energy (or head) in pipes

A fluid moving through a pipeline is subjected to energy losses from various sources; it
experiences some resistance to its motion, due to which its velocity and ultimately the head of
water available is reduced. This loss of energy (or head) is classified as follows:

A. Major Energy Losses: This loss is due to friction.

B. Minor Energy Losses: These losses are due to :
1. Sudden enlargement of pipe,
2. Sudden contraction of pipe,
3. Bend of pipe,
4. An obstruction in pipe,
5. Pipe fittings, etc.

Major energy losses

A continuous resistance is exerted by the pipe walls due to the formation of a boundary layer
in which the velocity decreases from the center of the pipe to zero at the boundary. In steady
flow in a uniform pipeline the boundary shear stress is constant along the pipe, since the
boundary layer is of constant thickness, and this resistance results in a uniform rate of total
energy or head degradation along the pipeline. The total head loss along a specified length of
pipeline is commonly referred to as the ‘head loss due to friction’ and denoted by . The rate

of energy loss or energy gradient

These losses which are due to friction are calculated by:

1. Darcy-Weisbach formula
2. Chezy’s formula

1
1. Darcy-Weisbach formula

The loss of head (or energy) in pipes due to friction in steady uniform flow is calculated from
Darcy-Weisbach formula which is given by:

( ) ⁄

( )

( ) is a non-dimensional coefficient which, for turbulent flow, can be shown to be a function

of . ⁄ /, the relative roughness, and the Reynolds number, . / ( ) is the effective
roughness size of the pipe wall. For laminar flow, ( ), ( ), can be obtained
theoretically in the form of the Hagen Pouiseuille equation:

In the case of turbulent flow experimental work on smooth pipes by Blasius (1913) yielded
the relationship

Later work by Prandtl and Nikuradse on smooth and artificially roughened pipes revealed
three zones of turbulent flow
A. Smooth turbulent zone in which the friction factor ( ) , a function of Reynolds
number only and expressed by

√
( )
√

B. Transitional turbulent zone in which ( ), is a function of both . ⁄ / and ( )

C. Rough turbulent zone in which ( ) is a function of . ⁄ / only and expressed by:

( )
√

2
Equation (b) and (c) are known as the Karman-Prandtl equations. Colebrook and White (1939)
found that the function resulting from addition of the rough and smooth equations (b) and (c)
in the form:

* + ( )
√ √
Fitted observed data on commercial pipes over the three zones of turbulent flow. The
Colebrook-White equation was first plotted in the form of ( ) diagram by moody (1944)
and bence is generally referred to as the ‘The Moody diagram’. This was presented originally
with a logarithmic scale of ( ). Figure: 1, has been drawn, from computation of equation (d),
with an arithmetic scale of ( ) for more accurate interpolation.

Combining the Darcy-Weisbach and Colebrook-White equation a number of approximations

in explicit from in ( ) have been proposed.

Moody produced the following formulation:

⁄
[ ( ) ] ( )

This is claimed to give values of ( ) within for Reynolds numbers between

and and for up to 0.01.

More recently Barr proposed the following form based partly on an approximation to the
logarithmic smooth turbulent element in the Colebrook-White function by White:

* + ( )
√

Further development by Barr led to an even closer approximation which was expressed as:

( ⁄ ( ⁄ ))
* + ( )
√ ( ⁄ ( ⁄ ) )

Typical percentage errors in ( ) given by (g) compared with the solution of the Colebrook-
White function area:

Reynolds number
k/D 4
3×10 3×105 3×106
10-3 -0.12 0.00 -0.07
10-4 -0.16 -0.07 +0.03

3
Figure: 1 Moody diagram

4
Figure: 1 Moody diagram

5
The values given by (g) should be sufficiently accurate for most purposes but substitution of
these values once into the right hand side of the Colebrook-White function produces ( )
values with a maximum discrepancy of, .

2. Chezy’s formula for loss of head due to friction

The ratio prescribes the loss of head per unit length of pipe and is denoted by i or S

(slope)
This formula helps to find the head loss due to friction if the mean flow velocity through the
pipe and also the value of Chezy’s constant C are known.

Note : (i) Darcy-Weisbach formula is generally used for the flow through pipes.

(ii) Chezy’s formula (for loss of head) is generally used for the flow through open
channels.

Minor energy losses

In addition to the spatially continuous loss of energy or head is due to friction, the local loss
of energy (or head) includes the following cases:

1. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement,

2. Loss of head due to sudden contraction,
3. Loss of head due to an obstruction in the pipe,
4. Loss of head at the entrance to a pipe,
5. Loss of head at the exit of a pipe,
6. Loss of head due to bend in the pipe, and
7. Loss of head in various pipe fittings.

These local losses are sometimes referred to as ‘minor’ losses since in long pipeline their
effect may be small in relation to the friction loss. However the head loss at a control valve
has a primary effect in regulating the discharge in a pipeline.

6
1. Loss of Head due to Sudden Enlargement

Figure shows a liquid flowing through a pipe

which has sudden enlargement.

Due to sudden enlargement, the flow is

decelerated abruptly and eddies are developed
resulting in loss of energy (or head).

Consider two sections 1 – 1(before enlargement) and 2 – 2 (after enlargement).

( )
* ( ) +

In which

[ . / ]

From above equation it is obvious that the head loss varies as the square of the velocity. This
is substantially true for all minor losses in turbulent flow.

If the sudden expansion is from a pipe to a reservoir, ( ) and the loss becomes
⁄ , that is, the complete kinetic energy in the flow is converted into thermal energy.

The head loss due to gradual expansions has been investigated experimentally by Gibson,'
whose results are shown in figure below.

Loss coefficients for gradual conical expansions

7
 2. Loss of head due to sudden contraction,

 Due to sudden contraction, the stream lines

converge to a minimum cross-section called
vena-contacta and then expand to fill the
downstream pipe
 The process of converting pressure head
into velocity head is very efficient; hence,
the head loss from section 1 to the vena
contracta is small compared with the loss
from section C to section 2, where velocity
head is being reconverted into pressure
head.

Loss of head due to sudden contraction = Loss up to vena-contracta + loss due to sudden
enlargement beyond vena-contracta

( )

With the continuity equation, , in which is the contraction coefficient (i.e.,

the area of jet at section C divided by the area of section 2), the head loss is computed to be

( )

In general, . /

From experiments: . /

and thus the loss co-efficient is a function of ration

and,
For gradual contraction (conical reducers) is a function of cone angle and
Note: If the value of is not given then loss of head due to contraction may be taken as
. Note that the value of k = 0.5 relates to the abrupt entry from a tank into a circular
pipeline.

8
D2/D1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
k 0.5 0.45 0.38 0.28 0.14 0

3. Loss of Head due to Obstruction in Pipe

The loss of energy due to an obstruction in pipe

takes place on account of the reduction in the
cross-sectional area of the pipe by the presence
of obstruction which is followed by an abrupt
enlargement of the stream beyond the
obstruction.

Head loss due to obstruction (hobs.) is given by the relation:

( )
( )
4. Loss of Head at the Entrance to Pipe: Loss of head at the entrance to pipe (hi) is given
by the relation:

Where, V = Velocity of liquid in pipe.

For well-rounded entrances, the loss is between ( ) and may

usually be neglected. For re-entrant openings, as with the pipe extending into the reservoir
beyond the wall, the loss is taken as ( ), for thin pipe walls.

5. Loss of Dead at the Exit of a Pipe: Loss of head at the exit of a pipe is denoted by h0
and is given by the relation:

Where, V = Velocity at outlet of pipe.

6. Loss of Head due to Bend in the Pipe

In general the loss of head in bends ( ) provided in pipes may be expressed as:

9
Where, V = Mean velocity of flow of fluid, and, k = Co-efficient of bend; it depends upon
angle of bend, radius of curvature of bend and diameter of pipe.

7. Loss of Head in Various Pipe Fittings

The loss of head in the various pipe fittings (such as valves, couplings, etc.) may also be
represented as:

Where, V = Mean velocity flow in the pipe, and k = value of the co-efficient; it depends on
the type of the pipe fitting and percentage of closure.

Minor losses may be expressed in terms of the equivalent length of pipe Le that has the same
head loss in foot-pounds per pound for the same discharge, thus,

in which K may refer to one minor head loss or to the sum of several losses. After solving for
Le,

Hydraulic gradient and total energy lines

The concept of hydraulic gradient line and total energy line is quite useful in the study of
flow of fluid in pipes. These lines may be obtained as indicated below.

Total Energy Line (T.E.L. or E.G.L.): It is known that the total head (which is also total
energy per unit weight) with respect to any arbitrary datum, is the sum of the elevation
(potential) head, pressure head and velocity head, i.e.,

When the fluid flows along the pipe, there is loss of head (energy) and the total energy
decreases in the direction of flow. If the total energy at various points along the axis of the
pipe is plotted and joined by a line, the line so obtained is called the ‘Energy gradient line’

10
(E.G.L.). In literature, energy gradient line (E.G.L.) is also known as ‘Total energy line’
(T.E.L.).

Hydraulic Gradient Line (H.G.L.):

The sum of potential (or elevation) head and the pressure head . / at any point along the

pipe is called the piezometric head. If a line is drawn joining the piezometric levels at various
points, the line so obtained is called the ‘Hydraulic gradient line.’

The following points are worth noting:

1. Energy gradient line (E.G.L.): always drops in the direction of flow because of loss of
head.
2. Hydraulic gradient line (H.G.L.): may rise or fall depending on the pressure changes.
3. Hydraulic gradient line (H.G.L.): is always below the energy gradient line (E.G.L.)

and the vertical intercept between the two is equal to the velocity head . /

4. For a pipe of uniform cross-section the slope of the hydraulic gradient line is equal to

the slope of energy gradient line. In a uniform pipe the velocity head, . /, is

constant and the energy grade line is parallel with the hydraulic grade line.
5. There is no relation whatsoever between the slope of energy gradient line and the
slope of the axis of the pipe

11
Pipes in series or compound pipes

When two pipes of different sizes or roughness’s are connected so that fluid flows through
one pipe and then through the ' other pipe, they are said to be connected in series. A typical
series-pipe problem, in which the head H may be desired for a given discharge or the
discharge wanted for a given H, is illustrated in Figure below. By applying Bernoulli's
equation from A to B, including all losses,

Figure above shows a system of pipes in series.

As the rate of flow (Q) of water through each pipe is same, therefore,

Also, The difference in liquid surface levels = Sum of the various head losses in the pipes

12
If minor losses are neglected, and If, , then:

* +

Equivalent pipe

An equivalent pipe is defined as the pipe of uniform diameter having loss of head and
discharge equal to the loss of head and discharge of a compound pipe consisting of several
pipes of different lengths and diameters. The uniform diameter of the equivalent pipe is
known as the equivalent diameter of the series or compound pipe.

Then, neglecting minor losses, total head loss,

(Where, , etc. are co-efficients of friction)

Also, from continuity considerations:

Assuming , etc. , we get:

* + ( )

Head loss in the equivalent pipe,

[ ] ( )

From equation (1) and (2), we have:

* + [ ]

( )

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Equation (3) is known as Dupit’s equation. If the length of the equivalent pipe is equal to the
length of the compound pipe i.e., ( ) the diameter D of the equivalent
pipe may be determined by using this equation. Sometimes a pipe of a given diameter D
which is available may be required to be used as equivalent pipe to replace a compound pipe;
in this case the length of the equivalent pipe may be required to be determined and the same
may also be determined by using equation (3).

Pipes in parallel

When a main line divides into two or more parallel pipes as in Figure below, so that the flow
is divided among the pipes and then joined together again in downstream and continues as a
main line, is a parallel-pipe system. In series pipes the same fluid flows through all the pipes,
and the head losses are cumulative; however, in parallel pipes the head losses are the same in
any of the lines, and the discharges are cumulative.

In analyzing parallel-pipe systems, it is assumed that the minor losses are added into the
lengths of each pipe as equivalent lengths. It may be seen from Figure above that the rate of
discharge in the main line is equal to the pipes.

Thus,

When the pipes are arranged in parallel, the loss of head in each pipe (branch) is same.

( )

14
Two types of problems occur:

(1) With elevation of hydraulic grade line at A and B known, to find the discharge Q
(2) With Q known, to find the distribution of flow and the head loss. Sizes of pipe, fluid
properties, and roughness’s are assumed to be known.

The first type is, in effect, the solution of simple pipe problems for discharge since the head
loss is the drop in hydraulic grade line. These discharges are added to determine the total
discharge.

The second type of problem is more complex, as neither the head loss nor the discharge for
any one pipe is known. The recommended procedure is as follows:

1. Assume by proper judgment the discharge through pipe 1.

2. Solve for using the assumed discharge.
3. Using the value , find .
4. With the three discharges for a common head loss, now assume that the given Q is
split up among the pipes in the same proportion as thus

( )
∑ ∑ ∑

5. Check the correctness of these discharges by computing for the computed

.

This procedure works for any number of pipes. By judicious choice of , obtained by
estimating the per cent of the total flow through the system that should pass through pipe 1
(based on diameter, length, and roughness), Equation (4) produces values that check within a
few per cent, which is well within the range of accuracy of the friction factors.

Branching pipe
The simplest branching-pipe system case is a three reservoir system interconnected by three
pipes as shown in figure below. In this situation the flow through each pipe is wanted when
the reservoir elevations are given. The sizes and types of pipes and fluid properties are
assumed known.

15
The conditions to be satisfied are

1. The net flow at any junction should be zero due to continuity principle.
2. The Darcy-Weisbach equation should be satisfied for each pipe. If flows are
then the algebraic sum of .

If one of the flow rate is specified the solution is direct. If none are specified, trial solution
becomes necessary. It takes the form that the flow into the junction J must just equal the flow
out of the junction. The flow may be from the higher reservoir to the others or it may be from
both high level reservoirs to the low level one. The hydraulic grade line controls the situation.
Hence, the continuity equation may be either of the following,

If the elevation of hydraulic grade line at the junction is above the elevation of the
intermediate reservoir, flow is into it; but if the elevation of hydraulic grade line at J is below
the intermediate reservoir, the flow is out of it. Minor losses may be expressed as equivalent
lengths and added to the actual lengths of pipe.

The solution is affected by assuming an elevation of hydraulic grade line at the junction, then
computing and substituting into the continuity equation. If the flow into the
junction is too great, a higher grade-line elevation, which will reduce the inflow and increase
the outflow, is assumed.

The method of solution requires iteration.

1. A value for the head at the junction is assumed and the flow rates are calculated from
pipe details.
2. The sum of these (algebraic) should be zero. But at the first attempt, the sum may
have a positive value or negative value.

16
 3. If it is positive, inflow to the junction is more. So increase the value of head assumed
at the junction.
4. If it is negative, the outflow is more. So reduce the value of head assumed. Such
iteration can be also programmed for P.C.

Syphon

A syphon is a long bent pipe employed for carrying water from a reservoir at a higher
elevation to another reservoir at a lower elevation when the two reservoirs are separated by a
hill or high level ground in between as shown in Figure below.

The highest point (S) of the syphon is called the summit. The pressure at the point S is less
than atmospheric pressure (since S lies above the free water surface in the tank A). The
pressure at S can be reduced theoretically to – 10·3 m of water but in actual practice this
pressure is only – 7·6 m of water (or 10·3 – 7·6 = 2·7 m of water absolute). When the
pressure at S becomes less than 2·7 m of water absolute, the dissolved air and other gases
would come out from water and collect at the summit. Therefore syphon should be so laid
that no section of the pipe will be more than 7·6 m above the hydraulic gradient at that
section. Moreover, in order to limit the reduction of the pressure at the summit the length of
the inlet-leg (rising portion of the syphon) of the syphon is also required to be limited (this is
so because, if the inlet leg is very long a considerable loss of head due to friction is caused,
resulting in further reduction of the pressure at the summit).

17
Pipe network Analysis

Water distribution network analysis provides the basis for the design of new systems and the
extension of existing systems. Design criteria are that specified minimum flow rates and
pressure heads must be attained at the outflow points of the network. The flow and pressure
distributions across a network are affected by the arrangement and sizes of the pipes and the
distribution of the outflows. Since a change of diameter in one pipe length will affect the flow
and pressure distribution everywhere, network design is not an explicit process. Optimal
design methods almost invariably incorporate the hydraulic analysis of the system in which
the pipe diameters are systematically altered.

Pipe network analysis involves the determination of the pipe flow rates and pressure heads at
the outflows point of the network. The flow rates and pressure heads must satisfy the
continuity and energy conservation equations.

A. Continuity: The algebraic sum of the flow rates in the pipes meeting at a junction,
together with any external flows, is zero.
( )

∑ ( )

In which QIJ is the flow rate in pipe IJ, at junction I, NP(J) is the number of pipes meeting at
junction J, FJ is the external flow rate (outflow) at J and NJ is the total number of junctions in
the network.

B. Energy conservation: The algebraic sum of the head losses in the pipes, together
with any heads generated by in-line booster pumps, around any closed loop formed by
pipes is zero.
( )

∑ ( )

In which hL,I,J is the head loss in pipe J of loop I and Hm,IJ is the manometric head generated
by a pump in line I, J.

When the equation relating energy losses to pipe flow rate are introduced into equations (a)
or (b) systems of non-linear equations are produced. No method exists for the direct solution
of such sets of equations and all methods of pipe network analysis are iterative. Pipe network

18
analysis is therefore ideally suited to digital computer application but simple networks can be
analyzed with the aid of a pocket calculator.

Analysis methods:

1. Hardy-Cross Method (Looped Method)

2. Nodal Method
3. Newton-Raphson Method
4. The linear theory method
1. The Hardy Cross Method
A. The earliest systematic method of network analysis (Hardy-Cross Method) is known
as the head balance or closed loop method.
B. This method is applicable to system in which pipes form closed loops. The outflows
from the system are generally assumed to occur at the nodes junction.
C. For a given pipe system with known outflows, the hardy-cross method is an iterative
procedure based on initially iterated flows in the pipes.
D. The outflows from the system are generally assumed to occur at the nodes (junctions);
this assumption results in uniform flows in the pipelines which simplifies the analysis
E. At each junction theses flows must satisfy the continuity criterion, i.e. the algebraic
sum of the flow rates in the pipe meeting at a junction, together with any external
flows is zero.
F. The method is based on:
 Continuity Equation:

19
  Energy Equation: The algebraic sum of the head losses around any closed
loop is zero: the sign convention that clockwise flows (and the associated head
losses) are positive is adopted.

∑ ( ) ∑ ( )

G. The relationship between head loss and discharge must be maintained for each pipe
 Darcy-Weisbach Equation

( )

 Exponential friction formula Hazen-Williams

( )

∑ ( )

∑ ∑ ∑

For small values of correction

∑
∑ ∑
∑| |

H. Problem description
 Network of pipes forming one or more closed loops
I. Given
 Demands at network nodes (junctions)

20
  D, L, pipe material, Temp, and Pressure at one node
J. Find
 Discharge and flow direction for all pipes in network
 Pressure at all nodes and HGL

Hardy-Cross method procedure

1. Divide network into number of closed loops

2. for each loop:
A. Assume discharge and direction for each pipe. Apply continuity at each node,
. Clockwise positive.
B. Calculate equivalent resistance K for each pipe given, L, D, pipe material and
water temperature.
C. Calculate for each pipe. Retain sign from step (A) and compute sum
for loop ∑ .

D. Calculate | ⁄ | for each pipe and sum for loop ∑ | ⁄ |.

E. Calculate correction

∑ ⁄( ∑ | ⁄ |)

Note: for common members between 2 loops both corrections have to be made.

As loop 1 member

F. Apply correction to
G. Repeat steps (C) to (f) until becomes very small and ∑ in step (C).
H. Solve for pressure at each node using energy conservation.
2. The quantity balance method ('nodal' method)

Figure: shows a branched-type pipe system delivering water from the impounding reservoir A
to the service reservoirs B, C and D. F is a known direct outflow from the node J. If ZJ is the
true elevation of the pressure head at J, the head loss along each pipe can be expressed in
terms of the difference between ZJ and the pressure head elevation at the other end.

21
 Figure: Branched type pipe network

For example: .

Expressing the head loss in the form: ( ), N such equations can be written as (where
N is the number of pipes).

( ) (| |)
( ) (| |) ( )
[ ]
[( ) (| |) ]

(SIGN) is ( ) according to the sign of ( ). Thus flows towards the junction are
positive and flows away from the junction are negative. KIJ is composed of the friction loss
and minor loss coefficients.

The continuity equation for flow rates at J is:

∑ ( ) ( )

Examination of Equations (1) and (2) shows that the correct value of ZJ will result in values
of QIJ, calculated from Equation (1), which will satisfy Equation (2).

Rearranging Equation (2) we have

⁄
| |
[ ] [( )( ) ] ( )

The value of ZJ can be found using an iterative method, by making an initial estimate of ZJ,
calculating the pipe discharges from Equation set (3) and testing the continuity condition in
Equation (2).

22
If (∑ ) (with acceptable limits), a correction ΔZJ is made to ZJ and the procedure
repeated until Equation (2) is reasonably satisfied. A systematic correction for ΔZJ can be
developed: expressing the head loss along a pipe as ( ), for a small error in the
estimate ZJ, the correction ΔZJ can be derived as:

(∑ )

Evaluation of KIJ:

( )
( )

Where is the sum of the minor loss coefficients. ( ) can be obtained from the Moody
chart using an initially assumed value of velocity in the pipe (say 1 m/s). A closer
approximation to the velocity is obtained when the discharge is calculated. For automatic
computer analysis Equation (3) should be replaced by the Darcy–Colebrook–White
combination:

√ ( )
√
[ ]

For each pipe, hf,IJ (friction head loss) is initialized to ZI − ZJ, QIJ calculated from Equation (4)
and hf,IJ re-evaluated from hf,IJ = (ZI − ZJ) − KmQ2IJ.

3. The gradient method

In addition to above Equations (a – 4), the gradient method needs the following vector and
matrix definitions:

NT = number of pipelines in the network

NN = number of unknown piezometric head nodes

[A12] = ‘connectivity matrix’ associated with each one of the nodes. Its dimension is

NT × NN with only two non-zero elements in the ith row:

−1 in the column corresponding to the initial node of pipe i

1 in the column corresponding to the final node of pipe i

23
 NS = number of fixed head nodes

[A10] = topologic matrix: pipe to node for the NS fixed head nodes. Its dimension is

NT × NS with a −1 value in rows corresponding to pipelines connected to

fixed head nodes

Thus, the head loss in each pipe between two nodes is

, -, - , -, - , -, - ( )

Where

, -

( )
( )
, - ( )
( )
[ ]

[Q] = discharge vector with NT × 1 dimension

[H] = unknown piezometric head vector with NN × 1 dimension

[H0] = fixed piezometric head vector with NS × 1 dimension

Equation (5) is an energy conservation equation. The continuity equation for all nodes in the
network is

, -, - , - ( )

Where [A21] is the transpose matrix of [A12] and [q] is the water consumption and water
supply vector in each node with NN × 1 dimension.

In matrix form, Equations (5) and (7) are

, -, - , - , -, -
[ ][ ] [ ] ( )
, -, - , - , -

The upper part is nonlinear, which implies that Equation (8) must use some iterative
algorithm for its solution. The gradient method consists of a truncated Taylor expansion.
Operating simultaneously on the ([Q], [H]) eld and applying the gradient operator, we can
write

, -, -, - , - , -
[ ][ ] [ ] ( )
, -, - , - , -

24
where [N] is the diagonal matrix (n1, n2,..., nNT) with NT × NT dimension and [A11]' = NT ×
NT matrix defined as
( )
( )

, - ( ) ( )
( )
[ ]

In any iteration i, [dE] is the energy imbalance in each pipe and [dq] is the discharge
imbalance in each node. These are given by

, - , -, - , -, - , -, - ( )

, - , -, - , - ( )

The objective of the gradient method is to solve the system described by Equation (8), taking
into account that in each iteration

, - , - , - ( )

and

, - , - , - ( )

Using matrix algebra, it is possible to show that the solution to the system represented by
Equation (8) is

, - *, -(, -, -) , -+ *, -(, -, - ) (, -, -) , -, -
(, -, -) , -+ ( )

, - *, - (, -, -) , -+, -
*(, -, - ) (, -, - , -, -)+ ( )

The method has the advantage of fast convergence and does not need continuity balancing in
each node to begin the process. The method is not suited for hand calculation.

4. Newton Raphson method

The newton Raphson method differs from the ‘head’ and ‘quantity’ balance methods in that it
makes corrections to assumed heads or flow rates over the whole network simultaneously.

5. The linear theory method

The energy conservation equations when expressed in terms of flow rate produce a set of
non-linear equations:

25
 ( )

in which NL is the number of closed loops.

By writing the head loss (hL,P) in pipe, P, as hL,P = K’(p)Q(p) in which

( ) ( ) ( )

Where ( ) is the estimated, or current value of Q, the non-linear equations are transformed
into linear equations. When the NL linearized loop equations are combined with NJ-1
independent continuity equations a system of NP linear equations is formed. Solving by
Gaussian elimination, the values of Q(p) are obtained. Since initial values of Q are estimated
the procedure is repeated until successive Q(p) values are sufficiently close. Like the Newton
Raphson method, the Linear Theory method is not suited to hand calculation; it also
converges much more quickly than the ‘head’ or ‘quantity’ balance methods.

Pipe line with pump and turbines:

Hydraulic gradient in pump-pipeline systems

Figure below shows a pump delivering a liquid from a lower tank to a higher tank, through a
static lift HST at a discharge Q. It is clear that the pump must generate a total head equal to
HST plus the pipeline head losses.

Total energy and hydraulic grade lines in pipeline with pump

26
 ( )

Manometric head is defined as the rise in total head across the pump.

( )

Now

Thus

or

Note: that the energy losses within the pump itself are not included; such losses will affect the
efficiency of the pump.

Total head v. discharge and efficiency v. discharge curves see figure below, for particular
pumps are obtained from the manufacturers.

Typical performance curve for centrifugal pump

27
The total head-discharge curves for a centrifugal pump can generally be expressed in the
functional form

The coefficients A, B and C can be evaluated by taking three pairs of and Q from a
particular curve and solving equation ( ).

The power consumed by a pump when delivering a discharge Q (m3/s) at a head Hm (m) with
a combined pump/motor efficiency η is

Multiple pump systems

1. Parallel operation

Pumping stations frequently contain several pumps in a ‘parallel’ arrangement. In this

configuration any number of the pumps can be operated simultaneously, the objective being
to deliver a range of discharges. This is a common feature of sewage pumping stations where
the inflow rate varies during the day. By automatic switching according to the level in the
suction well any number of the pumps can be brought into operation.

Pumps operating in parallel

In predicting the head v. discharge curve for parallel operation it is assumed that the head
across each pump is the same. Thus at any arbitrary head the individual pump discharge are
added as shown in figure below.

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 Characteristic curves for identical pumps operating in parallel

2. Series operation

This configuration is the basis of multistage and borehole pumps; the discharge from the first
pump (or stage) is delivered to the inlet of the second pump, and so on. The same discharge
passes through each pump receiving a pressure boost in doing so. Figure below shows the
series configuration together with the resulting head v. discharge characteristics which are
clearly obtained by adding the individual pump manometric heads at any arbitrary discharges.
Note that, of course, all pumps in a series system must be operating simultaneously.

Pumps operating in series

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