EMMANUEL’S TERM E-LEARNING NOTES

CLASS: SS 2

SUBJECT: PHYSICS
SCHEME OF WORK
WEEK: TOPIC
1. Position, distance and displacement: (a) concept of position and position coordinate
(b) frame of reference
2. Vectors; (a) concept of vectors (b) vector representation (c) addition of vectors (d)
resolution of vectors(c) concept of resultant velocity using a vector representation.
3. Equation of uniformly accelerated motion; (a) Revision on velocity-time graph (b)
application and interpretation of equation of motion in simple problems.
4. Projectile: (a) concept of projectiles (b) simple problems involving range, height and
time of flight
5. Equilibrium of forces; (a) resultant and equilibrant forces (b) parallel forces (c)
moment of a force (torque) (d) centre of gravity and equilibrium (e) equilibrium of
forces in a liquids
6. MID-TERM BREAK
7. Equilibrium of Bodies in Liquids: Concept of upthrust, Archimedes’ Principle, Density
& Relative Density, law of floatation and calculations.
8. Simple Harmonic Motion(SHM): (a) definition of simple Harmonic Motion (b) speed
and acceleration of SHM(c) period, frequency and amplitude of SHM (d) energy in
SHM (e) force vibration in SHM.
9. Revision
10. Examination

WEEK 1

TOPIC: Position, Distance and Displacement

POSITION

This is the location of a point/object with respect to areference point. The position of a
point in space is defined in terms of the distance of the point from the reference point
(which is sometimes called ORIGIN). In physics, the position of an object in space is
represented in a coordinate system. There are three main types of coordinate system for
representing the position of an object in space:
 1. Cartesian coordinate system
2. Spherical coordinate system
3. Cylindrical coordinate system

Of all these, the Cartesian coordinate system is the most commonly used.

Cartesian coordinate system:

This is also called the rectangular coordinate system. This consists of two (or three)
mutually perpendicular axes. The Cartesian plane in two dimensions consists of two
mutually perpendicular axes:

- the horizontal axis (also called the X axis or the abscissa)

- the vertical axis (also called the Y axis or the ordinate).

The position of a point in this coordinate system is define in terms of it perpendicular

distance from these axes. Y-axis

(0,0) is the origin.

(0,0)
X-axis

For instance the position of a point P define as (a,b) is represented as shown.

b . (a,b)

This is similar to the location of point on a graph sheet when plotting points.

CLASS ACTIVITY: locate the following point onthe graph sheet below. A(2,3) B(1,-1) C( 2,-3)
D(-2,1) E(0, 2)

A (2.3)

D (-2,1)
Locate the remaining points.

DISTANCE

This can be defined as the actual length measured along the path moved by an object.
Distance is a scalar quantity and it S.I unit is metre (m). If an object moved along a straight
line, the distance moved is the length of the straight line. If the path is a curve, then the
distance moved is the length of the curve.

DISPLACEMENT:

This is the distance moved in a specified direction. Displacement is a vector quantity and its
S.I unit is metre.

Estimation of displacement between two points on the Cartesian plane

Consider the point P and Q on a Cartesian plane. If the coordinate of P and Q is given as:
P(x1,y1) and Q(x2,y2), then the displacement between P and Q on the Cartesian plane is given
as

Example: Calculate the distance between the two points: P(4,2) and Q(1, 6)

Solution: P (x1,y1) Q (x2, y2)

P(4,2) Q(1,6)

X1 = 4, Y1 = 2 X2 = 1, Y2 = 6
Displacement between two points on the Cartesian plane

Consider the points P and Q on a Cartesian plane. If their coordinates are: P(x 1,y1,z1), Q(x2,y2,
), then the distance between P and Q on the Cartesian plane is given as

E.g: Calculate the distance between the points P(2, 0, 5) and Q(3, -2, 1)

Soln:

P(2, 0, 5) = ,

Q(3, -2, 1) = ,

D = 4.58units

Differences between distance and displacement

Distance Displacement
It is the actual length of the path It is the distance moved in a
moved by an object. specified direction.
It is a scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

frame of reference

This is a set of axes used to specify the position of object in space at any instant of time. For
practical purposes, the frame of reference of the earthis taken to be at rest (i.e an inertia
frame of reference). However, this is never so. In two dimensional continuums, the frame of
reference consists of two axes.
z

This is a three dimensional frame of

x reference to specify the position of
an object at any time in space.
 y

In four dimensional continuums, the time coordinate is added to the space coordinate (x, y,
z). Hence for three dimensional frames of reference position is defined as (x,y,z). But for
four dimensional frame of reference, position is define as (x,y,z,t) – (space-time)

When an event in a frame of reference is observed in two frame of reference moving

relatively with respect to each other, their observations will be different. This leads to the
concept of relativity. (see Einstein theory of special relativity)

However, all frames of reference moving at a constant velocity with respect to each other
are equivalent. All frames of reference at rest or moving with uniform velocity are called
Galilean frames and that are equivalent for describing the dynamics of moving bodies.

WEEK 2

TOPIC: VECTORS

CONCEPT OF SCALARS

Scalars are physical quantities that have magnitude but no direction. That is, scalar has value
and unit but no direction. E.g, 10km. This 10km could be in any direction since there is no
actual direction. The ‘10’ is the value- the magnitude. Therefore, just 10km is a scalar
quantity. Scalar quantities are always not directional.

Scalar quantities unlike vectors have only magnitude. Example; length, area, volume,
temperature, work, energy, power, mechanical advantage, velocity ratio, efficiency, surface
tension,
Other examples of scalar quantities include:
- Speed
- Time
- Density
- Mass
- Distance, etc.
10km

Scalars are non directional physical quantities.

CONCEPT OF VECTORS
Vectors are physical quantities that have both magnitude and direction. This means that
vectors quantities have values and are always directional. E.g, 10km due North. Here, the
value, which is the magnitude, is ‘10’ while the direction is North.
Examples of vector quantities include: pressure, friction, tension, electric field intensity,
magnetic field intensity, moment of forces, torque, upthrust.

Other examples of vector quantities are:

- 25km at
- Displacement
- Force
- Acceleration
- Momentum
- Impulse
- Velocity 25km at
- Weight, etc. Vectors are directional physical quantities.

DISTINCTION BETWEEN SCALARS AND VECTORS

S/ SCALARS VECTORS
N
1. Scalars are non-directional Vectors are directional physical
physical quantities. quantities.
2. Always directed towards different Always directed towards a
directions. particular direction.
3. E.g, 100km 100km due east.
4. E.g, mass Weight

Their similarities include:

- They are both physical quantities;
- They both have values, which are the magnitudes.

Types of vectors

1. Position vectors; these are vectors whose starting point is fixed to a position
2. Free vectors; these are vector whose starting point could be anywhere in space.
3. Unit vector; this is a vector whose magnitude is one. It is often represented as â.
4. Orthogonal vectors; these are vectors whose lines of action are mutually
perpendicular to each other
5. Collinear vectors; these are vector whose lines of action are parallel to one another.
6. Coplanar vectors; these are vectors whose lines of action lies on the same plane.
7. Resultant vector; this is a single vector that has the same effect as a system of
vectors.
8. Null vector: this is a vector whose magnitude is zero.

Representation of vectors
Vectors can be represented by a directed line segment whose length is proportional to the
magnitude of the vector and its direction is pointing in the direction of action of the vector.
a

Vectors are represented with bold face letters a, a, orâ.

Addition of vector

The addition of two or more vector produces a single vector call the resultant vector.

A resultant is a single vector which has the same effect as a system of vectors put together.
Equilibrant is the vector that will bring a system of vector to equilibrium when added to the
system. It has the same magnitude as the nt of the system but acting in the opposite
direction to the equilibrant.

Consider two vectors a and b, the addition of these vector can be obtained by joining the
head of one to the tail of the previous one. The resultant is the vector that joins the
beginning to the end.
b
b

c
a
a
c=b+a

Case 1. Parallel vectors acting in the same direction

For two parallel vectors acting in the
V1
same direction, the angle between
V2 the vectors is ZERO
Resultant R = V1 + V2

Example 1: Three men pushed a car out ofa muddy ground by applying the following forces
450N, 600N and 920N. What is the resultant force on the car?

Case 2. Parallel vectors acting in opposite direction

For two parallel vectors acting in
opposite direction, the angle
V1 V2 between the vectors is 1800

Resultant R = V2 - V1
Example 2: during a tug of war game, team A pull in the positive x direction with a force of
900N and team B pull in the negative X – direction with a force of 1200N. what is the
resultant of the train?

V1 = 900N V2 = 1200N

= 1200 – 900 = 300N

Case 3. Two perpendicular vectors acting at a point.

V1
R

V2

The angle made by the resultant with the direction of V2 is given as

Example 3: two force 8N and 15N acting along the vertical and the horizontal axis
respectively acts on a body of mass 3kg. What is the acceleration of the body?

Solution:
8N

15N

Force = mass x acceleration

F = ma F = R = 17N m = 3kg a =?

17 = 3 X a
Case 4. Two vector acting at a point and at angle to each other.
V1

Ø
V2

This case can be solved by using the parallelogram law of vectors.

Parallelogram law of vectors state that:

Parallelogram law of vectors state that when two vectors acting at a

point are represented in magnitude and direction by the adjacent
sides of a parallelogram, the resultant of the two vectors can also be
represented in magnitude and direction by the diagonal of the
parallelogram drawn from the common point of the two vect

V1

Ø 180 - Ø

V2

Ø is the angle between the two vectors. The direction the resultant force R made with
V2( can be obtained using the sin rule. This is given as

Example: two forces F1 and F2 act on a particle. F1 has magnitude 5N and in direction 0300,
and F2 has a magnitude of 8N and in the direction 0900. Find the magnitude and direction of
the resultant.

Solution:

5N

300
900
8N

5N

0 R
 1200
ϴ
8N

The angle between the two forces is 0900 – 0300 = 600

(b) direction of the resultant

1200
ϴ

don’t forget

- 1200 is obtained from (1800 – 600) in the diagram

- we use V1 because we are looking for the angle between R and V2.

So the direction of the resultant in three digits ( 90 – 22) = 068 0

CASE 5. Three vectors acting at a point and in equilibrium.

Consider a metal ball suspended from a ceiling by a string. If is pulled by an horizontal force
as shown below, the triangular law of vector may be applied as shown below.

F T
w

W
Example: a 15 kg mass suspended
Triangular from astates
law of vectors ceiling
stateisthat
pulled
whenasides
three with a horizontal force, F,
F
vectors acting
as shown in the diagram above.actCalculate
a point arethe
in equilibrium,
value of the vectors T (g= 10m/s 2)
the tension
can be represented in magnitude and direction by the
adjacent sides of a triangle by joining the head of one
vector to the tail of the previous one.
Solution:

600
T
600
T 150 N

150 N We applied the Lami’s theorem to get

the triangle

Using the trigonometric ratio;

Resolution of vectors

Any position vector can be resolved into two components which are perpendicular to each
other. Consider the vector P acting at angleϴ to the horizontal as shown below,

P
Px

Py

For a system which consist of several vectors, each vector in the system can be revolved into
two components as shown above. V1
V2
Consider a system of vectors as shown below,

V3

V4
If are the angles made the vectors respectively, then the component of the resultant along
the horizontal is given as:

And the vertical component of the resultant vector is given as:

N.B the angles the vectors V1, V2, V3, and V4 makes with the positive x direction

The magnitude resultant R is given as:

The direction of the resultant with respect to the positive x direction is given as

Example: a boy pull a nail from the wall with a string tied to the nail. The string is inclined to
the wall at angle 600. If the tension in the string is 4N. What is the effective force used in
pulling the nail?

Solution;
nail Tx = T sin 60

600
T
Ty = T cos60
rope 600
The tension has two components Tx and Ty. note that the value of Tx and Ty were obtained
using the trigonometric ratio.

The component of T to extract the nail is Tx.

EXAMPLE: four forces act at appoint as shown below. Calculate the magnitude and direction
of the resultant force.
12N
10N
400 300
600
9N

15N

Solution:

Vector F Fi Angles ϴ with +ve x direction Fx = Fcos ϴ Fy=Fsin ϴ

F1 10N 300 10cos30 = 8.66 10sin30= 5.00

F2 12N (180 – 40) = 1400 12cos140= - 9.192 12sin140= 7.713

F3 9N (180 + 90) = 2700 9cos 270= -0.000 9sin270= -9.00

F4 15N (360 – 60) = 3000 15cos300= 7.50 15sin300= -12.99

OR
Vertical components

Direction of the resultant force

ϴ is negative. Tan ϴ is negative in the 2nd and the 4th quadrant. Looking at the geometry of
the forces, R will be in the 4th quadrant.

This is the angle made by the resultant with the positive x –axis.

WEEK 3

TOPIC: EQUATION OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

Velocity – time v-t graph.

 1. Gradient of a v-t graph = acceleration

v Acceleration = gradient =

2. Area under a v-t graph = distance.

e d

0 a c t
b

i. Total distance covered during the motion = area of trapezium 0edc

ii. Distance covered during acceleration = area of triangle 0ea
iii. Distance covered during constant velocity = area of rectangle aedb
iv. Distance covered during deceleration = area of triangle bdc
v. Acceleration = slope of line 0e ,
vi. Deceleration = slope of dc,

Example 1

1. A car starts from rest and accelerates uniformly to 15ms-1 in 5 s. it then continues at
this velocity for the next 10s before decelerating back to rest in another 8 s.
Use the information to answer the following questions
i. Sketch the velocity time graph of the motion of the car
ii. Calculate the acceleration of the car
iii. Calculate the deceleration of the car
iv. What is the total distance travelled by the car
v. Estimate the average speed of the car.

15
 0 5 t
15 23

ii. Acceleration

iii. deceleration –a =

iv. total distance = area under the graph

= area of trapezium
S

v. average speed v =
v=

Example 2
A body at rest is given an initial uniform acceleration of 8.0ms 2 for 30s after which
the acceleration is reduced to 5.0ms2 for 30s. The body maintains the speed attained for
60s after which it is brought to rest in 20s.
(a) Draw the velocity-time graph of the motion using the information given
above.
Using the graph, calculate (b) maximum speed attained during the motion. (c)
average retardation as the body is brought to rest. (d) total distance travelled
during the first 60s (e) average speed during the same intervals as in (c)

Solution.

(a) V(m/s)

5ms-2
V2
8ms – 2
V1 Stage 1 stage 2 stage 3 stage 4
0 30s 60s 120s 140s t (s)
(b)there are two stages of acceleration
Stage 1. Acelecation = gradient a= 8 ms -2

Cross multiplying
Stage 2. A= 5 ms-2

Cross multiplying

But V1=240

Average retardation is equal to gradient

but V2 = 390ms-1

a = 19.5ms-2
Average retardation = - 19.5ms-2
(d) distance is in the first 60sec = area of triangle + area of the next trapezium
S=
S=

(d) average speed

RELATIVE MOTION
This is the motion of a body with respect to another. All motion is relative. The
motion of a car on the road is with respect to the earth or any other frame of
reference in which the motion of the car is being observed.
Resultant velocity of relative motions
 Consider two cars X and Y travelling in the same direction and at the same
speed, a commuter in X will observe that Y is stationary (not moving)

Relative velocity
 If car X is to be travelling at a speed Vxwhich is greater than the speed of Vy, a
commuter in car Y will observe the speed of car X to be
 A commuter in X will observed the relative velocity of Y to be

This value will be negative. This means that to an observer in X, the car Y will
appear to be going backward (going the opposite direction with a speed
of /Vy - Vx/

 But is car X and Y were to be travelling in opposite direction, the relative

velocity of X with respect to Y will be

Vy – Vx = relative velocity of Y with respect to X

N.B. note that the relative velocity of X with respect to Y, Vxy is equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction to the relative velocity of Y with respect to X, V yx.

Vxy = - Vyx

EXAMPLES

1. Two racing cars A and B travelling in the same direction at 300m/s and 340mls
respectively. What is the relative velocity of A with respect to B?
Solution:
Va= 300 km/h
Vb=340 km/h
Relative velocity of a with respect to B, Vab = Va -Vb = 300 – 340 = -40 km/h
(note that this is negative. A appears to be travelling in the opposite direction to B)
2. A boat whose speed is 8 km/h sets course on a bearing 0600. If the tide is running at
a speed of 3 km/h from a bearing of 3300, find;
i. The actual speed of the boat(i.e, relative speed of the boat)
ii. The direction of travel
Vt Vb
Vb N.B the angle
Direction of tide 60 0
900 in the
triangle is
boat obtained by
V rel
Vt geometry

To obtain the relative velocity (actual velocity), draw the component velocity such that the
head of one point to the end of the other. Draw the relative velocity to beginning from end
of the first to the head of the last.

Using Pythagoras theorem

Let ϴ be the angle between the relative velocity and the direction of the boat.

DERIVATIONS OF EQUATION OF UNIFORMLY ACCELERATED MOTION

ANALYSIS OF RECTILINEAR MOTION.

Supposing a body moving at an initial velocity later attains a final velocity in time
Its acceleration is given as:

Change in velocity = v-u

By making v subject of the formula,

We have
Recall that

Since the body above experienced two velocities, u & v, thus, the average velocity is
Hence,
Putting (2) into (3), we have

Hence,
From (1),

Putting (5) into (3), we have

But is a different of two squares, implying that

Hence,
Making subject of the formula, we have
Thus, in summary, the equations of motion include:

Under gravity, for a body descending, .

Therefore, the above equations become:

Under gravity, for a body ascending, . Therefore, the above equations become:

Derivation of equation of uniform motion

Recall that,
Equation (i) ---
Equation (ii) ---
Substituting equation (i) into equation (ii)

Again from equation (i),

Dividing both sides by a,

Substituting equation (3) into equation (ii)

(ii) ---
becomes
 Expanding the bracket in the numerator,

Cross multiplying,

Summarily, the equations of uniformly accelerating bodies are:

.N.B. note that these equations can only be applied to solve problems on bodies
moving with constant/uniform acceleration. Problems on bodies moving with non-
uniform acceleration can be solved using differential calculus.

Application of the equations of uniform accelerating bodies

1. A train starts from rest and accelerate until it attains a velocity of 8m/s is 10 s.
calculate the acceleration of the train.
Solution:
For a body at rest velocity is zero.
Initial velocity U=0
Final velocity V= 8m/s
Time t=10 s
Acceleration a= ?
{ you use any of the four equations that has U,V, t, a has identified from the
question}
V = U + at
8 = 0 + ax10
8 = 10a
Dividing both side by 10
a = 0.8m/s2
2. A horse rider moving with constant acceleration covers the distance between two
point 70.0m apart in 7.0 s. if his speed as he passes the second point is 15.0 m/s.
what is its speed at the first point?
Distance S = 70.0m
Time t = 7.0s
Initial speed U = ?
Final speed V = 15.0m/s
{ the equation containing S, t, U, and V is S = }

70 =
Cross multiplying
 (15+U)7 = 140
Dividing both sides by 7
15 +U = 20
U = 20 – 15
U = 5m/s
3. A body starts with an initial velocity of 26m/s and moves down it with uniform
acceleration of 7m/s2 for 25 s. find the total distance moved in metres
Solution: Initial velocity U = 26m/s
Acceleration a = 7m/s2
Time t = 25 s
Distance S = ?
{the equation containing U, a, t and s is

Motion of bodies under gravity

Neglecting air resistance, motion of bodies moving under gravity (either vertical
upward or downward) is an example of uniformly accelerating motion.
1. A body thrown vertically upward in the earth gravitational field.
When a body is thrown vertically upward from the earth surface, it retards
uniformly (with acceleration of a = -g) until it attain it maximum height where its
final velocity is zero. (V = 0)
If U is the initial velocity with which the body was projected vertically upward
and H=S is the maximum height where it the velocity is zero (i.e, temporarily at
rest before coming down)
g – acceleration due to gravity

V=0 s = H a = -g is negative (retardation) where g is the acceleration due to gravity

0 = U2 + 2(-g) H
0 = U2 -2gH
2gH = U2
H is the maximum height
Again , using V= U + at
V = 0 a = -g
0 = U + (-g)t
0 = U –gt
gt = U
 T is the time to reach the maximum height.
If the body is thrown vertically upward and allowed to return to the point of
projection, the total time of flight is given as

2. Motion of a bodies falling freely under gravity

The body was initially at rest, hence the initial velocity is zero. As it falls, it
velocity increase i.e it accelerate, a = g
Using ,
2
V = 0 + 2gH

This is the velocity of the body just as it it about to reach the ground
Again using

H = 0 x t + ½ g t2
H = ½ gt2

WEEK 4

TOPIC: PROJECTILE

CONCEPT OF PROJECTILE

Projectile refers to the motion of a body which travels freely in space but under the
influence of gravity and air resistance.When a ball in kicked into air, it will travel through
space in a plane. The motion in a plane is a combination of upward and horizontal motion.

The path through which a projectile travel is called trajectory

Example of projectile

In sport,

- Throwing of discus
- Throwing of javelin

In warfare

- Firing of catapult
- Shooting of arrows with bow
- Launching of missiles

Miscellaneous
 - Throwing of stones

Projectile of bodies at angle to the horizontal

When a body is projected at an angle to the horizontal, the trajectory is a parabola.

hmax

Horizontal range

The motion of this projectile can be splitted into two:

I. The horizontal motion

In the horizontal motion, the body moves with constant velocity. Therefore the
horizontal acceleration is zero. This also implies that the initial and the final
horizontal velocity are equal.
ax = 0Vx = Ux

hmax

Horizontal range
U is the initial velocity with which the body was projected. Resolving U into it vertical and
horizontal components, we have:

Uy

Ux = U cos
Uy = U sin
 Ux

the horizontal Range R, is the horizontal distance covered by the projectile.

Since the acceleration along the horizontal is zero,

Horizontal Range R,

1. Vertical motion
The vertical motion is an example of a uniformly accelerated motion. The equations
of uniform motion are still valid for it.
During the upward motion,
Vertical acceleration ay = -g (where g is the acceleration due to gravity)

Initial vertical velocity Uy = U sin

At the maximum height, the body is temporarily at rest. Therefore Vy = 0

Substituting these into V = U + at

Vy = Uy + at

t is the time to reach the maximum height.

The total time of flight is twice the time to reach the maximum height

Total time of flight T, --- --- --- --- (iii)

Using the equation,

Summarily

--- --- --- --- (iii)

The horizontal range R can also be expressed as

For range to be maximum, 2must be equal to 900.

Therefore maximum range occur when

Vertical Horizontal
component component

Initial velocity Usin Ucos

Velocity at the any point p Vy Vx

Velocity at the max height 0 Ucos

Displacement at any point p Sy Sx =Ut cos

acceleration -g 0
SOLUTION:

R=?

R= 25000 x 0.866

R = 2165m

(i)

Hmax = 6250m
0
1. A bullet is fired at an angle of 45 to the horizontal with a velocity of 450m/s.
calculate (i) time to reach the maximum height (ii) the maximum height reached and
the horizontal distance from the point of projection at this instant.
SOLUTION

t = 31.8 s

BODIES PROJECTED HORIZONTALLY AT A HEIGHT ABOVE THE GROUND

The motion of such projectile can also be splitted into two: the horizontal and the vertical
motion.

U = Ux

H
 R

1. Horizontal motion
In the horizontal motion, the body moves with constant velocity. Therefore, the
horizontal acceleration is zero. This also implies that the initial and the final
horizontal velocity are equal.
Ux = Vx = U
ax = 0.
If t is the time to reach the ground,then

2. Vertical motion
The vertical motion is an example of a uniformly accelerated motion. The equations
of uniform motion are still valid for it.
During the upward motion,
Vertical acceleration ay = -g (where g is the acceleration due to gravity)
The body was given an initial horizontal velocity. Since no vector has a perpendicular
component, Uy = 0
Height H = Sy
Substituting these into S = Ut + ½ at2.

WEEK 5

TOPIC: EQUILIBRIUM OF FORCES

Resultant force

This can be defining a single force which can produce the same effect as the combined force
on a system. The addition of two or more force produces the resultant force. The resultant
of any system of force can be obtained through any of the process described earlier.

Equilibrant force
This is that force which when added to a system of vectors will make the resultant of the
system zero. Equilibrant has the same magnitude as the resultant force but it always acts in
a direction opposite to that of the resultant.
F1 F1

R R

F2 E F2

For a system in equilibrium, the resultant force is ZERO.

Types of equilibrium
1. Stable equilibrium; a body is in stable equilibrium if it velocity and it resultant force is
zero. ( v = 0 and R = 0)
2. Dynamic equilibrium: a body is said to dynamic equilibrium if its velocity is constant
or it is rotating with a constant angular velocity. For bodies in dynamic equilibrium,
velocity is not zero but the resultant force on it is zero
(i.e, )
3. Translational equilibrium: a body is said to be in translational equilibrium if there is
no net force acting on it though it is at rest or moving with constant velocity.

Thus a body is said to be in equilibrium is it resultant force is zero.

Moment of a force

The turning effect of a force is it moment. Moment of a force about a point can be define
as the product of the force and it perpendicular distance from the point.

CASE 1;
d
O

F
Moment of the force F about the point O = F x d

CASE 2.

d
O

F
 d
F
O

The perpendicular component of F is . So moment of F about O is

Moment

CASE 3:

The force F will create a translational motion and not a turning effect. Therefore the
moment of F in this case is ZERO.

N.B note that the moment of a force is maximum when the force is at right angle.

Principle of moment

This states that for a system in equilibrium, the algebraic sum of moments about any point
is zero.

It can also be stated thus, for a system in equilibrium, the sum of the clockwise moment
about a point is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise moment about the same point.

Consider the system below,

a d
b c
P Q

W
W1
W2
Three downward forces, W, W1, W2.

Reaction act P and Q, constitute the two upward force acting on the body.

Taking moment about P,

clockwise moment Anticlockwise moment

i. Wxb i. Rq x ( b + c)
ii. W2 x (b + c + d) ii. W1 x a

Examples;

1. A 40cm P B

7N
In the diagram above, AB represent a uniform rod of length 1.50m which is in equilibrium
on a pivot at p. if AP = 40cm, calculate the mass of the rod. (g = 10ms -2

Solution:
A 40cm P B
Since the rod is uniform, it weight act at the

centre of the rod

7N W
the rod is 1.5m long, it centre is

taking moment about the pivot

clockwise moment = f x d = 7N x 0.4m = 2.8 Nm

Anticlockwise moment = f x d = W x (0.75 – 0.4) = 0.35W

At equilibrium, clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

0.35W = 2.8

The weight of the rod is 8.0N

But weight W = mg

Mass of the rod is 0.8 kg

2. A metre rule is found to balance at 48 cm marked. When a body of 60 g is suspended

at 6 cm, the balance point is found to be 30 cm.
i. Calculate the mass of the rule.
ii. What is the new balance point if the 60 g is moved to 13 cm mark.
Solution
0 6 30 48 100

60 g W
W is mass of metre rule

N.B
 - a metre rule is 100 cm long
- for uniform metre rule the weight (position of c.g) is 50 cm mark
- for non-uniform metre rule, c.g is at the balance point when no load is on the
rod
(i) taking moment about the pivot

clockwise moment fxd = 60 x (30 – 6) = 60 x 24 = 144

at equilibrium, clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

18W = 144

The mass of the metre rule is 8 g.

(ii) 0 13 x 48 100

60 g 8g

The 60 g is now at 13 cm mark, the new balance point is x the cg still remains 48 cm.

Taking moment about the pivot

Clockwise moment 60 x (x – 13)

Anticlockwise moment 8 x (48 – x )

At equilibrium, clockwise moment = anticlockwise moment

The new balance point is 17.1 cm mark

Conditions for equilibrium for a system of parallel forces

1. Sum of forces in one direction must equal to the sum of forces in the opposite
direction. Sum of upward forces must equal to the sum of downward forces.
2. Resultant force must be zero
 3. The algebraic sum of moment about a point must be equal to zero.

However, for three non parallel co-planar forces to keep a body in equilibrium,

1. The line of action of the three forces must intersect at a point

2. The three forces can be represented in magnitude and direction by the adjacent
sides of a triangle by taking the head of one to the tail of the other.

Couple

A couple is a system of equal and opposite forces acting at a distance apart and whose lines
of actions do not coincide. A couple will always create a turning effect about a point midway
between the two forces. The forces of a couple create a torque. Couple cause an angular
acceleration.

F
F
d

The moment of a couple = F x d

The perpendicular distance between the two forces is called the arm of the couple. The
moment of a couple about any point in a plane containing the two forces is the same.
Moving the couple from one point to another in the plane does not change the value of the
moment of the couple.

Application of couple

1. Turning of a tap head

2. Turning the stirring wheel of a car with two hands
3. Action of a corkscrew or
4. Use screwdriver to loosen a screw.
5. Action on a circular door knob

CLASSWORK: Two force of 10N each act at the opposite end of ruler 50cm long. Calculate
the resultant force and the moment of the force.

SOLUTION:

(i) Assuming the two forces are parallel

 Resultant force R=0N

(ii) The question above is an example of a couple

F= 10N d = 50cm = 0.5m

Moment of a couple M=Fxd

M = 10 x 0.5= 5 Nm

Centre of gravity

This can be defined as a point on a body through which the line of action of the resultant
weight of the body passes through. It is the point on an object where the resultant weight of
the body is acting.

The position of the centre of gravity of an object can be determined through the following
methods:

i. Balancing method
ii. Plumb line methods

EXPERIMENT 4-5:

- an experiment to determine the centre of balance of metre rule using the balancing
method.
- An experiment to determine the centre of gravity of a laminar irregular cardboard
using the plumb line method

Uniform objects often have their centre of gravity at their midpoint / centre.

The position of the centre of gravity of an object determines the stability of the object.

TYPES OF EQUILIBRIUM / STABILITY

1. Stable equilibrium: bodies in stable equilibrium

i. Have centre of gravity close to their base (low c.g)
ii. Have wide base
iii. Returns to their original position after a slight tilt.

Wide
base
. .
c.g
c.g

Examples of bodies in stable equilibrium; a cone sitting on it base, a

funnel set upside down on a table
N.B when bodies in neutral equilibrium are slightly tilted, their potential energy increases
but the line of action remains within the base.

2. Unable equilibrium: bodies in unstable equilibrium

i. Have centre of gravity high above the base.
ii. Have narrow base
iii. Fall away from their original position when they are slightly tilted

.
Example of bodies in unstable
equilibrium is cone resting on
it vertex.

c.g

N.B when bodies in neutral equilibrium are slightly tilted, their potential energy
decreases and the line of action falls outside the base.
3. Neutral equilibrium:For bodies in neutral equilibrium, the potential energy remains
unchanged when they are slightly tilted.

the diagram below typify the types of equilibrium.

Ball in stable equilibrium Ball in unstable equilibrium Ball in neutral equilibrium

(you can easily identify the type of equilibrium by considering how a body will fall off its
equilibrium position when it is slightly tilted)

Centre of mass

This can be defined as the point on an object where the application of a force will produce
accelerationand not a turning effect.
WEEK 6

Mid-term test

WEEK 7

TOPIC: EQUILIBRIUM OF BODIES IN LIQUIDS

Boat, ship or a swimmer can float on water. This is as a result of certain forces acting on
these bodies.
U

Consider a cube floating in water as

shoe below. For the cube to be in
equilibrium U = W

The force U is called the upthrust.

Upthrust can be defined as an upward force experience by object in a fluid.

Upthrust can also be defined as the loss weight experienced by an object partial or
completely immersed in a fluid. for object floating in a fliud,

W=U

For object partly or wholly immersed in a fluid, (e.g bucket of water inside the water in a
well weight lighter than )

U = weight loss

Consider a bucket of water of weight W in a well which is held by a string whose tension
is T. When the bucket is above the water in the well, the tension in the string equals the
weight of the bucket. (W = T)
When the bucket is inside the well, it experiences a weight loss which equal to the
difference (W – T)

Where W is the weight of the bucket in air and T is the bucket in the well/fluid.

EXPERIMENT 6

- To measure the upthrust experienced by s body immersed in water using the spring
balance, eureka can and a beaker.

Archimedes’ principle
This states that when a body is partly or completely immersed in a fluid, it experiences
an upthrust which is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

Weight = mass x acceleration due to gravity

Weight of fluid displaced W = mg

But density of the fluid,

Where v – volume is fluid displaced.

Weight of fluid displaced W =

g - acceleration due to gravity

Density of a body

This can be defined as the ratio of the mass of body to its volume or mass per unit
volume. In the laboratory, the density of a substance can simply be determine by
measuring the mass of the substance using a triple balance and measuring the volume.
With the mass and volume of the substance known, the density can be determined
using:
 Density is a scalar quantity and it S.I unit is kgm-3. Another unit for density is gcm-3.

Relative density

The relative density of a substance is the ratio of the density of the substance to the
density of water. This has no unit. It can also be easily determine by estimating the
density of the substance in kgm-3 and dividing it by 1000 kgm-3(the density of water or in
g/cm3 and dividing by 1gcm-3)

Relative density of a substance can also be defined as the ratio of the mass of the
substance to the mass of equal volume of water.

The relative density of a liquid can be define as the ratio of the upthrust experience by
an object in the liquid to the upthrust experienced by the object in water.

PRINCIPLE OF FLOATATION

The law of floatation states that for a body to float in a fluid, it must displace an
amount of fluid equal to it own weight.

Weight of object = weight of fluid displaced.

Application of the principle of floatation

1. hydrometer
2. Submarine
3. Ship/boat
4. Hot air balloon
5. Floating iceberg

WEEK 8:

TOPIC: SIMPLE HARMONIC MOTION

Simple harmonic motion is an example of periodic motion. A periodic motion is one whose
pattern of motion is repeated at regular interval of time.

A body is said to be in Simple Harmonic Motion if it moves along a fixed path such that it
acceleration is directly proportional to its displacement from a fixed point and it is also
directed toward that fixed point.

Simple harmonic motion can be defined as the motion of a body whose acceleration is
always directed towards a fixed point and is proportional to the displacement of the bodies
from that point.

Example of bodies in SHM

1. A vibrating simple pendulum

2. A mass at the ended of a vibrating helical spring
3. Oscillation of mercury in a U-tube
4. Motion of the balance wheel of a watch.
5. Motion of prongs of a vibrating tuning fork
6. Motion of a loaded test tube in water

Mathematical definition of SHM

Mathematically, SHM can be defining as;

Where a is the acceleration and y is the displacement.

Introducing a constant,

The displacement of bodies in SHM simulate the sinusoidal change describe by the sine
curve.
y

Terms for describing a SHM

1. Amplitude (A). this the maximum displacement from the equilibrium position.

A
 2. Period (T); this is the time taken for the body in SHM to complete one oscillation. If a
body in SHM complete n cycles/oscillations in time t, the period of the SHM is given
as.

The S.I unit of period is seconds

3. Frequency (f); this is the number of cycles completed by a body in SHM in one
seconds. The S.I unit of frequency is Hertz (s-1). Frequency can also be defined as the
reciprocal of period,

4. Angular frequency; this is the ratio of one complete cycle to the period of the SHM.
Angular frequency is sometime referred to as angular speed. It S.I unit is rad/s.
another unit for is rev/min

5. Displacement (y); the displacement of a body in SHM simulate the sine curve and it is
given as;
ϴ
is the angular displacement and it is given as
t)

Where y is the displacement, A is the amplitude, is the angular frequency and t is time.

SPEED AND ACCELERATION OF BODIES IN SHM

6. Speed (v); this is the rate of change of displacement/distance. Since this is not a
uniform motion, we result to differential calculus

Speed of a body in SHM can also be given as,

A body in SHM will have it maximum value when sint =1

 7. Acceleration (a); this is the rate of change of velocity.

(students who had not taken lesson in differential calculus should not bother about the
derivation. But they should take note of the result)

Simple pendulum

This consists of a small mass attached to the end of a string.

O

A C

B is the equilibrium position. As the body passes through this position it kinetic energy is
maximum.

At B, speed is maximum kinetic energy is maximum potential energy is zero

At A and C, the bodyis temporarily at rest. Speed is zero as well as kinetic energy. But the
potential energy at this point is maximum.

The period of oscillation of a simple pendulum

1. Period is directly proportional to the square root of the length of the string

Period increases with length.

2. Is independent on the mass of the bob

3. Is inversely proportional to the square root of the acceleration due to gravity.
A body at the end of a vibrating helical spring.

This is another example of a simple a harmonic motion. It consists of a mass attached to the
end of a spring.

The period of the mass vibrating at the end of the helical spring is

1. Directly proportional to the square root of the mass

Period increases with mass

2. Inversely proportional to the square root of the force constant of the spring.

The period of a vibrating mass at the end of a helical spring is given as

ENERGY IN SHM

A body in simple harmonic motion undergoes displacement as a result of a restoring force

acting on its toward the equilibrium position. Energy is always involved when a body moves
through a distance under the action of a force.

Recall work done = force x distance

Consider a vibrating mass at the end of a helical spring; if an average force of ½F act on the
mass to cause a displacement of y

Work done = energy = average force x distance

E=½Fxy
This is equivalent to the elastic potential energy stored in the spring.

But F = Ky

Where k - force constant or elasticity constant y - extension/ displacement

Substituting this into (vi)

The potential energy of the mass is maximum when y = amplitude

… … … … … (viii)

The kinetic energy of the mass is given as

But from eqn (vb)

Therefore, KE at displacement y is given as

Maximum kinetic energy will occur at the equilibrium position (i.e when y = 0)

Simple pendulum
O

A C

The energy of the bob at B is entirely kinetic (equilibrium position)

The energy of the bob at A and C is entirely potential (the bob is temporarily at rest at these
points).

At any point between A and B or C and B, the energy is the sum of the potential and the
kinetic energy of the bob at that position.
Damped oscillation

SHM is an hypothetical motion in which energy has been taking to be constant through the
motion and the amplitude does not change. However, a real-life situation is the damp
oscillation in which amplitude die out with time due to air resistance. Energy of the system
also depreciate with time.

In damped harmonic oscillation, the amplitude decreases with time until it is zero.

The amplitude of this motion is

gradually decreasing

To maintain an oscillation that would have been damped in simple harmonic motion,an
external periodic force is applied. This is called forced vibration

Forced vibration is a vibration resulting from the action of an external periodic force on an
oscillating body.

Resonance; this is a phenomenon in which the frequency of the external oscillator coincides
with the natural frequency of a body thereby making the body to vibrate with a large
amplitude.

Resonance explains why sometime at a radio playing some tunes could make a tumbler on
the same table to shake visibly.

WEEK 9-10: REVISION/EXAMINATION