1) Types of Antenna

• An antenna is a specialized transducer that converts radio-frequency (RF) fields into alternating
current (AC) or vice-versa.
• An antenna is a device for sending or receiving electromagnetic waves Types of antennas:
• Log Periodic Antennas
 Bow-Tie Antennas
 Log-Periodic Dipole Array
• Wire Antennas
 Short Dipole Antenna
 Dipole Antenna
 Monopole Antenna
 Loop Antenna
• Travelling Wave Antennas 
Helical Antennas
 Yagi-Uda Antennas
• Microwave Antennas
 Rectangular Micro strip
Antennas
 Planar Inverted-F Antennas
• Reflector Antennas
 Corner Reflector Antenna
 Parabolic-
Reflector Antenna
 Q - Beam Area
- A - Beam area is the solid angle through which all the power radiated by the antenna would
stream if P (θ, Ø) maintained its maximum value over ΩA and was zero elsewhere.
- The radiated beam of the antenna comes out from an angle at the antenna, known as solid
angle, where the power radiation intensity is maximum. This solid beam angle is termed as the
beam area. It is represented by ΩA.
- Power radiated=P(θ,Φ)ΩAwatts
- Mathematical Expression
- dΩ=sinθ dθ dΦ watts
• ΩA is the solid beam angle.
• θ is the function of angular position.
• Φ is the function of radial distance.
Q – Half Wave Dipole OR Y/2
WORKING
- It is basically fed in the center where the impedance falls to lowest.
- The voltage and current levels vary along the length of the radiating section of the antenna.
- For a dipole antenna that is an electrical half wavelength long, the inductive and capacitive
reactance cancel each other and the antenna becomes resonant
ADVANTAGES
- It receives balanced signals.
- The two pole design enables to receive signals from a variety of frequencies.
- Most of the radiating signal is transmitted closer to the horizon so, loss is less.
- It does not require an antenna "tuner" to work efficiently.
DISADVANTAGES
- The outdoors antennas are large and wide.
- This type of antenna is not used for space communication.
- The installation of outdoors antenna are difficult.
Q - First Null Beam Width (FNBW)
A - The angular span between the first pattern nulls adjacent to the main lobe, is called as
the First Null Beam Width.
Q – Half Power Beam Width ( HPBW)
- It is a angular width of major labe, from max to 3 – db doen
- HPBW defind as the angular distance between the two points on the antenna pattern main lobe
that are 3 db below the max gain point ( which is at 0 db)
Q- Front to back ratio
- It is a ratio of gain from major labe to back lobe
- This is ratio of the antenna gain at o and 180
Q- Side lobe level (SLL)
- SLL is the ratio of the pattern value of a side lobe peak tyo the pattern value of the main lobe
Q – Friis Transmisson Equation

A - This leads to his

published form of his
transmission formula:

Q – Directivity
A - The ratio of maximum radiation intensity of the subject antenna to the
radiation intensity of an isotropic or reference antenna, radiating the same
total power is called the directivity.
Q – Binomial Array
A - To reduce the sidelobe level, John Stone proposed that sources have amplitudes
proportional to the coefficients of a binomial series of the form,

- where n is the number of sources.

Thus for arrays of 2 to 6 sources, the
relative amplitudes are given by,
- These coefficients for any number
of radiating sources can also be
obtained from Pascal's triangle.
- In Pascal's triangle, each internal
integer (leaving the side integer) is
the sum of the above adjacent
integers.

Q - Dolph-Chebyshev or Chebyshev:
Broadside Array
• Reduction in side lobe can't achieved without the sacrifice of directivity.
• Chebyshev array compromises between uniform and binomial array.
• Its excitation coefficients are related to Chebyshev polynomials.
• It produces narrowest beam-width for given side lobe level and vice versa.
• With Dolph narrow beam antenna with side lobes of -20 to -30 dB can be designed.
Array Factor on N Element nonuniform array:
----------------------------------------→

- Referring to above equation, the array

factor of an array of even or odd number
of elements with symmetric amplitude
excitation is nothing more than a
summation of M or M + 1 cosine terms
Q - Two Isotropic Point Sources of The Same Amplitude But Opposite Phase
A - Consider the two sources as shown in fig. whose amplitude is same but all in opposite phase.
Q – Array of two Isotropic Point Sources
 Q – Reciprocity theorm
- An antenna can be used as both transmitting antenna and receiving antenna. While using
so, we may come across a question whether the properties of the antenna might change as
its operating mode is changed.
- Fortunately we need not worry a bout that
- The propaties of antenna being unchangeable is called as the property of reciprocity
- Propelties under reciprocity are
o Equality of Directional patterns.
o Equality of Directivities.
o Equality of Effective lengths.
o Equality of Antenna impedances.
Q - gain of an antenna and antenna efficency relate g and d
- The gain (G) of an antenna and its efficiency (η) are related by the directivity (D) of the antenna.
- G=D×η
o G is the gain of the antenna, typically expressed in decibels (dB).
o D is the directivity of the antenna, also typically expressed in decibels.
o η is the efficiency of the antenna, usually expressed as a percentage or decimal value.
- This equation shows that the gain of an antenna is the product of its directivity and efficiency.
Directivity quantifies the antenna's ability to concentrate radiation in a particular direction, while
efficiency represents how effectively the antenna converts input power into radiated energy.
Q – Antenna Field Zone
A - When a high frequency current flows in an antenna, it generates a high frequency
electromagnetic field in the surrounding space. The detailed structure of this field is usually
quite complex and strongly depends on the antenna shape. Close to the antenna, except in
some simple academic cases, there is very little we can say about the electric and magnetic
fields without involving complex numerical calculations. But the good news is that, as we
move away from the antenna, the field
tends to look like spherical waves. And
the greater the distance, the better the
resemblance with spherical waves.
Spherical waves are very handy
because many calculations can be
performed with simple equations.
:- So, as shown in the above diagram,
the surrounding space of an antenna
is usually subdivided (classified) into
three regions: the reactive near-field
region, the radiating near-field
(Fresnell) region and the far-field
(Fraunhofer) region. These regions are
useful to identify the field structure to know which simplification can be applied, but there is
no precise boundary nor abrupt change in the field configuration.
Reactive near-field region
- It's a region immediately surrounding the antenna where the reactive field predominates. The
electric and magnetic fields are not necessarily in phase to each other and the angular field
distribution is highly dependent upon the distance and direction from the antenna. Here, only
numerical methods (or a lot of calculus) can determine the structure of the field. Not all this
field radiates; I imagine this region like a volume the antenna needs to "prepare" the field that
will actually radiate.
Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region
- It's a region surrounding the reactive near-field region described above. Here, the radiation
fields predominates, the electric and magnetic fields are in phase, but the angular field
distribution is still dependent upon the distance from the antenna. This means that almost all
the field in this region radiates, but since we are still close, the contribution of the different
parts of the antenna make a complex field structure. In other words, we are still too close to
the antenna to ignore its shape. Even if the field structure is simpler, it still requires numerical
methods (or a lot of calculus) to determine the exact structure.
Far-field (Fraunhofer) region
- It's a region surrounding the reactive and radiating near-field regions described above. It
extends to infinity and represents the vast majority of the space the wave usually travels.
Here, all the field radiates, the angular field distribution is essentially independent of the
distance from the antenna and can be approximated with spherical wave-fronts. Since we are
very far from the antenna, its size and shape are not important anymore and we can
approximate it as a point source. The electric and magnetic fields are in phase, perpendicular
to each other and perpendicular also to the direction of propagation. This greatly simplifies
the math and allows using simple calculators like the ones presented in these pages.
Broadside Array
- Radiation pattern: Max radiation perpendicular to array, nulls in end-fire directions.
- Directivity: Generally higher compared to end-fire arrays.
- Spacing: Typically half-wavelength or less between elements.
- Applications: Radar, phased arrays, communication systems.
- Beam Steering: Adjust phase/amplitude for steering perpendicular to array.
End-Fire Array
- Radiation pattern: Max radiation along array axis, nulls in broadside directions.
- Directivity: May be lower compared to broadside arrays.
- Spacing: Typically less than half-wavelength between elements.
- Applications: Point-to-point communication, radio astronomy, beamforming.
- Beam Steering: Adjust phase/amplitude for steering along array axis.t
Short Dipole:
- Radiation pattern: Bidirectional perpendicular to the dipole axis.
- Radiation resistance: Around 73 ohms.
- Directivity: Relatively low.
- Polarization: Linear, aligned with dipole axis.
- Bandwidth: Broad.
- Size: Shorter than a quarter-wavelength.
Small Loop Antenna:
- Radiation pattern: Doughnut-shaped perpendicular to the loop plane.
- Radiation resistance: Very low, often less than 1 ohm.
- Directivity: Can be higher than a short dipole, especially for small loops.
- Polarization: Linear, perpendicular to loop plane.
- Bandwidth: Can be narrow.
- Size: Typically smaller than a dipole, especially for higher frequencies.
short electric dipole (Hertzian)
- A short electric dipole, also known as a Hertzian dipole, is a theoretical antenna model used
to analyze the radiation behavior of an electrically short antenna. It's often employed as a
simplified representation of a practical antenna, particularly when the antenna's physical
size is much smaller than the wavelength of the electromagnetic waves it radiates or
receives.
- Necessary assumptions for the Hertzian dipole model include:
o Electrically Short: The length of the dipole (l) is much smaller than the wavelength (λ) of the
electromagnetic wave it radiates or receives. Mathematically, this is expressed as l≪λ.
o Uniform Current Distribution: The current along the dipole is assumed to be uniform,
meaning that the current magnitude and phase are constant along the entire length of the
dipole.
o Negligible Capacitive Effects: Capacitive effects, which arise due to the finite size of the
conductors and the electric field between them, are typically neglected in the Hertzian
dipole model.
o Negligible Radiation from Feeding Points: Radiation from the feeding points (where the
dipole is connected to a transmission line or source) is often assumed to be negligible
compared to the radiation from the dipole itself. This assumption simplifies the analysis by
focusing on the radiation properties of the dipole.