Group Theory

Semi Group

The algebraic system (S,*), where S is a nonempty set and * is a binary operation on S is called a
semigroup if * is a binary operation

Egs: (N, +), (Z, ×), (P(S), ∪), (P(S), ∩), ….

Monoids

A monoid is (M, *), where (M, *) is a semigroup having an identity element with respect to *.

Eg: (Z, ×), (P(S), ∪), (P(S), ∩),…

Group

A non empty set G together with a binary operation * is said to be a group if it satisfies

G1: Associativity

G2: existence of Identity

G3: Existence of Inverse.

Subgroups

A subset H of a group G is called a subgroup of G if

(i) Whenever a  H , b  H  ab  H
(ii) Identity e  H
(iii) For each a  H , a −1  H .

Example:

1. G = {1, −1, i, −i}

H = {1, −1} is a subgroup of G under multiplication.
2. Z , the set of Integers is a subgroup of (Q, +).

Problem

1. Show that a non-empty subset H of a group G is a subgroup if and only if whenever

a  H , b  H  ab −1  H .
 Proof: (Necessary part) Let H be a subgroup of G. If b  H then b −1  H .(by definition of
H)

If a  H , b −1  H then ab −1  H (by definition).

(Sufficient Part)

Assume whenever a  H , b  H  ab −1  H where H is a nonempty subset of G. ie.,

a  H , a  H  aa −1  H  e  H .
Now e  H , a  H  ea −1  H  a −1  H
Now a  H , b −1  H  a(b −1 ) −1  H  ab  H
Then H is a subgroup of G.
2. Show that a finite subset H of a group G is a subgroup if and only if whenever
a  H , b  H  ab  H .
Solution: Let H be a finite subset of G. Let a  H , a  H  a 2  H
a  H , a 2  H  a 3  H and so on. Ie., a, a 2 , a 3 ,...., a n ,....  H . All these powers belongs to
H and since H is finite atleast two of them coincide. That is, a m = a n for m  n . Now
a m . a − n = a n . a − n = e  e = a m−n . Also a. a m−n−1 = a m−n = e  a −1 = a m−n −1  H . Hence H is a
subgroup of G.

Results: Left Cancellation law and Right Cancellation Law

1. Let G be a group and a,b are in G. then

ab = ac  b = c (left cancellation law)

ba = ca  b = c (right cancellation law)

2. Let G be a group and a,b are in G. then the equations a x = b and y a =b have unique
solutions in G.

Structure of the Problem

1. Show that for any group G , H = {x  G / xa = ax; a  G} is a subgroup of G ?

Proof:

Let x, y  H then

xa = ax
ya = ay
In order to show that H is a subgroup it is enough to show that xy −1  H

For that first show that y −1  H using the definition of y −1  H in the question

Consider 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑎𝑦

𝑦 −1 (𝑦𝑎)𝑦 −1 = 𝑦 −1 (𝑎𝑦)𝑦 −1 ⇒ 𝑎𝑦 −1 = 𝑦 −1 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑦 −1 ∈ 𝐻

Now (𝑥𝑦 −1 )𝑎 = 𝑥(𝑦 −1 𝑎) = 𝑥(𝑎𝑦 −1 ) = (𝑥𝑎)𝑦 −1 = (𝑎𝑥)𝑦 −1 = 𝑎(𝑥𝑦 −1 )

Hence 𝑥𝑦 −1 ∈ 𝐻 thus H is a sub group of G.

Centre of the group G is the subgroup of G defined as 𝑍(𝐺) = {𝑥: 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑎𝑥, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑎 ∈ 𝐺}. If G
is abelian , then G = Z(G).

Finite groups by composition table

(1) 𝑍4 = {0,1,2,3} 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝. (question can come to show that this is a
group)
+4 0 1 2 3
0 0 1 2 3
1 1 2 3 0
2 2 3 0 1
3 3 0 1 2

All the entries in the composition table are elements of {0,1,2,3} hence clousure property is
satisfied.

Integers satisfies associative property w.r.t addition. hence the operation +4 is associative.

0 is the identity element.

Inverses of 0,1,2,3 are 0,3,2,1 respectively.

There fore 𝑍4 = {0,1,2,3} 𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑑𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑜 4 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝.

Since the corresponding rows and columns are same the operation is commutative. Hence the given
group is an abelian group.

(1) (𝑍5 ,×5 ) ; 𝑍5 = {1,2,3,4} is an abelian group. This can be proved similarly.
(2) subgroups of 𝑍4 . {0} ,{0,2}, 𝑍4 are the subgroups of 𝑍4
 Lattice diagram to denote the subgroups

𝑍4

{0,2}

{0}

Cyclic groups

Let G be a group 𝑎 ∈ 𝐻, then the set 𝐻 = {𝑎𝑛 : 𝑛 ∈ 𝑍} is a subgroup of G and is the smallest subgroup
of G containing a. H is called the cyclic group generated by a and is denoted by < a > . a is called the
generator of G if G = < a >.

Eg: G = { 1, -1, i, -i} with operation multiplication is a cyclic group where generators are i and -i.

{e} is cyclic group called trivial group with generator e.

Z is a cyclic group with generators 1 and -1.

𝑍4 is cyclic with generators 1 and 3.

Problems:

1. If G is a cyclic group then show that G is abelian

Proof: Let G be a cyclic group then G = < a >. Let a be the generator of G. Let x, y
in G then 𝑥 = 𝑎𝑚 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑦 = 𝑎𝑛 . Now 𝑥𝑦 = 𝑎𝑚 . 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑎𝑚+𝑛 = 𝑎𝑛+𝑚 = 𝑎𝑛 . 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑦𝑥. Then G
is abelian.

Note : Let G be a cyclic group then a subgroup H of G is also cyclic.

Note : Any subgroup of Z is of the form nZ , for some n  Z

Theorem: Every group of prime order is cyclic.

Proof:

Let G be a group of prime order p. a  G, a  e

O(a) \ O(G)  O(a) \ p  O(a) = p

 G = a  is cyclic.
Group of Cosets

Consider G = Z , H = 5Z

Now

H = {...... − 10,−5,0,5,10,15,....}
1 + H = {..... − 9,−4,1,6,11,16,....}
2 + H = {..... − 8,−3,2,7,12,17,....}
3 + H = {.....,−7,−2,3,8,13,18,...}
4 + H = {....,−6,−1,4,9,14,19,.....}
5 + H = {....,−5,0,5,10,15,20,....} = H

If you take 6 + H it will be same as 1 + H and so on

If you check H + 1, H + 2, H + 3, H + 4, then you can find that they are same as
1 + H ,2 + H ,3 + H ,4 + H ,

And H  (1 + H )  (2 + H )  (3 + H )  (4 + H ) = G itself. And it is clear that

H  (1 + H )  (2 + H )  (3 + H )  (4 + H ) =  hence they are disjoint.

The sets H ,1 + H ,2 + H ,3 + H ,4 + H are called the left cosets of G and

H + 1, H + 2, H + 3, H + 4 are called the right cosets of G (here * is +)

Now we can define the Cosets of a Group

Definition:

Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G . For any a  G , the set aH (means a * H ) is called
the Left Coset of H in G . Similarly, Ha (means H * a ) is called the Right Coset of H in G

Theorem 1: Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G . Then G is the union of all the left (or
right) cosets of H in G and any two distinct left cosets of H in G are disjoint

Theorem 2: Any two Left cosets of H in G have the same number of elements

Proof: Let aH and bH be any two left cosets of H in G . Define f : aH → bH by f (ah) = bh

for all h  H ( ah  aH , bh  bH )

Show that f is one – one and onto

(Do by yourself)
Then we can say that aH and bH contains the same number of elements.

1. Find the left cosets of H = {0,3} in G = Z 6 = {0,1,2,3,4,5} ?

Lagrange’s Theorem

(state and prove Lagrange’s Theorem?)

Statement

Let G be a finite group and H be a subgroup of G . Then O( H )dividesO(G).

Proof:

Let G be a finite group and H be a subgroup of G . Then the number of left cosets of H in G
is finite. Let the distinct left cosets be a1 H , a 2 H , a3 H ,..., a n H . Then we know that
G = a1 H  a 2 H  a3 H  ...  a n H and a1 H  a 2 H  a3 H  ...  a n H =  . Also they have
same number of elements (by the theorem 2).

Then

O(G ) = O(a1 H  a 2 H  a3 H  ...  a n H )

= O(a1 H ) + O(a 2 H ) + O(a3 H ) + ... + O(a n H )
= O( H ) + .......O( H )
= nO( H )
 O( H )dividesO(G ).

Hence the result.

Index of H in G is the number of left cosets or right cosets of H in G . it is denoted by [G : H ]

(read as index of H in G).

If G is finite, O(G) = O( H )[G : H ] .

Theorem: Let G be a group and H a subgroup of G then the number of left cosets of H in G is
the same as the number of right cosets of H in G.