Bohdan Khmelnistky National University of Cherkasy

@ Prof. S.A. Zhabotynska

A lecture course for undergraduate students

(4th year)

Cherkasy
2017
 Lecture 1
LINGUISTICS AS THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE

3. Scope
of Linguistics
1. GENERAL
LINGUISTICS:
basic questions
2. Linguistics vs.
traditional grammar

1. General linguistics and its basic questions

Linguistics is the scientific study of language, or the discipline that describes language in all its
aspects and formulates theories as to how it works. While the studies of individual languages
(English, Ukrainian, Chinese, etc.) focus on their particular characteristics, general / theoretical
linguistics aims to determine the characteristics of human language as a phenomenon, and to
establish universal principles for the analysis of all languages.
General linguistics considers such basic questions:
 What is language? How is it organized?
 What do all languages have in common?
 What are the differences between languages?
 Why do humans talk, or what is the origin of language? How does a child learn to speak?
 What are the differences between human language and animal communication?
 In what forms did languages exist before? How do languages change through time? Why do
languages change?
 How does one write down the spoken language?
 How is language used for successful interaction?
 How is language related to thought?
 How does language reflect social and cultural differences?
 How can we simulate language and its workings in computers?
A person who studies linguistics, or a linguistics expert, is called a linguist. A more accurate
term is a ‘linguistician’, as the word ‘linguist’ has one more meaning – a person proficient in
more than one language. Linguists need not be fluent in languages, though they must be
knowledgeable about the systems of languages, and capable of explaining various linguistic
phenomena.
(+ Aitchison, p. 3-4)
2. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar
Linguistics differs from traditional grammar in three principal aspects:
(1) Linguistics describes language; it does not prescribe the rules of its ‘correctness’, which is
the task of traditional grammar. The notion of absolute and unchanging ‘correctness’ is
quite foreign to linguists. They are interested in any linguistic form, be it ‘standard’ or
‘non-standard’.
(2) Linguists regard the spoken language as primary and therefore more important than the
written language. Traditional grammar over-stresses the importance of the written word,
which is ‘permanent’ and recorded in the classical works of the ‘best authors’.
(3) Traditional grammarians tend to consider Latin grammar as a universal framework into
which the descriptions of all languages fit. To linguists, it is unthinkable to judge one
language by the standards of another. Linguists try to expose a universal framework which
is shared by all languages, but which does not belong to a particular language.
(+ Aitchison, p. 4-7)

3. The scope of linguistics

Linguistics as a science is represented by a number of its branches (Fig. 1.1). The central ones
are phonetics/phonology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
 Phonetics studies characteristics of actual physical sounds of speech, the raw material out of
which language is made. Phonetics overlaps with physics (acoustics), and human physiology.
Phonology, being a branch of linguistics proper, analyses patterns of speech sounds. In
phonology, sounds are considered as sound types or abstract generalizations inherent in the
system of language.
 Syntax, in its broad sense, studies the arrangement of linguistic sound forms into words,
phrases, and sentences. Syntax links together the sound patterns and the meaning.
 Semantics is the study of meanings manifested by various linguistic forms.
Together, phonetics, syntax, and semantics constitute the grammar of language
broadly understood as the system of language.
 Pragmatics deals with how speakers use language in speech in ways which cannot be
predicted from their knowledge about to the system of language alone.
The studies of language as a system (phonetics, syntax, and semantics), and the
studies of speech (pragmatics) form the ‘inner circle’ of linguistics. Its ‘outer’
circle emerges at the intersection of linguistics and other disciplines.
 Philosophical linguistics / philosophy of language, which borders on philosophy and logic,
attempts to discern the logical structure of reality through discerning the formal linguistic
structures (perceived and mental) in which we represent or think reality. The particular
concern is with the truth or falsity of sentences that describe the world. Philosophical
linguistics also defines the philosophical status of linguistic theories, methods, and
observations, i.e. their contribution to explaining the basic laws of nature, society, and
thought.
 Cognitive linguistics and psycholinguistics overlap with psychology, and focus on the
problem ‘language and the mind’.
 Neurolinguistics, which is close to neuroscience, studies the problem ‘language and the
brain’.
 Computational linguistics, a discipline between computer science and linguistics, focuses
on the computational aspects of human language. These are aspects that can be put into the
form of a sequence of instructions that a computer can understand.
 Applied linguistics applies linguistic findings to solving practical problems (compiling
dictionaries, language teaching, translation, etc.). Therefore, it interacts with a number of
disciplines, primarily methods of language teaching and translation studies.
 Stylistics overlaps with literature studies, since it is concerned with language in its relation to
literature.
 Anthropological linguistics and ethnolinguistics, which border on anthropology and culture
studies, consider general evolution of the human mind reflected in the respective evolution of
language, as well as the use of language in particular cultural and cross-cultural settings.
 Sociolinguistics, overlapping with sociology, is the study of language as a societal factor.

Philosophy of language Sociolinguistics

Cognitive
linguistics Anthropolinguistics
Ethnolinguistic
Psycholinguistics Syntax

Semantics Pragmatics

Phonology
Neurolinguistics Stylistics

Phonetics

Computational linguistics Applied linguistics

Fig. 1.1. The scope of linguistics

The issues relevant for different branches of linguistics may be considered as existing at a
particular point in time (synchronically) or through time (diachronically). The respective
approaches are called synchronic linguistics and diachronic / historical linguistics. The latter,
due to the focus on language change, overlaps with linguistic typology which establishes
language types with regard to different criteria – kinship of languages, their geographic
proximity, and their structural characteristics.
(+ Aitchison, p. 7-10)
 Lecture 2
PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY

SOUNDS
PHONETICS PHONOLOGY

of speech of language (abstract

(material sounds) sounds, sound types)

- Acoustic Phonetics - Phonology vs. Phonetics

- Articulatory Phonetics - Phoneme and allophones
- Organs of speech - Phoneme: the theory
- Stages of articulation (contribution of different schools)
- Articulatory basis of - Segmental and non-segmental
a language phonemes
- Integral and differential features of
phonemes
- Phonemic oppositions and their
types
- Strong and weak positions of vowels and
consonants
- Neutralization of phonemic oppositions
- Phonetic and phonemic transcriptions
- Spelling and pronunciation

- Vowels vs. consonants

- Classifications of vowels
- Classifications of consonants

- Combinatory phonetic changes

- Positional phonetic changes
- Orthoepy (Received Pronunciation)

- Syllable: definition
- Open and closed syllables
- Syllable: sonorous and muscular theories
- Monosyllabic languages

- Prosody
- Syllabic stress and its types
- Word stress and its types
- Metrical phonology
- Sentence stress and its types
- Stress group
- Clitics (proclitics and enclitics)
- Intonation and its components
(speech melody, sentence stress,
rhythm, tempo of speech, pause,
and voice timber)
 Acoustic Phonetics, or acoustics of speech, studies physical properties (pitch, loudness,
length, timbre, etc.) of audible speech sounds. Acoustic phonetics uses various instrumental
techniques of investigation to provide an objective account of speech patterns related to the
way sounds are produced and heard.

 Articulatory Phonetics, or physiology of speech, studies articulation of sounds with regard

to the organs of speech.

 Organs of speech. (See 1; 2; 4).

 Stages of articulation: the on-glide, the retention stage, and the off-glide. Merging of stages
and interpenetration of stages. (See 3).

 Articulatory basis of a language is the scope of all movements performed by the organs of
speech to produce the sounds of this language. Articulatory bases of different languages do
not coincide.

* * *
 Phonology vs. Phonetics. While phonetics studies material, or physical, sounds of speech,
phonology studies sound types, or abstract sounds of language. Phonology highlights the
functions of sound types, i.e. their ability to differentiate between meanings.

 A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit (a sound type) that serves to differentiate between
meanings. E.g. the meanings of words: /bid/ – /bi:d/ – /bo:d/; the meanings of word-forms:
/gu:s/ – /gi:s/, /spend/ – /spent/. A phoneme, as a sound type, is represented by its allophones.
Allophones are positional variants of one and the same phoneme. Unlike phonemes,
allophones do not differentiate between meanings. E.g. short and long vowels in Ukrainian;
aspirated and non-aspirated consonants in English. (See 4).

 Theory of the phoneme. The Prague Linguistic School (N.S. Trubetskoi, A. Martine)
defined the phoneme as a constituent of the sound form of words. Such elements are similar
in different words. Comparison of words and word forms which differ in one sound results in
distinguishing phonemic oppositions, or contrasting pairs of sounds (minimal pairs). Such
oppositions can be of various types. The Copenhagen Linguistic School (L. Helmslev) also
regarded the phoneme as a component of words or word forms. Besides, it was emphasized
that the phoneme has no meaning of its own, but it helps to differentiate between the
meanings of larger units. The American School of Descriptive Linguistics (K.L. Pike, Ch.
Hockett) introduced the definition of an allophone as a positional variant of one and the same
 phoneme. The school considered various types of contexts (distributions) in which phonemes
may occur.
There were differences in interpretation of the phoneme by the Moscow and Leningrad
Phonological Schools. The Moscow Phonological School (R.I. Avanesov, P.S. Kuznetsov,
A.A. Reformatsky) considered the phoneme as the smallest sound unit and a constituent of
the sound form of morphemes and words. The basic variant of a phoneme (its invariant) is
represented in its strong position, when a phoneme differentiates between the meanings of
words and morphemes. The sounds make up a phoneme if they occur in one and the same
position in the morpheme. E.g. Russ. /д/, /т/ in /сад-ы/ and /сат/ ‘сад’; /т’/, /т/ in /п’ат’/
‘пять’ and /п’ат-ый/ ‘пятый’. The Leningrad Phonological School (L.V. Sherba,
L.R.Zinder, M.I. Matusevich) maintained that a phoneme is made up by the sounds which are
similar acoustically, and which are associated with one and the same meaning. A phoneme is
an autonomous unit; it does not depend on the position of the sound in a morpheme. The
sounds belong to different phonemes if one can find in the language even one pair of words
or word forms where these sounds differentiate between meanings. E.g. Russ. /д/, /т/ in /дом/
and /том/; /т’/, /т/ in /рат/ ‘рад’ and /рат’/ ‘рать’.

 Segmental phonemes are chunks, or segments, of different sounds, e.g. /b/, /t/, /e/, /I/, etc.
Non-segmental phonemes are various tones that help to distinguish meanings, e.g. Chinese:
ma [ ] – ‘mother’; ma [ ] – ‘hemp’, ma [ ] – ‘scold’, ma [ ] – ‘horse’. (See 4).

 Integral features of phonemes are the features shared by some phonemes; such features are
considered when phonemes are united into groups, e.g. Engl. /n/, /n/, /m/ are nasal sounds;
/p/, /t/, /k/ are aspirated sounds. Differential features of phonemes are the features that differ
phonemes from one another. Such features are exposed in phonemic oppositions.

 Phonemic oppositions are the pairs of phonemes that have integral features, being opposed
to each other by one or several differential features. The major types of phonemic
oppositions are: (1) one-feature opposition, where the phonemes have one differential
feature, e.g. Engl. /t/ :: /d/ – voiceless :: voiced; Ukr. /т/ :: /т’/ – hard :: soft; (2) multi-feature
opposition, where the phonemes have several differential features, e.g. Engl. /p/ :: /z/ –
voiceless :: voiced, labial :: lingual, occlusive :: constrictive; (3) typical opposition, which is
revealed in a number of sound pairs, e.g. /p/ :: /b/, /t/ :: /d/, /k/ :: /g/, etc. – voiceless :: voiced;
(4) isolative opposition, where the opposed phonemes belong to different languages, e.g.
Ukr. /в/ :: Engl. /w/.

 The strong position of a phoneme is such a position where the features of a phoneme are
most distinct. Vowels are in their strong position when they are stressed. Consonants are in
their strong position when they stand before a vowel or a sonorous consonant. The weak
position of a phoneme is such a position where some features of a phoneme become
 indistinct or they can even disappear. Vowels are in their weak position when they are
unstressed. Consonants are in their weak position when they stand before noise consonants or
at the end of a word.

 Neutralization of phonemic oppositions occurs in a one-feature opposition, when one of its

members loses its differential feature while used in a weak position. Thus, the opposition is
reduced to one member. E.g. Russ. /д/ :: /т/  /т/ in /кот/ ‘код’ :: /кот/ ‘кот’.

 Phonetic and phonemic transcriptions. Transcription is a method of writing down speech

sounds in a systematic and consistent way. In phonetic transcription, the symbolized sounds
are allophones that preserve their articulatory / auditory identity. Phonetic transcription is
given in square brackets: [t]. In phonemic transcription, the symbolized sounds are
phonemes, or “generalized sounds” which have a linguistic function, i.e. which differentiate
between meanings. Phonemic transcription is given in slanted brackets: /t/.

 Spelling and pronunciation. Pronunciation and spelling do not coincide. Between them,
there are different degrees of divergence exhibited by various principles of orthography, or
the system of spelling rules.
(1) Orthography based on the phonetic principle most closely relates to pronunciation: the
words tend to be spelt as they are pronounced. This principle is typical of Byelorussian
and Serbo-Croatian. E.g. Byelorussian вада, карова, лес – лясы, стол – сталы.
(2) Orthography based on the morphological principle means that a morpheme retains its
spelling, irrespective of the changes in its pronunciation. Ukrainian and Russian set the
examples of languages where this principle is observed. E.g. Ukr. водний – вода; Russ.
дом – домашний.
(3) Orthography based on the historical- traditional principle exhibits the most considerable
divergence between pronunciation and spelling. In many cases spelling, which was
motivated before, becomes non-motivated later. Still, it is preserved, being linked to
pronunciation by convention. This principle is obvious in English. E.g. night OE /`ni:ht/
 CE /`nait/. Cf. also brought /`bro:t/, exhaust /ig `zo:st/, campaign /k m` pein/.

* * *
 Vowels vs. consonants.
(1) Acoustic feature: vowels are produced without noise, only voice (tone) is heard;
consonants are always produced with noise.
(2) Articulatory features:
(a) vowels are produced without an obstruction to the air stream; consonants are
produced with an obstruction to the air stream;
 (b) in the production of vowels the tension of the organs of speech is not localized at a
particular place; in the production of consonants the tension of the organs of speech is
localized at the place of obstruction;
(c) in the production of vowels the air stream is weak; in the production of consonants
the air stream is strong.
(3) Functional feature: vowels form syllables; most consonants do not form syllables.

 Classifications of vowels: (1) according to the stability of articulation; (2) according to the
vertical movement of the tongue; (3) according to the horizontal movement of the tongue; (4)
according to the position of lips; (5) according to the work of the soft palate. (See 3).

 Classifications of consonants: (1) according to the degree of noise and the force of
articulation; (2) according to the manner of articulation; (3) according to the active organ of
speech; (4) according to the place of obstruction; (5) labialisation; palatalisation and
velarisation; nazalisation; aspiration (See 3).

* * *
 Combinatory phonetic changes are caused by the distribution of a phoneme, or its
neighboring sounds.

(1) Assimilation: definition. Types of assimilation: a) according to its direction, b)

according to the degree of completeness, c) according to the degree of stability. (See 3).

(2) Synharmony, or harmony of vowels is a type of assimilation which takes place when
the vowel in the first syllable requires the presence of vowels of the same class (front or
back) in the other syllables. Languages that display harmony as a systematic feature of
their sound system are Turkish and Hungarian. These languages are agglutinative, i.e. the
grammatical forms of words are manifested by affixes each of which has only one
grammatical meaning. The vowels in affixes must be ‘in harmony’ with the vowel in the
root. E.g. Turkish oda ‘room’ – odalar ‘rooms’; ev ‘house’ – evler ‘houses’; Hungarian
leves ‘soup’ – levesek ‘soups’; salato ‘salad’ – salatak ‘salads’.

(3) Dissimilation is the influence exercised by one sound segment upon another, similar in
pronunciation, so that the sounds become less alike; contrasts with assimilation. The
effects are often seen in the history of a language, e.g. the change of [r] to [l] in the
derivation of English pilgrim from Latin peregrinus.
Types of dissimilation:
o According to the place in a word, dissimilation can be contact and distant.
In contact dissimilation, it is the adjacent sounds that become less alike, e.g. Ukr.
трамвай  *транвай, Non-Received Pronunciation – NRP (/м/ labial + /в/ labial
  /н/ dental + /в/ labial); бомба  *бонба, NRP (/м/ labial + /б/ labial  /н/ dental
+ /б/ labial).
In distant dissimilation, the dissimilated sounds stand apart, e.g. Ukr. лабораторія
 *лаболаторія, NRP; коридор  *колидор, NRP (/р/ + /р/  /л/ dental + /р/
alveolar).
o According to its direction, dissimilation can be progressive and regressive.
In progressive dissimilation, it is the following sound that changes its articulation,
E.g. Ukr. асфальт  *асвальт, NRP (/с/ noise, voiceless + /ф/ noise, voiceless 
/с/ noise, voiceless + /в/ noise, voiced); прорубь  *пролубь, NRP (/p/ + /p/  /p/
alveolar + /л/ dental).
In regressive dissimilation, it is the preceding sound that changes its articulation, e.g.
Ukr. секретар  *секлетар, NRP (/р/ + /р/  /л/ dental + /р/ alveolar).

(4) Accommodation is a combinatory phonetic process that is caused by interacting of the

neighboring vowel and consonant sounds. As a result, either a vowel or a consonant
becomes similar to the adjacent sound. Accommodation causes the appearance of an
allophone of one and the same phoneme. E.g. Engl. /`tu:/ ‘two’, ‘too’ (an unrounded
consonant becomes rounded before a rounded vowel); Engl. /`ti:/ ‘tea’, Russ. /лик/ ‘лик’
(a consonant becomes palatalized before a front vowel); Russ. /лыко/ ‘лыко’ (a
consonant becomes velarised, or made harder, before a back vowel); Engl. /`stju:dent/
‘student’ (a fully back vowel becomes slightly advanced after the medio-lingual
consonant /j/); Engl. /`bel/ ‘bell’ (a vowel becomes slightly more open before the dark / l
/).

(5) Elision is the omission of one of the similar adjacent sounds in connected speech, e.g.
Russ. /сонце/ ‘солнце’, /лесница/ ‘лестница’. Haplology is the omission of one of the
similar adjacent syllables in connected speech, e.g. Engl. /`laibri:/ ‘library’, /`probli:/
‘probably’. The process is common in the study of historical sound change, e.g. Old
English Englaland became England in Modern English. Cf. Russ. знаменоносец 
знаменосец, розововатый  розоватый.

(6) Intrusion, or epenthesis / ep n `0i:sis/, is the addition of sounds in connected speech;

contrasts with elision. Anaptyxis / en p `tiksis/ is the a type of intrusion, when an extra
sound is added within a word, e.g. Engl.*/fil m/, ‘film’ NRP; Russ. */пелемени/
‘пельмени’ NRP (non-received pronumciation), */учавствовать/ ‘участвовать’ NRP,
Ukr. *[рехферендум] ‘референдум’ NRP. Prothesis /pr `0i:sis/ is a type of intrusion,
when an extra sound is added initially, e.g. Latin schola ‘school’ became Spanish
escuela; Latin octo became Russian восемь. Cf. Russ. Анна and Ukr. Ганна; Ukr. RP
(received pronunciation) Умань, аптека, оселедець and Ukr. dialectal Гумань (Умань),
гаптека, госеледець. Linking is a type of intrusion, when an extra sound is added
 between two words. A common example in English is the use of intrusive /r/ between
vowels in Received Pronunciation when there is no r in spelling, as in / `lo:r nd `o:d /
‘law and order’, /` efrik r nd `ei / ‘Africa and Asia’.

(7) Metathesis /m ` te0 sis/ is an alteration in the normal sequence of sounds or syllables in
a word. The effect may be heard in everyday speech, as when people say aks foe ask, but
it is also a noticeable feature of language history. E.g. Old English hros became Modern
English horse; Latin marmur became Russian мрамор. Cf. also Ukr. RP шосе and NRP
соша.

 Positional phonetic changes result from the weak position of a phoneme. The most typical
case of positional phonetic changes is reduction. Reduction and its types. (See 3).

 Orthoepy (Receved Pronunciation – RP) is a standardized system of rules for

pronunciation in a specific language. Cf. NRP – non-received pronunciation, or deviation
from the standard pronunciation.
* * *
 Syllable is the minimal unit of organization for a sequence of speech sounds, acting as a unit
of rhythm. It consists of an obligatory nucleus (typically, a vowel) with optional initial and
final margins (typically, consonants).
E.g. /`pen/: /e/ – the nucleus; /p/, /n/ – the margins.
Structural classifications also recognize a division between an initial onset and a following
rhyme (or rime). The rhyme is further subdivided into a peak followed by a coda. The onset
corresponds to the initial margin, the peak to the nucleus, and the coda to the final margin.
E.g. /`pen/: /p/ – the onset; /en/ – the rhyme; /e/ – the peak, /n/ – the coda.

A syllable ending in a vowel is an open syllable; one ending in a consonant is a closed, or

checked, syllable. The division of a word into syllables is called syllabification. A segment
which can act as a syllabic nucleus is described as syllabic. The number of syllables in a
word equals to the number of syllabic segments.

 According to the sonorous theory, a syllable is the minimal portion of voice energy which
has its peak (the maximum of voice) and the margins (the minimum of voice). The peak is a
syllabic sound – a vowel or sonorant; the margins are consonants. According to the
muscular theory, a syllable relates to the increase of muscular tension at the beginning and
its decrease at the end of a syllable.

 In the majority of languages the division of a word into morphemes and its division into
syllables do not coincide. However, there are languages where these divisions mostly
 coincide: here, all or most of the morphemes or words consist of single syllables. Such
languages are called monosyllabic. E.g. Chinese, Thai, and Tibetan.
* * *
 Prosody is the unity of stress and intonation.

 Syllabic stress is a phonetic property of syllables. It relates to the way in which a stressed
syllable is singled out, or made more prominent, in a word. Types of syllabic stress:

(1) Dynamic stress: the stressed syllable is pronounced louder than the unstressed ones. This
type of stress, combined with quantitative stress, is typical of Ukrainian, Russian,
English, German, and many other languages. In Swedish, dynamic stress combines with
musical stress.
(2) Quantitative stress: the stressed syllable is longer than the unstressed ones. This stress
hardly occurs by itself. It integrates with the other types of stress. Quantitative stress is
most salient in New Greek.
(3) Musical, or tone, stress: the stressed syllable has a particular pitch melody. The same
syllable spoken with a different tone each time has a different meaning. Such languages
are called tone languages. The examples are Chinese, Japanese, Korean, and Old Greek.

 Word stress relates to the location of stress in a word, and to the number of stresses with
different degrees of prominence. Types of word stress:
(1) With regard to its location in a word the following types are distinguished:
a) Free word stress, which can rest on any syllable in a word; it can move from
one syllable to another. The examples are set by Ukrainian, Russian, and
English. E.g. Ukr. ліс – ліси – лісовий; Russ. дом – дома – дома –
домашний; Engl. artist – artistic, subject – subject. The change of stress may
cause the change of meaning.
b) Fixed word stress rests on one and the same syllable in all words. E.g. in
Czech, Hungarian, Finnish, Estonian and Latvian stress rests on the first
syllable; in French and in most Turkish languages stress rests on the last
syllable; in Polish the last but one syllable is stressed.
c) Bound word stress is a kind of fixed stress which has a restricted zone within
which it falls on a particular syllable. The example is Latin, where word stress
rests on either the second or the third syllable from the end.
(2) Provided there are two stressed syllables in a word, they may differ in the degree of
prominence. Accordingly, the distinction is made between:
a) Primary stress, which is more prominent, and
b) Secondary stress, which is less prominent. E.g. Engl. /a: tikju:`lei n/
‘articulation’, /pr n nsi `ei n/ ‘pronunciation’.
 Metrical phonology studies the interplay of stresses and unstressed syllables in words and
word groups. (See 4).

 Sentence stress performs syntactic and semantic functions: it unites words into meaningful
phrases. Sentence stress is a component of intonation. Sentence stress is based on the word
stress. Types of sentence stress:

(1) Phrasal, or syntagmatic, stress makes the phrase a syntactic whole where some words
are stressed and some are unstressed. One of the stressed syllables (usually, that
which is final) has a conventional tone associated with a particular meaning. Phrasal
stress is compulsory for a sentence. E.g. Ukr. Вони навчаються в універси теті.
Вони навчаються в универcи теті. Engl. They study at the uni versity. Do they
study at the uni versity?

(2) Logical stress highlights the most important information, which may be conveyed by
any word in the phrase, even that which is conventionally unstressed. The logically
stressed word is pronounced louder than the other words. This type of stress is not
compulsory for a sentence. E.g. Engl. THEY study at the university. Your book is
UNDER the table. It is not ON the table. The cup ISN’T broken.

(3) Emphatic, or emotional, stress is intended for conveying the attitude of the speaker
towards the highlighted information. Emphasis is exposed through the change of
voice pitch. This type of stress is not compulsory for a sentence. E.g. Engl. It’s so
``WONDERFUL. He knows``NOTHING about it (High Fall).

 Stress group is a sequence of syllables constituting a rhythm unit that contains one primary
stress. A stress group may include one stressed word and one or more unstressed ones. As a
rhythm unit, they make up ‘a phonetic word’. The unstressed words attached to the stressed
one are called clitics. Clitics include enclitics and proclitics.

Enclitic is an unstressed word attached to the preceding stressed word. E.g. Ukr. сказав би;
Russ. без вести, по миру, по воду; Engl. cannot.

Proclitic is an unstressed word attached to the following stressed word. E.g. Ukr. на столі;
Russ. мой дядя; Engl. an apple, my uncle.

 Intonation is a complex unity of speech melody, sentence stress, rhythm, tempo of speech,
pauses, and voice timbre.
 Speech melody is represented by variations of voice pitch produced by significant moves of
the voice up and down.

Sentence stress: see above.

Rhythm is a regular flow of speech in which stressed and unstressed syllables occur at
definite intervals. There are two kinds of rhythm: syllable-timed rhythm and stress-timed
rhythm. In languages spoken with syllable-timed rhythm (e.g. French and Japanese), all
syllables are of equal value; they follow each other with fairly equal length and force. The
rhythm is even, based on a smooth flow of syllables without a strong contrast of stress. To an
English-speaking person this kind of rhythm sounds mechanically regular. English with this
kind of rhythm would be hard to understand. In languages with stress-timed rhythm (e.g.
English, Ukrainian, Russian), there is alteration of strongly and weakly stressed syllables. It
is the stress (stressed syllable) that occurs at fairly equal intervals of time.

Tempo of speech is the relative speed or slowness of utterance which is measured by the rate
of syllable succession, and the number and duration of pauses in a sentence. The average
rate of delivery may contain 2 to 4 syllables per second for slow speech (lento), from 3 to 6
syllables per second for normal speech, and 5 to 9 syllables per second for fast speech
(allegro).

Pause is an act of stopping in the flow of speech. Acoustically, a pause is the absence of
sound. Physiologically, it is the absence of articulation. Pauses are used for physiological
purposes (to inhale the air), for semantic purposes (to show the link between phrases or
syntagms / `sint mz/), and for emphatic purposes (e.g. to express surprise, bewilderment,
astonishment, etc).

Voice timbre is the ‘color’ or ‘tonal quality’ of voice. Timbre depends on the physiological
properties and psychological state of a person.

LITERATURE:
1. Соколова М.А. и др. Практическая фонетика английского языка. М., 1984. Chapter
1: The Production of Speech (pp. 10 – 13).
2. Васильев В.А. English Phonetics. M., 1980. Chapter 1: The Organs of Speech and their
Functions (pp. 15 – 16).
3. Жаботинская С.А. Методическая разработка по практической фонетике английского
языка для студентов 1-3 курсов факультета иностранных языков. Часть 1. Основы
теории: ЗВУКИ И СЛОВА. – Черкассы, ЧГПИ, 1988. (pp. 4-25; 32-40).
4. Aitchison, J. Linguistics. – Chicago, 1993. Chapter 5: Sound Patterns (pp. 37 – 47).
 PHONETICS AND PHONOLOGY:
Pre-Test

Part 1. PHONETICS

PHONETICS PHONOLOGY

Acoustic Phonetics Articulatory Phonetics

(LISTENER) (SPEAKER)

 Organs of speech
 Articulatory basis of a
language
 Stages of articulation/
Merging of stages and
 Match
1. ______ studies material, or physical, sounds of speech.
2. ______studies sound types, or abstract sounds of language; highlights the functions of
sound types, i.e. their ability to differentiate between meanings.
a) Phonetics b) Phonology
 Match
1. ______ studies physical properties (pitch, loudness, length, timbre, etc.) of audible speech
sounds. _________uses various instrumental techniques of investigation to provide an
objective account of speech patterns related to the way sounds are produced and heard.

2. ______ studies articulation of sounds with regard to the organs of speech.

a) Articulatory Phonetics; b) Acoustic Phonetics

 Describe:
Organs of speech: a) active, b) passive, c) power mechanism, d) resonators.
 Define:
Articulatory basis of a language.
Describe:
Stages of articulation.
 Identify the phenomenon:
1. The two sounds of different articulatory nature come together. The off-glide of the first
sound and the on-glide of the second sound are pronounced simultaneously. E.g. queue
/`kju:/.
2. The two sounds of similar articulatory nature come together. Different stages of
articulation penetrate into each other. E.g. a) the off-glide of the first sound penetrates into
the off-glide of the second sound: month /`m^n0/; b) the off-glide of the first sound
penetrates into the retention stage of the second sound: asked /`a:skt/; c) the retention stages
of the two sounds penetrate into each other: illegal /`il`li:gl/.
 Part 2. PHONOLOGY

Types of Phonemic
phonemes: oppositions
 Segmental  Types
 Non-segmental
 Strong and weak
Features of position of a
THEORY OF THE phonemes: phoneme
PHONEME  Integral  Neutralization of
Contributors:  Differential phonemic
 Prague Linguistic oppositions (weak
School
 Copenhagen
Linguistic School A phoneme and its
 American School allophones
of Descriptive
Linguistics
Transcription: Orthography:
 Moscow  Phonetic  Based on the
 Phonemic phonetic principle
 Based on the
morphological
principle
 Based on the
historical traditional
principle

 Define:
A phoneme. An allophone.
Match:
1. __________ regarded the phoneme as a component of words or word forms. Emphasized
that the phoneme has no meaning of its own, but it helps to differentiate between the
meanings of larger units.
2. __________ defined the phoneme as a constituent of the sound form of words. Developed
the theory of phonemic oppositions, or contrasting pairs of sounds (minimal pairs).
3. __________ introduced the definition of an allophone as a positional variant of one and
the same phoneme. The school considered various types of contexts (distributions) in which
phonemes may occur.
4. __________ defined the phoneme in its relation to the morpheme. Considered one and the
same sound as a) an allophone of some phoneme, if this sound is used in the same morpheme
and does not change its meaning; e.g. Russ. /д/, /т/ in сади /са`ди/ (strong position), and сад
/`сат/ (weak position); b) as a different phoneme, if this sound, used in its strong position,
changes the meaning of a linguistic form; e.g.Russ. /д/, /т/ in дом /`дом/ and том /`том/.
5. __________ considered the phoneme as an autonomous unit which does not depend on its
position in a morpheme. The sounds belong to different phonemes if one can find in the
language even one pair of words or word forms where these sounds differentiate between
meanings. E.g. Russ. /д/, /т/ in /дом/ and /том/; /т’/, /т/ in /рат/ ‘рад’ and /рат’/ ‘рать’.

a) The Moscow Phonological School b) The Prague Linguistic School

c) The Copenhagen Linguistic School d) The Leningrad Phonological School
e) The American School of Descriptive Linguistics
 Define:
Segmental phonemes. Non-segmental phonemes.
 Define:
Integral features of phonemes. Differential features of phonemes.
 Describe:
The major types of phonemic oppositions.
 Describe:
The strong position of a phoneme. The weak position of a phoneme.
 Define:
Neutralization of phonemic oppositions.
 Match:
1. Transcription given in square brackets: [t]. The symbolized sounds are allophones that
preserve their articulatory / auditory identity.
2. Transcription given in slanted brackets: /t/. The symbolized sounds are phonemes, or
“generalized sounds” which have a linguistic function, i.e. which differentiate between
meanings.
a) Phonemic transcription b) Phonetic transcription
 Describe:
Orthography based on the phonetic principle. Orthography based on the morphological
principle. Orthography based on the historical-traditional principle.

Part 3. CLASSIFICATIONS OF PHONEMES

Differences:

 Acoustic
VOWELS  Articulator CONSONSNTS
y

CLASSIFICATIONS: CLASSIFICATIONS:

 According to the stability of  According to the degree of noise

articulation
 According to the manner of
 According to the vertical articulation
movement of the tongue
 According to the active organ of
 According to the horizontal speech
movement of the tongue
 According to the place of obstruction
 According to the lip position
 Palatalisation and velarisation.
 According to the work of the soft Aspiration
palate

 Describe:
Vowels vs. consonants: an acoustic feature, articulatory features, a functional feature.
 Describe:
Classification of vowels according to the stability of articulation.
 Describe:
Classification of vowels according to the vertical movement of the tongue.
 Describe:
Classification of vowel according to the horizontal movement of the tongue.
 Describe:
Classification of vowels according to the lip position.
 Describe:
Classification of vowels according to the work of the soft palate.
 Describe:
Classification of consonants according to the degree of noise.
 Describe:
Classification of consonants according to the manner of articulation.
 Describe:
Classification of consonants according to the active organ of speech.
 Describe:
Classification of consonants according to the place of obstruction
 Define:
Palatalisation and velarisation. Aspiration.

Part 4. INTERACTION OF SOUNDS: PHONETIC CHANGES

PHONETIC CHANGES

COMBINATORY POSITIONAL
 Interaction of consonants:  Reduction
Assimilation, dissimilation
 Interaction of vowels:
Harmony of vowels
 Interaction of vowels and consonants:
Accommodation.

 Elision/Haplology vs. Intrusion ORTHOEPY (RP)

 Metathesis

 Match:
1. ______ (assimilation, dissimilation, harmony of vowels, accommodation, elision,
intrusion, metathesis) are caused by the distribution of a phoneme, or its neighboring sounds.
2. ______ (reduction) result from the weak position of a phoneme.

a) Combinatory phonetic changes b) Positional phonetic changes

 Define:
Assimilation.
 Describe:
Assimilation according to its direction.
 Describe:
Assimilation according to the degree of completeness.
 Describe:
Assimilation according to the degree of stability.
 Describe:
Dissimilation and its types.
 Define:
Synharmony, or harmony of vowels.
 Define:
Accommodation.
 Describe:
Elision and haplology vs. intrusion.
 Identify the type of intrusion:
1. The a type of intrusion, when an extra sound is added within a word, e.g. Russ. пельмени
*/пелемени/ (non-received pronumciation), участвовать */учавствовать/ (NRP), Ukr.
референдум */рехферендум/ NRP)
2. The type of intrusion, when an extra sound is added initially, e.g. Latin schola ‘school’
became Spanish escuela; Latin octo became Russian восемь. Cf. Russ. Анна and Ukr.
Ганна; Ukr. RP (received pronunciation) Умань, аптека, оселедець and Ukr. dialectal
Гумань (Умань), гаптека, госеледець.
3. The type of intrusion, when an extra sound is added between two words. A common
example in English is the use of intrusive /r/ between vowels in Received Pronunciation
when there is no r in spelling, as in law and order/ `lo:r end `o:de/, Africa and Asia /`
efriker end `ei e/ ‘Africa and Asia’.
 Define:
Metathesis.
 Describe:
Reduction and its types.
 Define: Orthoepy (Receved Pronunciation – RP).

Part 5. SYLLABLE

STRUCTURE:
 Nucleus
SYLLABIFICATION  Margins
THEORIES OF *
THE SYLLABLE  Onset
 Rhyme
 Sonorous - peak
SYLLABLE - coda
Theory
 Muscular
Theory TYPES:
 Open
Monosyllabic  Closed
languages
 Define:
Syllable and its structural parts (nucleus and margins; onset and rhyme, peak and coda).
 Define:
An open syllable. A closed, or checked, syllable.
 Define:
Syllabification.
 Describe:
Definition of the syllable according to the sonorous theory, and the muscular theory.
 Define:
Monosyllabic languages.

Part 6. PROSODY
STRESS INTONATION
PROSODY:  Speech melody
 Syllabic stress Stress +  Sentence stress
 Word stress Intonation  Rhythm
Metrical phonology  Tempo of speech
 Sentence stress  Pauses
 Stress group  Voice timber
- proclitics
- enclitics
 Define:
Prosody.
 Describe:
Syllabic stress and its types.
 Describe:
Word stress and its types.
 Define:
Metrical phonology.
 Describe:
Sentence stress and its types.
 Define:
Stress group.
 Identify the type of a clitic:
1. An unstressed word attached to the preceding stressed word. E.g. Ukr. ска`зав би; Russ.
`без вести, `по миру, `по воду; Engl. `cannot.
2. An unstressed word attached to the following stressed word. E.g. Ukr. на сто`лі; Russ.
мой `дядя; Engl. an `apple, my `uncle.
 Define:
Intonation.
 Define:
Speech melody.
 Describe:
Rhythm and its types.
 Describe:
Tempo of speech and its types.
 Describe:
Pause and its purposes.
 Define:
Voice timbre.
 Lecture 3
LEXICOLOGY

LEXICOLOGY
Lexeme

Studies of word-stock Studies of groups of words Studies of individual words

Word-stock formation Onomastics Etymology
Word-stock stratification Terminology Historical lexicology
Word-stock organization Phraseology

 Lexicology is the study of words, word groups and word-stock as a whole. A word
considered in lexicology is called a lexeme. A lexeme, or lexical item, is an abstract notion,
subsuming a range of grammatical forms of one and the same word (each of which is called
‘a word’ in grammar; e.g. Ukr. стіл, слола, столу, столи, і т.п.; Engl. speak, speaks, spoke,
etc.). A lexeme is conventionally associated with the initial word form (e.g. Ukr. стіл; Engl.
[to] speak). A lexeme is a set of various meanings of one and the same word; the latter are
called lexical semantic variants (LSV), or senses, e.g. Engl. school: (1) ‘learning
institution, building’; (2) ‘lessons, instruction’; (3) ‘pupils or/and teaching stuff’; (4)
‘university students or/and faculty’; (5) ‘group of scholars sharing opinion’; (6) ‘group of
artists sharing style’; (7) ‘group of fish’. A lexeme has its own lexical meaning and a
complete sound form, which makes it an independent unit.
* * *
STUDIES OF WORD-STOCK

Word-Stock Formation
 Morphological word formation (derivational morphology) is the formation of new words
via combining morphemes. Types of morphological word-formation:

(1) Affixation is adding a suffix or/and prefix to the word stem. Suffixation is adding a
suffix at the end of the word stem, e.g. Engl. manhood, duckling, wonderful, wonderfully,
criticize; Ukr. товариство, спільнота, шкільний, фотогрфафувати. Prefixation is
adding a prefix at the beginning of the word stem, e.g. Engl. illegal, re-read, overdone,
underdone, ex-president; Ukr. нелегальний, надзвичайний, переробити, вибрати,
зробити; Russ. подавать преподавать. Suffixation-and-prefixation is a simultaneous
adding of a suffix and prefix to the word stem, e.g. Russ. подснежник, подоконник,
подстрочник.
(2) Back formation, or backderivation, is deriving a new word from a more complex form,
e. g. E.g. beggar  to beg, burglar  to burgle, intuition  to intuite, television  to
televise, stage-manager  to stage-manage; Russ. тишина  тишь, синева  синь.
 (3) Clipping, is deriving a new word via cutting off a part of the initial word. Clipping
usually results in altering the form of a word without changing its meaning. Final
clipping is called apocope /ə‘poukepi/, e.g. Engl. captain  cap, laboratory  lab,
doctor  doc, television telly, dormitory  dorm. Initial clipping is called aphaeresis
/ə‘fiəresis/, e.g. robot  bot, telephone  phone, Internet  net. Final and initial
clipping may be combined and result in curtailed words with the middle part of the
prototype retained, which is the stressed syllable, e.g. influenza  flue, refrigerator 
fridge. Medial clipping, or syncope /’sincopi/ means that the middle part of the word is
left out, e.g. mathematics  maths, spectacles  specs, fantasy  fancy.
(4) Compounding is deriving a new word that consists of a combination of stems, e.g. Engl.
week-end, office-manager, aircraft-carrier, washing machine, fancy-dress-maker, age-
long, oil-rich; Ukr. пароплав, жовто-зелений, художньо-публіцистичний. Along with
compound words proper, there are compound-derived words, where the suffix is added
to a compound stem, e.g. Engl. long-legged: (long + leg) + -ed, two-storied (two + story)
+ -ed.
(5) Blending is a special type of compounding which occurs when one or both stems are
clipped. Blends are also called ‘telescopic words’, e.g. Engl. smog (smoke + fog), brunch
(breakfast + lunch), workaholic (work + alcoholic), screenager (screen + teenager).
(6) Abbreviation is shortening of a phrase. Abbreviations read as one word are called
acronyms, e. g. Engl. NATO, UNESCO; Ukr. ООН, БЮТ. Abbreviations spelled out as
a sequence of letters are then given a separate classification as initialisms, e.g. Engl. the
USA, the FRG; Ukr. ВНЗ.

 Semantic word-formation is the formation of new meanings of a lexeme. A new meaning

may results from generalizing or specifying the earlier meaning. Conversion is a process of
word-formation in which an item comes to belong to a new word class without the addition
of an affix. As a result, the word changes both its part-of-speech meaning and the formal
grammatical features. E.g. Engl. N  V: a hand, to hand; a head, to head; a bottle, to bottle;
salt, to salt; A  V: yellow, to yellow; V  N: to work, a work; A  N: private, a private;
native, a native; Num  N: five, the five (a basketball team); Russ. A  N: столовая;
раненый. Conversion may be accompanied by the change in accentuation, e.g. Engl. N  V:
an object, to object; a combine, to combine. Transposition is a type of semantic word-
formation, when an item develops a new sense within one and the same part of speech. The
new sense (LSV) relates to the previous meaning via contiguity, or metonymy (hand: ‘part
of the body’  ‘farm-worker’), likeness or metaphor (memory: ‘human memory’ 
‘computer memory’), generalization of specification of meaning. Generalization of
meaning is extending the previous meaning and making it more abstract. E.g. dog: Middle
English ‘dog of a particular breed’  Contemporary English ‘any dog’; picture: ‘something
painted’  ‘any visual image’; box ‘a small receptance furnished with lid and intended to
contain drugs, ointments, jewels and money’  ‘any box’; manuscript: ‘something hand-
 written’  ‘any author’s copy whether written by hand or typed’. Russ. путь: ‘a bad, messy
road’  ‘any road’; Greek tetradium ‘a copy book consisting of four pages’  Russ.
тетрадь: ‘a copy book that has any number of pages’. Specification, or narrowing, of
meaning occurs when a word of wide meaning acquires a narrower sense, in which it is
applicable only to some of the entities which it previously denoted. E.g. meat: Old English
‘food’  Contemporary English ‘edible flesh’; hound: Old English ‘any dog’ 
Contemporary English ‘a hunting dog of a particular breed’; wife: Old English ‘a woman’ 
Contemporary English ‘a married woman’; cattle: ‘livestock in general’  ‘bovine animals’;
Greek apoteka: ‘a warehouse, the place where goods are kept’  Russ. аптека: ‘the place
for keeping medications’; Russ. пиво: ‘any beverage’  ‘specific beverage made from malt’.

 Borrowing is the introduction of a word from one language (the source language) into
another (the target language). Borrowed words include:
(1) Borrowings proper, the words whose forms are completely or partially assimilated by
the target language, e.g. Lat. student > Engl. student; Engl. football > Ukr. футбол;
Engl. service > Ukr. сервіс; Fr. café > Ukr. кафе.
(2) Translation loans, the words or expressions which are morpheme-for-morpheme or
word-for-word translations from the source language, e.g. Engl. sky-scraper > Ukr.
хмарочос; Lat. importare, exportare > Rus. ввозить, вывозить; Lat. Tertium non datur
> Ukr . Третього не дано; Lat. Veni, vidi, vici > Russ. Пришел, увидел, победил.
(3) Semantic loans, the new senses borrowed from the source language and added to the
meanings of words in the target language. This process is particularly reflected in
international words, e.g. Russ. > Engl. pioneer ‘a member of the youth organization in
the USSR’ (added to the meaning ‘the first explorer’).
(4) Barbarisms, the words and expressions which are not assimilated by the target language;
they retain the form which they have in the source language, e.g. Lat. p.m., a.m., i.e., etc.,
tabula rasa, persona non grata, de facto, de jure, Manus manum lavat, Alea jacta est;
French rendez-vous, au-revoir; Japanese hara-kiri, sushi.

Word-Stock Stratification

 Chronological stratification of the vocabulary is concerned with the change of vocabulary

strata through time. The strata include the basic word-stock, as well as ‘old’ and ‘new’
words. With the course of time, words can move from one stratum to another.

Basic word-stock (nuclear words) is the chronologically stable stratum which includes
widely used words that are reluctant to changes in the speech of two or more generations of
speakers, e.g. Engl. I, you, man, people, table, apple, one, two, etc.
 Historical words are ‘old’ words which have become obsolete because the entities they refer
to are out of use, e.g. Russ. боярин, вече, опричник, буржуйка. Archaic words, or
archaisms, are ‘old’ words which have become obsolete because they have been substituted
by other words referring to the same entity. Thus, unlike historical words, archaic words have
synonyms. Archaic words are ‘bookish’ lexical items mostly used in poetry. E.g. Engl. belike
(perhaps), affright (alarm); Ukr. рамена (плечі), піїт (поет); Russ. палец (перст), длань
(ладонь), выя (шея), щеки (ланиты), злато (золото), роща (дубрава), глас (голос).
There are also archaic meanings of words, e.g. Russ. глагол (слово), живот (жизнь), пиво
(любое питье).

New words, or neologisms, are the words and expressions which, being in currency of late,
are not yet registered by dictionaries. Ukr. клип, iнтернет, фрейм; Engl. Euro,
Euromeasure, push-button war, Monicagate, GorBush. Words can also acquire new
meanings, e.g. Engl. globalization (‘the political movement aimed to unite the countries of
the world’), Ukr. знакова подія, знакова фігура, братки. The creation of new words is a
response to changed circumstances in the external world. Only some neologisms become
permanent features of the language, but it is never possible to predict which will stay and
which will die out.
While neologisms are used by many speakers, occasional words, or nonce words, are used
only in the speech of individuals. These are words that a speaker conscientiously invents or
accidentally uses on a single occasion, in order to solve an immediate problem of
communication. E.g. Engl. circumtreeviation: ‘the way a dog on a lead tends to walk round a
tree on the opposite side to the way its owner wants it to go’; Ukr. аркодужний, квітний
цвіт (П. Тичина), білохатня вулиця, жовторжаве листя (М. Рильський); Russ.
двухметроворостый, разулыбиться, молоткастый, серпастый (В. Маяковкий); Я
влюблен, я очарован – словом, я огончарован (А. Пушкин); in child language:
намакарониться, обтопаться, заблохатьться.

 Stylistic stratification of the vocabulary represents the strata of words that are applied in
different functional styles. The three basic strata are neutral words, bookish words and
colloquial words.

Neutral words are stylistically unmarked; they can be used in any style, e.g. Engl. table,
lamp, wall, tree, dog, man, book, red, blue, to move, to read, three, two, etc.; Ukr. стіл,
лампа, стіна, дерево, людина, книга, червоний, синій, рухатись, читати, три, два і т.п.

Bookish words are restricted to formal, mostly written speech represented by academic,
scholarly, publicistic, business and other types of discourses. These words are also typical of
literary poetry. Among bookish words are:
(1) Historical and archaic words (see above).

(2) Terms (see below).

(3) Exoticisms, the words that denote entities inherent in the material and spiritual culture of
foreign countries. Such entities are not inherent in the culture of the speakers of language.
Exoticisms are mostly represented by the names of plants, animals, artifacts, meals, and
cultural notions. E.g. Engl. spaghetti, sushi, Buddha, ji-had, hara-kiri, borsh, valenki,
samovar; Ukr. авокадо, томагавк, бумеранг, чадра, сарі, гондлоа, рікша, ковбой.

Colloquial words are restricted to informal spoken language. Application of colloquial

words in formal speech should be avoided, as they tend to deviate from the standard norms.
Colloquial words are subdivided into:

(1) General slang (Ukr. просторiччя), the words and expressions which are widely applied
by all speakers of language, so as to make the speech more informal, e.g. Engl. buddy,
boss, bucks, bad egg ‘a repellent person’, rat ‘a wretched acting person’, two-timer ‘one
who deceives one’s lover’; Ukr. гультяй ‘нероба’, байдикувати ‘нічого не робити’,
Жигуль ‘Жигулі’, пацан ‘хлопець’; Russ. картошка, морковка, молокосос, балбес.
(2) Dialectal words identify the regional, or geographical background of the user, e.g.
Western Ukraine: файно, легінь, вуйко, літовище, склеп, доляри; Russia, Kuban:
курень ‘казачий дом’, баз ‘двор’, справа ‘одежда казака’, кочет ‘пeтух’, жалмерка
‘солдатка’.
(3) Professional words, or professionalisms, are the words from the basic word-stock that
are frequently used by representatives of particular professions, and are specifically
pronounced, e.g. Russ. компас (sailors), искра (drivers).
(4) Special slang, or jargon, is the non-standard vocabulary, usually intelligible only to
people from a particular social group, such as youth, students, doctors, military men,
computer users, drug addicts, etc. Its chief function is to mark social identity – to show
that one belongs – but it may also be used just to be different, to make an effect, or to be
quite informal. E.g. Engl. (jargon of British military Air Force) kite ‘airplane’, groupy
‘Group Captain’, gen ‘information, instruction’, not to have clue ‘to be ignorant’; Ukr.
(student jargon) пара, вікно, здавати хвости, школа ‘університет’; Russ (youth
jargon) ништяк, чувиха, шузы, обломиться, металюги, ломануться,балдеть,хипарь;
(jargon of computer users) жать батоны ‘нажимать на клавиши’, собака, ухо,
обезьяна ‘символ @’, стервер ‘сервер’, междумордие ‘интерфейс’, матерная
плата ‘материнская плата’, сиди Ромка ‘CD’. A specific type of jargon is cant, or
argot / `a:gət/, used by criminals, street gangs and ghetto groups. E.g. Engl. stick, rock,
flute ‘a gang’; Russ. малина ‘воровской притон’, замочить ‘убить’, аржан ‘деньги’,
пахан ‘главрь банды’, ломать каблук ‘изменять женщине’.
 (5) Vulgarisms, or obscenities, are crude words that cause offence and belong to the lowest
stylistic register, e.g. English “four-letter words”; Ukr. харя, хавало, жерти, придурок,
недоносок. Vulgarisms relate to dysphemisms / `disfəmismz/, offensive or disparaging
expressions used instead of neutral or pleasant ones, e.g. Engl. mug ‘face’, boneshaker
‘car’.
Taboos are words which people may not use without causing offence, because they refer to
acts, objects, or relationships which are widely felt to be embarrassing, distasteful, or
harmful. Verbal taboos are usually related to sex, the supernatural, excretion, and death, but
in some cultures they extend to other aspects of domestic life (such as in-laws, private names,
and certain animals). Vague or indirect words or expressions used in place of verbal taboos
are called euphemisms / `u:fəmismz/. E.g. Engl. to pass away, to pass on ‘to die’, bathroom,
restroom, ladies’ room, gents’ room ‘lavatory’, number one ‘urination’, number two
‘defecation’.
Word-Stock Organization

 Word-stock organization is represented in dictionaries, or books which list the words of one
or more languages. The art and science of dictionary making is called lexicography.

 Encyclopedic dictionaries provide a more or less complete description of the notions

designated by words. Such dictionaries focus on word meanings, and they do not supply the
linguistic information about words. Linguistic dictionaries center on the linguistic
information related to words, and briefly outline the respective notions, or word meanings.

 Types of linguistic dictionaries. Linguistic dictionaries can be general and specialized.

General dictionaries comprise the units of the basic word-stock typically organized in the
alphabetical order. The words are characterized with regard to their formal, semantic, and
functional aspects. General dictionaries are monoligual, bilingual, and multi-lingual.
Bilingual and monolingual dictionaries are compiled for translation purposes. Specialized
dictionaries include words which do not belong to the general word-stock. Respectively,
there are historical dictionaries representing the vocabulary of a particular historical period,
dictionaries of new words, terminological dictionaries, dictionaries of dialectal words, and
dictionaries of slang. Besides, there are linguistic dictionaries listing the items of particular
lexical groups, such as dictionaries of anthroponyms, dictionaries of toponyms, and
dictionaries of idioms (phraseological dictionaries). Dictionaries that center on specific
linguistic aspects of words are orthographic and orthoepic dictionaries, combinatory
dictionaries, dictionaries of frequent words, dictionaries of rhyming words, and “backward”
dictionaries where words are listed with regard to their end. The semantic aspect of words is
considered in dictionaries of synonyms, dictionaries of antonyms, dictionaries of paronyms,
and dictionaries of homonyms. The origin of words is focused on in etymological
dictionaries.
 The entry of a linguistic dictionary is information about a particular word. The components
of a dictionary entry are: (1) the word, its spelling and pronunciation (transcription); (2)
grammatical characteristics of the word, i.e. the part of speech it belongs to, and particular
word forms, e.g. specific case forms for nouns, and tense forms for verbs; (3) meanings of
the word, its LSV; (4) stylistic notations if the LSV does not belong to the basic word-stock
or to the neutral vocabulary; (5) examples where the LSV is used; (6) set phrases and idioms
with this LSV.

 Ideographic dictionary, or thesaurus /0i`so:rəs/ is a book of words and phrases grouped on

the basis of their meaning. (The word thesaurus originates from Greek ‘treasury’). While
conventional dictionaries list the items alphabetically, ideographic dictionaries organize them
thematically. The most influential and popular work is the Thesaurus of Peter Mark Roget
(1779-1869), first published in 1852. Roget divided the vocabulary into six main areas:
abstract relations, space, matter, intellect, volition, and affections. Each area was then given a
detailed and exhaustive sub-classification resulting in about 100 semantic categories. The
semantic information in a thesaurus complements that found in a conventional dictionary: in
a conventional dictionary, one knows a word and wishes to discover its meaning; in a
thesaurus, one is aware of a meaning and wishes to discover the relevant word or words.
Thus, we observe semasiological and onomasiological approaches to the analysis of lexical
items (see below).

STUDIES OF GROUPS OF WORDS

Onomastics, or onomatology, is a branch of lexicology that studies proper names. The major
groups of proper names include anthroponyms, the names of people, animal names, the names
of animals, toponyms, geographical names, and astronyms, the names of stars. Onomastics
mostly focuses on the etymology of proper names.

Terminology is a branch of lexicology which studies terms. Terminology is also understood as

sets of terms used in particular fields, such as science, technology, law, politics, sports, etc.

Term is a word that has only one meaning within a particular terminological system. E.g. Engl.
(Ling.) phoneme, morpheme, noun, verb, subject, predicate, semantics, semasiology,
onomasiology, etc.; Engl./Russ. (Sports, Gymnastics) bars – брусья; horse – конь; build-up –
разгон, разбег; flex – наклон; mount – наскок. The same word, when used in different
terminological systems, acquires different meanings. E.g. Engl. conductor, Russ. проводник
related to electricity and railway transportation; Engl. case related to grammar and law.
Phraseology is a branch of lexicology which studies sequences of words that are semantically
and often syntactically restricted, so that they function as single units similar to individual words.
Such sequences of words are called phraseological units, or idioms. Idiomatic systems of
different languages do not coincide.

 Phraseological unit vs. free word-combination. (1) In a free word-combination (FWC) a

word may be substituted by another word; in a phraseological unit (PU) words are reluctant
to such substitutions, e.g. Engl./Russ. break a leg, *break a neck – ни пуха, ни пера, *ни
пуха, ни шерсти. (2) In a FWC the words are semantically autonomous, they retain their
meaning; in a PU the words are not semantically autonomous, they do not completely retain
their meaning; (3) As a FWC is created in speech, it does not require memorization; a PU is a
pre-fabricated unit that belongs to language; such units must be memorized; (4) A FWC
designates an object via naming its various aspects, features or parts; a PU names an object
as a whole, without highlighting its particular traits manifested by individual words. Hence,
the meaning of a PU is similar to that of a single word. E.g. Engl. cool as cucumber
‘unruffled, indifferent’, unstable as water ‘unreliable’, to dance to one’s pipe ‘to obey smb.’;
Ukr. ні світ, ні зоря ‘дуже рано’, ні кожі, ні рожі ‘некрасивий’, хоч греблю гати
‘багато’; Russ. обвести вокруг пальца ‘обмануть’, вешать лапшу на уши ‘обманывать’,
сесть в лужу ‘опозориться’.

 Phraseological units: structural classification. According to their structure, PU can be

sentences and phrases, E.g. Sentences: Engl. Score twice before you cut once. Second
thoughts are best. Russ. Семь раз отмерь, а раз отрежь. Ukr. Не лізь поперед батька в
пекло. Ситий голодного не розуміє. Phrases: Engl. a white elephant; Ukr. шкіра та
кістки; Russ. как с гуся вода. Phrases are further subdivided into those with coordination
and subordination. E.g. Coordination: Engl. ins and outs, neither fish nor flesh; Ukr. ходи та
виходи; ні риба, ні мясо; Subordination: Engl. black sheep; Ukr. паршива вівця.
Subordinate phrases are further classified with regard to the head word:
(1) Nominative (the head word is a noun), e.g. a blue stocking – синій чулок, a drop in a
bucket – капля в морі.
(2) Adjectival (the head word is an adjective), e.g. regular as clockwork – точний, як
годинник, drunk as a lord – пяний як ніч.
(3) Verbal (the head word is a verb), e.g. to beat about the bush – ходити коло та навколо,
to be on both sides of the fence – служити і нашим, і вашим.
(4) Adverbial (the head word is an adverb or adverbial element), e.g. quicker than lightning
– швидше за блискавку, as a bolt from the blue – як грім серeд ясного неба.
(5) Interjectional (the head word is an interjection), e.g. By George! – Ой, леле! Ой,
Господи!
 Phraseological units: semantic classification. Semantic classification of PU was introduced
by Viktor Vinogradov and further developed by Nikolaj Shanskij. It is grounded on the
degree of idiomacity, or motivation of the meaning of a PU. The major groups are:
(1) Phraseological fusions, which synchronically are completely non-motivated, e.g. Engl.
red tape ‘bureaucratic methods’, to kick the bucket ‘to die’, to pull smb’s leg ‘to try, for a
joke, to make smb. believe that smth. is true’; Ukr. бити байдики; Russ. бить баклуши,
тянуть канитель, вешать лапшу на уши.
(2) Phraseological unities, which are partially motivated, as their meaning can be perceived
through the metaphorical meaning of the whole PU, e.g. Engl. to show one’s teeth, to
wash one’s dirty linen in public; Ukr. показати зуби, виносити сміття з хати.
(3) Phraseological collocations, which are motivated, but their elements have restricted
combinability, e.g. Engl. to bare a grudge (malice), but not *to bear a fancy (liking); to
take a liking (fancy), but not *to take hatred (disgust); Ukr. ввести в оману, карі очі,
гнідий кінь; Russ. оказывать помощь, отвести взор (глаза),закадычный друг.
(4) Phraseological expressions, which are motivated free word-combinations whose stability
in language is explained by their frequent use, e.g. Engl. high school, the Department of
State, pop music; Ukr. вища освіта, Верховна Рада, художня література.

 Phraseological units: stylistic classification. Stylistically, PU are subdivided into:

(1) Neutral, e.g. Engl. gentlemen’s agreement; Ukr. гратися з вогнем; Russ. зайти в
тупик, быть между двух огней.
(2) Bookish, used in literary texts or in elevated speech, e.g. Engl. to join the majority; Ukr.
поцілунок Іуди; Russ. ищите и обрящете, притча во языцех, отойти в лучший мир.
(3) Terminological, e.g. E.g. Engl. applied linguistics, theory of relativity; Ukr. прикладна
лінгвістика, теоря вірогідності.
(4) Bureaucratic, used in official documents, e.g. Ukr. зелені насадження, продукти
харчування, виходячи з вищезазначеного; Russ. товары народного потребления.
(5) Colloquial, used in informal speech, e.g. Engl. alive and kicking, to kick the bucket; Ukr.
валяти дурня, дати дуба; Russ. толoчь воду в ступе, отбросить коньки, сыграть в
ящик.

 Phraseological units: etymological classification. Etymological classification considers the

sources of PU. The typical sources are:
(1) Cultural beliefs, traditions, and customs, e.g. Engl. to knock on the wood, to keep one’s
fingers crossed; Ukr. дати гарбуза, дуля в кишені; Russ. вывести на чистую воду,
перемывать кости.
(2) Professional vocabulary, e.g. Engl. to talk shop; Ukr. на живу нитку; Russ. топорная
работа, тянуть канитель, поставить на карту.
(3) Historical events, e.g. Engl. to meet one’s Waterloo; Ukr. відкрити Америку, перейти
Рубікон; Russ. разбит, как швед под Полтавой.
 (4) Mythology and the Bible, e.g. Engl. Achilles’ hill; Ukr. авгієви конюшні, між Сцілою
та Харібдою; Russ. яблоко раздора, прокрустово ложе, продать за тридцать
серебренников, зарыть талант в землю.
(5) Quotations from literary texts and from the speech of individuals, e.g. Engl. time machine
(H. Wells); Ukr. язиката Хвеська (народна казка); Russ. лиса и виноград (Эзоп),
лебедь, рак да щука; мартышка и очки (И.Крылов), хотели как лучше, а вышло как
всегда (В. Черномырдин).
(6) Barbarisms and translation loans, e.g. From Latin: alma mater, persona non grata; from
French: cher-chez la femme – шукайте жінку, a la guerre com a la guerre – на війні як
на війні.
(7) Names of organizations and posts, e.g. Engl. the House of Commons, the House of Lords;
Ukr. Міністерство освіти; Голова Верховної Ради; Russ. Белый Дом, глава
правительства.

 Deformation of phraseological units is changing their form or meaning in order to make

them more salient and emphatic. The 3 major cases of deformation are:
(1) Extending a phraseological unit, e.g. Engl. to fit like a glove > to fit like a velvet glove; fly
in the ointment > several flies in the ointment; Ukr. ложка дьогтю в бочці меду >
декілька ложок дьогтю в бочці меду; хто пізно встає, тому хліба не стає > хто
пізно встає, тому хліба і сала не стає.
(2) Substituting the elements of a phraseological unit, e.g. Engl. early to bed, early to rise
makes no use until you advertise; Ukr. з ким поведешся, з тим і наберешся; Russ.
тиха украинская ночь, но сало надо перепрятать; пришел, увидел и ушел.
(3) Reviving the direct meaning of a metaphor, e.g. Engl. I wash my hands ‘I am not
responsible’ > I washed my hands before dinner. Ukr. «Диму без огню не бувє», сказав
він та визвав пожежників. Russ. Он играл с огнем, когда работал в цирке.

STUDIES OF INDIVIDUAL WORDS

Etymology is the study of the origin of words. It aims to reveal the initial internal word form.

 Internal word-form (внутрішня форма слова) is the subsidiary lexeme which serves to
signify (to become a sign of) a new meaning. .

 Motivated words are derivatives whose internal word-form is overt, or transparent, e.g. Eng.
teacher (to teach), librarian (library), three-storied (three stories), the bottle ‘alcohol’
(bottle) computer memory (human memory); Ukr. брак (брати), музикант (музика),
тризуб (три зуба), блюдо ‘їжа’ (блюдо ‘посуд’), собака ‘людина’ (собака ‘тварина’).
Non-motivated words are units whose internal word-form is covert, or opaque, e.g. Engl.
man, wall, pen, table, fox; Ukr. книга, дім, лампа, дівчина, земля.
 The covert internal form, which is established via etymological analysis, is called an
etymon. E.g. Engl. table (from Lat. tabula ‘board’), pauper (from Latin pauper ‘poor’),
linguistics (from Latin lingua ‘language’); Ukr. капуста (від лат. caput ‘голова’), канікули
(від лат. canis ‘пес’ – влітку над Римом стояло сузіря Пса).

 Folk etymology is associating the word form with that of similar words which somewhat
resemble it but which are not at all related. E.g. French sur(o)under ‘overflow’ was
interpreted in English as –r(o)under and associated by mistake with ‘round’; cf. Russ.
фельетон ‘клеветон’, микроскоп ‘мелкоскоп’, вариация ‘верояция’, таблица
умножения ‘долбица умножения’, пиджак ‘спинжак’, бульвар ‘гульвар’.

 Translator’s ‘false friends’ relate to folk etymology. They are words whose form resembles
that of another language; however, the meanings of such words are different, which should
be born in mind by translators. E.g. Engl. vs. Russ.: family (семья) – фамилия, magazine
(журнал) – магазин, complexion (цвет лица) – комплекция, pilot (лоцман) – пилот.

Historical Lexicology is the study of changes that both the form and the meaning of a word
undergo through history.

LEXICOLOGY:
Pre-Test

Part 1. A LEXEME

All meanings (senses / LSV) All grammatical forms Represented by the

initial grammatical form

LEXEME

LEXICOLOGY

Studies of word-stock Studies of the groups of words Studies of individual words

 Word-stock formation  Onomastics  Etymology

 Word-stock stratification  Terminology  Historical lexicology
 Word-stock organization  Phraseology

 Define:
A lexeme and its major properties.
 Define:
Lexicology and its fields of studies.
 Part 2. STUDIES OF WORD-STOCK

2.1. WORD-STOCK FORMATION

Morphological WORD-STOCK Semantic

word-formation word-formation
FORMATION
 Affixation  Transposition
 Back-formation  Generalization
 Abbreviation Borrowings and specification
 Compounding of meaning
 Blending  Borrowings proper  Conversion
 Translation loans
 Semantic loans
 Barbarisms

 Describe:
The three major ways of word-stock formation: morphological word formation, semantic
word-formation, and borrowing (basic definitions).
 Define:
Affixation, suffixation, prefixation, suffixation-and-prefixation.

 Define:
Back word-formation.

 Define:
Abbreviation, apocope, and aphaeresis.

 Define:
Compounding, compounding and derivation (compound-derived words).
 Match:
1. A specific type of abbreviated compounds which are composed of the first letters of a
series of words, and read as a whole word; e.g. Engl. NATO, UNESCO; Ukr. УБОЗ,БЮТ;
Russ. вуз, США, ООН.
2. A specific type of abbreviated compounds which are composed of the first letters of a
series of words, and these letters are read separately; e.g. Engl. the USA, PR; Ukr. ЧНУ, ПР,
КПУ, ВНЗ; Russ. CCCP.
a) Initialisms. b) Acronyms.
 Define:
Blending.
 Define:
Semantic word-formation: generalization (broadening) and specification (narrowing) of
meaning.
 Define:
Semantic word-formation: transposition and conversion.
 Define:
Borrowings proper, translation loans, semantic loans, and barbarisms.

2.2. WORD-STOCK STRATIFICATION

WORD-STOCK
Stylistic stratification
STRATIFICATION of the vocabulary
Chronological stratification
of the vocabulary  Neutral words
 Bookish words:  Colloquial words:
 Basic word-stock - historical and - general slang
 Old words: archaic words - special slang (jargon)
- historical words - terms; - professionalisms
- archaic words - exoticisms - dialectal words
 New words: - vulgarisms and
- neologisms dysphemisms
- occasional words
 Taboos and euphemisms

 Complete the statement:

Chronological stratification of the vocabulary is concerned with ___________________.
 Define:
Basic word-stock (nuclear words) as a chronological stratum of the vocabulary.
 Define:
Historical words and archaic words (archaisms) as a chronological stratum of the vocabulary.
 Define:
New words / meanings (neologisms), and occasional (nonce) words as a chronological
stratum of the vocabulary.
 Complete the statement:
Stylistic stratification of the vocabulary represents _________________________________.
 Define:
Neutral words as a stylistic stratum of the vocabulary.
 Define:
Bookish words as a stylistic stratum of the vocabulary (+ innumerate the subgroups of
bookish words).
 Define:
Exoticisms as a subgroup of bookish words.
 Define:
General slang and special slang (jargon) as subgroups of colloquial words. .
 Define:
Dialectal words as a subgroup of colloquial words.
 Define:
Professional words (professionalisms) as a subgroup of colloquial words.
 Define:
MONOLINGUAL
Vulgarisms (obscenities) and dysphemisms as subgroups of colloquial words.
BILINGUAL
 Define: MULTILINGUAL
Taboos and euphemisms. dictionaries

2.3. WORD-STOCK ORGANIZATION

LEXICOGRAPHY DICTIONARIES

Encyclopedic dictionaries Linguistic dictionaries

Arranged alphabetically: Arranged thematically

MONOLINGUAL forward and backward (thesauruses)

BILINGUAL
MULTILINGUAL
dictionaries General dictionaries Specialized dictionaries
- chronological groups
- stylistic groups
- onyms
- idioms
The entry of a linguistic - etymology
dictionary: - synonyms, antonyms,
components homonyms
- orthographic, orthoepic
- combinatory
- frequent words
- rhyming
- etc.
 Define:
Lexicography.
 Describe:
Encyclopedic dictionaries vs. linguistic dictionaries. Monolingual, bilingual, and multilingual
dictionaries.
 Describe:
Linguistic dictionaries arranged alphabetically vs. those arranged thematically (thesauruses).
 Describe:
Linguistic dictionaries arranged alphabetically: forward vs. backward.
 Describe:
General vs. specialized linguistic dictionaries. Types of specialized dictionaries.
 Describe:
Components of an entry in a linguistic dictionary.
 Part 3. STUDIES OF GROUPS OF WORDS

ONOMASTICS Studies of TERMINOLOGY

groups of words
 Onym and word-like units  Term
 Types of onyms:
- anthroponyms
- zoonyms
- toponyms PHRASEPLOGY Deformation of PU
- astronyms
- etc.  Extending
 Substituting the
Phraseological unit (PU) elements
vs. free word combination  Reviving the direct
meaning

Structural Semantic Stylistic Etymological

classification of PU classification of PU classification of PU classification of PU

 Sentences  Phraseological  Neutral  Traditions, customs,

fusions beliefs
 Phrases:  Bookish  Professional sphere
- coordinate  Phraseological - terminological  Historical events
- subordinate: Unities - bureaucratic  Mythology and the Bible
Nominative
 Quotations from literature
Adjectival  Phraseological  Colloquial and speeches of
Verbal collocations
individuals
Adverbial
 Barbarisms and
Interjectional  Phraseological
translation loans
expressions
 Names of organizations
and offices

 Define:
Onomastics (onomatology). Types of onyms.
 Define:
Terminology. Term.

 Define:
Phraseology. Phraseological unit vs. free word-combination (4 major distinctions).
 Describe:
Structural classification of phraseological units.
 Match:
1. _________________ are completely non-motivated synchronically, e.g. Engl. red tape
‘bureaucratic methods’; Ukr. бити байдики; Russ. бить баклуши, вешать лапшу на уши.
2. ___________________ are motivated: their meaning can be perceived through the
metaphorical or metonymical meaning of the whole PU, e.g. Engl. to show one’s teeth, to
wash one’s dirty linen in public; Ukr. показати зуби, виносити сміття з хати.
3. __________________ are motivated: one word has a direct meaning, and another word
has an indirect (metaphorical or metonymical) meaning; the latter word has a restricted
combinability; e.g. Engl. to bare a grudge (malice), but not *to bear a fancy (liking); to take
a liking (fancy), but not *to take hatred (disgust); Russ. отвести взор (глаза).
 4. ___________________ are motivated free word-combinations whose stability in language
is explained by their frequent use, e.g. Engl. high school, the Department of State, pop music;
Ukr. вища освіта, Верховна Рада, художня література.
а) Phraseological unities b) Phraseological expressions c) Phraseological collocations
d) Phraseological fusions
 Describe:
Stylistic classification of phraseological units.
 Describe:
Etymological classification of phraseological units.
Describe:
Deformation of phraseological units and its major cases.

Part 4. STUDIES OF INDIVIDUAL WORDS

Etymology: Studies of Historical Lexicology:

studies origin of words. individual words studies changes of the form and
meaning of words through time.

Internal word-form

Overt internal word-form: Covert internal word-form (= etymon):

motivated words non-motivated words

Translator’s “false friends” Folk etymology

 Define:
Etymology vs. historical lexicology.
 Define:
The internal word-form (внутрішня форма слова).
 Define:
Motivated vs. non-motivated words. Etymon.
 Define:
Folk etymology.
 Define:
Translator’s “false friends”.
 Lecture 4
LEXICAL SEMANTICS

Semantics
LEXICAL SEMANTICS
Definition
‘Semantic triangle’ model
Lexical meaning and its
constituents
Direct and indirect meanings

Semasiology Onomasiology
(Listener) (Speaker)

Polysemy Synonymy
Homonymy Theory of naming Antonymy
Paronymy Hyponymy
Internal Partonymy
word form Lexical fields
Types of motivation Prototypical
categories

METHODS OF SEMANTIC ANALYSIS

LEXICAL SEMANTICS

 Semantics is the study of meaning in language. Lexical semantics is the study of word
meanings. (See 1, p. 79-80)

 ‘Semantic triangle’ is a model of meaning proposed by C.K. Ogden and I.A. Richards in the
1920s. It clams that meaning is essentially a three-fold relation between linguistic forms,
concepts and referents. Contemporary interpretations consider meaning as a four-fold
relation, with the forth element being the speaker:

REFERENT
(object to which the sign refers)

Physical form SIGN Meaning

(sound or written form) (word) (concept)

SPEAKER
 Lexical meaning is the concept evoked by a word. This concept is a subjective image of the
objective reality, i.e. this image is not an exact replica of the referent, it is the referent as it is
perceived or thought of by the speaker. The lexical meaning as a concept is the signified, that
which is evoked by the physical form of the sign, or the signifier. (See 1, p. 80-81).

The signified is an image that is entrenched (deeply rooted) in the mind of the speaker after
encountering similar referents over and over again. Thus, the signified is a generalized
concept comprising the traits of a number of referents that belong to one and the same class.
The signified represents information shared by most speakers of a particular language. E.g.
student ‘a person (usually aged 17 – 25) who studies at the university’.

When used in speech, a word may refer to a concrete object that belongs to the class. Each
such object is specific; it has the traits of its own which are not shared by the other members
of the class. Information about a concrete referent related to the situation of speech is called
the referential meaning of a word. This information integrates into the signified. E.g. This
student (‘Peter by name, aged 18, majors in English, blond, tall, a basketball player, etc.’)
studies at Cherkasy State University.

The speaker in whose mind concepts are stored and retained belongs to a particular historical
period, he/she is a member of some social group, and his/her state of mind may be influenced
by feelings and emotions triggered by concrete experience. Respectively, these ‘human
factors’ may have an impact on the word meaning. The meaning intermediately related to the
language user is called connotational.

(1) There exist historical connotations which signify the historical period in which the word
was used. Among such words, are historical words, archaisms and neologisms. E.g.
historical words: four-and-nine penny, n ‘a hat in 1844-1880, ex the price set by a well-
known hatter’, five-pounder ‘a cheap excusionist, Jersey, obs. 1933/; archaisms: belike
‘probably, perhaps’, fore-bears ‘ancestors’, hereto ‘to this matter’; neologisms: rap ‘a
contemporary music style’, NIS ‘New Independent States’, sis-boombah ‘show-like
sports and games, particularly football’.

(2) Along with historical connotations, there are social connotations that signify the social
group to which a language user belongs. These connotations are inherent in jargonisms
(slang words) and professional words. E.g. Drugs: get-up ‘an addict’s first dose of the
day’, glooch ‘a drug addict whose senses have been degraded by drugs’, muggle
‘marijuana’. Close to social connotations are areal, or geographical, connotations
inherent in dialectal words and national variants of one and the same language. E.g. form
and grade in BE and AE respectively, canteen ‘cafeteria’ in BE and ‘soldier’s flask’ in
AE. Social and areal connotations can be manifested both by form and meaning of words.
 (3) While historical and social connotations signify societal factors, emotional
connotations represent psychological phenomena. Such connotations signify human
feelings and emotions which can be neutral, positive and negative. Cf. girl, sweetheart,
slut; beautiful and ugly, bright and stupid.

(4) Social and emotional connotations can be included into the pragmatic meaning of a
word, if the latter is understood widely, as the meaning attached to words used for special
communicative purposes. The interpretation of pragmatic meaning can be narrowed. It
can be understood as the meaning manifested by words that help achieve the
communicative intention, or goal: to demonstrate one’s respect or disrespect, to
encourage or to insult, to persuade or to dissuade, etc. This meaning is usually conveyed
by the units which are larger than words. Still, words also contribute to achieving
communicative intentions. Words can be more and less ‘polite’ or ‘impolite’, more and
less ‘formal’ and ‘informal’ Cf. Morning, Hello, Hi (greetings); gentlemen, guys, folks (in
addresses); parents and ancestors; attire, dress, and rags; to spoil and to screw, must and
should, mustn’t and shouldn’t. Pragmatic meaning of this kind is linked to a person’s
attitudes and dispositions.

As a result, the word meaning looks like a multi-layered ‘cake’. Its base is the signified
(information related to the class of objects), the next layer is the referential meaning (related to
the concrete situation of speech), then follows connotational meaning (related to the speaker per
se), and the top layer is pragmatic meaning (related to the communicative goals of the speaker).
All these constituents of meaning may be modified in the course of time. Similarly, there are
changes in the word sound forms.

 Direct and indirect meanings. A word is considered to have a direct, or literal, meaning,
provided the material form of this a word is not associated with a subsidiary concept. Such
words tend to be non-motivated (their “internal word form” is opaque), e.g. Engl. man, dog,
tree, table, book, etc. A word is said to have an indirect, or figurative, meaning, if its form
encapsulates a subsidiary word-form that has its own meaning, e.g. Engl. dish ‘meal’ (served
on a dish), frogman ‘a person who works underwater’ (and thus resembles a frog). The two
major cases of indirect meaning are represented by metonymy and metaphor.

Metonymy is a semantic mapping from one conceptual domain to another; metonymy is

based on the contiguity of entities, i.e. they tend to occur together. One of the concepts (the
target domain) is the meaning of a word, while another concept (the source domain) is the
mediator that evokes this meaning. The most typical cases of contiguity are:
(1) container > content, e.g. Engl. dish ‘plate’ > ‘food’, school ‘building’ > ‘students’; Ukr.
чашка ‘посуд’ > ‘чай’, клас ‘приміщення’ > ‘учні’;
(2) material > something made from this material, e.g. Engl. copper ‘metal’ > ‘coin’, canvas
‘textile’ > ‘picture’; Ukr. срібло ‘метал’ > ‘посуд’, шовк ‘тканина’ > ‘одяг’;
(3) author > author’s work, e.g. Shakespeare ‘writer’ > ‘book’, Turner ‘painter’ > ‘picture’;
Ukr. Чайковський ‘композитор’> ‘музика’, Роден ‘скульптор’ > ‘скульптура’;
(4) agent + instrument > result, e.g. Engl. the Voice of America ‘voice’ > ‘radio broadcast’;
Ukr. пезель Пікассо ‘пензель’> ‘картина’, перо Шевченка ‘перо’ > ‘вірш’;
(5) part > whole, e.g. Engl. The Red Hat ‘hat’ > ‘girl’, the mustache ‘mustache’ > ‘man’,
wheels ‘wheels’ > ‘car’; Ukr. 100 голів скота ‘голова’ > ‘тварина’, сороконожка
‘сорок ніг’ > ‘комаха’; whole > part, e.g. E.g. Engl. creature ‘any living being’ > ‘a
human being’, animal ‘animal’ > ‘cat’; Ukr. армія ‘армія’ > ‘солдат’. The type of
metonymy exhibiting part – whole relations is called synecdoche /si ne kd ki/.

Metaphor is a semantic mapping from one conceptual domain to another; metaphor is based
on the similarity of entities. It is the speaker who established likeness between the signified
(the target domain, or the conceptual referent) and the subsidiary concept represented by the
internal word-form (the source domain, or the conceptual correlate). The parameters along
which one establishes likeness are called the ground of metaphor. The most frequent grounds
are:
(1) form, e.g. Engl. wing ‘of a bird’ > ‘of a plane’; Ukr. рукав ‘про пальто’ > ‘про ріку’;
(2) appearance, e.g. a cat-fish ‘a fish which resembles a cat’; Ukr. заяча губа ‘про зайця’ >
‘про губу людини’;
(3) function, e.g. Engl. memory ‘of a man’ > ‘of a computer’; Ukr. ніжка ‘про дитину’ >
‘про стілець’;
(4) sound, e.g. Engl. to whistle ‘of a person’ > ‘of a bullet’, Ukr. каркати ‘про ворону’ >
‘про людину’;
(5) location, e.g. Engl. frogman ‘of a person who works underwater’; Ukr. серце
‘центральний, найбільш важливий орган тіла’ > ‘центральне важливе місце: Київ –
серце України’;
(6) general impression that involves various personal attitudes, e.g. Eng. fox ‘of an animal’ >
‘of a person’, a three-dollar bill ‘a bill that does not exist in American monetary system’
> ‘a person who pretends to be what he is not; an unusual, strange person; a sexual
pervert’, a peacock ‘of a bird’ > ‘of a person who behaves like a peacock’. Ukr. лев ‘про
тварину’ > ‘про людину’

Metaphor and metonymy may converge, and we have what is called metonymy-metaphor.
E.g. Engl. a bluebell ‘a plant with the flowers resembling bells’, a twenty-eight ‘a parrot
whose cry resembles the sound form of this number’.
 SEMASIOLOGY

 Semasiology is a branch of semantics which studies meaning in the direction from the
linguistic form to its meaning or meanings. The objective of semasiology is to explain the
meanings designated by word sound forms and to demonstrate the difference between these
meanings.

 Semasiological studies of words explore the phenomena of polysemy, homonymy, and

paronymy.

Polysemy means that one and the same sound form signifies several meanings (LSV), and
these meanings are interrelated, as they have something in common. E.g. Engl. chair n: 1. ‘a
piece of furniture to sit on’. 2. ‘a person who presides at the meeting’. 3. AE ‘the head of a
university department’. 4. ‘the position of Professor’. Typically, each word, except terms, has
several lexical semantic variants. For some words, they outnumber 30.

Homonymy means that one and the same sound and/or written form is used to signify two
different meanings not related to each other. Homonyms can be complete and partial.
Complete homonyms coincide in both spelling and pronunciation, E.g. Engl. seal n: ‘a sea
animal’; seal n: ‘a stamp attached to documents’; Ukr. коса ‘заплетене волосся’, коса
‘інструмент’. Partial homonyms coincide either in their spelling or pronunciation.
Homonyms coinciding in spelling are called homographs, e.g. Engl. tear / ti / n: ‘a drop of
liquid from the eye’; tear /te / v: ‘to put apart into pieces by force’. Homonyms coinciding in
pronunciation are called homophones, e.g. Engl. meat / mi:t/ n: ‘edible flesh’; meet / mi:t/ v:
‘to come together’; Russ. компания ‘группа людей’, кампания ‘целенаправленное общее
действие’. Besides, there are grammatical homonyms, the words whose material form is the
same, but whose grammatical meanings differ, e.g. Engl. back n, back a, back adv, back v;
Russ. руки, руки.

Paronymy is partial similarity of word sound forms: their root morphemes are identical, but
their affixational morphemes are different, which causes different meanings, e.g. Engl.
historic vs. historical, childish vs. childlike; Russ. эффектный vs. эффективный,
драматичный vs. драматический, песочный vs. песчаный.

ONOMASIOLOGY

 Onomasiology is a branch of semantics which studies meaning in the direction from the
concept (meaning) to the linguistic forms that evoke this concept. Onomasiological inquiries
aim to describe the words which language has for designating a particular concept. In other
 words, onomasiology tries to provide the account of ‘‘the word coverage for thoughts’’. As a
rule, this ‘‘coverage’’ includes a number of various words organized in groups.
 Onomasiological studies of words explore the word groups grounded on meaning. Such
groups demonstrate the relations of synonymy, antonymy, partonymy, and hyponymy.

Synonyms are words whose meanings exhibit similarity: they signify one and the same
concept which is more general than the concepts designated by each word. The analysis of
synonyms aims to expose their interrelationships, to construe synonymous sequences
headed by the dominant word. This word belongs to the neutral style, and its meaning is
modified in the other words. E.g. Engl. EXCELLENCY: excellent, admirable, beautiful,
brilliant, capital, cool, delightful, exquisite, fair, first-rate, glorious, gorgeous, grand,
magnificent, marvelous, perfect, remarkable, splendid, superior, sublime, superb, surpassing,
stunning, terrific, topping, wonderful. (See 1, p. 84-85).
Types of synonyms:
(1) Complete, or perfect, synonyms, which have identical meaning and which can be used
interchangeably in one and the same style. Such synonyms are rare. E.g. Ukr.
мовознавство, лінгвістика; семіотика, семіологія; Russ. синолог, китаевед.
(2) Notional, or ideographic, synonyms are used in one and the same style, where their
meanings exhibit variations, e.g. the degree of quality: beautiful, excellent, superb; the
manner of action: to tremble, to quiver, to shake; the variations of container’s shape and
content: cup, mug, glass, tumble. Cf. also Russ. мороз, стужа; бежать, нестись,
мчаться.
(3) Stylistic synonyms, whose meanings are the same, but the words belong to different
functional styles, e.g. excellent (neutral), cool (coll.); head (neutral), boss (coll.); child
(neutral), infant (bookish, elevated), kid (coll.); clothes (neutral), attire (bookish,
elevated). Cf. also: Ukr. говорити, ректи, верзти; Russ. спать, почивать,
дрыхнуть. Stylistic synonyms may differ in their emotional connotations, e.g. Engl.
obstinate, pig-headed; Russ. глаза, зенки, моргала; голова, башка.
(4) Ideographic-stylistic synonyms that differ in both meaning and the sphere of application,
e.g. to see (neutral) ‘to have or use the powers of sight and understanding’; behold
(bookish, archaic) ‘to look at that which is seen’. Cf. also Russ. лицо, рожа.

 Antonymy is semantic contrast. Antonyms are words opposite in their meanings, but these
meanings remain within one and the same semantic category. E.g. Engl. EVALUATION:
good – bad; AGE: young – old; child – adult. Antonyms are the poles of a semantic
continuum, e.g. good – not bad – not good – bad; young – not old – not young – old. The
elements of such a continuum may be synonymous: good – not bad (satisfactory); bad – not
good (unsatisfactory). (See 1, p. 85).
Types of antonyms:
(1) Contrastive antonyms that denote polar entities, e.g. Engl. good – bad, young – old.
 (2) Contradictory antonyms grounded on negation or opposition, e.g. Engl. legal – illegal,
possible – impossible, attack – counterattack.
(3) Complementary antonyms that represent two interrelated entities, one of which does not
exist without another, e.g. Engl. husband – wife, left – right, to sell – to buy; Ukr. лікар –
пацієнт, учитель – учень; Russ. начальник – подчиненный.
(4) One-word antonyms represented by the cases when one and the same word denotes
contrastive entities, e.g. Lat. altus ‘high’ – ‘deep’; Engl. to dust ‘to cover with dust’ – ‘to
remove dust’; Ukr. позичати ‘давати у борг’ – ‘брати у борг’; Russ. одалживать
‘давать в долг’ – ‘брать в долг’.

 Partonymy demonstrates “part – whole” relations between word meanings. E.g. Engl. hand
– finger, house – room, family – mother, flock – bird, school – fish. The word representing
the whole is called a holonym, the word representing a part is called a partonym.

 Hyponymy demonstrated hierarchical relations between word meanings: the meaning of one
word is included into the meaning of another word. The word with a more general meaning is
called hypernym /‘haip nim/, and the word with a specified meaning is called a hyponym
/‘hip nim/. Hyponyms and hypernyms are organized in ‘‘tree’’ structures. The top node of
the tree is the word with the most general meaning, the lower nodes are specified meanings:

animal

cow horse dog cat sheep

sheep-dog terrier spaniel

Pertaining to the meaning manifested by an upper node, the meanings of the lower nodes are
synonymous (animal, dog, sheep-dog, terrier, spaniel). Such non-hierarchical subordinate to
a general concept are called equonyms. The meanings of the lower nodes immediately
linked to different upper nodes are not synonyms (spaniel, Jersey cow, pony, Persian cat).
However, all these words can be considered together with regard to the meaning animal.
Such large word groups are called lexical semantic fields. Lexical semantic fields are
applied for compiling thesaurus dictionaries. (See Jean Aitchison, p. 86).

 Lexical semantic field conventionally includes words that belong to one and the same part
of speech and designate some general concept – a notional category. Semantic field theory,
or lexical field theory, is the view that the vocabulary of a language is a system of
interrelated lexical networks, and not an inventory of interdependent items. Examples include
the fields of vehicles, fruit, clothing, color, and parts of the body. Not all aspects of
experience neatly divide up into semantic fields, however, and it is always necessary to
consider context before assigning a lexical item to a field. E.g. hospital relates to both the
 semantic field of health (as I was in hospital last week) and that of buildings (as in The
hospital needs a new roof). The categories of thought represented by a lexical field are
prototypical categories.
(See J. Aitchison, p. 81 – 84).

 Prototypical categories (See , J. Aitchison, p. 86 – 88).

THEORY OF NAMING

 Theory of naming aims to establish the principles of correlating the meaning (concept) to
the sound form. This correlation is covert in non-motivated words, but it is overt in motivated
words. The latter manifest their meanings through the internal word form, or the
motivator. A derived lexical unit always has a meaning different from that of its ‘internal
word form’. As to the ‘physical body’ of a derived word, in some cases it may coincide with
that of the internal form, e.g. Engl. metonymy: hand ‘part of the body’ > hand ‘a farm-
worker’, mind ‘thought’ > mind ‘opinion’; metaphor: memory ‘capacity of the human mind’
> memory ‘capacity of a computer’. In other cases, the ‘physical body’ of a derived word
does not completely coincide with that of ‘the internal word form’, e.g. Engl. metonymy:
hand > handle; green > greenery, louse ‘an insect’ > lousy ‘covered with these insects’;
metaphor: frog > frogman; louse ‘insect’ > lousy ‘resembling this insect’. In the first case
the meaning of ‘the internal word form’ and the new meaning are considered to be the lexical
semantic variants (LSV) of one and the same word. These meanings are related to one
another either metonymically or metaphorically; one meaning can result from generalization
or specification of another meaning. In the second case we enter the area of word-formation
where new words are formed from the words that already exist in the language.

METHODS OF SEMANTIC ANALYSIS

Semasiology uses the method of componential analysis, or disintegration of meaning into

components called semes (another name is ‘elementary senses’). A seme is an irreducible
feature in terms of which the sense of lexical items can be analyzed. E.g. boy n {human,
mail, young}; girl n {human, female, young}. However, application of this method poses
problems when one attempts to analyze the meanings of such rather abstract words as love,
hatred, abstraction, color, entity, etc.

To analyze lexical fields, onomasiology uses the method of stratification of words. It aims
to reveal the principles according to which the lexical field is organized, and to expose the
links due to which the words ‘hang together’. Conventionally, the words are placed either in
the center of the field or on its periphery. In the center, are the words which represent the
conceptual category most vividly. On the periphery, are the words that refer both to this
 category and to some other category, i.e. the constituents of their meanings are distributed
between two or more categories which thus overlap. To expose these constituents, the
method of componential analysis is applied.

The theory of naming applies onomasiological models that include the onomasiological
basis, the basic concept which is named, the onomasiological feature, the subsidiary concept
which characterizes the basic one, and the link that demonstrates the type of relation between
these two concepts. E.g. beauty ‘of a person’: SOMEBODY (basis) IS (link) BEAUTIFUL
(feature), four-wheeler: SOMETHING (basis: whole) HAS (link) FOUR PARTS (feature:
part), teacher: SOMEBODY (basis) TEACHES (feature), lion ‘of a person’: SOMEBODY
(basis) IS LIKE (link) A LION (feature).

SEMANTICS:
Pre-Test

Part 1. Lexical semantics and its branches

Semantics
LEXICAL SEMANTICS
semantics

Semasiology Onomasiology
(Listener) (Speaker)

Theory of naming

 Define:
Semantics. Lexical semantics.
 Match:
1. ____________is a branch of semantics which studies meaning in the direction from the
linguistic form to its meaning or meanings. The objective of ____________ is to explain
the meanings designated by word sound forms and to demonstrate the difference between
these meanings. _________ is compatible with what the LISTENER does.
2. ____________ is a branch of semantics which studies meaning in the direction from the
concept (meaning) to the linguistic forms that evoke this concept. Onomasiological
inquiries aim to describe the words which language has for designating a particular
concept. In other words, оnomasiology tries to provide the account of ‘‘the word
coverage for thoughts’’. As a rule, this ‘‘coverage’’ includes a number of various words
organized in groups. _________ is compatible with what the SPEAKER does.
3. ______________ aims to establish the principles of correlating the meaning (concept) to
the sound form. This correlation is called motivation. It shows how the part of meaning
(the internal word-form) represented with the sound form (the external form) relates to
the whole meaning.
a) Onomasiology b) Semasiology c) Theory of naming
 Part 2. Lexical meaning

LEXICAL MEANING: Semantic triangle Constituents of

definition model LEXICAL MEANING

The signified Referential meaning Connotational meaning Pragmatic meaning

Communicative
Historical iIntention of the
connotations Social
speaker
connotations Emotional Situation
Geographical connotations of speech
 Define: connotations (style)

Lexical meaning.
 Describe:
Semantic triangle model: its parts and the respective types of meanings.
 Define:
Constituents of lexical meaning: the signified, referential meaning, connotational meaning,
and pragmatic meaning.
 Describe:
Types of connotational meanings.
 Match:
1. _______________ have historical connotations.
2. _______________ have geographical connotations.
3. _______________ have social connotations.
a) Jargon words. b) Dialectal words. c) Historical words. d) Americanisms. e) Archaic words

Part 3. Semasiology

SEMASIOLOGY
(vs. onomasiology)

Polysemy Homonymy Paronymy

Complete Homophones Homographs

homonyms

Lexical vs. grammatical homonyms

 Define:
Semasiology (vs. onomasiology).
 Define:
Polysemy.
 Define:
Homonymy and types of homonyms.
 Describe:
Lexical vs. grammatical homonyms.
 Describe:
The difference between polysemy and homonymy.
 Define:
Paronymy.

Part 4. Onomasiology

ONOMASIOLOGY
(vs. semasiology)

Synonymy Antonymy Partonymy Hyponymy

Synonyms: Antoyms:
Hypernyms
- complete - contrastive Hyponym
- ideographic - contradictory Equonym
- stylistic - complementary
- ideographic- - one-word
stylistic

LEXICAL FIELD:
Lexical semantic field vs. Lexical associative field

Thesaurus dictionaries

Prototypical category
as a conceptual foundation
of a lexical semantic field:

- the prototype
- the periphery
- the fuzzy ends

 Define:
Onomaiology (vs. semasiology).
 Define:
Synonyms, the dominant word in a synonymous sequence, types of synonyms.
 Define:
Antonyms, types of antonyms.
 Define:
Partonyms.
 Define:
Hyponymy, a hypernym, a hyponym, an equonym.
 Describe:
Lexical semantic field vs. lexical associative field.
 Describe:
Lexical fields and thesaurus dictionaries.
 Describe:
Organization of a prototypical category which serves as a conceptual foundation of the
lexical field: the prototype, the periphery, the fuzzy ends.

Part 5. Theory of naming

SEMASIOLOGY; ONOMASIOLOGY:
Form  Meaning Meaning  Form
THEORY OF NAMING

Recognizing the meaning Creating the word

The external word-form = The internal word-form =

sound / written form part of the meaning,
motivator

Direct and indirect meaning

Motivated vs. non-motivated

words

Generalization Specification Metonymy, Metaphor

(broadening) of (narrowing) of synecdoche
meaning meaning

 Define:
The internal word-form, the external word-form.
 Match:
1. External word-form  Internal word-form  Meaning.
2. Meaning  Internal word-form  External word-form.
a) Onomasiological direction of the theory of naming.
b) Semasiological direction of the theory of naming.
 Define:
Direct and indirect meaning.
 Define:
Motivated vs. non-motivated words.
 Match:
1. The internal word-form and the meaning are linked via contiguity.
2. The internal word-form and the meaning are linked via likeness.
3. The internal word-form is the hyponym (kind), and the meaning is the hypernym (type).
4. The internal word-form is the hypernym (type), and the meaning is the hypenym (kind).
a) Generalization. b) Metonymy. c) Specification. d) Metaphor.

 Describe:
Metonymy and its the typical cases.
 Describe:
Metaphor, its constituents, and the types of likeness.
 Define:
Metonymy-metaphor.

Part 5. Methods of semantic analysis

METHODS OF SEMANTIC ANALYSIS

SEMASIOLOGY ONOMASIOLOGY THEORY OF NAMING

Componential Stratification of Onomasiological

analysis. words models.
Semes. in a lexical Basis. Feature. Link.
field/group

 Match:
1. _____________ applies componential analysis.
2. _____________ applies stratification of words in a lexical field/group.
3. _____________ applies onomasiological models.
a) Theory of naming. b) Semasiology. c) Onomasiology.
Define:
Componential analysis. Semes.
 Describe:
Stratification of words within a lexical field / group.
Define:
An onomasiological model.
 Lectures 5-6
GRAMMAR: MORPHOLOGY and SYNTAX

Comparative Historical Comparative

grammar grammar

Synchronic Synchronic Diachronic

grammar grammar grammar

Practical grammar Theoretical grammar

Linguocentric grammar Anthropocentric grammar

Competence grammar Performance grammar

Formal grammar Semantic grammar Functional grammar

Broad sense
GRAMMAR
Narrow sense
Morphology and Syntax

Grammatical category
Grammatical meaning
Formal means of representing grammatical meaning
Types of grammatical categories
Grammatical categories of different languages

Morphology Syntax
Grammatical word Formal syntax
Morphemics Syntax of a phrase
Derivational morphology Syntax of a sentence
Part-of-speech system Semantic syntax
Communicative syntax

Grammar in its broad sense is a systematic analysis of the structure of a language at its
different levels (phonological, morphological, lexical, syntactic). It is the analysis of linguistic
patterns with regard to their form, meaning, and function. Respectively, grammar can be formal,
notional, and functional.

 Formal grammar concentrates on the study of linguistic forms; it may apply formalized
techniques of logic and mathematics. Notional, or semantic, grammar studies the meaning
 of linguistic patterns; it assumes the existence of extralinguistic categories in order to define
grammatical units.

 Formal and notional grammars are competence grammars that center on the speaker’s
knowledge of language (the rules the speaker must know to use the language properly).
Competence grammar contrasts with performance, or functional, grammar which studies
the use of linguistic patterns in speech and writing. Competence grammars are primarily
linguocentric; they study the language per se, without its relation to the speakers and the
situation of speech. Performance grammars are mostly anthropocentric; they consider the
linguistic patterns used in speech and influenced by the characteristics of the speakers and
the communicative situations.

 Lingocentric and anthropocentric grammars can be practical and theoretical. Practical, or

normative, grammars are prescriptive; they attempt to establish rules for the correct use of
language in society. The speakers of language use practical grammars as reference books.
Theoretical grammars are descriptive; they provide a precise account of language in its
actual usage. A theoretical grammar may go beyond the study of individual languages, in
which case it uses linguistic data as a means of developing insights into the nature of
language as such, and into the categories and processes needed for linguistic analysis.

 Theoretical grammars describing the linguistic patterns of at a particular period of time are
called synchronic grammars. Synchronic grammars comparing the systems of two or more
languages are called comparative grammars. Along with synchronic grammars, there are
diachronic, or historical, grammars that describe the change of linguistic patterns through
time. Historical comparative grammars provide a parallel account of historical changes
exposed in the systems of two or more languages.

Grammar in its narrow sense is a level of structural organization which can be studied
independently of phonology and lexicology. In this case, grammar is generally divided into
morphology and syntax.

GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY

Grammatical category is the central notion of grammar (in its narrow sense). Grammatical
category is the unity of grammatical meaning and formal means of its representation.
Grammatical categories relate to conceptual categories, generalized abstract notions represented
by a number of individual members. However, grammatical and conceptual categories are not
identical terms. Grammatical categories are only those notional categories which can be
manifested with grammatical means. Cf. continuous aspect of verbs: a grammatical category in
English, but a lexical category in Ukrainian and Russian, where it is represented with lexemes.
Grammatical meaning as a part of the grammatical category is represented by a respective
conceptual, or notional, category. Grammatical meaning differs from lexical meaning:
(1) grammatical meaning is more abstract, while lexical meaning is more concrete;
(2) grammatical meaning is shared by many linguistic units (e.g. the meanings ‘noun’,
‘nominative case’, ‘singular number’, ‘masculine gender’, etc.), while lexical meaning is
manifested by one word only (e.g. ‘cat’, ‘apple’, ‘wolf’);
(3) grammatical meaning focuses on information about the language, while lexical meaning
focuses on information about the experiential world.
Formal means of representing grammatical meaning:

 External inflection, or ending, is an affix which is added at the end of a word. It does not
alter the word class of the stem to which it is attached, and it does not alter the lexical
meaning of this stem. External inflections tend to be polysemantic: one and the same
inflection manifests several grammatical meanings at a time, e.g. Ukr. вікн-о (singular,
neuter gender, nominative case).

 Internal inflection is the change of a vowel in the mid of a word stem, e.g. Eng. foot – feet,
man – men (singular :: plural), buy – bought, think – thought (present tense :: past tense).

 Infix is an affix inserted in the mid of a word, e.g. Latin vi-n-co ‘I win’ (indicative aspect),
cf. vici ‘I have won’ (perfect aspect).

 Suppletion, a relationship between forms with different roots, e.g. Eng. go – went (present
tense :: past tense), good – better (positive degree :: comparative degree); Russ. человек –
люди (singular :: plural).

 Reduplication is repetition of a word or its part, e.g. Latin mordeo ‘I bite’ – momordi ‘I have
bitten’ (indefinite aspect :: perfect aspect).

 Agglutination is stringing forms together by means of adding several affixes to the root;
each affix has a particular grammatical meaning, e.g. Turkish ogli-lar-la ‘sons GEN’, oda-
lar-la ‘rooms GEN’: -lar PL, -la GEN. Agglutination is typical of Turkish and Hungarian-
Finnish families, of Japanese and Swahili.

 Form words, or grammatical words function solely to express a grammatical meaning, e.g.
Eng. articles a, (noun, singular) the (noun), particle to (verb, infinitive), auxiliary and link
verbs (verb tenses). Ukr. particle би (conditional mood).

 Prepositions are words that typically precede a noun phrase to form a single structural unit.
This unit manifests the meaning of a noun case or functions as an adverbial, e.g. Eng. of the
house (GENITIVE), to the house (DATIVE, adverbial), in the house (LOCATIVE,
adverbial).

 Postpositions are words that follow a noun phrase to form a single structural unit similar to
that with a preposition. In post-positional languages, like Japanese or Panjaby, the structures
look like ‘the house of’, ‘the house to’, ‘the house in’.

 Word order is a means of representing grammatical meaning in languages with no or scarce

morphological forms, e.g. Chinese, English. In these languages the word order, which is
invariable, helps to identify word classes and the parts a sentence. E.g. Eng. They work down
the river. Work gives you money. The down part of the hill is treeless.

 Prosody as a formal grammatical medium is the change of stress or intonation resulting in

the change of grammatical meaning. E.g. Eng. object (noun) – object (verb); Ukr. вікна
(plural, NOM) – вікна (singular, GEN). In tone languages, such as Chinese, differences in
morphological and syntactic categories can be manifested through intonation. In European
languages, intonation and stress serve to distinguish the communicative types of utterances,
e.g. Ukr. Він поїхав на Канари (statement). Він поїхав на Канари? (question). Він
поїхав на КАНАРИ! (exclamation).
A set of different formal means that manifest one and the same grammatical meaning are called a
grammeme /’gr emi:m/. E.g. English plural of nouns: {external inflections -s /s/, /z/, /is/ (cat –
cats, dog – dogs, fox – foxes), -en (child – children, ox – oxen), -a (datum – data, stratum –
strata; phenomenon – phenomena, criterion – criteria), -ae (formula – formulae, antenna –
antennae), -i (focus – foci), -es (hypothesis – hypotheses), -ices (index – indices, matrix –
matrices); internal inflection (tooth – teeth, mouse – mice)}.

Types of grammatical categories. Grammatical categories are relevant for words, word forms,
syntactic positions, and syntactic constructions.

 Grammatical categories of words are exhibited by word classes and sub-classes. E.g. the
Noun, common names, proper names, class nouns, group nouns, collective nouns, nouns of
material, abstract nouns; the Adjective, qualitative adjectives, relative adjectives.

 Grammatical categories of word forms represent the types of word modifications within
one and the same class, e.g. number, case, gender for nouns; degrees of comparison for
adjectives. Grammatical categories of word forms may have complete and incomplete
representation in particular linguistic units. Complete representation means that a unit has a
complete set of respective grammatical forms, e.g. Ukr. a complete set of case forms for the
nouns студент, підручник, стіл; a complete set of tense forms for the verbs to write, to
read, to ask. Incomplete representation means the existence of an abridged set of
grammatical forms, e.g. Ukr. only singular forms for the nouns студентство, навчання,
молоко; only plural forms for the nouns шахмати, ножниці, окуляри; only singular
nominative case forms for the nouns кіно, радіо, какао; Engl. an abridged set of tense and
voice forms for modal verbs must, can, may.

 Grammatical categories of syntactic positions distinguish the parts of a sentence, such as

the subject and predicate, an object, attribute, and adverbial modifier.

 Grammatical categories of syntactic constructions represent the types of syntactic

patterns, e.g. a phrase with coordination, a phrase with subordination, nominal phrase, verbal
phrase, prepositional phrase, etc.; simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence,
compound-complex sentence; principal clause, subordinate clause, subject clause, predicative
clause, object clause, attributive clause, adverbial clause.

Grammatical categories of different languages do not coincide. The two major cases are:

(1) One and the same grammatical category exists in two compared languages, but it is
manifested by different formal means, e.g. perfect aspect: in English – analytical forms
with the auxiliary verb to have (I have written a letter); in Ukrainian – synthetic forms
with a prefix (Я написав листа).

(2) The grammatical category exists in one language, while it does not exist in another, e.g.
Ukrainian, Russian, Latin and German have the grammatical category of gender, while
there is no such category in English, Armenian and Turkish, where the respective
meanings are expressed lexically.
 MORPHOLOGY

Morphology studies grammatical properties of words and pieces of words.

The central issue of morphology is a grammatical word. Although everybody seems to know
what a word is, its definition poses problems. The most uncontroversial criterion for
differentiating between separate words and parts of one and the same word is functional
indivisibility of a word. The units are considered to be individual words if they can be separated
by another word, e.g. Engl. a black cat, to better understand. The units are considered to be parts
of one and the same word if they cannot be separated by another word, e.g. Engl. work-ed –
*work-better-ed, apple-tree – *apple-large-tree.

Grammatical word differs from phonetic word and lexical word. Phonetic word is an indivisible
sound form which functions as a rhythm unit. In a phonetic word the meanings of the
constituents are not considered, e.g. Engl. an apple / n epl/, to do /t du:/, is here /iz hi /.
Lexical word, or lexeme, is an indivisible sound form associated with some lexical meaning. In
a lexical word the grammatical meaning is not considered, e.g. Engl. apple (a tree), do (an
action). Grammatical word is an indivisible sound form associated with some lexical and/or
grammatical meaning, e.g. apples (noun, plural), did (v, Past Simple), a (article., noun, singular),
to (particle, verb, infinitive).

The three branches of morphology are morphemics, derivational morphology (word-formation),

and part-of-speech taxonomy.

Morphemics

Morphemics studies pieces of words, or morphemes. It focuses on identification and

classification of morphemes with regard to their form, meaning, and distribution in a word. The
basic notions of morphemics are morph, morpheme and allomorph.

Morph is the smallest meaningful unit of language. It is a distinctive sequence of sounds which
conveys some meaning – lexical, derivational or grammatical. Morpheme, similar to phoneme,
is an abstract linguistic unit: it may be represented by different sound forms (morphs) that have
one and the same meaning, e.g. Engl. {please /pli:z/, pleasant /plez/, pleasure /ple /}, possessive
case {cat’s: /s/, dog’s /z/, fox’s /iz/}. Different morphs constituting a morpheme are called
allomorphs. The factors that determine phonetic variations of allomorphs are studied by
morphophonology.

To identify morphs, morphemics uses immediate constituent analysis. It is a process of

disintegrating a word into a series of constituent parts. The analysis is dichotomic: at each of its
stages a word is divided into two parts, one of which remains a distinctive individual form. E.g.
Russ. преподавательница: преподавтельниц-а  преподаватель-ниц  преподават-ель
 пре-подавать  по-давать  дав-ать; пре-по-дав-ать-ель-ниц-а (7 morphs, or
morphemes); Eng. unhappiness: unhappy-ness  un-happy; un-happy-ness (3 morphs, or
morphemes). Morphemes, thus identified, are further classified into types.

Types of morphemes

 Root morpheme is the base of a word which manifests its lexical meaning, and which
cannot be further analyzed without loss of the word’s identity; alternatively, it is the part of a
word left when all affixes are removed, e.g. Engl. happy, man, run; Ukr. стіл, стол-, кіт,
кот-, лист.
 Affix is an element of a word which is attached to the root. Affixes convey derivational and
grammatical meanings. With regard to their position, affixes are subdivided into:

(1) Prefixes which precede the root, e.g. Engl. il-legal, im-mortal, re-read; Ukr. не-
легальний, без-смертний, пере-читати.

(2) Postfixes, represented by suffixes and external inflections. Suffixes are attached after the
root, e.g. Eng. work-er, man-hood, child-ish, happy-ly; Ukr. учит-ель, чит-ач, гарн-о.
In most languages prefixes and suffixes have derivational meanings, they serve to form
new lexical words. External inflections (see above).

(3) Infixes (see above).

(4) Interfixes, inserted between two stems in compound words, e.g. Ukr. хмар-о-чос, пар-о-
плав, фізик-о-математичний; Eng. speed-o-meter.

 Zero morpheme is a meaningful absence of a morph, which is exposed only in a binary

opposition, e.g. Engl. table-o (singular) :: table-s (plural); Ukr. зошит-о (sg., NOM) ::
зошит-а (sg., GEN).

 Morphemes are also classified into free and bound. A free morpheme can occur as a
separate word, which is relevant for root morphemes, e.g. Engl. child, book, ask, work; Ukr.
друг, день, біг, сон. A bound morpheme cannot occur as a separate word, which is
characteristic of affixes and some root morphemes, e.g. Engl. child-ish, work-er, book-s,
ask-ed, fac-ial / fei - l/, courage-ous /k reid - s/; Ukr. при-біг, сон-н-ий, ден-н-ий,
друж-ит-и.

Morphological processes

Words consisting of two and more morphemes may undergo historical changes that alter the
morphological structure. Such changes are called morphological processes. The latter are
represented by redistribution, simplification, analogy, and grammaticalization.

 Redistribution (Russ. переразложение) is a shift of boundaries between morphemes.

E.g. Russ. ходи-мъ > ход-им; Old Slavic жена – жена-мъ, жена-ми, жена-хъ >
Russian жен-а, жен-ами, жен-ах.

 Simplification (Russ. опрощение) is a convergence of two morphemes into one, so that

the number of morphemes in a word is reduced. E.g. Russ. кол-ес-о /root + suffix +
inflection/ > колес-о /root + inflection/. Simplification is usually accompanied by
redistribution. Typically, a part of the stem joins the suffix or inflection. E.g. Russ. сад-
ов-н-ик > сад-ов-ник > сад-овник (complex suffix).

 Analogy is a change of the morphological structure under the influence of similar word
forms. E.g. Russ. диалектальный > диалектный (analogous to объектный,
предметный, портретный); Old Russian, plural, masculine с рабы, с товарищи > с
рабами с товарищами (analogous to plural, feminine с женами).

 Grammaticalization is such a process when the lexical meaning of a word changes into
the grammatical meaning. Thus, a notional word turns into an affix or a form word. E.g.
Old Russian ходи + мъ, ходи + те /verb + pronoun/ > ходи-мъ, ходи-те; Russ. благо
 даря > благодаря /preposition/; Engl. one > an/a (an apple), this > the (the apple), to
have (have asked), to be (is asking).

Derivational morphology (word-formation)

Derivational morphology studies the ways in which morphemes combine to make up words.
Thus, derivational morphology focuses on derived words consisting of root and affixational
morphemes. Derived words are opposed to simple words which cannot be analyzed into distinct
morphemes. The basic notions of derivational morphology are the stem, formal derivational
pattern, derivational meaning, semantic derivational pattern, and derivational paradigm.

Stem is the element of a word structure to which an external inflection (ending) is attached. The
form of a stem typically relates to a particular part of speech. Structurally, a stem may consist
solely of a root morpheme (a simple stem, e.g. girl), or two root morphemes (a compound
stem, e.g. blackbird), or of a root morpheme plus a derivational affix (a complex stem, e.g.
manli-ness, beautiful-ly). With regard to its ability to participate in word-formation, stems can be
derivational and non-derivational. Derivational stems can participate in further word-formation,
e.g. Eng. man – manned, manly, manhood, mankind, manhunt; manly – manliness; Ukr. ліс –
лісок, лісовик, лісовий, пролісок, лісостеп; вовч- – вовчиця, вовчик. Non-derivational stems
cannot participate in further word-formation, e.g. Engl. manned, manhood, mankind; Ukr. лісок,
ставок, вовк.

Formal derivational pattern is a structure that demonstrates interrelation of morphemes in a

word. This structure, when filled with individual units of various meanings, forms words that
belong to different parts of speech. E.g. Eng.
v + -er = N (worker, teacher, runner, swimmer, reader, writer)
n + -ish = A (childish, womanish, bookish)
a + -ish = A (reddish, grayish, greenish)
n1 + n2 = N (arm-chair, ice-cream, term-paper, basketball)
prep + n = N (afternoon, afterthought, after-effect; upside, up-growth)
= Adv (overhead, uphill, up-stream, down-stream)
= Prep (alongside)
N  V: conversion (hand  to hand, hammer  to hammer, host  to host, root  to root)
Formal derivational patterns signify derivational meanings.

Derivational meaning is the meaning which relates the initial and the derived words, e.g. Eng.
worker, teacher, runner (‘action – doer of this action’)
childish, bookish (‘thing – relation to this thing’)
reddish, grayish (‘color – pale shade of this color’)
basketball (‘parts – whole with these parts /game/’)
up-stream (‘trajectory, landmark – location)
to hand, to hammer (instrument – to act with this instrument).
Derivational meaning is represented in semantic (onomasiological) derivational patterns,
which relate the semantic categories manifested by the derived word and its constituents.
(See “Lexicology: Methods of semantic analysis”).

Derivational patterns can be productive, semi-productive, and non-productive. Productive

patterns are repeatedly used to produce words of the same type, e.g. Eng. v + -er = N (‘action –
doer of this action’). Semi-productive patterns have a limited or occasional productivity, e.g.
Engl. un- + A = A (‘quality – absence of this quality’): unhappy, usual, unequal, uneasy, but not
*unsad, *undifficult. Non-productive patterns lack the capacity to form new words at the
present stage of the development of language. E.g. Eng. be- + v = V (‘action – to spread this
action in space’): to beset ‘to circulate, to siege’, to besmear ‘to cover with dirt’, to bekiss ‘to
cover with kisses’, to bespread ‘to cover all over’, etc. This pattern, however, was productive at
the earlier stages of the history of English.

Types of word-formation
(See “Lexicology: Word-stock formation”).

Derivational patterns create derivational paradigms. The latter can be of two types.

(1) Model-based, or thematic, derivational paradigms include words that have one and
the same formal derivational pattern and one and the same derivational meaning, e.g.
Engl. a + -ness = N (‘quality’ – this quality thought of as a thing’): blackness, kindness,
politeness, numbness, loudness, loneliness, likeness, etc.; Ukr. без- + а = А (‘quality –
absence of this quality’): беззоряний, безвітряний, безсумнівний, безхарактерний,
безсердечний, бездіяльний, безграмотний, etc.

(2) Stem-based derivational paradigms include words with one and the same derivational
stem, e.g. Engl. move, movie, movement, movable, immovable, moving; Ukr. голос,
голосний, безгослосий, приголосний, голосовий, голосистий, голослівний, голосити,
голосувати.

Part-of-Speech System

Parts of speech are grammatical word-classes differ from one another by their general meaning,
and their formal characteristics. The latter include morphological, derivational, and syntactic
properties of words.

 Part-of-speech meaning is represented by the most abstract conceptual category which is

common to the meanings of all individual words of a particular class.
Primarily, part-of-speech meanings are associated with regard to the notional parts of
speech. Nouns are said to denote THINGS, while other word classes denote properties of
things. Adjectives and numerals manifest static properties of things – their QUALITIES and
QUANTITIES respectively. Numerals also denote abstract NUMBERS. Verbs manifest
dynamic properties of things – STATES, PROCESSES and ACTIONS, which together
represent the EXISTENCE of things in relation to time. Adverbs are said to denote
PROPERTIES of PROPERTIES, i.e. the characteristics of qualities, quantities, states,
processes, and actions. The meanings of pronouns fall within the above conceptual
categories. Interjections manifest human EMOTIONS.
The meaning of functional word classes (prepositions, conjunctions, articles and
particles) is not autonomous, it integrates into the meanings of notional word classes, and
thus it is more difficult to define. However, it can be claimed that prepositions and
conjunctions manifest RELATION – prepositions denote relation between things (the house
is near the river), and conjunctions signify relation between things, or properties of things, or
events designated by sentences (bread and butter; black and white; to come and to see; he
came, and she left). Articles and the particle to refer to the notion of IDENTIFICATION:
they point to a bounded thing or to a bounded state, process or action (a table, the water, to
sleep, to grow, to come, to read). Other particles relate to the notion of SPECIFICATION:
they specify a thing or its property as viewed by the speaker (just a child, but a child, just
here, only now, me too, not a word).
The general conceptual categories designated by word classes are further stratified into
sub-categories as the meanings of subclasses belonging to one and the same part of speech.
 Different meanings of such subclasses cause different formal characteristics of the respective
words. E.g. the subclasses of proper names and common names for nouns, the subclasses of
common names denoting physical bodies, masses, substances, groups or sets, and collectives
or aggregates; the units of theses subclasses relate to concrete and abstract things; the
subclasses of qualitative and relative adjectives; the subclasses of adverbs denoting location,
time, mode, and evaluation; the subclasses of particles including intensifying, limiting,
specifying, additive, and connective particles.

 Morphological properties of word-classes are represented by particular sets of grammatical

categories the forms of which demonstrate how the part-of-speech units can be modified.
Morphological properties are exhibited by notional word-classes. E.g. Ukr. the categories of
number, case, and gender for nouns, adjectives, numerals, and personal pronouns; the
category of the degrees of comparison for adjectives and adverbs; the categories of tense,
voice, mood, aspect, and transitivity for verbs.

 Derivational (word-formation) properties are relevant for notional and some functional
classes. Particular parts of speech can have their specific word-formation patterns, e.g. Eng.
n + -hood = N (manhood), n + -ish = A (childish), a + -ly = Adv (quickly), a + -ize = V
(generalize), re- + V = V (re-read), num + -ty = Num (seventy), prep + prep = Prep (upon),
conj + conj = Conj (either…or).

 Syntactic properties of word-classes include: (1) the syntactic function in a sentence or

clause, (2) the ability to modify particular word-classes, and (3) the ability to be modified by
particular word-classes.
For example, in a sentence a noun can be the subject (A student came in), the predicative
(She is a student), an object (I gave the book to a student), an attribute (The student’s paper
is excellent), an adverbial modifier (The book is on the table); a noun can be modified by an
article (a pen), proposition (by pen), possessive (his pen) or demonstrative pronoun (this
pen), adjective (red pen), numeral (one pen, two pens), and another noun (student’s pen); a
noun can modify another noun (student’s pen). In a sentence, an adverb can be an adverbial
modifier (She came quickly. She came yesterday); an adverb can be modified by another
adverb (very quickly); an adverb can modify a verb, adjective, numeral or another adverb (to
run quickly, very quickly, about ten, very well, approximately here).
In root languages, where there are no affixes, syntax remains the only formal characteristics
of word classes.
Conventionally, a part-of-speech system includes such classes as nouns, adjectives, numerals,
verbs, adverbs, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles and particles. Among word-classes,
there are notional and functional parts of speech. Notional parts of speech – nouns, adjectives,
numerals, verbs, adverbs, pronouns, and interjections – comprise words that have distinct lexical
meanings. Such words perform particular syntactic functions in a sentence. Functional parts of
speech – prepositions, conjunctions, articles and particles – are formed by words whose meaning
is usually related to grammar. These words do not function as independent elements of a
sentence or clause; they relate to the notional parts of speech.

Part-of-speech systems in different languages do not coincide. For example, unlike English or
French, Ukrainian and Russian have no articles. In Chinese and Japanese there is such part of
speech as the predicative, which corresponds to the classes of verbs and adjectives in Indo-
European languages. The invariable word classes found in all languages (a linguistic universal)
are the noun and the verb. Other classes can converge with them and with one another:
adverbs integrate into adjectives (a language has no class of adverbs);
numerals integrate into adjectives and/or nouns (a language has no class of numerals);
adjectives integrate into nouns and/or verbs (a language has no class of adjectives).
Commonalities between the part-of-speech systems are less obvious in sub-classes of the general
word-classes. Here, languages that belong to different families tend to be culturally specific.
Thus, the organization of languages demonstrates both universal and idioethnic properties.

GRAMMAR: morphology

Pre-Test

Part 1. TYPES OF GRAMMARS

Morphology Syntax
in its narrow sense

GRAMMAR

in its broad sense

Formal grammar Semantic grammar Functional grammar

Competence grammar Performance grammar

Linguocentric grammar Anthropocentric grammar

Practical grammar Theoretical grammar

Synchronic grammar Diachronic grammar

Comparative grammar Historical comparative

grammar

 Define:
Grammar in its broad sense and in its narrow sense.

 Define:
Formal grammar, semantic grammar, and functional grammar.
 Define:
 Competence grammar vs. performance grammar.
 Define:
Linguocentric grammar vs. anthropocentric grammar.
 Define:
Practical grammar vs. theoretical grammar.
 Define:
Syncronic grammar vs. diachronic grammar.
 Define:
Comparative grammar vs. historical-comparative grammar.

Part 2. GRAMMATICAL CATEGORY

CONCEPTUAL (NOTIONAL)
CATEGORY

Grammatical GRAMMATICAL Types of

categories in CATEGORY grammatical
different languages categories

 Grammatical
categories of
words
Grammatical Formal means
meaning of representing  Grammatical
grammatical categories of
meaning word-forms

Grammatical  External inflection  Grammatical

meaning vs.  Internal inflection categories of
lexical  Infix syntactic positions
meaning
 Suppletion  Grammatical
 Reduplication categories of
 Agglutination syntactic
constructions
 Form words
 Word order

 Prepositions
 Postpositions
 Prosody

Grammeme

 Define:
Grammatical category.
 Describe:
Grammatical category vs. conceptual (notional) category.
 Describe:
Grammatical meaning vs. lexical meaning.

 Innumerate:
Formal means of representing grammatical meaning.
 Define:
External inflection, or ending, and its properties.
 Define:
Internal inflection as a formal means of representing grammatical meaning.
 Define:
Infix as a formal means of representing grammatical meaning.
 Define:
Suppletion as a formal means of representing grammatical meaning.
 Define:
Reduplication as a formal means of representing grammatical meaning.
 Define:
Agglutination as a formal means of representing grammatical meaning.
 Define:
Form words (grammatical words) as a formal means of representing grammatical meaning.
 Define:
Infix as a formal means of representing grammatical meaning.
 Define:
Propositions and postpositions as formal means of representing grammatical meaning.
 Define:
Word order as a formal means of representing grammatical meaning.
 Define:
Prosody as a formal means of representing grammatical meaning.
 Define:
A grammeme.
 Match:
1. _________________ are exhibited by word classes and sub-classes. E.g. the Noun,
common names, proper names, class nouns, group nouns, collective nouns, nouns of
material, abstract nouns; the Adjective, qualitative adjectives, relative adjectives.
2. ________________represent the types of word modifications within one and the same
class, e.g. number, case, gender for nouns; degrees of comparison for adjectives.
3. ________________distinguish the parts of a sentence, such as the subject and predicate,
an object, attribute, and adverbial modifier.
4. ________________represent the types of syntactic patterns, e.g. a phrase with
coordination, a phrase with subordination, nominal phrase, verbal phrase, prepositional
phrase, etc.; simple sentence, compound sentence, complex sentence, compound-complex
sentence; principal clause, subordinate clause, subject clause, predicative clause, object
clause, attributive clause, adverbial clause.
a) Grammatical categories of syntactic constructions.
b) Grammatical categories of word forms.
c) Grammatical categories of syntactic positions.
d) Grammatical categories of words.
 Describe:
Complete and incomplete representation of grammatical categories of word forms.
 Describe:
Differences in grammatical categories of different languages (the two major cases).

Part 3. MORPHOLOGY

Phonetic word

Lexical word

Grammatical word

MORPHOLOGY

MORPHEMICS DERIVATIONAL PARTS-OF-SPEECH

MORPHOLOGY THEORY

 Define:
Morphology.
 Define:
A grammatical word. Functional indivisibility of a word.
 Describe:
Branches of morphemics (brief definitions).

Part 3.1. MORPHEMICS

MORPHEMICS
Immediate
constituents
analysis
Morph,
morpheme, allomorph

Types of morphs Morphological

 Root morpheme processes
 Affix
- Prefix  Redistribution
- Postfix (suffix and
external inflection)  Simplification
- Infix  Analogy
- Interfix  Grammaticalization
 Zero morpheme
 Free and bound
morpheme
 Define:
Morphemics.
 Define:
Morph, morpheme, and allomorph.
 Define:
Immediate constituents analysis.
 Innumerate:
Types of morphemes.
 Define:
Root morpheme.
Define:
Prefix vs. postfix.
 Define:
Infix vs. interfix.
 Define:
Zero morpheme.
 Define:
A free morpheme vs. a a bound morpheme.
 Innumerate:
Morphological processes.
 Match:
1. _____________________is a shift of boundaries between morphemes. E.g. Russ. ходи-
мъ > ход-им; Old Slavic жена – жена-мъ, жена-ми, жена-хъ > Russian жен-а,
жен-ами, жен-ах.
2. ____________________ is a convergence of two morphemes into one, so that the
number of morphemes in a word is reduced. E.g. Russ. кол-ес-о /root + suffix +
inflection/ > колес-о /root + inflection/.
3. ____________________ is a change of the morphological structure under the influence
of similar word forms. E.g. Russ. диалектальный > диалектный (analogous to
объектный, предметный, портретный); Old Russian, plural, masculine с рабы, с
товарищи > с рабами с товарищами (analogous to plural, feminine с женами).
4. _____________________ is such a process when the lexical meaning of a word changes
into the grammatical meaning. Thus, a notional word turns into an affix or a form word.
E.g. Old Russian ходи + мъ, ходи + те /verb + pronoun/ > ходи-мъ, ходи-те; Russ.
благо даря > благодаря /preposition/; Engl. one > an/a (an apple), this > the (the
apple), to have (have asked), to be (is asking).
a) Simplification (Russ. опрощение). b) Analogy. c) Grammaticalization.
b) d) Redistribution (Russ. переразложение).
 Part 3.2. DERIVATIONAL MORPHOLOGY (word-formation)

DERIVATIONAL Types of word-formation

MORPHOLOGY  Morphological
(word-formation) - Affixation
- Back word-formation
- Compounding
- Blending
- Clipping
Derived words vs. - Abbreviation
simple words  Semantic
formation) - Transposition
- Conversion

Stem Formal derivational pattern Derivational meaning

Types of stems Productivity of

derivational Onomasiological
 Simple stem patterns model
 Compound stem  Productive  Basis
 Complex stem patterns  Feature
 Semi-productive  Link
 Derivational patterns
stem  Non-productive
 Non-derivational patterns
stem

Derivational
paradigms
 Model-based
 Stem-based

 Define:
Derivational morphology vs. morphemics.
 Define:
Stem. Types of stems.
 Define:
A formal derivational pattern.
 Define:
Derivational meaning. An onomasiological model.
 Define:
Productive, semi-productive, and non-productive derivational patterns.
 Define:
Model-based and stem-based derivational paradigms.
 Define:
Affixation vs. back word-formation.
 Define:
Compounding vs. blending.
 Define:
Clipping vs. abbreviation.
 Define:
Conversion vs. transposition. Types of transposition.

Part 3.3. PARTS-OF-SPEECH THEORY

Notional and functional Parts of speech in

parts of speech different languages

PARTS OF
SPEECH

Semantic Formal
characteristics characteristics

Part-of-speech meaning
Notional parts of speech: Morphological Syntactic
 Nouns
(grammatical - part of
 Adjectives
categories) a sentence
- modifies X
 Numerals
- is modified
 Verbs
Derivational by Y
 Adverbs
(derivational
Functional parts of speech:
patterns)
 Prepositions
 Conjunctions
 Articles
 Particles

 Define:
Parts of speech and their characteristics (to innumerate).
 Define:
Notional and functional parts of speech.
 Define:
Part-of-speech meaning. Part-of speech meaning for notional (nouns, verbs, adjectives,
numerals, and adverbs) and functional (prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and particles)
classes.
 Describe:
Morphological properties of word-classes.
 Describe:
Derivational properties of word-classes.
 Describe:
Three syntactic properties of word-classes.
 Describe:
Part-of-speech systems in different languages (the differences).
 SYNTAX
Syntax studies how words combine in phrases, sentences, and larger units (groups of sentences
linked formally and semantically). Such combinations are represented in syntactic patterns of
phrases and sentences that are studied by the syntax of a phrase, and the syntax of a sentence
respectively. Syntactic patterns can be analyzed with regard to their form, meaning, and function
in speech. Hence, the theory of syntax includes formal syntax, semantic syntax, and
communicative, or functional, syntax.

FORMAL SYNTAX

Syntax of a phrase

 A phrase typically contains two or more words that are linked formally and semantically, but
lack the subject-predicate relation.

 A formal pattern of a phrase is a structure that demonstrates linkage of words that is

acceptable in a particular language. This structure is filled with individual units with various
meanings. E.g. A + N: Eng. Latin language, clean board, unknown land; N + A: Latin lingua
latina, tabula rasa, terra incognita.

 According to their form, phrases can be coordinate and subordinate. In coordinate phrases,
the syntactic status of words is equal; they are joined by a coordinate conjunction, e.g. Engl.
brad and butter, black and white, either read or write, both here and there. In subordinate
phrases, the linked units do not have an equal status: one of them (the head word) dominates
over the other (the subordinate word). According to the head word, subordinate phrases are
subdivided into:
nominal phrases, where the head is a noun, e.g. A + N: Ukr. червоне яблуко, Eng. red
apple; Num + N: Ukr. одне яблуко, Eng. one apple;
adjectival phrases, where the head is an adjective, e.g. Adv + A: Ukr. дуже великий, Eng.
very big;
numerical phrases, where the head word is a numeral, e.g. Adv + Num: Ukr. приблизно
десять, Eng. approximately ten;
verbal phrases, where the head word is a verb, e.g. Adv + V: Ukr. швидко бігти; V + Adv:
Eng. to run quickly;
adverbial phrases, where the head word is an adverb, e.g. Adv1 + Adv2: Ukr. дуже добре,
Eng. very well;
prepositional phrases, where the head word is a preposition, e.g. Prep + N: Ukr. біля
будинку, Eng. near the house;
interjectional phrases, where the head word is an interjection, e.g. Int + Prep + N: Ukr. Тьфу
на тебе!

 Types of subordinate relations. In languages, subordinate relations are manifested through

various means, which include agreement, enclosure, government, adjoining, isafate, and
incorporation. The first four types of subordinate relations can be found in Ukrainian,
Russian, English, and many other Indo-European languages. The last two types of syntactic
relations are demonstrated by languages that belong to other families.

(1) Agreement, or concord, takes place when a particular form of the head word requires a
corresponding form of the subordinate. E.g. in a nominative phrase, the adjective must
agree with the noun in number, case, and gender: Ukr. гарної дівчини, гарних дівчат,
гарного хлопця, гарних хлопців; мамина сукня, маминої сукні.
 (2) Enclosure occurs when extra elements are included between the head word and the
subordinate word, e.g. Engl. a pen – a black pen, to understand – to better understand;
Russ. на скорости – на большой скорости, в лесу – в темном лесу.

(3) Government is a type of syntactic linkage whereby the head word requires that the
subordinate word be in a particular form. E.g. in a verbal phrase, the verb requires a
particular case of the noun. E.g. Ukr. писати листа (OBJECTIVE), пишатися
успіхами (ABLATIVE), жити в селі (LOCATIVE). In a prepositional phrase, the
preposition as well requires a particular case of the noun: Latin cum poeta (ABLATIVE)
‘with a poet’, ad poetam (ACCUSAIVE) ‘to a poet’. Government also occurs in noun
phrases, e.g. Eng. mother’s (GENITIVE) dress, Ukr. сукня мами (GENITIVE).

(4) Adjoining is linking two words only semantically, without any formal means to
demonstrate this link, e.g. the relation between a verb and an adverb: Ukr. швидко бігти,
Eng. to run quickly.

(5) Isafate / aiz feit/ is a particular relation characteristic of Turkish languages. It can also
be found in Persian and Arabic. Isafate is a link between two nouns in a possessive
construction; one of the words is the head word denoting the possessed, and another is
the subordinate word denoting in the possessor. Semantically, this link resembles
agreement and government (мамина сукня, сукня мами; Казанський ітститутут,
інститут Казані). However, in isafatic constructions the formal notation of dependence
(an affix denoting that something is possessed by the 3rd person) is attached to the head
word instead of the subordinate word. E.g. Tatar Казан интститут-ы ‘Kazan institute-
its / Казань інститут-її’.

(6) Incorporation is typical of Paleo-Siberian (Paleo-Asian) languages, and languages of

American Indians. In these languages, stems with the attached affixes make up both
phrases and sentences that form a morphological unity. Since this unity can be
disintegrated lexically and semantically, it is not equivalent to a word. However, this
unity is not equivalent to a phrase or sentence either, because its form resembles that of a
word. E.g. Chukot мытрелгитекупрэн ыск ивыск ычетгъе ‘to go very quickly to make
a net’. The morphemic structure includes root morphemes and affixes:
мыт-рэ-лги-тэ-купрэ-н -ы-ск ычет-гъе
тэ-купрэ-н is a stem derived from the verb тэкупрэн ык ‘to make a net’; the verb is
derived via adding the affixes тэ- -н to the noun stem купрэ-н;
-ск ив- is a suffix that means ‘to go with some purpose’;
-лги- is a prefix that means ‘very’;
-скычет- is a suffix that means ‘quickness of the action’;
-рэ- and –гъе are affixes (a prefix and suffix) that denote a future action;
-мыт- is a syntactic suffix that denotes the 1st person, plural.

Syntax of a sentence

 A sentence typically contains two or more words that are related formally and semantically.
A sentence exhibits the subject-predicate structure. Unlike phrases, sentences function as
communicative units.

 A formal pattern of a sentence is a structure that demonstrates interrelation of words that is

acceptable in a particular language. This structure is filled with individual units with various
meanings.
 The parts of a sentence are the subject, the predicate, an object (direct, indirect, and
prepositional), an attribute, and an adverbial modifier (of place and direction, time and
frequency, manner, attendant circumstances, degree and measure, cause, purpose, result,
condition, comparison and concession). The subject and predicate are the principal, or
primary, parts of a sentence. An object, attribute, and adverbial modifier are the secondary
parts of a sentence.

 The structural types of sentences include simple sentences, compound sentences, complex
sentences, compound-complex sentences, and sentences with parentheses.

(1) A simple sentence has only one clause that has a subject-predicate structure. Simple
sentences are divided into two-member and one-member sentences.

(a) Two-member sentences have both the subject and the predicate, e.g. Eng. She
studies at the university. When one of the principal parts (the subject or the
predicate) is missing because of ellipses and can be easily understood from the
context, a complete two-member sentence becomes an incomplete one. E.g. Eng.
Who has come? – Jane. What do you want to do? – To read a book.

(b) One-member sentences have only one principal member, which is nether the
subject nor the predicate, but rather a combination of both. The one member
makes a sentence complete. Such sentences tend to describe existence of
something, typically an object or a speaker’s thought and feeling. E.g. Eng.
Freedom! Bells ringing out, flowers, kisses, wine (Heym). To die, to sleep, no
more… (Shakespeare). Russ. Ночь. Улица. Фонарь. Аптека. Безрадостный и
тусклый свет (Блок).

Simple sentences are called non-extended if they consist only of the primary parts, e.g.
Eng. The boy is sleeping. A dog is an animal. Winter! Simple sentences are called
extended if, along with the primary parts, they contain the secondary parts. E.g. Eng. The
boy is sleeping in the bedroom upstairs. A dog is a very clever animal. A cold winter! The
primary and secondary parts may be compulsory and optional. The compulsory parts
make up the constructive basis of a sentence.

The constructive basis of a sentence is a structure, the elements of which cannot be

omitted, as their omission makes the sentence ill-formed, or ungrammatical. The
character of the constructive basis depends on the syntactic meaning of a verb that
functions as the predicate. According to their syntactic meaning, verbs can be non-
directed and directed. Non-directed verbs do not require any complement; in this case
the constructive basis of a sentence includes only the subject and the predicate, e.g. Eng.
The boy is sleeping. Mary is crying. Ukr. Хлопчик спить. Марія плаче. Directed verbs
require a compulsory complement. Object-directed verbs must be accompanied by one
or two objects that are compulsory for the constructive basis of a sentence. E.g. Eng. He
has received a letter. She spends time. They enjoyed freedom. Ukr. Він одержав листа.
Вона витрачає час (a direct object). Ukr.Вони насолождувались свободою (an
indirect object). Eng. Peter has given the book to Paul. Peter has lent money to Paul.
Ukr. Петро дав книгу Павлу. Петро позичив гроші Павлу (a direct object + an indirect
object). Modifier-directed verbs must be accompanied by an adverbial modifier (mostly
that of place), which is compulsory for the constructive basis of a sentence. E.g. They
reside in London. Ukr. Вони проживають у Лондоні. The parts of a sentence that can
be omitted without making it ungrammatical are called optional. E.g. Engl. Yesterday,
Peter gave Paul a very interesting book about the Second World War.
(2) A compound sentence consists of two or more clauses coordinated syndetically (with a
coordinating conjunction or conjunctive adverb) or asyndetically (without a conjunctive
word). The types of coordination are:

(a) Copulative coordination, expressed by the conjunctions and, nor, neither…nor, not
only…but (also), e.g. Eng. Spring came, and we went to the country.
(b) Disjunctive coordination, expressed by the conjunctions or, else, or else, either…or,
and the conjunctive adverb otherwise, e.g. Eng. Either we get married, or I will leave
forever.
(c) Adversative coordination, expressed by the conjunctions but, while, whereas, and
the conjunctive adverb nevertheless, still, and yet, e.g. The book was dull, but/yet I
found it useful.
(d) Causative-consecutive coordination, expressed by the conjunctions for, so, and the
conjunctive adverbs therefore, accordingly, consequently, hence, e.g. Eng. There was
something strange about him, for he was grave and silent. They were friends,
so/therefore they could understand each other.

The relations of coordination exposed between words in a phrase, clauses in a compound

sentence, utterances in a dialogue, and extended individual messages in communication are
called parataxis.

(3) A complex sentence consists of a principal clause and one or more subordinate clauses.
The clauses may be linked syndetically and asyndetically. E.g. I thought that he would
come later. I thought he would come later.

The types of subordinate clauses are defined with regard to their syntactic function in a
complex sentence.
a) Subject clauses function as the subject of a sentence, e.g. Eng. What I want to do is
to leave this place.
b) Predicative clauses perform the function of a predicative, e.g. Eng. My opinion is
that you have failed to do that.
c) Object clauses function as an object, e.g. Eng. I thought that you had read this book.
d) Attributive clauses serve as an attribute, e.g. Eng. The letter that you’ve got must be
replied today.
e) Adverbial clauses function as an adverbial modifier of place, time, cause, purpose,
result, condition, concession, manner, and comparison. E.g. Mary is quite
comfortable where she is (place). I went to school when I was 7 (time). She left
because she couldn’t stand it anymore (cause). Peter moved closer, so that he could
see the details of the picture (purpose). It was dark outside, so that the streets were
nearly deserted (result). I’ll invite him to the party if I see him (condition). Although
it was late, he decided to see Jane (concession). She did exactly as he had told her
(manner). Mr. Smith looked as if he had not slept for many nights (comparison).

The relations of subordination exhibited in phrases, sentences, and larger units are called
hypotaxis.

(4) A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more coordinate clauses one of which
at least has a subordinate clause, e.g. Eng. There were a lot of people in the room and,
when he came in, all of them stood up.
(5) A sentence with a parenthesis has an optional (parenthetical) clause, which is “an
insertion” that can be easily removed without inflicting the meaning of a sentence. A
parenthetical clause expresses an individual thought parallel to the one expressed by a
sentence. E.g. She, I guess, is an excellent writer. John – I believe his name is John – is
always late.

SEMANTIC SYNTAX

Meaning of a sentence relates to an abstract event which includes one or several participants. A
participant is typically a thing or person represented by the noun. E.g. The boy is sleeping (one
participant). The boy is reading a book (two participants). The boy has sent a letter to his sister
(three participants).

In the mind, events are represented propositionally. Proposition (Ukr. пропозиція) is a mental
structure constituted by the logical subject and the logical predicate. The logical subject (Ukr.
суб’єкт) is an entity about which we think. The logical predicate (Ukr. предикат) is the
property assigned to this entity at the moment of thinking and speaking. E.g. CAT (logical
subject) is BLACK (logical predicate). CAT (logical subject) SLEEPS (logical predicate).
Proposition, which exists in our thought, is manifested in language through predication, i.e. the
linguistic subject and predicate. Proposition as a mental structure is a compulsory element of the
meaning of a sentence.

Another compulsory element of the meaning of a sentence is objective modality. Objective

modality links the described event and the speaker. It shows the place-and-time of the event with
regard to the place-and time of the speaker. It also shows the speaker’s perception of the event as
a real or an unreal one. Objective modality is manifested in language by tenses and moods of the
verb (the predicate). E.g. Peter finished school last year (the speaker is HERE-NOW, the event
is THERE-THEN, in the past; the event is real). I shouldn’t have done it (the event is unreal).

Along with objective modality, the meaning of a sentence can comprise subjective modality
which is an optional component of meaning. Subjective modality shows the speaker’s states of
mind related to the event. These states are manifested by the words can, must, may, want, do not
want, like, dislike, believe, doubt, probably, sure, etc. E.g. She will sure come. She may come. I
doubt she will come.

If the event represented by a sentence has two and more participants, they acquire semantic
roles (deep semantic cases) that demonstrate the relations between these participants – persons
and things). The most typical roles are the Agent, a doer of the action, the Patient, a person or
thing acted upon, the Instrument, a thing with the help of which the action is done, the
Addressee, a person to whom the action is addressed, the Causative, a thing or person that cause
the action, and the Factitive, a thing that results from the action. Some classifications also
distinguish the Locative, place of the action, and Temporative, time of the action. E.g.

Yesterday, Peter opened the box with a knife and sent the content to Jane who was in London.
TEMP AGENT PATIENT INSTR PATIENT ADDR. LOCAT

Semantic cases are not equivalent to the cases of nouns. They are also not equivalent to the parts
of a sentence. The syntactic structure of a sentence may change, while the semantic roles remain
intact. E.g.

The box was opened by Peter. The knife opened the box. The content of the box was sent to Jane.
PATIENT AGENT INSTR PATIENT PATIENT ADDR
When a sentence is used in speech, it acquires the information structure. Information structure
comprises two main constituents: the topic and the comment. The topic is the given information,
which has already been supplied by the previous context. The comment, or theme, or
information focus, is the new information, which has not been previously supplied, and which is
therefore more important. The theme is made more salient via phonetic and syntactic media. The
new information may be distinguished by stress and intonation. It can also be represented with
particular syntactic structures. E.g. It was Peter who helped me. The front position in a sentence
is most salient. The process of moving an element to the front of a sentence to act as theme is
thematization or thematic fronting. E.g. The students were in the library. In the library were
students.

COMMUNICATIVE SYNTAX

Communicative syntax studies how various syntactic patterns are used in communication. This
branch of syntax integrates into linguistic pragmatics.

According to their purpose in speech, sentences are traditionally subdivided into declarative
(affirmative and negative), interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory. These groups of
sentences employ specific syntactic and intonation patterns. Meanwhile, the communicative
purposes of utterances are more diverse, which is obvious from a classification of speech acts:

Speech acts

Constitutive acts Informative acts Obligative acts

Expressive Declarative Assertive Information Directive Commissive

acts acts acts questions acts acts
thank name assert ask request promise
praise marry state order offer
apologize sentence describe propose
greet pronounce assume advise

Therefore, declarative, interrogative, imperative and exclamatory sentences can be further

subdivides with regard to both their form and their relation to particular speech acts.

SYNTAX:
Pre-Test

Part 1. SYNTAX: DEFINITION

Communicative
syntax

Formal syntax SYNTAX Semantic syntax

SYNTAX OF A PHRASE SYNTAX OF A SENTENCE

 Define:
Syntax. Syntax of a phrase, and syntax of a sentence.
 Define:
Formal syntax, semantic syntax, and communicative (functional) syntax.

Part 2. SYNTAX OF A PHRASE

(FORMAL SYNTAX)
A PHRASE
Formal types of Types of subordinate
phrases relations

 Coordinate  Agreement
FORMAL PATTERN OF  Subordinate (concord)
A PHRASE - nominal  Enclosure
- adjectival  Government
- numerical  Adjoining
- verbal  Isafete
- adverbial  Incorporation
- prepositional
- interjectional
 Define:
A phrase vs. a sentence.
 Define:
A formal pattern of a phrase.
 Innumerate:
Formal types of phrases.
 Define:
Coordinate vs. subordinate phrases.
 Describe:
Types of subordinate phrases.
 Innumerate:
Types of subordinate relations.
 Define:
Agreement, or concord as a type of subordinate relations.
 Define:
Enclosure as a type of subordinate relations.
 Define:
Government as a type of subordinate relations.
 Define:
Adjoining as a type of subordinate relations.
 Define:
Isafete as a type of subordinate relations.
 Define:
Incorporation as a type of subordinate relations.
 Part 3. SYNTAX OF A SENTENCE
(FORMAL, SEMANTIC, and COMMUNICATIVE SYNTAX)

A SENTENCE SEMANTIC SYNTAX

 Meaning of a sentence
 Proposition and predication
FORMAL SYNTAX  Semantic roles
 Modality
 Information structure of a
sentence
Formal pattern of Parts of
a sentence a sentence
COMMUNICATIVE SYNTAX
 Syntactic structures and
STRUCTURAL TYPES communicative types of
OF SENTENCES sentences

SIMPLE SENTENCE COMPOUND COMPLEX COMPOUND-

SENTENCE SENTENCE COMPLEX
 Two-member vs.  Syndetic vs.  Syndetic vs. SENTENCE
one-member asyndetic asyndetic
 Non-extended vs. coordination subordination
extended  Types of  Types of
coordination subordinate
 Constructive basis of - copulative clauses SENTENCE
a sentence vs. - disjunctive - subject clauses WITH A
optional parts of a - adversative - predicative cl. PARENTHESIS
sentence. - causative- - object clauses
 Syntactic meaning Consecutive - attributive cl.
of verbs - adverbial cl.
 PARATAXIS  HYPOTAXIS

 Define:
A sentence vs. a phrase.
 Define:
A formal pattern of a sentence.
 Define:
The parts of a sentence.
 Innumerate:
The structural types of sentences.
 Define:
A simple sentence. Two-member sentences (complete and incomplete), and one-member
sentences.
 Define:
Non-extended vs. extended simple sentences.
 Describe:
The constructive basis of a sentence and its optional parts. Non-directed verbs vs. directed
verbs (object-directed, and modifier-directed).
 Define:
A compound sentence vs. a complex sentence.
 Describe:
Syndetic vs. asyndetic relations of clauses.
 Describe:
Types of coordination (copulative, disjunctive, adversative, causative-consecutive).
 Define:
Parataxis.
 Define:
A complex sentence vs. a compound sentence.
 Describe:
Tpes of subordinate clauses (subject, predicative, object, attributive, and adverbial clauses).
Types of adverbial clauses.
 Define:
Hypotaxis.
 Define:
A compound-complex sentence.
 Define:
A sentence with the parenthesis.
 Define:
Meaning of a sentence.
 Define:
Proposition and predication.
 Define:
Modality as a part of the sentence meaning. Objective and subjective modality.
 Describe:
Semantic roles that structure the meaning of a sentence.

 Define:
Information structure of a sentence: the topic (theme), and the comment.
 Describe:
Communicative syntax. Types of sentences related to particular speech acts.
 Lecture 7
TYPOLOGY OF LANGUAGES

TYPOLOGICAL
LINGUISTICS

TYPOLOGY OF LANGUAGES

SYNTACTIC TYPES MORPHOLOGICAL TYPES

(combination of elements) (types of combined morphemes)

 Analytic languages  Root languages

 Synthetic languages:  Agglutinative languages
nominative and ergative  Inflectional languages
 Polysynthetic (incorporating)
languages

No clear-cut boundaries

Languages may have similar types of their grammatical organization. A branch of linguistics
which studies the structural similarities between languages, regardless of their history, is called
typological linguistics. Typological comparison attempts to establish relationships between
languages, especially in cases when there is no evidence as to their genealogical kinship.
Typological classifications focus on formal syntactic and morphological devices applied in the
grammatical organization of languages. Respectively, there are syntactic and morphological
classifications of languages. These typologies overlap.

Syntactic classification focuses on the formal means for representing grammatical categories
and on the ways in which words are combined in phrases and sentences. The respective groups
are:

 Analytic languages, where the grammatical forms are mostly represented through such
media as functional words, phonetic means, and invariable word order. In such languages,
the words that form phrases and sentences remain individual units. E.g. English, French,
Persian, Bulgarian, and some other Indo-European languages.

 Synthetic languages, where the grammatical forms are mostly manifested by affixes –
suffixes, prefixes, and inflections. Such languages tend to have variable word order. The
words combining in phrases and sentences are individual units. E.g. Ukrainian, Russian,
Polish, Lithuanian, and most contemporary Indo-European languages. All old Indo-European
languages that had a system of writing were synthetic, e.g. Latin, Old Greek, and Gothic.
 Polysynthetic, or incorporating, languages, characterized by long, complex word forms
incorporating roots and various affixes (suffixes, prefixes, and inflections). These word
forms often function as entire sentences, where a verb can simultaneously agree with several
elements (see “Incorporation” above). E.g. languages of American Indians, and Paleo-
Siberian (Paleo-Asian) languages.

 Synthetic and polysynthetic languages are further subdivided into nominative and ergative.
In nominative languages, a noun in the nominative case typically represents the subject
in active and passive syntactic constructions, while a noun in the objective (accusative) case
typically represents a direct object. This rule holds for constructions with both transitive and
intransitive verbs. E.g. Робітники будують дім. Дім будується робітниками. Робітники
працюють. Most Indo-European languages belong to the nominative type.
In ergative languages (from Greek ergates ‘doer of the action’), there are two ways for
representing the subject of a sentence. The sentences with an intransitive verb have the
subject in the absolute (nominative) case, e.g. Georgian Kat’s-i sin movida ‘The man has
come home’. The sentences with a transitive verb have the subject in the ergative case, while
the direct object is in the absolute (nominative) case, e.g. Georgian Kat’s-ma sahli aasena
‘The man has built a house’. In Georgian, the use of the ergative case is restricted to the
sentences in the past tense. In the present tense, the subject is in the absolute case, and the
direct object has a special form of the dative-objective case. Cf. Kat’s-i sahls asenebs ‘The
man is building a house’. Thus, the ergative case signifies a transitive action which is
complete, i.e. has a result. Ergativity is characteristic of most Caucasian and Papua
languages, and of the languages of American Indians.

In most cases, languages do not represent a “pure” syntactic type. They are included into a
particular group on the grounds of the prevailing grammatical means. E.g. in English, the
analytical grammatical means prevail over the synthetic ones; in Ukrainian and Russian, the
synthetic grammatical means prevail over the analytical ones.

Morphological classification focuses on the types of morphemes that manifest grammatical and
derivational meanings. These morphemes are roots, affixes, and inflections. The types of
languages are:

 Root, or isolating, languages that do not have either inflections or other affixes. In these
languages there are only free root morphemes that function as individual words. Notional and
functional word classes have no clear-cut distinctions. The languages are analytical: the
grammatical meanings are manifested via reduplication of root morphemes or combination of
notional and functional words; these means integrate with prosody, and invariable word
order. Similarly, in derivational patterns the role of a derivational affix is performed by a root
morpheme. E.g. Chinese gunzhen ‘worker’ (gun ‘work’ + zhen ‘man’). In Chinese, the noun
has no special grammatical forms of number, case, and gender; nouns widely combine with
 prepositions and postpositions. The verb has no special grammatical forms of tense, mood,
person, and number; any verb may be followed by an object. The other examples of root
languages are Bantu, Vietnamese, and most languages of South-East Asia.

 Agglutinative languages, in which words are built up by stringing forms together, often into
quite lengthy sequences. Such sequences comprise a root morpheme to which several affixes
are attached one by one. Each affix typically has only one grammatical meaning (see
“Agglutination” above). E.g. the languages of Turkish and Hungarian-Finnish families,
Indian languages of Indo-European family, Japanese, and Korean. Agglutinative languages
are subdivided into prefixational (e.g. Semitic languages), and postfixational (e.g. Turkish
languages). Agglutinative languages can be analytic (e.g. Polynesian languages), synthetic
(e.g. Bantu), and polysynthetic (e.g. Chukot).

 Inflectional languages, where words typically contain more than one morpheme, but there is
no one-to-one correspondence between these morphemes and the linear structure of the word.
The differences between inflectional and agglutinative languages are as follows:
(1) One morpheme, particularly the inflection, typically manifests several grammatical
meanings at a time, e.g. Ukr. студент-у (singular, masculine gender, dative case), чит-
ав (past tense, 3rd person, singular, masculine gender).
(2) Unlike suffixes in agglutinative languages, inflections may have morphological variants,
e.g. Russian, singular, GEN: стола, схару, жены, кости.
(3) Wile suffixes in agglutinative languages are attached to the root or stem mechanically,
inflections may converge with the root or stem and cause their phonetic changes, e.g.
Ukr. пис-ав, пиш-е.
Inflectional languages are mostly synthetic. Among inflectional languages, are Arabic and
most Indo-European languages (Ukrainian, Russian, German, Latin, Greek, etc.).

There is no clear-cut demarcation line between root, agglutinative, and inflectional languages.
A language may combine inflections and agglutinative affixes. In the course of its history, an
agglutinative language may turn into an inflectional language (e.g. early Indo-European and late
Indo-European). An inflectional synthetic language may lose the system of its inflections and
become an analytical language somewhat similar to a root language (e.g. the history of English,
French, and other Indo-European languages).
 TYPOLOGY OF LANGUAGES
Pre-Test

TYPOLOGICAL
LINGUISTICS

TYPOLOGY OF LANGUAGES

SYNTACTIC TYPES MORPHOLOGICAL TYPES

(combination of elements) (types of combined morphemes)

 Analytic languages  Root languages

 Synthetic languages:  Agglutinative languages
nominative and ergative  Inflectional languages
 Polysynthetic (incorporating)
languages

No clear-cut boundaries

 Define:
Typological linguistics.
 Describe:
Syntactic vs. analytic types of languages.
 Define:
Analytic languages.
 Define:
Synthetic languages.
 Define:
Polysynthetic (incorporating) languages.
 Define:
Nominative vs. ergative languages.
 Define:
Root (isolating) languages.
 Define:
Agglutinative languages.
 Define:
Inflectional languages.
 Describe:
Differences between inflectional and agglutinative languages (3 factors).
 ПЕРЕЛІК ПИТАНЬ
ДО ПІДСУМКОВОГО СЕМЕСТРОВОГО КОНТРОЛЮ
(екзамен)

Структура екзаменаційного білета

1. Theoretical question
2. Define the terms and provide examples, where required
3. Practical task (in Ukrainian)
Define the place of 6 languages in the genealogical classification. Show on the
geographical map the areas where these languages are (were) spoken.

Питання, що виносяться на екзамен

1. Theoretical question

General Aspects

1. Linguistics and its objectives. Linguistics vs. traditional grammar. The scope of
linguistics.

Phonetics and Phonology

2. Phonetics vs. phonology. Acoustic phonetics and articulatory phonetics. Organs of

speech. Stages of articulation. Merging of stages and interpenetration of stages.
Articulatory basis of a language. Orthoepy. Spelling and pronunciation.

3. Phoneme: definition. Allophones. Phonemic and phonetic transcription. Segmental

phonemes and non-segmental phonemes. Understanding of a phoneme by the Moscow
and Leningrad phonological school. Contribution to the theory of a phoneme made by the
Prague School, Copenhagen School, and American School of Descriptive Linguistics.
Integral and differential features of phonemes. Phonemic oppositions and their types.
Strong and weak position of a phoneme. Neutralization of phonemic oppositions.

4. Combinatory phonetic changes: assimilation and its types (according to the direction,
degree of completeness, and degree of stability).

5. Combinatory phonetic changes: synharmony of vowels, dissimilation and its types,

accommodation.

6. Combinatory phonetic changes: elision, intrusion and its types, metathesis. Positional
phonetic changes: reduction and its types.

7. Prosody. Syllabic stress and its types. Word stress and its types. Metrical phonology.
Stress group and clitics.

8. Intonation. Speech melody. Sentence stress and its types. Rhythm and its types. Tempo of
speech and its types. Pause. Voice timbre.
 Lexicology. Lexical Semantics

9. Lexicology: definition. Lexeme. Lexical semantics: semasiology, onomasiology, and the

theory of naming (basic objectives). Methods of semantic analysis applied in
semasiology, onomasiology, and the theory of naming.

10. Word-stock formation: affixation, back formation, clipping, abbreviation, compounding

and blending.

11. Semantic word-formation and its types. Borrowing and its types.

12. Word-stock stratification: chronological stratification of the vocabulary, and stylistic

stratification of the vocabulary.

13. Word-stock organization. Lexicography. Types of dictionaries. The entry of a linguistic

dictionary. Ideographic dictionaries.

14. Studies of lexical groups. Onomastics. Types of onyms. Terminology. Phraseology. A

phraseological unit. Phraseological units vs. free word-combinations. Deformations of
phraseological units.

15. Phraseological units: structural, semantic, stylistic and etymological classifications.

16. Internal word-form. Motivated and non-motivated words. Etymon. Etymology. Folk
etymology. Translator’s ‘false friends’. Historical lexicology.

17. Lexical semantics. ‘Semantic triangle’ model. Lexical meaning and its constituents.

18. Direct and indirect word meaning. Metonymy and its types. Metaphor and its types.
Metonymy-metaphor.

19. Semasiology vs. onomasiology. Semasiological studies of words. Polysemy. Homonymy,

and types of homonyms. Paronymy.

20. Onomasiology vs. semasiology. Onomasiological studies of words. Synonymy, and

types of synonyms. Antonymy, and types of antonyms. Partonymy. Hyponymy.

21. Onomasiological studies of words. Partonymy. Hyponymy. Semantic fields.

Grammar

22. Grammatical category: definition. Grammatical category and conceptual category.

Grammatical meaning vs. lexical meaning. Formal means of representing grammatical
meaning. Grammeme. Types of grammatical categories. Grammatical categories of
different languages.

23. Morphology and its branches. Grammatical word. Grammatical word vs. lexical word
and phonetic word. Morphemics. Morph, morpheme, and allomorph. Immediate
constituent analysis. Types of morphemes. Morphological processes.
 24. Derivational morphology. Simple words and derived words. Stems and their types.
Formal derivational pattern. Derivational meaning. Productivity of derivational patterns.
Derivational paradigms.

25. Parts of speech. Part-of-speech meaning. Part-of-speech formal properties. Parts of

speech in different languages.

26. Syntax and its types. A phrase. Formal pattern of a phrase. Types of phrases. Types of
subordinate relations.

27. A sentence. Formal pattern of a sentence. The parts of a sentence. The types of sentences.
A simple sentence and its types. The constructive basis of a sentence.

28. A compound sentence. Syndetic and asyndetic coordination. Types of coordination.

Parataxis. A complex sentence. Types of subordinate clauses. Hypotaxis. A compound-
complex sentence. A sentence with a parenthesis.

29. Semantic syntax. Meaning of a sentence. Proposition. Modality. Semantic roles.

Information structure of a sentence. Communicative syntax.

Classifications of languages

30. Typology of languages. Syntactic types of languages. Nominative and ergative

languages. Morphological types of languages. Inflectional vs. agglutinative languages.

2. Define the terms and provide examples, where required

1. Phonetics vs. phonology. Acoustic phonetics and articulatory phonetics. Articulatory basis
of a language. Orthoepy.
2. Phoneme. Allophones. Segmental phonemes and non-segmental phonemes. Neutralization
of phonemic oppositions.
3. Assimilation. Synharmony of vowels. Dissimilation. Accommodation.
4. Elision. Intrusion. Metathesis. Reduction.
5. Syllable. The sonorous and muscular theories of a syllable. Monosyllabic languages.
6. Prosody. Syllabic stress. Word stress. Sentence stress. Intonation.
7. Stress group. Proclitic. Enclitic. Metrical phonology.
*
8. Lexeme. Lexical meaning. Semasiology, onomasiology, and the theory of naming.
9. Affixation. Back formation. Compound and compound derived words. Blending.
10. Clipping and abbreviation. Acronyms and initiaisms.
11. Semantic word-formation. Transposition and conversion.
12. Basic word-stock. Historical and archaic words. Neologisms and occasional words.
13. Neutral words. Bookish words. Terms. Exoticisms.
14. Colloquial words. General slang. Special slang (jargon). Professionalisms. Dialectal
words.
15. Vulgarisms. Dysphemisms. Taboos and euphemisms.
16. Internal word-form. Motivated and non-motivated words. Etymon. Onomasiological
model.
17. Etymology and Historical Lexicology. Folk etymology. Translator’s ‘false friends’.
*
18. Lexical meaning. The signified. Referential meaning. Connotational meaning. Pragmatic
meaning. Componential analysis.
 19. Direct and indirect word meaning. Metonymy. Metaphor. Metonymy-metaphor.
20. Semasiology. Polysemy. Homonymy. Paronymy.
21. Onomasiology. Synonyms. Antonyms. Wholomym and partonym. Hypernym and
hyponym.
*
22. Grammar in its broad and narrow sense. Branches of grammar in its broad sense. Branches
of grammar in its narrow sense.
23. Grammatical category. Grammatical categories of words, word forms, syntactic positions,
and syntactics constructions. Grammeme.
24. Morphemics. Morph, morpheme, and allomorph. Immediate constituent analysis.
25. Morphological processes. Redistribution. Simplification. Analogy. Grammaticalization.
26. Derivational morphology. Simple words and derived words. Stem. Formal derivational
pattern. Derivational meaning.
27. Parts of speech. Part-of-speech meaning. Part-of-speech formal properties.
28. Syntax and its types. Phrase vs. sentence. Simple, compound, complex sentences. The
constructive basis of a sentence.
29. Meaning of a sentence. Proposition. Modality. Semantic roles. Information structure of a
sentence.

ГЕНЕАЛОГІЧНА КЛАСИФІКАЦІЯ МОВ

Мовні сім’ї

Європа і Новий Світ (Америка):

індоєвропейська, фіно-угорська.

Азія:
самодійська, кавказька, тюрксько-татарська, тунгусо-маньчжурська, китайсько-тібетська,
тайська, дравидська, семіто-хамітська, австроазійська, палеоазійська.

Австралія і Океанія:
австронезійська (Малайський архіпелаг – Індонезія, Філіппіни, Індокитай, Океанія, о.
Мадагаскар, о. Тайвань), генетично різнорідні папуаські мови (о. Нова Гвінея та інші
острови Тихого океану), генетично різнорідні австралійські мови (Австралія).

Африка:
банту, суданська, нілотська та ін.

Америка (сім’ї мов індіанців Америки)

надене, салишська, алгонкинська, сиу, ірокезька, галф, хокальтекська (Північна Америка),
тано-ацтекська, отомангська, майя (Центральна Америка), чибча, аравакська,
карибаська, кечумара, пано-такана, тупі гуарані (Південна Америка).

Окремі мови:

японська, корейська, баскська (Іспанія, Франція), нівхська (о. Сахалін, пониззя р. Амур).
 ІНДОЄВРОПЕЙСЬКА СІМ’Я:

1. Індійська група:
санскрит (мертва, Індія), хіндустані, або хінді-урду (хінді використовує індійське
письмо деванагарі – Індія; урду використовує персидське письмо – Пакистан),
синдхі (Індія, Пакистан), бенгалі (Бангладеш, Індія), сингальська (Шрі-Ланка),
непалі (Непал), циганська (не локалізована) та ін.

2. Іранська група:
авестійська (мертва, Індія, Іран), скіфська (мертва, Північне Причорномор’я),
давньоперсидська (мертва, Іран), перська, або фарсі (Іран), осетинська (Північна
та Південна Осетія, Центральний Кавказ), афганська, або пушту (Афганістан),
таджицька (Таджикистан), курдська (Ірак, Іран, Туреччина) та ін.

3. Вірменська група:
давньовірменська, вірменська (Вірменія).

4. Албанська група:
албанська (Албанія).

5. Грецька група:
давньогрецька, новогрецька (Греція).

6. Італійська група:
латина, осська, умбрська та ін.(мертві, Апеннінський п-ів).

7. Романська група:
італійська (Італія), португальська (Португалія, Бразилія, Ангола, Мозамбік),
іспанська (Іспанія, країни Центральної та Південної Америки, Західна Сахара в
Африці), французька (Франція, Бельгія, Швейцарія, Канада, країни Західної та
Центральної Африки: Мавританія, Сенегал, Гвінея, Кот-Д’Івуар, Гана, Бенін, Балі,
Нігер, Чад, Камерун, Центральноафриканська Республіка, Габон, Конго,
Демократична Республіка Конго; о. Мадагаскар); провансальська (Південна.
Франція, Альпійська Італія), каталанська (Іспанія, Андорра), сардинська (о.
Сардинія), ретороманська (Швейцарія), румунська (Румунія), молдавська
(Молдова) та ін.

8. Кельтська група:
валлійська, або уельська (Уельс, Великобританія), бретонська (п-ів Бретань),
шотландська (Шотландія, Великобританія), ірландська (Ірландія,
Великобританія) та ін.

9. Германська група:

а) східна підгрупа: готська (мертва, Скандинавія);

б) північна підгрупа: давньоісландська (мертві, Ісландія) ісландська (Ісландія),

датська (Данія), шведська (Швеція), норвезька (Норвегія), фарерський (Фарерські
о-ви, авт. обл. Данії);

в) західна підгрупа: давньоверхньонімецька (мертва, Німеччина), німецька

(Німеччина, Австрія, Швейцарія, Люксембург), давньоанглійська (мертва,
 Британські о-ви), англійська (Великобританія), ідиш, або новоєврейська (не
локалізована), голландська, або нідерландська (Нідерланди), африкаанс, або
бурська (Південно-Африканська Республіка), фризька (Нідерланди, Фризькі о-ви).

10. Балтійська група:

прусська (мертва, південний схід Прибалтики), литовська (Литва), латиська
(Латвія) та ін.

11. Слов’янська група:

а) південнослов’янська підгрупа: давньослов’янська (мертва, території

південних та східних слов’ян), болгарська (Болгарія), македонська (Македонія),
сербсько-хорватська (сербська використовує кирилицю – республіки Сербія,
Чорногорія, Герцеговина в Югославії); хорватська використовує латиницю –
Хорватія), словенська, або словінська (Словенія);

б) східнослов’янська підгрупа: російська (Росія), українська (Україна),

білоруська (Білорусь);

в) західнослов’янська підгрупа: полабська (мертва, лівий берег Лаби, або

Ельби, територія Саксонії у Німеччині) чеська (Чехія), словацька (Словаччина),
польська, кашубська (Польща), верхньолужицька, нижньолужицька (Лужиця,
Східна Німеччина).

(ГРУПЫ 12-16 НА ЕКЗАМЕН НЕ ВИНОСЯТЬСЯ)

12. Тохарська група: тохарська (мертва, Туркменістан).

13. Фрігійська група: фрігійська (мертва, західна частина Малої Азії, Туреччина).

14. Фракійська група: фракійська (мертва, східна част. Балкан, С.-З. Малої Азії).

15. Іллірійська група: іллірійська (мертва, зах. част. Балкан, Південь-Схід Італії),
месапська (Південна Італія).

16. Венетська група: венетська (Північ-Схід Італії).

 ФІННО-УГОРСЬКА СІМ’Я:

1. Прибалтійсько-фінська група:
фінська (Фінляндія), естонська (Естонія), іжорська (Ленінградська обл., Росія),
карельська (авт. р-ка Карелія – Петрозаводськ, РФ).

2. Волзька група:
мордовська (Мордовська авт. р-ка – Саранськ, РФ), марійська (авт. р-ка Марій-Ел
– Йошкар-Ола, РФ).

3. Пермська група:
комі-пермська (Пермська обл., РФ), комі-зирянська (авт. р-ка Комі – Сиктивкар,
РФ), удмуртська (авт. р-ка Удмуртія – Іжевськ, РФ).
 4. Угорська груп:
угорська (Угорщина), хантийська, мансійська (Тюменська обл, РФ).

5. Саамська група:
саамська (північ Норвегії, Швеції, Фінляндії, Кольський п-ів, Росія).

 САМОДІЙСЬКА СІМ’Я:
ненецька, нганасанська, селькупська та ін. (Тюменська обл., Томська обл.,
Красноярський край, РФ).

 КАВКАЗЬКА СІМ’Я:
грузинська (Грузія), абхазька (авт. р-ка Абхазія, Грузія), адигейська (авт. обл. Адигея,
РФ), чеченська (авт. р-ка Чечня, РФ), інгуська (авт. р-ка Інгушетія, РФ), кабардинська
(авт. р-ка Кабардино-Балкарія – Нальчик, РФ), лезгинська, аварська, лакська та ін. (авт. р-
ка Дагестан – Махачкала, РФ).

 ТЮРКСЬКО-ТАТАРСЬКА СІМ’Я:
турецька (Туреччина), туркменська (Туркменія), узбецька (Узбекистан),
азербайджанська (Азербайджан), казахська (Казахстан), киргизька (Киргизія),
башкирська (авт. р-ка Башкортостан, РФ), казано-татарська (авт. р-ка Татарстан –
Казань, РФ), кримськотатарська (Крим, Україна), тувинська (авт. р-ка Тива – Кизил,
РФ), якутська (авт. р-ка Саха-Якутія – Якутськ, РФ), чуваська (авт. р-ка Чувашія, РФ),
гагаузька (Молдова) та ін.

 МОНГОЛЬСЬКА СІМ’Я:
монгольська (Монголія), бурятська (авт. р-ка Бурятія – Улан-Уде, РФ) та ін.

 ТУНГУСО-МАНЧЖУРСЬКА СІМ’Я:
евенкійська, евенська, удегейська, нанайська, маньчжурська (Середня частина та схід
Сибіру, Далекий Схід: узбережжя Охотського моря, Приамур’я, РФ; південь та схід
Китаю).

 КИТАЙСЬКО-ТИБЕТСЬКА СІМ’Я:
китайська (КНР), тибетська (КНР, Тибетське нагір’я), бірманська (М’янма, колишня
Бірма) та ін.

 ТАЙСЬКА СІМ’Я:
тайська, або сіамська (Таїланд), лаоська (Лаос)та ін.

 ДРАВИДСЬКА СІМ’Я:
тамільська, телугу (Півд. Індия), гонді (Центр. Індія), курукх (Півн. Індія).

 АВСТРОАЗІЙСЬКА СІМ’Я:
в’єтнамська (В’єтнам), кхмерська (Камбоджа) та ін.

 АВСТРОНЕЗІЙСЬКА СІМ’Я:
малагасійська (Мадагаскар), тагальська (Філіппіни), індонезійська (Індонезія),
малайзійська (Малайзія) та ін.
 СЕМІТО-ХАМІТСЬКА СІМ’Я:

1. Семітська група:
арабська (арабські країни: Ірак, Сирія, Ліван, Йорданія, Кувейт, Саудівська
Аравія, Об’єднані Арабські Емірати, Ємен; Північна Африка: Єгипет, Судан,
Лівія, Туніс, Алжир, Марокко, Мавританія, Східна Сахара, Сомалі, Джибуті,
Чад), іврит (Ізраїль), мальтійська (Мальта), амхарська, тигре (Ефіопія),
ассирійська (Сирія, Іран, Ірак, Туреччина) та ін.

2. Давньоєгипетська група:
давньоєгипетська, коптська (мертві, Єгипет).

3. Берберо-лівійська група:
туарегська, кабільська (Алжир, Лівія, Нігер) та ін.

4. Чадська група:
хауса (Нігерія), тера (Нігерія, Камерун), кера (Чад) та ін.

5. Кушитська група: оромо (Ефіопія, Кенія), сомалі (Сомалі) та ін.

 СІМ’Я БАНТУ:
суахілі (Танзанія, Уганда, Кенія), корунді (Бурунді, Уганда), зулу (Зімбабве), руанда
Руанда) та ін.

 ПАЛЕОАЗІЙСЬКІ МОВИ (генетично різні):

чукотська, ескімоська (Чукотський авт. округ – Магадан, РФ; Аляска, США), корякська
(Камчатська обл., РФ) та ін.

 МОВИ ІНДІАНЦІВ АМЕРИКИ (генетично різні):

ірокезька (оз. Онтаріо, оз. Ері, США, Канада), сіу (С. Кароліна, Ю. Кароліна, США),
ацтекська (Мексика), Майя (Мексика, Гватемала, Гондурас) та ін.