Learning Material

Unit –I
Objectives
 To study the working of various heat engines and analyze the performance.
Syllabus

Heat Engines: IC engine components, classification, SI and CI engines, Four stroke an Two stroke
engines, Valve and port time diagrams, comparison of 2-stroke and 4-stroke, SI and CI engines.

Testing and Performance of I.C. Engines:

Measurement of fuel consumption, air consumption, break power, frictional power and indicated
power, performance tests, heat balance sheet.

At the end of the chapter student is able to

 Identify and explain the function of various parts of an engine
 Understand the working of an internal combustion engine
 Compare S.I engine and C.I Engine, 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines.
 Draw the actual valve and port timing diagrams.
 Determine the efficiency and other performance parameters of the engine.
1. INTRODUCTION TO HEAT ENGINE
It is a device, which delivers the
mechanical energy as output, by the
expansion of the high temperature
and high pressure gases obtained by
the combustion of a substance called
fuel, in the presence of oxidizer (like
oxygen).
The fuel like gas, petrol or diesel is
burned in the engine resulting in the
formation of high temperature and high
pressure gas, called as combustion gas or Fig. 1.1 Heat Engine
flue gas (possessing heat energy – Q1). These gases are expanded in the engine to get the
mechanical work as output (W). After the expansion, still the gas possesses some heat in
it (Q2), which is rejected to the surroundings.
Applying energy balance to the heat engine,
Energy input to the Engine = Energy output
Q1  W  Q2
The conversion of heat energy in to the required work is assessed by a parameter called
thermal efficiency. Thermal efficiency represents the % of input heat energy converted in
to the required work as output. Mathematically
output energy
Thermal efficiency, 
input energy

work output W
For the engine, Thermal efficiency,  
heat input Q1

If the thermal efficiency is more, then it indicates that the engine is more efficient in
converting heat in to required work.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF I.C ENGINES
The heat engines are classified as given in this flow diagram.
If the combustion of the fuel takes place inside the engine, then it is called an internal
combustion engine whereas if the combustion takes place outside the engine, then it is
called external combustion engine.
 Further the engines are sub-classified as reciprocating and rotating engines. In the
reciprocating engines, the piston will have a to and fro motion inside the cylinder of an
engine between the top and bottom dead centres (if it is a vertical engine) and between
inner and outer dead centres (if it is a horizontal engines). Examples are the engines used
in automobiles etc.,
In this subject, we will discuss only reciprocating engines in detail.

Heat Engines

I.C Engines E.C Engines

Rotary Reciprocating Rotary Reciprocating

Closed Steam Stirling

Open Wankel Petrol Diesel Steam
cycle turbine Engine Engine
cycle Engine Engine Engine
gas
gas turbine
turbin Fig 1.2 Classifications of Heat Engines
e
3. INTRODUCTION TO INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
The internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel (generally,
fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion chamber. In an internal
combustion engine the expansion of the high temperature and high pressure gases, which
are produced by the combustion, directly applies force to components of the engine, such
as the pistons or turbine blades or a nozzle, and by moving it over a distance, generates
useful mechanical energy.
Examples are engines used in bikes, cars, buses, cranes etc.
In an engine, the following processes are observed.
 1. Suction process: Air is taken from the atmosphere after filtering it in an air filter. In
the engine, pressure is maintained less than the atmosphere, which creates the
necessary pressure difference for the flow of charge into the cylinder.
Charge – In petrol engine – Air + Petrol mixture; In diesel engine - Air
2. Compression process: In this process, the pressure of the charge is increased with
reduction in the volume. This also increases the temperature, resulting in increasing
of internal energy and enthalpy. This process requires some energy as input in the
form of work. So work done is negative in this process.
3. Combustion: The fuel (petrol or diesel or coal or gas) is burned in the closed chamber
with the help of oxidant resulting in the formation of high pressure and high
temperature gas. In this process, the chemical energy is converted in to the heat
energy. The temperature of the substance increases along with increase in pressure.
4. Expansion process: In this process, the pressure of the gas is decreased with
increase in the volume. During the expansion, work is performed by the hot gas
thereby delivering the mechanical work as output with the expense of enthalpy. So
the work done is positive in this process.
5. Heat rejection: The high temperature gas after expansion is released to the
atmosphere resulting in the decrease of temperature.
4. Nomenclature of the Engine

Fig. 1.3 Components of an Engine

Engine consists of many components, as depicted in the fig. 1.3.
Block: Body of the engine containing cylinders, made of cast iron or aluminium.
Cylinder: The circular cylinders in the engine block in which the pistons reciprocate back
and forth.
Head: The piece which closes the end of the cylinders, usually containing part of the
clearance volume of the combustion chamber.
Combustion chamber: The end of the cylinder between the head and the piston face
where combustion occurs. The size of combustion chamber continuously changes from
minimum volume when the piston is at TDC to a maximum volume when the piston at
BDC.
Crankshaft: Rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied to external
systems. The crankshaft is connected to the engine block with the main bearings. It is
rotated by the reciprocating pistons through the connecting rods connected to the
crankshaft, offset from the axis of rotation. This offset is sometimes called crank throw or
crank radius.
Connecting rod: Rod connecting the piston with the rotating crankshaft, usually made of
steel or alloy forging in most engines but may be aluminum in some small engines.
Camshaft: Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the proper time in the engine cycle,
either directly or through mechanical or hydraulic linkage (push rods, rocker arms,
tappets).
Crankcase: Part of the engine block surrounding the crankshaft. In many engines the oil
pan makes up part of the crankcase housing.
Intake manifold: Piping system which delivers incoming air to the cylinders usually
made of cast metal, plastic, or composite material. In most SI engines, fuel is added to the
air in the intake manifold system either by fuel injectors or with a carburetor.
The individual pipe to a single cylinder is called runner.
Carburetor: A device which meters the proper amount of fuel into the air flow by means
of pressure differential. For many decades it was the basic fuel metering system on all
automobile (and other) engines.
Fuel injector: A pressurized nozzle that sprays fuel into the incoming air (SI engines ) or
into the cylinder (CI engines).
Spark plug: Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI engine by creating high
voltage discharge across an electrode gap.
 Exhaust manifold: Piping system which carries exhaust gases away from the engine
cylinders, usually made of cast iron.
Exhaust System: Flow system for removing exhaust gases from the cylinders, treating
them, and exhausting them to the surroundings.
It consists of an exhaust manifold which carries the exhaust gases away from the engine,
a thermal or catalytic converter to reduce emissions, a muffler to reduce engine noise,
and a tailpipe to carry the exhaust gases away from the passenger compartment.
Flywheel: Rotating mass with a large moment of inertia connected to the crank shaft of
the engine. The purpose of the flywheel is to store energy and furnish large angular
momentum that keeps the engine rotating between power strokes and smooths out
engine operation.
Top Dead Center (TDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the farthest point away
from the crankshaft. When the piston is at TDC, the volume in the cylinder is a minimum
called the clearance volume.
Bottom Dead Center (BDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the point closest to
the crankshaft.
Stroke: Distance traveled by the piston from one extreme position to the other : TDC to
BDC or BDC to TDC.
Bore: It is defined as cylinder diameter or piston face diameter; piston face diameter is
same as cylinder diameter (minus small clearance).
Swept volume/Displacement volume: It is the volume displaced by the piston as it
travels through one stroke. Swept volume is defined as stroke times bore.
Clearance volume: It is the minimum volume of the cylinder available for the charge (air
or air fuel mixture) when the piston reaches at its outermost point (top dead center or
outer dead center) during compression stroke of the cycle. It is also the minimum volume
of combustion chamber with piston at TDC.
5. Classification of I.C. Engines
An internal combustion can be classified in to different types based on different
parameters mentioned below.
1. Types of ignition
(i) Spark Ignition (SI)
An SI engine starts the combustion process in each cycle by use of a spark plug. At
the end of the compression process, the spark plug gives a high voltage electrical
 discharge between two electrodes, which ignites the air fuel mixture in the
combustion chamber.
(ii) Compression Ignition (CI)
At the end of the compression process, the diesel fuel is sprayed in to the
combustion chamber which contains compressed air at high pressure and high
temperature, in the form of fine droplets. This results in the complete burning of the
diesel fuel in the presence of air completely.
2. Engine cycle
(i) Four-stroke cycle: All the processes mentioned in section-2 i.e. suction, compression,
combustion, expansion and exhaust will be completed in four piston movements
over two revolutions of the crank shaft for each cycle.
(ii) Two-stroke cycle: All the processes mentioned in section-2 i.e. suction, compression,
combustion, expansion and exhaust will be completed in two piston movements
over one revolution of the crank shaft for each cycle.
3. Basic Design
(i) Reciprocating: Engine has one or more cylinders in which pistons reciprocate back
and forth. The combustion chamber is located in the closed end of each cylinder.
Power is delivered to a rotating output crankshaft by mechanical linkage with the
pistons.
(ii) Rotary: Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large non-concentric rotor
and crankshaft. The combustion chambers are built into the non-rotating block.
4. Position and number of cylinders of reciprocating engines
(i) Single Cylinder: Engine has one cylinder and piston connected to the crankshaft via
connecting rod.
(ii) In-Line: Cylinders are positioned in a straight line, one behind the other along the
length of the crankshaft. They can consist of 2 to 11 cylinders or possibly more. In-
line four-cylinder engines are very common for automobile and other applications. In-
line six and eight cylinders are historically common automobile engines. In-line
engines are sometimes called Straight (e.g., straight six or straight eight).
(iii) V Engine: Two banks of cylinders at an angle with each other along a single
crankshaft, allowing for a shorter engine block. The angle between the banks of
cylinders can be anywhere from 15° to 120° with 60°-90°. V engines usually have
even numbers of cylinders from 2 to 20 or more. V6s and V8s are common
 automobile engines, with V12s and V16s (historic) found in some luxury and high
performance vehicles. Large ship and stationery engines have anywhere from 8 to 20
cylinders.
(iv) Opposed Cylinder Engine: Two banks of cylinders opposite to each other on a single
crankshaft (a V engine with 180 deg V). These are common on small aircraft and
some automobiles with an even number of cylinders from two to eight or more.
These engines are often called flat engines (e.g., flat four).
(v) W engine: Engines of two different cylinder arrangements have been classified as W
engines in the technical literature. One type is the same as a V engine except with
three banks of cylinders on the same crankshaft. They are not common, but some
race cars of 1930 s and some luxury cars of the 1990s had such engines either with 12
cylinders or 18 cylinders. Another type of W engine is the modern 16 cylinder engine
made for the Bugatti automobile (W16). This engine is essentially two V8 engines
connected together on a single crankshaft.
(vi) Opposed piston engine: Two pistons in each cylinder with the combustion chamber
in the center between the pistons. A single combustion process causes two power
strokes at the same time, with each piston being pushed away from the center and
delivering power to a separate crankshaft at each end of the cylinder. Engine output
is either on two rotating crankshafts or on one crankshaft incorporating a complex
mechanical linkage. These engines are generally of large displacement, used for power
plants, ships, or submarines.
(vii) Radial engine: Engines with pistons positioned in a circular plane around a circular
crankshaft. The connecting rods of the piston are connected to a master rod, which
in turn, is connected to the crankshaft. A bank of cylinders on a radial engine almost
always has an odd number of cylinders ranging from 3 to 13 or more. Operating on a
four-stroke cycle every other cylinder fires and has a power stroke as the crankshaft
rotates, giving a smooth operation. Many medium and large size propeller driven
aircraft use radial engines.
5. Air Intake Process
(i) Naturally Aspirated: No intake air pressure boosts system. Air is inhaled in to the
engine cylinder at atmospheric condition.
(ii) Super charged: Before inhaling air into the engine cylinder, the air is compressed to
pressure higher than atmospheric pressure, with the help of a compressor driven by
the same engine.
(iii) Turbo charged: Before inhaling air into the engine cylinder, the air is compressed to
pressure higher than atmospheric pressure, with the help of a compressor. The
power input to the compressor is obtained by coupling the compressor shaft with
the shaft of the small turbine, in which the exhaust gases coming from the engine are
expanded.
(iv) Crankcase compressed: Two-stroke cycle engine which uses the crankcase as the
intake air compressor. Limited development work has also been done on design and
construction of four-stroke cycle engines with crank case compression.
6. Method of fuel input for spark ignition engines
(i) Carbureted: A device for mixing air and fuel to facilitate the combustion process.
(ii) Multipoint port fuel injection: One or more injectors are provided for the injection of
fuel in to the cylinder at each cylinder intake.
(iii) Throttle body fuel injection: Injectors upstream in intake manifold.
(iv) Gasoline direct injection: Injectors mounted in combustion chambers with injection
directly into cylinders.
7. Method of fuel input for compression ignition engines
(i) Direct injection: Fuel injected into main combustion chamber.
(ii) Indirect injection: Fuel injected into secondary combustion chamber.
(iii) Homogeneous charge compression ignition: Some fuel added during intake stroke.
8. Based on the type of fuel used
(i) Gasoline (petrol)
(ii) Diesel oil or Fuel oil
(iii) Gas, Natural gas, Methane
(iv) Alcohol-Ethyl, Methyl
(v) Dual fuel: There are a number of engines that use a combination of two or more
fuels. Some, Usually large, CI engines use a combination of natural gas and diesel
fuel. These are attractive in developing third world countries because of the high
cost of the diesel fuel. Combined gasoline alcohol fuels are becoming more common
as an alternative to straight gasoline automobile engine fuel.
(vi) Gasohol: Common fuel consisting of 90% gasoline and 10% alcohol.
 9. Application
Automobile, Locomotive, Stationery, Marine, Aircraft, Small, Portable, chain saw,
model airplane.
10. Type of cooling
(i) Air cooled – The outer surface of the engine cylinder is provided with plate type
projections called fins. These are provided on low capacity engines; in general o
single cylinder engines.
(ii) Liquid cooled, Water-cooled – All the multi-cylinder engines are cooled by the
circulation of water around the cylinders, because of the large amount of heat
generated during the combustion process. The hot water coming out of the engine is
cooled in the radiator fitted to the engine, by the circulation of air flowing over it
with the help of a cooling fan.
6. 4-STROKE SINGLE CYLINDER SPARK IGNITION ENGINE – WORKING (Otto Cycle)
If Suction, compression, expansion and exhaust completed in 4-strokes, then it is called 4-
stroke engine and if these 4 processes completes in 2 strokes it is called 2-stroke engine.

Fig. 1.4 working of a 4-stroke petrol engine

 suction stroke or intake stroke : During this stroke, Inlet valve opens Air +fule
mixture enters into the cylinder due to the downward movement of the piston. The
exhaust valve remains closed during this process. Piston moves from TDC to BDC.
 compression stroke(1-2) (Reversible Adiabatic compression)
As the crank shaft further rotates, the piston starts moving from BDC to TDC, both the
inlet and exhaust valve closes and results in the compression of the air-fuel mixture..
During the compression, the pressure and temperature of the mixture rises to the higher
value. Once the piston reaches TDC position, the spark is ignited by the spark plug, which
is connected to a power source (battery). Since the air fuel mixture is homogeneously
mixed, combustion starts instantaneously as soon as we supply spark. Here rate of
pressure rise (process 2-3 in P-v diagram) is very rapid such that there is no movement
of the piston further from TDC. Hence here the combustion is taking place at Constant
Volume.
 power stroke or expansion stroke( Reversible adiabatic Expansion 3-4)
These high pressure gases exert forces on the top surface of the piston, pushing it in the
downward direction. Now the piston moves from TDC to BDC and the forces are
transmitted to the crank shaft via connecting rod, resulting in the turning of the crank
shaft. This process is called power stroke or expansion stroke.
When the piston is at BDC Exhaust valve opens which releases high pressure suddenly to
atmosphere, Which is represented by process 4-1 in the p-v diagram. This is accompanied
with exhaust stroke further.
 Exhaust stroke. As the crank shaft rotates further, the piston starts moving from BDC
to TDC. Now the exhaust valve is opened, because of the existing pressure difference, the
exhaust gases are released to the atmosphere, until the piston reaches TDC. This process
is called exhaust stroke.
Applications: used in the 2-wheelers and 4 wheelers etc.,
7. 4-Stroke Single Cylinder Compression Ignition Engine – Working (Diesel Cycle)
Compression ignition engine is also called as diesel engine. In this engine, the fuel used is
diesel. The working of the engine is presented in the following figure and explained in
detail below:
Suction Stroke(1-2): Only air is sucked into the cylinder during suction stroke when
the piston is moving from TDC to BDC. Inlet valve opened and exhaust valve closes.

Fig. 1.5 Working of a 4-stroke diesel engine

Compression stroke(1-2): As the crank shaft further rotates, the piston starts
moving from BDC to TDC, both the inlet and exhaust valve closes and results in the
compression of the air. During the compression, the pressure and temperature of the air
rises to the higher value, the heat being present in it is sufficient to burn the diesel
completely. Hence, there is no need of other heat source in the diesel engine.
 Heat addition Process: (Constant pressure process 2-3): Once the piston reaches
TDC position, the fuel Jet( diesel oil) is injected in to the engine cylinder at high pressure
in the form of an atomized spray. The turbulence of air in the combustion chamber
passing across the jet tears the fuel particles from the core. A mixture of air and fuel
forms at some locations and oxidation starts. The fuel droplets evaporate by absorbing
the latent heat of vaporization from the surrounding air which reduces the temperature
of thin layer of air surrounding the droplet and some time elapses before this
temperature can be raised again by absorbing heat from the bulk of air. As soon as this
vapor and air reach the level of auto ignition temperature combustion starts. Thus there
is some delay period before ignition takes place. So here the combustion process is not
Instantaneous like in Otto Cycle. Hence in this cycle there is a movement of the piston
from TDC towards BDC during the combustion Process also. The rise in pressure is
compensated by lowering of pressure due to piston movement and hence the combustion
is at Constant pressure.
 power stroke or expansion (3-4) : These high pressure gases exert forces on the top
surface of the piston, pushing it in the downward direction. Now the piston moves from
TDC to BDC and the forces are transmitted to the crank shaft via connecting rod, resulting
in the turning of the crank shaft. This process is called power stroke or expansion.
During expansion, the pressure and temperature of the gases decreases, the pressure
being greater than the atmospheric pressure.
 Exhaust Stroke:(4-1): The exhaust valve opens during this process. The pressure
releases suddenly into the atmosphere (process 4-1). As the crank shaft rotates further,
the piston starts moving from BDC to TDC. the exhaust gases are released to the
atmosphere, until the piston reaches TDC. This process is called exhaust stroke.
 Applications: used in the heavy motor vehicles like buses, lorries, cars, etc.,
If all the above mentioned 4-strokes are completed in 2 complete revolutions of the crank
shaft, then it is called a 4-stroke single cylinder diesel engine. Because of higher pressures,
there generates higher vibrations in the engine. The size of the engine is bulky resulting in
more weight.
8. Differences between Diesel and petrol engines
S. No Description S. I Engine C. I. Engine
1 Basic cycle Based on Otto cycle Based on Diesel cycle
Petrol or gasoline. It has high Diesel oil. It has low self
2 Fuel
self ignition temperature. ignition temperature
Fuel is inducted in to the engine Fuel is sprayed in to the
Introduction
3 after mixing with the air in the cylinder after the
Of fuel
device called carburetor. compression of air.
After the compression of air- At the end of the
petrol mixture, spark is compression stroke, diesel
generated for the burning of the oil is sprayed in to the
fuel. Hence, it is spark ignited cylinder containing hot air.
engine and requires an ignition This heat is sufficiently
4 Ignition
system with spark plug in the enough for the complete
combustion chamber. burning of the fuel. Ignition
system with spark plug in the
combustion chamber is
eliminated.
Compression It varies from 6 to 10.5. It varies from 14 to 20.
5
ratio
It has higher maximum It has lower maximum
6 Speed revolution per minute due to revolution per minute due
lighter weight to more weight.
Maximum efficiency is lower Maximum efficiency is
7 Efficiency due to low compression ratio. higher due to high
compression ratio.
8 Weight It is light in weight due to lower It is heavier due to higher
 operating pressures. operating pressures.

8. Working of a 2-stroke petrol engine

In the petrol engine, the charge intake is a mixture of
air and petrol. At the end of the compression, the spark is
released in to the hot air-petrol mixture. In the 2-stroke
engine, there are no valves and valve mechanisms. Only
ports are provided. In the 2-stroke engine, 3 ports namely
intake port, transfer port and exhaust port are provided.
The opening and closing of ports are controlled by the
position of the moving piston in the engine. Fig. 1.6 2-stroke engine
Initially, air is taken from the atmosphere and after mixing with the petrol in the
carburetor, it is supplied to the engine through the inlet port. When the piston moves
from the BDC to the TDC, the surface of the piston uncovers the inlet port. This results in
the flow of air-petrol mixture into the crank case, called suction. As the piston moves
further in upward direction, it covers the transfer port as well as exhaust port. This
results in the stopping of the transfer of compressed air-petrol mixture to the top of the
piston from the crank case through the transfer port and loss of the mixture through the
exhaust port. As the piston moves to TDC, the piston completely uncovers the inlet port
and covers the transfer and exhaust ports. The air mixture present above the piston
surface (intake of the earlier cycle) gets compressed and the spark is released. Now this
mixture burns completely (heat addition or combustion) and the combustion gases at
high pressure and temperature exerts force on the piston making it to move in the
downward direction. This is power stroke.
When the piston moves in downward direction, it uncovers the exhaust port initially,
followed by the closing of the inlet port simultaneously. Because of this, some of the
exhaust gases leave the engine via exhaust port without expanding completely in the
engine; resulting in the loss of power. By the closing of the inlet port, the intake
completely stops and as the piston further moves downwards towards BDC; the air-
petrol mixture in the crank case gets compressed. At the same time, the transfer port also
opens; leaving the path for the compressed charge to enter the top of the piston. When
the piston reaches BDC, piston completely covers the inlet port and uncovers the transfer
 and exhaust ports. At this condition, the expansion of the combustion gases completes
and also leaves to the atmosphere from the engine. This process continues.
But because of simultaneous opening of transfer and exhaust ports, there occurs a loss of
charge; resulting in less amount of air-petrol mixture participating in the combustion. Even
before the complete expansion of the gases, due to the exhaust port opening; the expansion
process will be incomplete resulting in the further reduction in the work output
9. Differences between 2-stroke and 4-stroke engines
S. No 2-stroke engines 4-stroke engines
All the 4-strokes of the engine All the 4-strokes of the engine (suction,
1 (suction, compression, expansion and compression, expansion and exhaust)
exhaust) are completed in 1 complete are completed in 2 complete revolution
revolution of the crank shaft. of the crank shaft.
Valve and valve operating
Valve and valve operating mechanisms
2 mechanisms (cam mechanism) are
(cam mechanism) are present in the
completely absent. Only ports are
engine.
provided in the engine.
3 Because of less no. of parts, the weight Because of more no. of parts, the
of the engine is less. weight of the engine is more.
When compared with the 4-stroke When compared with the 2-stroke
engine (for 2 complete crank shaft engine (for 2 complete crank shaft
4 revolutions), more amount of heat will revolutions), less amount of heat will
be generated during combustion be generated during combustion
process. Hence more amount of process. Hence less amount of coolant
coolant is required. is required.
For the two revolutions of the crank
When compared with the 2-stroke
shaft, theoretically, more amount of
5 engine, for two revolutions of the crank
power will be generated (two times
shaft, less amount of power will be
the power generated in the 4-stroke
generated.
engine)
6 Relatively more amount of lubricant is Relatively less amount of lubricant is
required. required.
Torque generated is not uniform in
7 Torque generated will be uniform.
single cylinder engines. Hence, a larger
Hence, a smaller flywheel is required.
flywheel is required.
8 For the same capacity, the size of the For the same capacity, the engine size is
engine will be small. large.
10. Valve timing diagram
These are drawn for the engine provided with the valves and more specifically, for the
4-stroke engines. This diagram is prepared to study the opening of the valves based on
the rotation of the crank shaft. The following figure fig. 1.7 (a) represents the theoretical
valve timing diagram drawn for the 4-stroke engine. Theoretically, when the piston
reaches the TDC position, both the valves should be in closed condition. When the piston
just starts moving from TDC to BDC, the inlet valve should open resulting in the intake of
the charge. As the piston reaches the BDC, the suction process completes and the inlet
valve closes completely. Further as the crank shaft rotates, the piston moves from BDC to
TDC, resulting in the compressing of the charge. When the piston reaches the TDC, the
charge will be at high pressure and temperature; the spark is released for the burning
of the charge (air+petrol mixture), if it is a petrol engine; diesel is sprayed in to the
charge (hot air), if it is a diesel engine.
Combustion completes and the exhaust gases starts expanding in the engine, resulting
of the moving of the piston in the downward direction from TDC to BDC. As the piston
moves to BDC, the expansion completes. Now the piston moves from BDC to TDC with the
further rotation of the crank shaft. In this case, when the piston moves just from BDC, the
exhaust valve just opens resulting in the exhaust Process. As the piston reaches TDC, the
exhaust process completes and the exhaust valve closes. All these processes, completes in
the two complete revolutions of the crank shaft. Theoretically, the friction in the valve
opening and closing, effect of the pressures on the valve opening and closing, delay in the
opening and closing of valves because of the cam mechanisms is neglected. Then the
valve timing diagram will be as presented in fig. 1.7 (a). But in practical, there are two
factors, one mechanical and other dynamic, for the actual valve timing to be different
from the theoretical valve timing.

Fig. 1.7 (a) Theoretical valve timing diagram Fig. 1.7 (b) Actual valve timing diagram
(a) Mechanical Factor: The poppet valves of the reciprocating engines are opened and
closed by the cam mechanisms. The clearance between cam, tappet and valve must
be slowly taken up and valve slowly lifted, if the wear and tear is to be avoided.
Similarly, the valve should be closed slowly; otherwise the valve will bounce from
the valve seat. The valve opening and closing periods are spread over a
 considerable number of crank shaft degrees. As a result, the opening of the valve
should commence ahead of the time at which it is fully opened (i.e. before dead
centers). Similarly, the valves must be closed after the dead centers.
(b) Dynamic factor: The dynamic effects (forces) of the gas flowing through the
cylinder are also to be taken into consideration, while the valve timing is set up.
Theoretical Diesel Engine (Actual Diesel Engine (Actual
Valve position position of angle to be turned by angle to be turned by
Piston the crank shaft) the crank shaft)
300 before the piston 100 before the piston
Inlet valve opening TDC
reaches TDC reaches TDC
500 after the piston 450 after the piston
Inlet valve closing BDC
reaches BDC reaches BDC
Exhaust valve 450 before the piston 450 before the piston
BDC
opening reaches BDC reaches BDC
Exhaust valve 300 after the piston 100 after the piston
TDC
closing reaches TDC reaches TDC
15-300 for the inlet
Valve overlap At TDC 45-600 for the inlet valve
valve
Fuel injection or 150 before the piston 150 before the piston
TDC
Spark generation reaches TDC reaches TDC
Note: Diagram will be similar to 4-stroke diesel engine (replace spark plug with fuel
injector)
Here, before the complete closing of the exhaust valve, the inlet valve opens for the
suction process. The crank angle corresponding to this case is called valve overlap. At this
stage, there occurs a loss of charge.
Power and Mechanical Efficiency
The main purpose of running an engine is to obtain mechanical power.
 Power is defined as the rate of doing work and is equal to the product of force and
linear velocity or the product of torque and angular velocity.
 Thus, the measurement of power involves the measurement of force (or torque) as well
as speed. The force or torque is measured with the help of a dynamometer and the
speed by a tachometer.
a. Brake power (bp):
The power developed by an engine and measured at the output shaft is called the brake
power (bp) and is given by,

Where, T is torque in N-m and N is the rotational speed in revolutions per minute.
b. Indicated power (ip): It is the total power developed by the combustion of fuel in the
combustion chamber.
It forms the basis of evaluation of combustion efficiency or the heat release in the
cylinder.
c. Friction power (fp): Energy lost in overcoming the friction during the relative motion
between piston and cylinder, crank shaft and bearings, pumping losses etc. can be
termed as friction power.
The difference between ip and bp is called friction power (fp).

Indicated power and Brake power are expressed in kilo-Watts or horse power.
Mean Effective Pressure and Torque:
Mean effective pressure is defined as a hypothetical/average pressure which is assumed to
be acting on the piston throughout the power stroke.

Power developed, p 
 mep  LAK  N 
 
60 n
Where, mep = Mean effective pressure, N/m2,
p = power developed in Watts, L = Length of the stroke, m,
A = Area of the piston, m2, K – number of cylinders
N = Rotational speed of the engine, rpm
n = number of revolutions to be completed for 1 power stroke
In a 4-stroke engine, 1 power stroke will be completed in 2 revolutions of crank shaft i.e.
n=2.
In a 2-stroke engine, 1 power stroke will be completed in 1 revolutions of crank shaft i.e.
n=1.
It is also calculated from Indicator diagram. i.e

a. If the mean effective pressure is based on bp it is called the brake mean effective
pressure (bmep).
 n  60  bp 
bmep   
 N  LAK
b. If the mean effective pressure is based on ip it is called indicated mean effective
pressure (imep).
 n  60  ip 
imep   
 N  LAK
c. Similarly, the friction mean effective pressure (fmep) can be defined as,
fmep = imep − bmep

Specific Output
Specific output of an engine is defined as the brake power (output) per unit of piston
displacement and is given by,

Specific output 
bp

 bmep  LAK  N  1    bmep  K  N 
    
swept volume 60  n  AL  60 n
 K 
 Specific output      bmep   N  cons tan t   bmep   N
 60  n 

Volumetric Efficiency
 Volumetric efficiency of an engine is an indication of the measure of the degree to
which the engine fills its swept volume.
 It is defined as the ratio of the mass of air inducted into the engine cylinder during the
suction stroke to the mass of the air corresponding to the swept volume of the engine at
atmospheric pressure and temperature.
 It can also be defined as the ratio of the actual volume inhaled during suction stroke
measured at intake conditions to the swept volume of the piston.

The amount of air taken inside the cylinder is dependent on the volumetric efficiency of an
engine and hence puts a limit on the amount of fuel which can be efficiently burned and the
power output. For supercharged engine the volumetric efficiency has no meaning as it
comes out to be more than unity.
Fuel-Air Ratio (F/A)
Fuel-air ratio (F/A) is the ratio of the mass of fuel to the mass of air in the fuel-air mixture.
Air-fuel ratio (A/F) is reciprocal of fuel-air ratio. Fuel-air ratio has a significant effect on
 the flame propagation velocity,
 the heat release in the combustion chamber,
 the maximum temperature and
 the completeness of combustion.
Relative fuel-air ratio is defined as the ratio of the actual fuel-air ratio to that of the
stoichiometric fuel-air ratio required to burn the fuel supplied.

Fuel consumption:
In engine testing the fuel consumption is measured in terms of the fuel mass flow rate. It is
the quantity of fuel supplied to the engine in unit time.

Units: kg/min (or) kg/hr (or) cc/sec etc.,

a. Specific Fuel Consumption:

The specific fuel consumption (sfc), is a measure of how efficiently the fuel supplied to
the engine is used to produce power.
Unit: kg/kW-hr
b. Brake specific fuel consumption (bsfc):
Specific fuel consumption is defined as the amount of fuel consumed for each unit of
brake power developed per hour. It is a clear indication of the efficiency with which the
engine develops power from fuel. This parameter is widely used to compare the
performance of different engines.
m
bsfc  f
bp
c. Indicated specific fuel consumption (isfc):
It is the ratio of mass of fuel supplied to the engine to deliver unit indicated power per
hour.
m
isfc  f
ip
Thermal Efficiency:
Thermal efficiency of an engine is defined as the ratio of the output to that of the chemical
energy input in the form of fuel supply. It may be based on brake or indicated output. It is
the true indication of the efficiency with which the chemical energy of fuel (input) is
converted into mechanical work. Thermal efficiency also accounts for combustion
efficiency, i.e., for the fact that whole of the chemical energy of the fuel is not converted
into heat energy during combustion.
power output
th 
heat supplied
Heat supplied, Q = mass of the fuel x calorific value
  Brake thermal efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of brake power developed by the
engine to the heat generated in combustion.

Where, bp – brake power in kW, Cv = Calorific value of fuel, kJ/kg, and mf = Mass of
fuel supplied, kg/sec.
 Indicated thermal efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of indicated power developed
by the engine to the heat generated in combustion.

=
 Mechanical Efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of brake power to indicated power and can be expressed in
many forms.
bp bp bmep bth
mech    
ip bp  fp imep ith

3. Measurement of brake power:

Principle of working:
The brake power measurement involves the
determination of the torque and the angular
speed of the engine output shaft. The torque
measuring device is called a dynamometer.
Figure shows the basic principle of a
dynamometer. A rotor driven by the engine
under test is electrically, hydraulically or
magnetically coupled to a stator. For every revolution Fig: 1 Principle of a dynamometer
of the shaft, the rotor periphery moves through a distance 2Пr against the coupling force F.
The external moment or torque is equal to S × L where, S is the scale reading and L is the arm.
This moment balances the turning moment R × F, i.e. S × L = R × F
Torque exerted by the engine, T  SL
Power delivered by the engine turning at speed N and absorbed by the dynamometer is
W  .T  2 NSL
Hence, Brake power, bp  2 NT
Dynamometers can be broadly classified into two main types, power absorption dynamometers
and transmission dynamometer.
 Absorption Dynamometers
These dynamometers measure and absorb the power output of the engine to which they are
coupled. The power absorbed is usually dissipated as heat by some means.
Example of such dynamometers is prony brake, rope brake, hydraulic dynamometer, etc.
 Transmission Dynamometers
In transmission dynamometers, the power is transmitted to the load coupled to the engine
after it is indicated on some type of scale. These are also called torque-meters.
a. Prony Brake
One of the simplest methods of
measuring brake power (output) is to
attempt to stop the engine by means of a
brake on the flywheel and measure the
weight which an arm attached to the
brake will support, as it tries to rotate
with the flywheel. The prony brake
shown in Fig. 2 works on the principle of converting power into heat by dry friction. It
consists of wooden block mounted on a flexible rope or band the wooden block when
pressed into contact with the rotating drum takes the engine torque and the power is
dissipated in frictional resistance. Spring-loaded bolts Fig: 2 prony brake
dynamometer
are provided to tighten the wooden block and hence increase the friction. The whole of
the power absorbed is converted into heat and hence this type of dynamometer must
be cooled. The brake horsepower is given by BP = 2П NT
Where, T = W × l, W being the weight applied at a radius l.
b. Rope Brake
The rope brake as shown in Fig. 3 is another
simple device for measuring bp of an engine.
It consists of a number of turns of rope wound
around the rotating drum attached to the output
shaft. One side of the rope is connected to a
spring balance and the other to a loading
device.
Initially the engine is started under no load
condition.
Let W is the applied weight in Newton,
S is the spring scale reading in Newton. Fig: 3 rope brake dynamometer
Net force acting on the drum, F  W  S
With the application of load, the tension in the rope increases resulting in the arresting
of the free rotation of the drum. The power is absorbed in friction between the rope and
the drum. The drum therefore requires cooling.
Torque developed, T  F  R  W  S    Rb  r 
The brake power is given by
2 N W  S  Rb  r   N W  S  Db  d 
bp  T    
60 60
Where, Db is the brake drum diameter (Rb – radius of the brake drum),
d is the rope diameter (r – radius of the rope),
N is the speed in rpm,
 Rope brake dynamometer is cheap and easily constructed but not a very accurate
method because of changes in the friction coefficient of the rope with temperature.

c. Hydraulic Dynamometer
Hydraulic dynamometer (shown in Fig. 4) works on the principle of dissipating the
power in fluid friction rather than in dry friction.
 In principle its construction is similar to that of a fluid flywheel.
 It consists of an inner rotating
member or impeller coupled to the
output shaft of the engine.
 This impeller rotates in a casing
filled with fluid.
 This outer casing, due to the
centrifugal force developed, tends to
revolve with the impeller, but is
resisted by a torque arm supporting
the balance weight.
 The frictional forces between the
impeller and the fluid are measured by Fig: 4 Hydraulic dynamometer
the spring-balance fitted on the casing.
 The heat developed due to dissipation of power is carried away by a continuous
supply of the working fluid, usually water.
 The output can be controlled by regulating the sluice gates which can be moved in
and out to partially or wholly obstruct the flow of water between impeller, and the
casing.
d. Eddy Current Dynamometer
The working principle of eddy current dynamometer is shown in Fig. 5. It consists of a
stator on which are fitted a number of electromagnets and a rotor disc made of copper
or steel and coupled to the output shaft of the engine. When the rotor rotates eddy
currents are produced in the stator due to magnetic flux set up by the passage of field
current in the electromagnets. These eddy currents are dissipated in producing heat so
that this type of dynamometer also requires some cooling arrangement. The torque is
measured exactly as in other types of Absorption dynamometers, i.e. with the help of a
moment arm. The load is controlled by regulating the current in the electromagnets.
The following are the main advantages of eddy
current dynamometers:
 High brake power per unit weight of
dynamometer.
 They offer the highest ratio of constant
power speed range (up to 5: 1).
  Level of field excitation is below 1% of total power being handled by
dynamometer, thus, easy to control and programme.
 Development of eddy current is smooth Fig: 5 Eddy current dynamometer
hence the torque is also smooth and continuous under all conditions.
 Relatively higher torque under low speed conditions.
 It has no intricate rotating parts except shaft bearing.
 No natural limit to size-either small or large.

e. Transmission Dynamometers:
Transmission dynamometers, also called torque meters, mostly consist of a set of strain-
gauges fixed on the rotating shaft and the torque is measured by the angular deformation of
the shaft which is indicated as strain of the strain gauge. Usually, a four arm bridge is used
to reduce the effect of temperature to minimum and the gauges are arranged in pairs such
that the effect of axial or transverse load on the strain gauges is avoided.

Fig: 6 Transmission dynamometer

Fig. 6 shows a transmission dynamometer which employs beams and strain-gauges for a
sensing torque. Transmission dynamometers are very accurate and are used where
continuous transmission of load is necessary. These are used mainly in automatic units.
MEASUREMENT OF FRICTION POWER:
The difference between indicated power and the brake power output of an engine is the friction
power.
 Almost invariably, the difference between a good engine and a bad engine is due to
difference between their frictional losses.
 The frictional losses are ultimately dissipated to the cooling system (and exhaust) as they
appear in the form of frictional heat and this influences the cooling capacity required.
Moreover, lower friction means availability of more brake power; hence brake specific fuel
consumption is lower.
 The bsfc rises with an increase in speed and at some speed it renders the sue of engine
prohibitive. Thus, the level of friction decides the maximum output of the engine which can
be obtained economically.
In the design and testing of an engine; measurement of friction power is important for getting
an insight into the methods by which the output of an engine can be increased. In the
evaluation of ip and mechanical efficiency measured friction power is also used. The friction
force power of an engine is determined by the following methods:
a. Willan’s line method.
b. Morse test.
c. Motoring test.
d. Retardation test
e. Difference between ip and bp.
a. Willan's Line Method or Fuel Rate Extrapolation
In this method, gross fuel consumption vs. bp at a constant speed is plotted and the graph
(curve) is extrapolated back to zero fuel consumption as illustrated in Fig. 7. The point
where this curve cuts the bp axis, is an indication of the friction power of the engine at that
speed. This negative work represents the combined loss due to mechanical friction,
pumping and blow by. The test is applicable only to compression ignition engines.

Fig: 7 Willan’s Line Method

 The main drawback of this method is the long distance to be extrapolated from data
measured between 5 and 40% load towards the zero line of fuel input.
 The directional margin of error is rather wide because of the graph which may not be a
straight line many times.
 The changing slope along the curve indicates part efficiencies of increments of fuel.
The pronounced change in the slope of this line near full load reflects the limiting
influence of the air-fuel ratio and of the quality of combustion.
 Similarly, there is a slight curvature at light loads. This is perhaps due to difficulty in
injecting accurately and consistently very small quantities of fuel per cycle.
 Therefore, it is essential that great care should be taken at light loads to establish the
true nature of the curve.
  The Willam’s line for a swirl-chamber CI engine is straighter than that for a direct
injection type engine.
 The accuracy obtained in this method is good and compares favorably with other
methods if extrapolation is carefully done.
b. Morse Test
The Morse test is applicable only to multi cylinder engines.
 In this test, the engine is first run at the required speed and the brake power is measured
(bpn).
 Then, one cylinder is cut out by short circuiting the spark plug if it is a petrol engine or
by disconnecting the injector if it is a diesel engine.
 Under this condition, all other cylinders ‘motor’ this cut-out cylinder. The brake power
is measured by keeping the speed constant at its original value (bpn-1).
 The difference in the outputs is a measure of the indicated horse power of the cut-out
cylinder.
The ip of the nth cylinder is given by (ip) nth = bpn – bp n – 1
 Thus, for each cylinder the ip is obtained and is added together to find the total ip of the
engine.
n
And the total ip of the engine is, ip   ipn
n 1

 The indicated power of ‘n’ cylinders is given by ipn = bpn + fp

Friction power is obtained as fp  ipn  bpn
 Since, the engine is running at the same speed it is quite reasonable to assume that
fp remains constant.
This method though gives reasonably accurate results and is liable to errors due to
changes in mixture distribution and other conditions by cutting-out one cylinder. In
gasoline engines, where there is a common manifold for two or more cylinders the
mixture distribution as well as the volumetric efficiency both change. Again, almost all
engines have a common exhaust manifold for all cylinders and cutting out of one
cylinder may greatly affect the pulsations in exhaust system which may significantly
change the engine performance by imposing different back pressures.
c. Motoring Test
 In the motoring test, the engine is first run up to the desired speed by its own power and
allowed to remain at the given speed and load conditions for some time so that oil,
water, and engine component temperatures reach stable conditions.
 The power of the engine during this period is absorbed by a swinging field type electric
dynamometer, which is most suitable for this test.
 The fuel supply is then cut-off and by suitable electric-switching devices the
dynamometer is converted to run as a motor to drive for ‘motor’ the engine at the same
speed at which it was previously running.
 The power supply to the motor is measured which is a measure of the fp of the engine.
During the motoring test the water supply is also cut-off so that the actual operating
temperatures are maintained.
  This method, though determines the fp at temperature conditions very near to the actual
operating temperatures at the test speed and load, does, not give the true losses
occurring under firing conditions due to the following reasons.
 The temperatures in the motored engine are different from those in a firing engine
because even if water circulation is stopped the incoming air cools the cylinder.
This reduces the lubricating oil temperature and increases friction due to increase of
oil viscosity. This problem is much more severe in air-cooled engines.
 The pressure on the bearings and piston rings is lower than the firing pressure. Load
on main and connecting road bearings are lower.
 The clearance between piston and cylinder wall is more (due to cooling). This
reduces the piston friction.
 The air is drawn at a temperature less than when the engine is firing because it does
not get heat from the cylinder (rather loses heat to the cylinder). This makes the
expansion line to be lower than the compression line on the p-v diagram. This loss
is however counted in the indicator diagram.
 During exhaust the back pressure is more because under motoring conditions
sufficient pressure difference is not available to impart gases. The kinetic energy is
necessary to expel them from exhaust.
Motoring method, however, gives reasonably good results and is very suitable for
finding the losses due to various engine components. This insight into the losses caused
by various components and other parameters is obtained by progressive stripping-off of
the under progressive dismantling conditions keeping water and oil circulation intact.
Then the cylinder head can be removed to evaluate, by difference, the compression
loss. In this manner piston ring, piston etc. can be removed and evaluated for their
effect on overall friction.
d. Retardation test:
Retardation test is conducted to find out the power
loss due to friction in an IC engine.
 Initially the engine is made to run at the rated
speed.
 Then the engine is brought to rest condition by
cutting the fuel supply or spark to the engine.
The time to retard the engine from an initial to
final speed is noted.
 This procedure is done under no load
condition. Correspondingly torque at no load is Fig: 8 Speed Vs Time
obtained as ‘T’ and the time to retard the engine is ‘t2’.
 This procedure is repeated by applying the load. For example, half of the load
corresponding to the rated power is applied on the engine. Under this condition,
corresponding torque at applied load is obtained as ‘T1/2’ and the time to retard the
engine is ‘t3’.
 The torque on engine at no load will be solely due to friction which can be calculated
and the power loss due to friction is calculated.
 e. Difference between ip and bp
(a) The method of finding the fp by computing the difference between indicated power, as
obtained from an indicator diagram, and bp, as obtained by a dynamometer, is the ideal
method.
(b) In obtaining accurate indicator diagrams, especially at high engine speeds, this method
is usually only used in research laboratories. Its use at commercial level is very limited.

Fuel Consumption Measurement

Fuel consumption is measured in two ways:
 Volumetric type
 The fuel consumption of an engine is measured by determining the volume flow in a
given time interval and multiplying it by the specific gravity of the fuel which should
be measured occasionally to get an accurate value.
 Volumetric type flow meter includes Burette method, Automatic Burette flow meter
and Turbine flow meter.
 Gravimetric Fuel Flow Measurement
 By this method, one can measure the time required for consumption of a given mass of
fuel.
 There are three types of gravimetric type systems which are commercially available
include Actual weighing of fuel consumed, Four Orifice Flow meter, etc.
The efficiency of an engine is related to the kilograms of fuel which are consumed and not
the number of litres. The method of measuring volume flow and then correcting it for
specific gravity variations is quite inconvenient and inherently limited in accuracy. Instead
if the weight of the fuel consumed is directly measured a great improvement in accuracy
and cost can be obtained.
Measurement of Air Consumption
 In IC engines, the satisfactory measurement of air consumption is quite difficult because the
flow is pulsating, due to the cyclic nature of the engine and because the air is a compressible
fluid. Therefore, the simple method of using an orifice in the induction pipe is not satisfactory
since the reading will be pulsating and unreliable.
 All kinetic flow-inferring systems such as nozzles, orifices and venturies have a square law
relationship between flow rate and differential pressure which gives rise to severe errors on
unsteady flow. Pulsation produced errors are roughly inversely proportional to the pressure
across the orifice for a given set of flow conditions. The various methods and meters used for
air flow measurement include
(a) Air box method, and
(b) Viscous-flow air meter.
 Air box method: The usual method for
measurement of air consumption is to ensure that all
the air supplied to the engine is derived exclusively
from an air box or tank (fig.) which is connected to
the induction system of the engine by an air tight
pipe of a diameter well in excess of that required
theoretically for the predicted air flow. A box itself
must be air tight. A sharp edged orifice is fitted to
the pipe and the pressure difference across it is
measured by means of a water manometer as shown
in fig. As it is usually desirable to keep the Fig: 9 Air box for air flow measurement
Calculations simple it is necessary to keep the water manometer reading down to about 15
cm of water pressure difference, in which case the variation in the density of the air across
the orifice is negligible. The air box or tank should have internal baffle so as to avoid any
air pulsations, and its volume should be large enough in relation to the total capacity of the
engine to be tested (say 200 to 600 times the total capacity), to prevent undue pressure
pulsations.
From the manometer the pressure head in mm of water is obtained i.e. ΔH.
But the total pressure remains constant i.e.
P  W  H   constant
 Wair  H air  Wwater  H  water
W 
  H air   water   H  water
 Wair 
Velocity of the air is obtained as V  2 g  H air

Theoretical Discharge or volume flow rate of air, Q  Aorifice V  d 2 2 g  H air
4
By considering the coefficient of discharge of the orifice (Cd), we can determine the actual
quantity of air entering the cylinder.
actual discharge Q
Cd   act
theoretical discharge Q

 Qact  Cd  Q  Cd  d 2 2 g  H air
4
Mass flow rate of air, mair  density  actualdisch arg e    Qact
Heat Balance sheet
 To an engine, air is supplied to support the combustion of fuel and water is supplied to cool
the various parts of an engine. Lubricant is supplied to reduce the friction in the engine
wherever there is relative motion as well as to cool the parts where cooling water cannot be
circulated.
 Heat generated in the combustion
process is not completely
converted into the useful work due
to the losses in many forms like,
friction, heat lost to cooling media,
heat taken away by exhaust gases
etc., Hence to understand the
performance of the engine, it is
needed to quantify this heat distribution Fig. 10 Various inputs and outputs to an engine
by performing heat balance test.
 To draw a heat balance sheet for an I.C engine, it is run at constant load. During the test,
the following parameters are to be measured:
Speed, load, fuel consumption, air consumption, exhaust temperature, rate of flow of
cooling water and its rise in temperature while flowing through the water jackets.
 Quantity of heat generated in combustion, Qs  m f  C.V kJ/min
where mf – mass of fuel supplied in kg/min
C.V – calorific value of fuel – kJ/kg
 Quantity of heat gained by engine cooling water, Qc  mcC p T2  T1  kJ/min
where mc – mass of cooling water circulated in kg/min
Cp – specific heat of water in kJ/kg-K
T1, T2 – initial and final temperatures of cooling water respectively.
 Quantity of heat taken away by exhaust gases, Qg  mg C pg Tg 2  Tg1  kJ/min
where mass of exhaust gas in kg/min, mg  ma  m f
ma – mass of air supplied in kg/min
Cpg – specific heat of exhaust gas in kJ/kg-K
Tg1, Tg2 – initial and final temperatures of exhaust gas respectively.
 Indicated power and brake power are also calculated.
 Finally unaccountable losses are calculated by subtracting the sum of heat equivalent of
brake power, heat lost to engine cooling water, heat carried away by exhaust gases from the
heat supplied.
Qacc  Qs   Qbp  Qc  Qg 
 Finally the results are tabulated as shown below:
Item kJ/min % of heat supplied
Heat supplied by the fuel Qs
Heat absorbed in B.P Qbp=bp x 60 Qbp/Qs=
Heat taken away by engine cooling water Qc Qc/ Qs=
Heat carried away by exhaust gases Qg Qg/Qs=
 Unaccountable losses Qacc Qacc/Qs=
Total
 Heat distribution in a typical SI and CI engines are represented graphically as shown
below.

Fig. 11 Heat distribution in CI Engine Fig. 12 Heat distribution in SI Engine

 Sankey Diagram
 The diagram starts at the bottom with a stream width representing the heat input from
the fuel which is 100% of heat input.
 While moving up, first the stream representing the heat taken away by the exhaust
gases is let off to the left. The width of the stream represents the %loss to the coolant.

 Still higher the stream representing the heat

taken away exhaust gases is let off to left.
The width of the stream represents the % of
heat taken away by the exhaust gases.
 Still higher the stream representing the heat
lost to surroundings is let off to the left. The
width of the stream represents the % of heat
lost to the surroundings.
 All these three streams meet a single loss
stream as shown in the diagram.
 A single vertical stream is left at the top of
the diagram representing the brake power
delivered by the engine. Fig. 13 Sankey diagram
 Unit - II

Reciprocating Compressors

Learning Objectives:

 To study the methods of evaluating performance of an internal combustion engine and

the effects of various engine emissions as well as controlling measures.

Syllabus:
Reciprocating Compressors: Principle of operation, Single stage of Compression – Work
required, Isothermal efficiency, volumetric efficiency and effect of clearance, Free Air
Delivered, displacement

Multi stage compression - under cooling, saving of work, minimum work condition for
Multistage stage compression.

Learning Outcomes: At the end of the unit, the student will be able to

 Evaluate the performance of a reciprocating compressor

 Explain the benefits of multi-stage compression
 Reciprocating Compressors
Introduction:
Compressors are power consuming thermodynamic devices which convert mechanical energy
into pressure head or pressure energy.

Fig. 1 Compressor

Function: The function of a compressor is to compress the gases and vapors from low
pressure to high pressure. According to second law of thermodynamics, this is only possible
when the work is done on the gas by an external agency such as prime movers, electric
motors etc., using direct and indirect transmission.

Let h1, h2 – enthalpy of the working fluid before and after compression respectively.
δQ – heat transfer with surroundings
δW – work transfer
Z1, Z2 – elevation at the inlet and outlet of compressor respectively
C1, C2 – velocity of working fluid at the inlet and outlet of compressor respectively

Assuming it as a steady flow device, applying the steady flow energy equation to the process
in the compressor.
C2 Q C2 W
h1  1  Z1 g   h1  1  Z1 g 
2 m 2 m
Neglecting the changes in kinetic and potential energy, and assuming that the compression is
adiabatic, then the above equation modifies to
W
 h2  h1   W   m  h2  h1 
m
 This equation indicates that the energy supplied in compression is tending to increase
the enthalpy of the working fluid.
Classification of compressors:

Fig. 2 Classification of Compressors

 1. According to design and Principle of operation:
i. Positive displacement compressor: The rise in pressure is achieved by positive
displacement of gas. i.e. the pressure of gas is increased by decreasing its volume.
Examples: Reciprocating compressor, Rotary screw compressor, vane compressor.
ii. Dynamic Compressors: In these types, a rotating component imparts its kinetic
energy to the air which is eventually converted into pressure energy. These use
centrifugal force generated by a spinning impeller to accelerate and then
decelerate captured air, which pressurizes it.
Examples: Axial compressors and centrifugal compressors.
2. According to Pressure: On the basis of final pressure, the compressors are classified
as:
a. Low pressure compressors whose final pressure does not exceed 10bar,
b. Medium pressure compressors with a range of 10 to 80 bar.
c. High pressure compressors with a range of 81 to 1000bar.
d. Multi stage reciprocating compressors for delivery pressure exceeding 1000 bar
are termed as hyper compressors. They have as many as 7 stages.
3. Depending upon the pressure rise limit, the multi blade systems may be classified
as (according to ASME code)
a. Fan, in which pressure ratio < 1.1
b. lower, in which pressure ratio >1.1 < 2.3
c. Compressor in which the pressure ratio >2.3
4. Based on Capacity:
A classification of compressors according to capacity, based on the quantity of free air
delivered is as under:
a. Small compressors handling upto 9m3/min.
b. Medium compressors handling upto 9m3/min to 3000m3/min.
c. Large compressors handling more than 3000 m3/min.
5. According to Number of stages: The compressors may be single or multi stage.
6. According to Medium to be compressed: Compressors are also classified on the
basis of medium to be compressed. It may be air, oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen,
acetylene, lighting gas and vapors and gases used in refrigeration cycle such as methyl
chloride, ammonia, Fr-12, Fr-22, etc. Their physical and chemical properties exert a
considerable influence upon the design of compressors.
7. According to Method of Cooling: They may be air cooled or water cooled.
8. According to Arrangement of cylinders: They may be horizontal, vertical, V type,
W type, radial, horizontal balanced opposed, etc.
9. Type of Drives: They may be Motor driven, I.C. Engine driven, turbine driven, etc.
Reciprocating Compressors
In this compressor, the gas volume decreases and pressure increases due to the action of
one or more reciprocating pistons moving axially in one or more cylinders. It may be
 Single acting or double acting
 Single cylinder or multi cylinder
 Single stage or multi stage.
The compressor is used to meet the need for low, medium, and high compression ratio
and low and medium gas volumes. For efficient operation, compressor’s maximum working
limit is 300 m3/min.
The reciprocating compressors have a very wide use in comparison to the other types of
compressors. It is widely used in refrigeration system such as freeze, air conditioner and cold
storage, mining works, chemical factories, fertilizer factories, garages, etc.
Working of a Reciprocating Compressor:

Fig. 3 Parts of a Reciprocating Compressor

Fig. 3 shows a single stage, single acting and single cylinder reciprocating compressor in
simplified form.

Due to the rotation of the crank shaft, the piston moves in downward direction during which
the pressure in the cylinder falls and the atmospheric air enters through the suction valve
(delivery valve closed) till the piston reaches bottom dead centre position. When the piston
goes up, the suction and delivery valves are both closed and the air is compressed till the
delivery valve opens due to the difference in pressure in cylinder and delivery manifold. As
the piston descends on the next downward stroke the air trapped in a clearance volume
expands and the pressure falls to the suction pressure; the inlet valve then opens and the cycle
is repeated.

Single stage reciprocating compressor without clearance volume:

Consider a single stage, single acting, ideal

reciprocating compressor having no flow
resistance at suction or delivery valve, no
friction loses and no clearance. The
working fluid is a perfect gas (say air).

Let, p1, V1 and p2, V2 be the pressure and

volume before and after the compression
respectively. Now consider the piston at
the inner dead centre position at point 4, at
this instant, the suction and delivery valves
are closed. Fig. 4 p-V diagram – Compression process
When the piston moves outward a vacuum is created. Because of the pressure difference
across the suction valve, the suction valve opens and the fluid is drawn into the cylinder at
constant pressure p1 through the suction manifold. The suction process is represented by 4-1.
When the piston reaches the outer dead position, the suction valve closes at point 1, and the
piston then starts moving towards inner dead centre position. Since both valves are closed,
the induced fluid enclosed in the cylinder volume diminishes, causing a pressure rise. The
compression process is shown by 1-2.

The compression process will stop only when the pressure rise in the cylinder exceeds the
pressure in the delivery manifold by an amount equal to the resistance offered to the passage
of the fluid through the delivery valve. At point 2 the delivery valve opens and the
compressed fluid is displaced by the piston at an approximately constant pressure p2 in the
delivery manifold. The displacement of the fluid is represented by the process 2-3. It ends
when the piston reaches the inner dead centre position where the delivery valve closes. As the
piston starts to move on a new suction stroke, the pressure of gas p2 from point 3 falls
instantaneously to suction pressure p1 at 4 and the suction valve opens and the entire cycle is
repeated.
p2

Work transfer in 1-2 process is given by W   vdp per cycle.

p1

Assume pv  c for compression process.

n

pv n  p1v1n  p2v2n
 n 1

 p2  n
p1v1    1

n n
W   p2v2  p1v1     p1  
n 1 n 1  
 
We know that p1v1  mRT1
 n 1

 
mRT1    1 kW where m is in

n
n p
W  2

n 1   p1  
 
 
kg/s.
Comparison of Work in different Processes:

1. If the compression is adiabatic, then

 1
 
   
mRT1    1
 p
W  2

 1   p1  
 
 
2. If the compression is isothermal ( pv  c ), i.e
all the heat generated during compression is
withdrawn, so that temperature of the fluid
remains constant, less work will be required to Fig. 5 Comparison of work in
be done on per kg of air to raise its pressure from different process
p1 to p2 .
Work done on the gas per cycle in isothermal compression is
 v2 p1
 p2 
W   pdv  p2v2  p1v1   vdp = mRT ln  p
1 
v1 p2 1 

Single stage compression with clearance

In actual compressor there is a clearance between the cylinder head and piston when the
piston is at the TDC position. It is provided to prevent the piston striking the cylinder head.
The volume swept by the piston in one stroke i.e. when moving from TDC to BDC or BDC to
TDC is called swept volume (Vs).
The ratio of clearance volume to swept volume is called as clearance ratio (C).

clearance volume V
C  c
swept volume (or ) stroke volume Vs

Work done with clearance

Because of clearance, the actual
volume of the gas sucked per working
cycle decreases.
 Process 1-2: In the p-V
diagram, it represents the compression
process. During this process both the
suction and delivery valves closes.
The pressure and temperature
increases from p1 to p2 and T1 to T2
respectively. After compression, the
delivery valve opens resulting in the
discharging of gas at constant
pressure. It follows the law, pV nc  c .
 Process 2-3: It represents the
discharge of gas at constant pressure
i.e. p2 = p3. By the time delivery valve
closes, still some gas remains in the
Fig. Effect of Clearance clearance volume. The volume at point
3 represents the clearance volume when the piston is at TDC (Vc=V3).
 Process 3-4: After discharge the piston starts moving from TDC resulting in
expansion of gas during which pressure in the cylinder decreases from p3 to p4. At the
point ‘4’ suction valve opens and the actual suction process initiates. This process is
called wire drawing or re-expansion process. It follows the law, pV ne  c .
 Process 4-1: From point ‘4’ to ‘1’, the actual suction of gas happens during which the
pressure remains constant i.e. p4 = p1. At the point ‘2’ the piston reaches BDC, the
suction valve closes and the compression process initiates.
 When there is no clearance, the suction process should initiate at point ‘3’ but in
practice, due to the clearance the stroke volume decreased from V1-V3 to V1-V4.
 Net Work done = Work needed for compression without clearance – work done by the
gas in expanding the gas from 3- 4
 nc 1
  ne 1

nc    nc
 n   p  ne
 1
p
W  p1V1   1 
 ne  1 4 4  p4 
2 e 3
pV
nc  1  p1  
   
 But p2 = p3 and p4 = p1. Also assuming that nc  ne i.e. index of compression is equal
to index of expansion, then the above equation transforms to
 nc 1
  nc 1

nc    nc
 n    nc
 1
p p
W  p1V1   1 
 nc  1 1 4  p1 
2 c 2
pV
nc  1  p1  
   
 nc 1

nc    nc
 1
p
W  p1 V1  V4    2

nc  1  p1  
 
Volumetric efficiency
 It is defined as the ratio of actual volume of gas sucked to the swept volume of the
piston.
actual volume Va
vol  
swept volume Vs
Swept volume, Vs  V1  V3
Clearance volume, Vc  V3
V
Clearance ratio, C  c
Vs
Again process 3-4 is following the law, pV n  cons tan t
p3V3n
 p3V3n  p4V4n  V4n 
p4
1 1
p  n p  n
 V4   2  V3  V4   2  Vc
 p1   p1 
Actual volume, Va  V1  V4  V1  V3   V3  V4  Vs  Vc  V4
Finally Volumetric efficiency,
1 1
V V  V V V V V V p  n
p  n
vol  a  s c 4  s  c  4  1 C  c  2   1 C  C  2 
Vs Vs Vs Vs Vs Vs  p1   p1 

Noteworthy points:
1. If p2=p1, i.e. vol  100% . This indicates that no compression takes place.
2. If p2 increases, then the ratio (p2/p1) increases (with other terms remaining constant),
and ultimately results in decrease of volumetric efficiency.
3. When the clearance ratio, C and pressure ratio (p2/p1) are fixed, then the volumetric
efficiency increases with re-expansion coefficient, n.
4. From the above equation, it can be concluded that re-expansion or throttling or wire-
drawing reduces the volumetric efficiency and also causes an increase in compressor
work.
Effect of higher compression ratio – Single stage compression
In a single stage compressor, if the compression ratio increases to higher values, the
following effects are observed:
 Final temperature increases affecting the operation of delivery valves, diminishes
lubricating properties of the oil and increase of ignition in piping and receiver.
 Robust cylinder construction is needed.
To avoid these problems, the higher compression ratios are attained by compressing the fluid
in number of stages.
Principle of multi-stage compression
 Number of cylinders are arranged
such that working fluid is first
compressed in the cylinder-1 from
pressure p1 to p2, then cooled in a
device called intercooler at
constant pressure (p2 = p3) and
again compressed in the cylinder-2
from pressure p3 – p4.
 Again the air at ‘4’ is cooled at
pressure p4 and then compressed in
the cylinder-3
 Because of cooling the fluid before
compression in another cylinder, the index of compression decreases thereby reducing
the work input to compress the fluid.
Advantages of multi-stage compression:
 Less power is needed to run a compressor
 Better mechanical balance
 Increase in volumetric efficiency
 Improved lubrication
 Less leakage loss
 Lighter cylinder

Working of a 2-stage compressor

 Air enters at pressure p1 and

temperature T1 in the
cylinder-1 or low pressure
compressor and is
compressed to some
intermediate pressure p2.
During this process, the
temperature also increases
from T1 to T2.
 At this pressure and
temperature p2, T2
respectively, the air enters
the intercooler where it is cooled to the temperature at the Fig. Schematic of 2-stage
compressor inlet of low pressure compressor (T3 = T1). During this process the
pressure remains constant i.e. p2 = p3.
 After cooling the air is admitted to cylinder-2 or high pressure cylinder where its
pressure is rised to the required value p4. The corresponding temperature is T4.
 Work supplied for compression in L.P cylinder,
n n  p2V2  n  p n1n 
W12   p2V2  p1V1    p1V1    1   p1V1   2   1
n 1 n 1  p1V1  n  1  p1  
 
 Work supplied for compression in H.P cylinder,
 n n  p4V4  n  p n1n 
W34   p4V4  p3V3    p3V3    1   p3V3   4   1
n 1 n 1  p3V3  n  1  p3  
 
 Also p2 = p3. Assuming the perfect intercooling, i.e. T3 = T1, we can write p1V1  p3V3

n  p n 1n 
Now the work in H.P compressor can be rewritten as W34   p1V1   4   1
n 1  p2  
 
.
 Network supplied to the 2-stage compressor,
n  p n1n  n  p n 1n 
W  W12  W34   p1V1   2   1   p1V1   4   1
n 1  p1   n 1  p2  
   
n  p  n  p  n
n 1 n 1

On simplification, we get W   p1V1   2    4   2
n 1  p1   p2  
 
Minimum work needed in 2-stage compression
 Work required in a stage compressor is given as
n  p n 1n  p n 1n 
W  p1V1   2    4   2
n 1  p1   p2  
 
 If the operating pressures p1 and p4 are fixed, the work is a function of intermediate
pressure, p2. Hence for minimum work input, the following condition is to be
satisfied.
dW
 0.
dp2
  n 1 1  n 1 1 
n  1   p2  n  1   p4  n   p4  
  
     2   0
n   p1   1  2
p p  p2  

n 1 n n 1 n 1 1
p  n  1   p4  n  p4   p2  n  p2   p4  n  p4 
 2      2       
 p1   p1   p2   p2   p1   p1   p2   p2 
1 1
1 1
p  n p  n p  p 
 2   4   2  4 
 p1   p2   p1   p2 
 p22  p1 p4  p2  p1 p4
Above equation gives the optimum intermediate pressure which is to be maintained
for minimum work to be supplied in 2-stage compression.
 Minimum work to be supplied is obtained by substituting for p2 in the equation for
work
n  p n 1n  p n 1n 
W  p1V1        2
 2 4

n 1  p1   p2  
 
  
n 1
n
 
n 1
n 
p1 p4
 p1V1    2
n p4
 Wmin    
n 1 p1   p1 p4  
    
 
n 1
n
 
n 1
n 
n p4 p4
 Wmin   p1V1        2

n 1 p1 p1
    
2n  p n 1 2 n 
 Wmin   p1V1   4   1
n 1  p1  
 
Note:
3n  p n 13n 
Similarly for a 3-stage compressor, Wmin   p1V1   4   1
n 1  p1  
 
Nn  p  Nn 
n 1

Similarly for an N-stage compressor, Wmin   p1V1   4   1

n 1  p1  
 
Indicator Diagram
It is a diagram representing the variation of pressure with volume during the processes in a
compressor.

Mean effective pressure

Mean effective pressure is obtained by dividing the area of the indicator pressure with the
length of the diagram.
Indicated mean effective pressure,
(imep) = pm = mean diagram height x spring constant
area of indicator card  cm2   spring cons tan t  bar / cm 
pm 
length of diagram  cm 
2
Let A – piston area, m
L – length of the stroke, m
N – crank shaft speed, rpm
K – number of cylinders
n = 1 for single acting compressor and n = 2 for double acting compressor

Work done per cycle, W  100  pm  A  L  n  K

Work done per minute (or) Indicated power,

100  pm  A  L  n  K
W
60

For single acting and single cylinder,

100  pm  A  L
IP 
60
Compressor power efficiencies
i. Mechanical efficiency: It is defined as the ratio of the indicated power to the brake
power.
ip of compressor
m 
bp of compressor
ii. Isothermal efficiency: It is the ratio of the isothermal work input to the actual work
input to the compressor.
p1v1 ln  2  ln  2 
p p
iso 
isothermal work input
  p1 
  p1 
actual work input  n 1
  n 1

 n    p  n
  n 
 2 n p  
 p1v1    1      1
2

 n  1   1
p  n  1   1 p
   

Work done in Isothermal process consumes less amount of work. But in practice
temperature increases during the compression, resulting in increase of index of
compression. This increases the amount of work supplied in actual practice. Hence
isothermal efficiency is always less than 100%.

iii. Adiabatic efficiency: It is the ratio of actcual work input to the adiabatic work input.
 n 1
  n 1

 n    p  n
  n    p  n

 p1v1    1      1
2 2

 n  1   1
p  n  1   1 p
adiab 
Actual work input
     
 1  1
Adiabatic work input    
     p2        p2   
   1  p1v1  p   1    1   p   1
     1
 1    
 Unit - III
Steam Power cycles
Learning Material
Objectives
 To study and analyze the steam power cycles.
Syllabus
Steam Power Cycles: Rankine cycle - schematic layout, Thermodynamic analysis, concept of mean
temperature of heat addition, Methods to improve cycle, performance - Regeneration & Reheating
cycles.
Boilers: Classification, working of water tube and fire boilers, Mountings and Accessories.

At the end of the chapter student is able to

 Understand the working of steam power plant.

 Analyze the steam power plants working on Rankine cycle.
 identify and analyze the various methods of increasing the efficiency of Rankine cycle
 Analyze the reheat and regenerative vapor power cycles.
 Understand various Boiler mountings and accessories.
3.1 Vapor power cycles (Steam power plant)
A vapor power cycle continuously converts heat (energy released by the burning of fuel) into work
(shaft work), in which working fluid repeatedly undergoes change of phases. In the vapor power
cycle, the working fluid, which is water, undergoes a phase change.
Figure 1.1 gives schematic of a simple steam power plant working on the vapor power cycle.

Fig.3.1 Simple steam power plant

Boiler
It is a closed vessel inside which combustion of fuel takes place. Tubes are arranged in the walls of
the boiler through which water passes. The water by absorbing heat of combustion turns into steam.
Turbine
Steam from boiler passes through nozzles and enters into turbine. The high-pressure steam now
expands over the blades of the turbine rotor (shaft upon which the circumferential blades are
mounted). The pressure of steam drops down along with its enthalpy (total heat content). This drop
in heat energy (enthalpy) is converted into mechanical energy. As a result, the shaft of the turbine
rotates.
Condenser
This is located after the turbine so that steam after expansion in the turbine exhausts into the
condenser. The exhaust steam from the turbine enters the condenser and major portion of it gets
condensed. The condensed steam is called condensate and is recirculated as feed water to the boiler.
With the addition of a condenser, we can extract more work from the turbine.
Feed Pump
It is a pump which takes up condensate and then forces into the boiler with pressure. As boiler
works at higher pressure, feed pumps are necessary to raise the pressure of water for its entry to
boiler.
Since the fluid is undergoing a cyclic process, there will be no net change in its internal energy over
the cycle, and consequently the net energy transferred to the unit mass of the fluid as heat during the
cycle must equal the net energy transfer as work from the fluid.
By the first law,
2 3

1 4

or

Where Q1 = heat transferred to the working fluid (kJ/kg)

Q2 = heat rejected from the working fluid (kj/kg)
WT= Work transferred from the working fluid (kJ/kg)
WP= Work transferred into the working fluid (kJ/kg)
The efficiency of the vapour power cycle would be given by

3.2 Rankine Cycle

It is a theoretical cycle upon which steam power plant works. It is a modified form of Carnot cycle
and an ideal cycle for comparing the performance of steam power plants. In which heat addition and
rejection takes place at constant pressure process.But the thermal efficiency of a Rankine cycle is
lower than that of a Carnot cycle operating between the same temperature levels.

Analysis of Rankine Cycle

For purposes of analysis the Rankine cycle is assumed to be carried out in a steady flow operation.
Applying the steady flow energy equation (S.F.E.E) to each of the processes on the basis of unit
mass of fluid, and neglecting changes in kinetic and potential energy, the work and heat quantities
can be evaluated in terms of the properties of the fluid.

2
1

A simple steam power plant

Assumptions
The following assumptions are made in the working of Rankine cycle:
1. The same working fluid is repeatedly circulated in a closed circuit.
2. Heat is added in boiler only and rejected in condenser only. Except boiler and condenser,
there is no heat transfer between working fluid and surroundings.
3. There is no pressure drop in the piping system. Expansion in the prime mover occurs
without friction or heat transfer i.e., expansion is isentropic in which case entropy of
working fluid entering and leaving the prime mover is same.
4. The working fluid is not under cooled in the condenser i.e., the temperature of water leaving
the condenser is same as saturation temperature corresponding to the exhaust pressure.
Based on assumptions following are the various process
1-2 Isentropic compression in a pump
2-3 Reversible constant pressure heat addition in a boiler
3-4 Isentropic expansion in a turbine
4-1 Reversible constant pressure heat rejection in a condenser
The cycle has been plotted on the p-v, T-s, and h-s planes as shown in Fig.

The numbers on the plots correspond to the numbers on the flow diagram.

 For any given pressure, the steam approaching the turbine may be dry saturated (state 3)
wet (state 3'), or superheated (state 3"), but the fluid approaching the pump is, in each case,
saturated liquid (state 1).

 Steam expands reversibly and adiabatically in the turbine from state 3 to state 4 ( or 3' to 4',
or 3" to 4").

 The steam leaving the turbine condenses to water in the condenser reversibly at constant
pressure from state 4 ( or 4', or 4") to state 1.

 The water at state 1 is then pumped to the boiler at state 2 reversibly and adiabatically.

 The water is heated in the boiler to form steam reversibly at constant pressure from state 2 to
state 3 (or 3' or 3").

For 1 kg of fluid .

The S.F.E.E for the Turbine (control volume) gives

Similarly The S.F.E.E for the condenser (control volume) gives

and the S.F.E.E for the pump (control volume) gives

The S.F.E.E for the boiler (control volume) gives

The efficiency of the Rankine cycle is then given by

The pump handles liquid water which is incompressible, i.e., its density or specific volume
undergoes little change with increase in pressure. For reversible adiabatic compression, by the use
of the general property relation.

3"

3' 3
2 3' 3 3"

1
1 4' 4 4"
4' 4 4"

3"
3

3'

4"
2 4
4'
1
Rankine cycle on p-v, T-s and h-s planes
Since the change in speifc volume is negligable

is in m3/ kg and p is in bar

J/kg

The work ratio is defined as theratio of net workoutput to positive work output

Usually , the pump work is quite small compared to the turbine work and is somtimes neglected
.The h4 = h3 , and the chycle efficency approximately becomes

The efficency of the Rankine Cycle is presented graphically in the T-s plot in Fig.below. Thus Q1 is
proportional to area 3562, Q2 is proportional to area 4561, and Wnet (= Q1- Q2) is proportinal to area
1234 enclosed by the cycle.

2
4
1

Q1, Wnet and Q2 are proportional areas

The capacity of a steam plant is often expressed in terms of steam rate, which is defined as the rate
of steam flow (kg/h) required to produce unit shaft output(1 kW). Therefore
The cycle efficiency is sometimes expressed alternatively as heat rate which is the rate input (Q1)
required to produce unit work output ( 1kW)

From the equation Wrev= , it is obvious that the reversible steady flow work is closely
associated with the specific volume of fluid flowing through the device.

The larger the specific volume, the larger the reversible work produced or consumed by the steady-
flow device. Therefore, every effort should be made to keep the specific volume of a fluid as small as
possible during a compression process to minimize the work input and as large as possible, during
an expansion process to maximize the work output.

In steam power plants, the pump handles liquid, which has a very small specific volume, and the
turbine handles vapor, whose specific volume is many times larger. Therefore, the work output of
the turbine is much larger than the work input to the pump. This is one of the reasons for the
overwhelming popularity of steam power plants in electric power generation.

If we were to compress the steam exiting the turbine back to the turbine inlet pressure before
cooling it first in the condenser in order to “save” the heat rejected, we need to supply the work
which is many times higher than that is produced by turbine . Hence heat rejection in the condenser
is necessary.

3.3 Actual Vapour Cycle Processes

The processes of an actual cycle differ from those of the ideal cycle. In the actual cycle conditions
indicated in Fig 1.6, showing the various losses. The thermal efficiency of the cycle is

Where the work and heat quantities are the measured values for the actual cycle, which are different
from the corresponding quantities of the ideal cycle.

Deviation of Actual Cycle from Ideal Cycle:

In an ideal Rankine cycle the pump and turbine would be isentropic, i.e., the pump and turbine
would generate no entropy and hence maximize the net work output. Processes 1-2 and 3-4 would
be represented by vertical lines on the T- s diagram

The actual vapor power cycle differs from the ideal Rankine cycle because of irreversibilities in the
inherent components caused by fluid friction and heat loss to the surroundings;

 fluid friction causes pressure drops in the boiler, the condenser, and the piping between the
components, and as a result the steam leaves the boiler at a lower pressure;

 heat loss reduces the net work output, thus more heat addition to the steam in the boiler is
required to maintain the same level of net work output, as a result efficiency decreases.
 Deviation of actual vapor power cycle from the ideal Rankine cycle (b) The effect of pump and
turbine irreversibilities on the ideal Rankine cycle

1) Turbine Efficiency:
During the expansion of steam in the turbine there will be heat transfer to the surroundings and the
expansion instead of being isentropic will be polytropic as shown in the figure.
3 − 4 → Isentropic expansion
3 − 4' → Acutal expansion

Turbine Efficiency =

2) Pump Efficiency:
There are losses in the pump due to irreversibility and the process of compression is polytropic
instead of isentropic as shown above.

Pump Efficiency =

3.4 Mean temperature of Heat Addition

In the Rankine cycle, heat is added reversibly at a constant pressure, but at infinite temperatures. If
Tm1 is the mean temperature of heat addition, as shown in Fig, so that the area under 2s and 3 is
equal to the area under 5 and 6, then heat added

2
1 4

Fig. Mean temperature of heat addition

 Tm1 = Mean temperature of heat addition

= heat rejected =

ηRankine

ηRankine

Where T2 is the temperature of heat rejection. The lower is the T2 for a given Tm1, the higher will be
the efficiency of the Rankine cycle. But the lowest practicable temperature of heat rejection is the
temperature of the surroundings (T0).This being fixed,

ηRankine

The higher the mean temperature of heat addition, the higher will be the cycle efficiency.

The effect of increasing the initial temperature at constant pressure on cycle efficiency is shown in
Fig. When the initial state changes from 3 to 3', Tm1 between 2 and 3' is higher than Tm1between 2
and 3. So an increase in the superheat at constant pressure increases the mean temperature of heat
addition and hence the cycle efficiency.

3'
3

2
1 4 4'

Effect of superheat on mean temperature of4 heat addition

'
HOW CAN WE INCREASE THE EFFICIENCY OF THE RANKINE CYCLE?

Steam power plants are responsible for the production of most electric power in the world,
and even small increases in the thermal efficiency can mean large savings from the fuel
requirements. Therefore, every effort is made to improve the efficiency of the cycle on which steam
power plants operate.

The basic idea behind all the modifications to increase the thermal efficiency of a power
cycle is the same:

Increase the mean temperature at which heat is transferred to the working fluid in the boiler, or
decrease the mean temperature at which heat is rejected from the working fluid in the condenser.
That is, the mean fluid temperature should be as high as possible during heat addition and as low as
possible during heat rejection.

Three ways of accomplishing this for the simple ideal Rankine cycle.

1. Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow, mean)

2. Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increase Thigh, mean)
3. Increasing the Boiler Pressure (IncreaseThigh, mean)

Lowering the Condenser Pressure (Lowers Tlow, mean)

Lowering the operating pressure of the condenser automatically lowers the temperature of
the steam, and thus the temperature at which the heat is rejected.

The effect of lowering the condenser pressure on the Rankine cycle efficiency is illustrated
on a T-S diagram in Fig .

 For comparison purposes, the turbine inlet state is maintained the same. The colored area on
this diagram represents the increase in net work output as a result of the lowering the
condenser pressure from P4 to P’4 .

 The heat input requirements also increased (represented by the area under curve 2’-2), but
this increase is very small. Thus the overall effect of lowering the condenser pressure is an
increase in the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

Effect of lowering condenser pressure

To take advantage of the increased efficiencies at low pressures, the condensers of steam
power plants usually operate well below the atmospheric pressure.

However, there is a lower limit on the condenser pressure that can be used. It cannot be
lower than the saturation pressure corresponding to the temperature of the cooling medium.

Consider, for example, a condenser that is to be cooled by a nearby river at 150C. Allowing a
temperature difference of 100C for effective heat transfer, the steam temperature in condenser must
be above 25°C; thus the condenser pressure must be above 3.2 kPa, which is the saturation pressure
at 25°C.
Disadvantages Lowering the condenser pressure

 It creates the possibility of air leakage into the condenser.

  It increases the moisture content of the steam at the final stage of the turbine, as can
be seen from Fig.1.9.

The presence of large quantities of moisture is highly undesirable in turbines because it

decreases the turbine efficiency and erodes the turbine blades.

Superheating the Steam to High Temperatures (Increase Thigh, mean)

The mean temperature at which heat is added to the steam can be increased without
increasing the boiler pressure by superheating the steam to high temperature.

The effect of superheating on the performance of vapor power cycle is illustrated on the T-s
diagram as shown in Fig. The total area under the process curve 3-3’ represents the increase in the
heat input. Thus both the net work and heat input increase as a result of super heating the steam to a
higher temperature. The overall effect is an increase in thermal efficiency, however, since the
average temperature at which heat is added increases.

Effect of superheating Effect of Boiler pressure

It decrease the moisture content of the steam at the turbine exit, as can be seen from the T-s
diagram (the quality at state 4’ is higher than that at state 4).

However, The temperature to which steam can be superheated is limited, by metallurgical

considerations. Presently the highest steam temperature allowed at the turbine inlet is about 620 oC
(1150oF). Any increase in this value depends on improving the present materials or finding new
ones that can withstand higher temperatures.

Increasing the Boiler Pressure (IncreaseThigh, mean)

Another way of increasing the mean temperature during the heat-addition process is to
increase the operating pressure of the boiler, which automatically raise the temperature at which
boiling takes place. This, in turn, raises the average temperature at which heat is added to the steam
and thus raises the thermal efficiency of the cycle.

The effect of increasing the boiler pressure on the performance of vapor power cycles is
illustrated on T-s diagram in Fig.
Notice that for a fixed turbine inlet temperature, the cycle shifts to the left and the moisture content
of steam at the turbine exit increases. This undesirable side effect.

3.5 THE IDEAL REHEAT RANKINE CYCLE

We noted in the last section that increasing the boiler pressure increases the thermal efficiency of
the Rankine cycle, but it also increases the moisture content of the steam to un acceptable levels.
Then it is natural to ask the following question:

How can we take advantage of the increased efficiencies at higher boiler pressures without
facing the problem of excessive moisture at the final stages of the turbine ?

Two possibilities:

1.Superheat the steam to very high temperatures before it enters the turbine. This would be the
desirable solution since the average temperature at which heat is added would also increase ,thus
increasing the cycle efficiency. This is not a viable solution, however, since it will require raising
the steam temperature to metallurgical unsafe levels.

2.Expand the steam in the turbine in two stages, and reheat it in between. In other words, modify
the simple ideal Rankine cycle with a reheat process. Reheating is a practical solution to the
excessive moisture problem in turbines, and it is commonly used in modern steam power plants.

The T-s diagram of the ideal reheat Rankine cycle and schematic of the power plant operating on
this cycle are shown in Fig.

Ideal reheat Rankine cycle

The ideal reheat Rankine cycle differs from the simple ideal rankine cycle in that the expansion
process takes place in two stages. In the first stage (the high pressure turbine), steam is expanded
isoentropically to an intermediate pressure and sent back to the boiler where it is reheated at
constant pressure, usually to the inlet temperature of the first turbine stage. Steam expands
isentropically in the second stage (low pressure turbine) to the condenser pressure. Thus the total
heat input and the total turbine work output for a reheat cycle become

and
The incorporation of the single reheat in a modern power plant improves the cycle efficiency by 4 to
5 percent by increasing the average temperature at which heat is added to the steam.

The average temperature during the reheat process can be increased by increasing the number of
expansion and reheat stages. As the number of stages is increased, the expansion and reheat
processes approach an isothermal process at the maximum temperature.

Advantages of Reheating Steam:

Reheating of steam in a turbine has the following advantages:
1. It increases output of the turbine.
2. Erosion and corrosion problems are avoided.
3. The thermal efficiency increases.
4. Nozzle and blade efficiencies increase.
Disadvantages:
1. Maintenance is more.
2. Relative to cost of reheating, increase in thermal efficiency is not appreciable.

3.6 Ideal Regenerative Rankine cycle

In order to increase mean temperature of heat addition (Tm1), attention was so far confined to
increasing the amount of heat supplied at high temperature, such as increasing super heat, using
higher pressure and temperature of steam, and using reheat.

The mean temperature of heat addition can also be increased by decreasing the amount of heat
added at low temperature.

In a saturated steam Rankine cycle, a considerable part of the total heat supplied in the liquid phase
when heating up water from 2 to 2', at a temperature lower than T3, the maximum temperature of the
cycle. For maximum efficiency, all heat should be supplied at T3, and feed water should enter the
boiler at state 2'.

This may be accomplished in what is known as ideal regenerative cycle, the flow diagram of which
s shown in Fig. and the corresponding T-s diagram also.

Ideal Regenerative cycle -Basic Scheme ideal regenerative cycle

The unique feature of the ideal regenerative cycle is that condensate, after leaving the pump
circulates around the turbine casing, counter flow direction of vapor flow in the turbine. Thus, it is
possible to transfer heat from the vapor as it flows through the turbine to the liquid flowing around
the turbine. Let us assume that this is a reversible heat transfer, i.e., at each point the temperature of
the vapor is only infinitesimal higher than the temperature of the liquid. The process 1-2' thus
represents reversible expansion of steam in turbine with reversible heat rejection.

The net work output of the ideal regenerative cycle is thus less, and hence its steam rate will be
more, although it is more efficient, when compared with the Rankine cycle. However, the cycle is
not practicable for the following reasons

(a) Reversible heat transfer cannot be obtained in finite time.

(b) Heat exchanger in the turbine is mechanically impracticable.

(c) the moisture content of the steam in the turbine will be high.

The Regenerative Rankine Cycle (Bleeding cycle)

A practical regeneration process in steam power plants is accomplished by extracting, or
“bleeding,” steam from the turbine at various points. This steam, which could have produced more
work by expanding further in the turbine, is used to heat the feed water instead. The device where
the feed water is heated by regeneration is called a regenerator, or a feedwater heater (FWH).
Regeneration not only improves cycle efficiency, but also provides a convenient means of
deaerating the feed water (removing the air that leaks in at the condenser) to prevent corrosion in the
boiler. It also helps control the large volume flow rate of the steam at the final stages of the turbine
(due to the large specific volumes at low pressures). Therefore, regeneration has been used in all
modern steam power plants since its introduction in the early 1920s.
A feedwater heater is basically a heat exchanger where heat is transferred from the steam to the feed
water either by mixing the two fluid streams (open feedwater heaters) or without mixing them
(closed feedwater heaters).
Open Feedwater Heaters
An open (or direct-contact) feedwater heater is basically a mixing chamber, where the steam
extracted from the turbine mixes with the feedwaterexiting the pump. Ideally, the mixture leaves the
heater as a saturated liquidat the heater pressure. The schematic of a steam power plant with one
openfeedwater heater (also called single-stage regenerative cycle) and the T-s diagram of the cycle
are shown in Fig.
 Regenerative Rankine Cycle
 In an ideal regenerative Rankine cycle, steam enters the turbine at the boiler pressure
(state 5) and expands isentropically to an intermediate pressure (state 6).
 Some steam is extracted at this state and routed to the feedwater heater, while the remaining
steam continues to expand isentropically to the condenser pressure (state 7).
 This steam leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid at the condenser pressure (state 1). The
condensed water, which is also called the feedwater, then enters an isentropic pump, where
it is compressed to the feedwater heater pressure (state 2) and is routed to the feedwater
heater, where it mixes with the steam extracted from the turbine. The fraction of the steam
extracted is such that the mixture leaves the heater as a saturated liquid at the heater pressure
(state 3).
 A second pump raises the pressure of the water to the boiler pressure (state 4). The cycle is
completed by heating the water in the boiler to the turbine inlet state (state 5).
In the analysis of steam power plants, it is more convenient to work with quantities expressed per
unit mass of the steam flowing through the boiler.
For each 1 kg of steam leaving the boiler, y kg expands partially in the turbine and is extracted at
state 6. The remaining (1 -y) kg expands completely to the condenser pressure.
Therefore, the mass flow rates are different in different components. If the mass flow rate through
the boiler is m . , for example, it is (1 -y)m . through the condenser.
The heat and work interactions of a regenerative Rankine cycle with one feedwater heater can be
expressed per unit mass of steam flowing through the boiler as follows:
 where fraction of steam extracted

 The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle increases as a result of regeneration. This is
because regeneration raises the average temperature at which heat is transferred to the steam
in the boiler by raising the temperature of the water before it enters the boiler.
 The cycle efficiency increases further as the number of feedwater heaters is increased. Many
large plants in operation today use as many as eight feedwater heaters. The optimum number
of feedwater heaters is determined from economical considerations.
 The use of an additional feedwater heater cannot be justified unless it saves more from the
fuel costs than its own cost.
The main advantages of bleeding are :

1. It increases efficiency as heat of bled steam is not lost in the condenser but utilized in
feedwater heating which increases the average temperature at which heat is added.
2. Due to bleeding, volume flow rate is reduced and due to this, dimensions of turbine
blades canbe reduced. Also, the size of condenser can be reduced.
3. Due to higher temperature of feed water, thermal stresses in the boiler are minimized.
Disadvantages:

1. For given output higher capacity boiler is required.

2. With more heaters, maintenance is more and cost is also more.
 BOILERS
3.7 Classification or boilers
Boilers are mainly classified according to the following;
1. Relative position of hot gases and water.
a) Fire tube boiler: The hot gases pass through the tubes that are
surrounded by water. The products of combustion leaving the
furnace are passed through fire (smoke) tubes which are
arranged within the water space. The heat energy of the flue
gas is transferred to water which is converted into steam. The
spent gases are then discharged to atmosphere through
chimney. The construction is as shown in fig.1.1.
Examples: Locomotive Boilers, Lancashire Boiler, and Fire tube boiler
Cochran Boilers.

b) Water Tube Boilers: The tubes contain water and hot gases produced
by combustion of fuel flows outside. A bank of water tubes (tubes
containing water) is connected with steam-water drum through two
sets of headers. The hot flue gases from the furnace are made to
flow around the water tubes a sufficient number of times. The gases
thus give up their heat to an appreciable extent, get cooled and are
discharged to the stack, The steam formed separates from water in
the drum and gets accumulated in the steam space. Schematic
arrangement is shown in the fig. 2. Examples: Babcock and Wilcox,
Stirling Boiler, Yarrow boiler
Fig. 2.2 Water tube boiler
2. Method of firing.
(a) Internally fired boiler: The furnace region (space in which combustion of fuel takes place) is
provided inside the boiler shell and is completely surrounded by water cooled surfaces. The
Examples: Cochran, Lancashire, Locomotive and Scotch boilers.
(b) Externally fired boiler: The furnace region is provided outside or built under the boiler. The
externally fired boiler has the advantage that its furnace region is simple to construct and can be
easily enlarged.
Examples: Babcock and Wilcox boiler.
3. Pressure of steam:
a) Boilers producing steam at a pressure of 80 bar and above are called high pressure boilers.
Examples: Babcock and Wilcox Boiler, Lamont Boiler, Velox Boiler and Benson Boiler etc.
b) The boilers which produce steam at pressures lower than 80 bar are called low pressure boilers.
Examples are Cochran, Cornish, Lancashire and Locomotive boilers.
4. Method of circulation of water:
a) In forced circulation type of boilers, the circulation of water is done by a forced pump.
Examples: Velox, Lamont boiler, Benson boiler etc.
b) In natural circulation type of boilers, circulation of water in the boiler takes place due to natural
convection currents produced by the application of heat.
Examples: Lancashire, Babcock and Wilcox boilers etc.,
5. Nature of service to be performed:
a) Boilers which are used with stationary plants are classified as land boilers.
 b) Boilers which can be readily dismantled and easily carried from one site to another are called
portable boilers.
c) Marine and Locomotive boilers belong to another category called mobile boilers.
6. Number of fire tubes available
a) If a boiler contains single fire tube, then it is called single fire tube boiler.
Example: Cornish and Simple Vertical boiler
b) If a boiler contains more than one fire tube, then it is called multi-tube boiler.
7. Nature of draught.
a) When the fuel burns in the furnace of the boiler with the natural circulation of air, the draft is named
as natural draught.
b) In artificial draught, the air is forced by means of a forced fan.
8. Heat source:
The heat energy utilized for the conversion of fluid into a vapour may be derived from:
 combustion of solid, liquid or gaseous fuel
 electrical and nuclear energy
 hot waste gases of other chemical reactions.
9. Fluid used:
The boilers are classified as steam boiler water as fluid, mercury boilers using mercury as fluid, and the
which are used for heating special chemicals.
10. Material of construction of boiler shell:
Depending upon material used for the construction of boiler shell, we classify the boiler into cast iron
boilers and steel boilers.
a) Power boilers are usually fabricated from steel plates.
b) Low pressure heating boilers are built either of cast iron or steel.
3.8 Comparison between Fire tube and Water tube boilers
S. No Particulars Fire tube boiler Water tube boiler
Water flows inside the tubes
Position of water and hot Hot gases flow inside the tubes
1 and hot gases outside the
gases and water outside the tubes.
tubes.
2 Mode of firing Generally internally fired Externally fired
Can work under as high
3 Operating pressure Limited to 16 bar
pressure as 100 bar.
4 Rate of steam production Lower Higher
Not suitable for large power Suitable for large power
5 Suitability
plants plants
Involves more risk on
Involves lesser risk on explosion
6 Risk on bursting explosion due to higher
due to lower pressure
pressure
For a given power it occupies For a given power it
7 Floor area
more floor area occupies less floor area
8 Construction Difficult Simple
9 Shell diameter Large for same power Small for same power
10 Treatment of water Not so necessary More necessary
Accessibility of various Not so easily accessible for
11 More accessible
parts cleaning, repair and inspection
12 Requirement of skill Require less skill for efficient Require more skill and
 and economic working careful attention

3.9 Fire Tube Boilers

These boilers essentially consist of or more fire tubes passing through a cylindrical shell which may be
horizontal or vertical and is filled to at least half of its volume with water,
a. Cochran boiler
It is one of the best types of vertical multi-tubular boiler and has a number of horizontal fire tubes.
Construction: It consists of a cylindrical shell with a
dome shaped top where the space is provided for
steam. The furnace is one piece and seamless. Its
crown has a hemispherical shape and thus provides
maximum volume of space. A large number of fire
tubes which are usually 75 – 100 mm in diameter are
supported between two end covers. A number of hand-
holes are provided around the outer shell for cleaning
purposes.
Specifications:
Shell diameter : 2.75 m
Height : 5.79 m
Working pressure : 6.5 bar (max. 15 bar)
Steam capacity : 3500 kg/hr (max.
4000 kg/hr)
Heating surface : 120 m2
Efficiency : 70 – 75%
Cochran Boiler
Working: The fuel is burnt on the grate and ash is collected
and disposed of from ash pit. The gases of combustion produced by burning of fuel enter the
combustion chamber through the fire tube and strike against fire brick lining which directs them
to pass through number of horizontal tubes, being surrounded by water. After heat transfer to the
water, the gases escape to the atmosphere through smoke box and chimney.
b. Cornish Boiler:

Specification:
No. of flue tubes : One
Diameter of the shell : 1.25 – 1.75 m
Length of the shell : 4–7m
Pressure of the steam : 10.5 bar
Steam capacity : 6500 kg/hr

Construction & working: It consists of a

cylindrical shell with flat ends through which
passes a smaller flue tube containing the furnace.
The products of combustion pass from the fire
grate forward over the brickwork bridge to the end
of the furnace tube; they then return by the two
side flues to the front end of the boiler, and again pass
to the back end of a flue along the bottom of the boiler to the chimney.

Advantage:
The sediment contained in the water falls to the bottom, where the plates are not brought into contact
with the hottest portion of the furnace gases.
c. Lancashire Boiler:
Specification:
Shell diameter : 2–3m
Length of the shell : 7–9m
Max. Working pressure : 16 bar
Steam capacity : 9000
kg/hr
Heating surface : 120 m2
Efficiency : 50 – 70%

Construction: It consists if a cylindrical

shell inside which two large tubes are
placed. The shell is constructed with
several rings of cylindrical form and it is
placed horizontally over a brick work which forms several channels for the flow of hot gases. These
two tubes are also constructed with several rings of cylindrical form. They pass from one end to the
other and are covered with water. The furnace is placed at the front end of each tube and they are
known as furnace tubes. The coal is introduced through the fire hole into the grate.
Working: The combustion products from the grate pass upto the back end of the furnace tubes and
then in the downward direction. Thereafter they move through the bottom channel or bottom flue
upto the
front end of the boiler where they are divided and pass upto the side flues. Now they move along side
flues and come to the chimney flue from where they are released into the atmosphere through
chimney. To control the flow of hot gases to the chimney, dampers are provided. This results in the
control of flow of air to the grate.
Advantages:
 It is reliable.
 Simplicity of design
 Ease of operation
 Less operating and maintenance costs
Applications:
 It is used where large reserve of water and steam are needed
 Sugar mills and textile mills where along with the power steam and steam for the process
work is also needed.

d. Locomotive Boiler:
It is compact and its capacity for steam production is high for its size as raise large quantity of steam
rapidly.
Construction: It consists of a
cylindrical barrel with a
rectangular fire box at one
end and a smoke box at the
other end. The coal is
introduced through the fire
hole into the grate which is
placed at the bottom of the
fire box. The hot gases which
are generated due to burning
of the coal are
 deflected by an arch of fire bricks, so that the walls of the fire box may be heated properly. The fire
box is entirely surrounded by water except for the fire hole and the ash pit which is below the fire
box which is fitted with dampers at its front and back ends. The dampers control the flow of air to
the grate.
Working: The hot gases pass from the fire box to the smoke box through a series of fire tubes and
then they are discharged into the atmosphere through the chimney. The fire tubes are placed inside
the barrel. The superheater tubes are placed inside the fire tubes in larger diameter. The heat of the
hot gases is transmitted into the water through the heating surface of the fire tubes. The steam
generated is collected over the water surface.
A dome shaped chamber known as steam dome is fitted on the upper part of the barrel, from where
the stream flows through a steam pipe into the chamber. The flow of steam is regulated by means of
regulator. From the chamber, it passes through the superheater tubes and returns to the superheated
steam chamber.
Merits:
 High steam capacity
 Low cost of construction
 Portability
 Low installation cost.
 Compact.
Demerits:
 There are chances to corrosion and scale formation in the water legs due to the accumulation
of sediments and the mud particles.
 It is difficult to clean some water spaces.
 Large flat surfaces need bracing.
 It cannot carry high overloads without being damaged by overheating.
3.10 Water Tube Boilers:
Water tube boilers are classified as:
a. Horizontal straight tube Ex. Babcock and Wilcox Boiler
i. Longitudinal drum
ii. Cross drum
b. Bent tube
i. Two drum
ii. Four drum
iii. Low head three drum
a. Babcock and Wilcox Boiler:
It is horizontal straight water tube boiler and may be designed for stationary or marine purposes.
These are exclusively used when pressure above 10 bar and capacity in excess of 7000 kg of steam
per hour is required.
Specifications:
Diameter of the drum : 1.22 – 1.83 m
Length of the drum : 6.096 – 9.144 m
Size of water tubes : 7.62 – 10.16 cm
Size of superheater tubes : 3.84 – 5.71 cm
Working pressure : 40 bar (max)
Steaming capacity : 40,000 kg/hr
Efficiency : 60 – 80%
 Construction: It consists of a high pressure drum mounted at the top. For each end of the drum, the
connections are made with the upper
header and downtake header. A large
number of water tubes connect the
uptake and downtake headers. The
water tubes are inclined at 50 – 150 to
promote water circulation. The headers
have a serpentine form (sinusoidal).
This arranges the water tubes such that
they are staggered and this exposes the
complete heating surface to the hot flue
gases.
Working: Below the uptake header, the
furnace of the boiler is arranged. The
coal is fed to the chain grate stoker
through the fire door. The chain speed
is so adjusted that by the time, the coal
reaches the other end of the grate, its
combustion has been completed. The
hot gases are forced to move upwards
between the tubes by baffle plates
provided. The water from the drum
flows through the inclined tubes via downtake header and goes back into the shell in the form of
water and steam via uptake header. The steam gets collected in the steam space of the drum. The
steam then enters through the antipriming pipe and flows in the superheater tubes where it is
further heated and is finally taken out through the main stop valve. The superheaters remain flooded
until the steam reaches the working pressure. The superheater is then drained and steam is allowed to
enter in it for superheating purposes.

b. Stirling Boiler: it is an example of bent tube boiler. The main elements of bent tube boiler are
essentially drum or drums and headers connected by bent tubes. These are used for large central
power stations. They have steaming capacities of as high as 50,000 kg/hr ad pressure as high as 60
bar.
Construction: It consists of two upper
drums known as steam drums and a
lower drum known as mud drum or
water drum. The steam drum is
connected to mud drum by the bank of
bent tubes. For cleaning operation, a
man hole at one end of each drum is
provided. The feed water from the
economizer is delivered to the steam
drum-1 which is fitted with a baffle.
The baffle deflects the water to move
downwards into the drum.
The water flows from the drum-1 to the
mud drum through the rearmost water
tubes at the back side. The baffle
provided at the mud drum deflects the
pure water to move upward to the drum-1 through the remaining half of water tubes at the back. The
water also flows from it to the drum-2 through the water tubes which are just over the furnace. So
they attain a higher temperature than the remaining portion of the boiler and a major portion of
evaporation takes place in these tubes.
 The steam is taken from the drum-1 through a steam pipe and then it passes through the super heater
tubes where the steam is superheated. Finally the steam moves to the stop valve from where the
steam can be supplied for further use.

3.11 High pressure Boilers

The modern high pressure boilers employed for power generation are for steam capacities 30 to 650
tonnes/hr and above with a pressure upto 160 bar and maximum steam temperature of about 5400C.
Water tube boilers are generally preferred for high pressure and high output whereas shell boilers for low
pressure and lower output. The salient characteristic of high pressures boilers are :
i. Method of circulation of water: The circulation of water through the boiler may be natural circulation
due to density difference or forced circulation. In all modern high pressure boiler plants, the water
circulation is maintained with the help of pump which forces the water through the boiler plant. The
use of natural circulation is limited to use of sub-critical boilers.
ii. Type of tubing: In most of the high pressure boilers, the water circulated through the tubes and their
external surfaces are exposed to the flue gases. In water tube boilers, if the flow takes place through
one continuous tube, the large pressure drop takes place due to friction. This is considerably reduced
by arranging the flow to pass through parallel system of tubing.
iii. Improved method of heating: The following improved arrangement of heat devices may by
incorporated:
a. heating water by mixing superheated steam. This mixing phenomenon gives higher heat
transfer coefficient
b. saving of heat by evaporation of water above critical pressure of the steam.
c. Overall heat transfer coefficient can be increased by increasing the water velocity inside the
tube and increasing the gas velocity above sonic velocity.

3.12 Lamont Boiler:

This works on a forced circulation and the circulation is maintained by a centrifugal pump, which is
driven by a steam turbine using steam from the
boiler.
Working: The feed water passes through the
economizer to the drum from which it is drawn to
the circulating pump. The circulating pump
delivers the feed water to the tube evaporating
section which in turn sends a mixture of steam
and water to the drum. The steam in the drum is
then drawn through the superheater. The
superheated steam obtained is supplied to the
steam turbine for generating work output.
These boilers have been built to generate 45 to 80
tonnes of superheated steam at a pressure of 130
bar and at a temperature of 5000C.
2.13 Loefler Boiler:
Principle: Evaporating the feed water by means of
superheated steam from the superheater, the hot gases
from the furnace being primarily used for superheating
purposes. It makes use of pump for the circulation of
feed water.
Working: The high pressure feed pump draws the
water through economizer or feed water heater and
deliver it into the evaporating drum. The steam
circulating pump draws saturated steam from the
evaporating drum and passes it through radiant and
convective superheaters where steam is heated to
required temperatures. From the superheater about
one-third of the superheated steam passes to the
turbine and the remaining two-thirds passing through
the water in the evaporating drum in order to evaporate
feed water.
This boiler can carry higher salt concentration than any other type and is more compact than indirectly
heated boilers having natural circulation.
2.14 Benson Boiler
Principle: It eliminates the latent heat of water by first
compressing the feed water to a pressure of 235 bar, it is then
above the critical pressure and its latent heat is thus zero.
Working: This boiler does not use any drum. The feed water
after circulating through the economizer tubes flows through
the radiant parallel tube section to evaporate partly. The steam
water mixture produced thus moves to the transit section where
this mixture is converted to steam. The steam is now passed
through the convection superheater and finally supplied to the
turbine. Boilers of 150 tonnes/hr steam capacity, with
maximum pressure of 500 atm and temperature of 6500C are in
use.

3.15 Boiler Mountings and Accessories: For efficient operation and maintenance of safety, the
boiler equipped with two categories of components and elements.
First categories include the fittings which are primarily indicated for the safety of the boiler and for
complete control the process of steam generation. These units are called mountings. The mounting from
an integral part of the boiler and are mounted on the body of the boiler itself. The following mountings
are usually installed on the boiler.

1. Two safety valve

2. Two water level indicators
3. Pressure gauge
4. Fusible plug
5. Steam stop valve
6. Feed check valve
 7. Blow-of cock
8. Man and mud hole

Second categories include the components which are installed to increase the efficiency of the steam
power plants and help in the power working of the boiler unit. These fitting are called boiler accessories.
The following accessories are given below.
1. Air pre-heater
2. Economiser
3. Super heater
4. Feed pump and
5. Injector

Boiler Mountings:
1. Safety valve: Safety valves are located on the top of
the boiler. They guard the boiler against the
excessive high pressure of steam inside the drum. If
the pressure of steam in the boiler drum exceeds the
working pressure then the safety valve allows blow-
off the excess quantity of steam to atmosphere.
Thus the pressure of steam in the drum falls. The
escape of steam makes a audio noise to warn the
boiler attendant. There are four types of safety
valve. 1. Dead weight safety valve. 2. Spring loaded
safety valve 3. Lever loaded safety valve 4. High steam and low water safety valve.

2. Water level indicators: Water level indicator is located in front

of boiler in such a position that the level of water can easily be seen
by attendant. Two water level indicators are used on all
boilers.

Water level indicator

3. Pressure gauge: A pressure gauge is fitted in front of boiler

in such a position that the operator can conveniently read it. It reads
the pressure of steam in the boiler and is connected to steam space by
a siphon tube. The most commonly, the Bourdon pressure gauge is
used.
4. Fusible plug: It is very important safety device, which
protects the fire tube boiler against overheating. It is
located just above the furnace in the boiler. It consists
of gun metal plug fixed in a gun metal body with fusible
molten metal. During the normal boiler operation, the
fusible plug is covered by water and its temperature
does not rise to its melting state. But when the water
level falls too low in the boiler, it uncovers the fusible
plug. The furnace gases heat up the plug and fusible
metal of plug melts, the inner plug falls down The water
and steam then rush through the hole and extinguish the
fire before any major damage occurs to the boiler due to
overheating.

5. Steam stop valve: The steam stop valve is

located on the highest part of the steam space. It regulates the steam supply to use. The steam stop
valve can be operated manually or automatically.

6. Feed check valve: The feed check valve is fitted to the boiler, slightly below the working level in
the boiler. It is used to supply high pressure feed water to boiler. It also prevents the returning of feed
water from the boiler if feed pump fails to work.
6. Blow-of cock: The function of blow-off cock is to discharge mud and other sediments deposited in
the bottom most part of the water space in the boiler, while boiler is in operation. It can also be used
to drain-off boiler water. Hence it is mounted
at the lowest part of the boiler. When it is open, water under the pressure rushes out, thus carrying
sediments and mud.

7. Man and mud hole: These are door to allow men to enter inside the boiler for the inspection and
repair

Boiler Accessories:
1. Air pre-heater: The function of an air pre-heater is
similar to that of an economizer. It recovers some portion
of the waste heat of hot flue gases going to chimney, and
transfers same to the fresh air before it enters the
combustion chamber. Due to preheating of air, the furnace
temperature increases. It results in rapid combustion of
fuel with less soot, smoke and ash. The high furnace
temperature can permit low grade fuel with less
atmospheric pollution. The air pre-heater is placed
between economizer and chimney.

2. Economizer: An economizer is a heat exchanger, used for heating the feed water before it enters the
boiler. The economizer recovers some of waste heat of hot flue gases going to chimney. It helps in
improving the boiler efficiency. It is placed in the path of flue gases at the rear end of the boiler just
before air pre-heater.
3. Super heater: It is a heat exchanger in which heat of combustion products is used to dry the wet
steam, pressure remains constant, its volume and temperature increase. Basically, a super heater
consists of a set of small diameter U tubes in which steam flows and takes up the heat from hot flue
gases.
 `FLOW THROUGH NOZZLES
Objective:
 To design steam nozzle for the given pressure drop and understand the concept of
supersaturated flow in steam nozzles.
Syllabus:
Steam nozzles, function of nozzle, Nozzle Applications and Types, Flow through nozzles,
thermodynamic analysis, Calculation of Velocity of nozzle at exit, Ideal and actual expansion
in nozzle, velocity coefficient, Condition for maximum discharge, critical pressure ratio,
Criteria to decide nozzle shape, Super saturated flow. its effects, Degree of super saturation
and degree of Under cooling, Wilson line

Outcomes:
Students will be able to
 Perform the thermodynamic analysis of a steam nozzle
 Narrate the effect of friction on nozzle efficiency
 Explain the concept of supersaturated flow in nozzles

Introduction:

 It is a device for increasing the velocity of a steadily flowing fluid with the expense of
the pressure of the flowing fluid.
 The fluid enters the nozzle with
high pressure and relatively low
velocity.
 As it flows through the nozzle it
expands to a lower pressure and
in the process, enthalpy of the fluid decreases Fig. 3.1 Steam Nozzle
and pressure drops; Simultaneously the flow of fluid is accelerated from the entrance
to the exit of the nozzle.
 Fig. 3.1 represents the steam nozzle with inlet and outlet of steam. The terms h1, C1,
Z1 and h2, C2, Z2 represents the enthalpy and velocity of steam and elevations at the
inlet and outlet respectively.
 Applying the steady flow energy equation to the nozzle,
 C12 dQ C2 dW
h1   Z1   h2  2  Z 2  Eq. (3.1)
2 dm 2 dm
Assuming that (i) the change in potential energy is negligible, (ii) the nozzle is
perfectly insulated (i.e. adiabatic conditions are maintained), (iii) inlet velocity is very
less than velocity at the exit of the nozzle, and (iv) no work transfer, the equation 3.1
modifies to

C2  2  h1  h2  Eq. (3.2)

where the enthalpy is in Joules. This equation tells that the drop in enthalpy is
contributing for the increase of kinetic energy of the steam at the exit of the nozzle.

 Functions of Nozzle:
 It transforms a portion of energy of steam (obtained from steam generating unit) into
kinetic energy.
 In impulse turbine, it directs the steam jet of high velocity against the blades, which
are free to move in order to convert kinetic energy into shaft work. In reaction
turbines the nozzles which are free to move, discharge high velocity steam. The
reactive force against the nozzle produce the motion and work is obtained.

Applications of nozzles:
1. In turbomachines (steam turbines), the high pressure stream of fluid is converted to
high velocity stream before passing over the curved blades to produce mechanical
work.
2. In rocket motors and jet propulsion, the thrust produced by the jet provides the
propulsive effort.
3. In flow measurement, the differential pressure drop is correlated to the velocity to find
the discharge.
4. Injectors for pumping feed water into the boiler.
5. The ejectors for removing the air from the condensers.
6. Artificial fountains.

Types of Nozzles:
There are three types of nozzles:
i. Converging nozzle
 ii. Diverging nozzle
iii. Converging-diverging nozzle
Converging nozzle: The cross-section of the nozzle decreases continuously from the
entrance to the exit.

Diverging nozzle: The cross-section of the nozzle decreases continuously from the entrance
to the exit.
Converging-Diverging nozzle: The cross-section of the nozzle first decreases and then
increases.

Flow through Nozzles:

Assumptions:
1. Thermodynamic and mechanical properties change only in the direction of flow.
2. The process of out flow is stable, i.e. the velocity of the fluid anywhere along the
cross-section of the nozzle does not change in the course of time.
3. There are no abrupt changes in the cross-section in the nozzle.
4. The fluid flowing through the nozzle in an ideal and the flow is isentropic in behavior.

 Continuity Equation
Let m – mass flow rate of the fluid
ρ – density of the fluid
C – velocity of flow
A – Cross section area of the nozzle at any section
Using continuity equation, we have m   AC
Since mass flow rate (m) is taken as constant,  AC  constant
or log   log A  log C  logconstant
 d dA dC
or   0
 A C

dA dC
For incompressible flow, there is no change in density. Therefore,  (3.3)
A C
 This equation (3.3) tells that a small fractional decrease in area implies a
corresponding equal fractional increase in velocity and vice versa. Thus a fluid
would accelerate in contracting nozzle and decelerate in an expanding nozzle.

 General relationship between area, velocity and pressure in nozzle flow

Figure shows a nozzle in which a steady and

isentropic flow is taking place. Let us consider two
transverse plane sections at a distance δx apart.
Assuming that the nozzle is running full and the
velocity is uniform across cross-section.

A * C  A   A C   C 
m 
V V   V 
V   V    A   A C   C   1   V  A   A  C   C 
  
V  A*C V  A  C 

V   A   C 
or , 1   1  1  
V  A  C 

 A C V
or ,   0
A C V
dA dC dV
and in limits,   0
A C V (3.4)
Since the flow is isentropic, PV   constant
 log P   logV  logconstant

On differentiating and dividing the equation by PV, we get

dP dV dV 1 dP
  0 
P V V  P (3.5)
From steady flow energy equation, when applied to a nozzle, by considering the
isentropic process, and neglecting the changes in potential energy, no work transfer,
between two sections one may get
Change in enthalpy in a nozzle = change in kinetic energy
C22  C12
2 2
h1  h2    CdC    dh  CdC  dh
2 1 1 (3.6)
Also since it is an open system, in which expansion is taking place,
dh  VdP
(3.7)
From Eq. (3.6) and (3.7) modifies to
CdC VdP dC VdP
CdC  VdP  2
 2
 
C C C C2 (3.8)
Substituting the expression from eq. (3.5) and (3.8) in eq. (3.4), we get
dA VdP  1 dP 
  0
A C2   P 

dA VdP  1 dP  1 dP  VdP P 
 2    2  1
A C   P   P  C dP 
dA 1 dP  VP 
  2  1
A  P  C  (3.9)
Sonic velocity,
Cs2   RT   PV

dA 1 dP  Cs2 
   1
A  P  C2 

The ratio of velocity C to local sonic velocity ‘Cs’ is known the Mach number (M).

dA 1 dP  1  M 2 
  
A  P  M2  (3.10)

Case: 1: In an accelerated flow, dP/P is negative i.e. the pressure decreases along the flow
direction.

 If C < Cs, M<1. Then dA/A must be negative. This corresponds to the convergent
part of the nozzle.

i. As C approaches the value of Cs (sonic velocity), (i.e. Mach number=1), then

dA/A=0 and the throat of the nozzle is reached.
 ii. If C > Cs, M>1. Then dA/A must be positive. This corresponds to the
divergent part of the nozzle.

Mass of Discharge through the nozzle

Consider an adiabatic and frictionless flow of steam through a nozzle a shown in fig.
Let P1 = inlet pressure of steam
v1 = specific volume of steam at P1
C1 = inlet velocity of steam
P2 = inlet pressure of steam
v2 = specific volume of steam at P2
C2 = inlet velocity of steam
A2 = cross-sectional area of nozzle at
any section (say throat )
From continuity equation, mass flow rate of steam in kg/sec through the cross-sectional
area A2 and pressure P2 is given as
A2 .C2
m
v2

From steady flow energy equation, when applied to a nozzle, by considering the
isentropic process, and neglecting the changes in potential energy, no work transfer,
between two sections one may get
Change in enthalpy in a nozzle = change in kinetic energy
C22  C12
h1  h2 
2 (3.11)
Also since it is an open system, in which expansion is taking place,
dh  VdP (3.12)
From Eq. (3.11) and (3.12), we get
C22  C12
 h1  h2  dh
2
2
dh   vdP
1

C  C12
2 1
2
 dh   vdP (3.13)
2 2

Adiabatic and frictionless flow of steam through the nozzle may approximately be
represented by
1
c n
Pv  c  v   
n

P
Substituting for ‘v’ in eq. (3.13) and on simplification, we get
C22  C12 n
  Pv
1 1  P2 v2 
2 n 1
If the expansion of the steam is from rest i.e. C1=0 and then the above equation modifies
to

2n 2n  P2v2 
C22   Pv
1 1  P2 v2   C2 
2
1 1 1 
Pv 
n 1 n 1  1 1 
Pv

Also
1
v P  n
Pv  P v  2   2 
n
1 1
n
2 2
v1  P1 

On simplification, Finally velocity at the outlet is given as

2n   P n 1n 
C2  
1 1 1 
Pv 2
 
n 1   P1   (3.14)
 

Substituting the values of C2 and v2 in continuity equation gives the mass flow rate as
 A2 2n   P n 1n 
m 
1 1 1 
Pv 2
 
P 
1
n n 1   P1  
v1  2   
 P1 
On simplification, we get Mass flow rate of the steam in kg/sec is given as

2n P1   P2  n  P2  n 
2 n 1

m  A2    
n  1 v1   P1   P1   (3.15)


 Throat pressure for Maximum discharge (or) Existence of a Critical Pressure in

Nozzle flow or Choked flow
The pressure at which the area is minimum and the discharge per unit area is maximum is
termed as critical pressure. The smallest cross-sectional area of the nozzle is known as
throat.
Now mass flow rate per unit area at the throat is given as

2n P1   P2  n  P2  
2 n 1
n
m 
    
A2 n  1 v1   P1   P1   (3.16)
 

In this equation, mass flow rate per unit area is a function of P2/P1. There will be only one
value of ratio P2/P1 which will produce maximum discharge for the nozzle.
The maximum discharge can be found by differentiating eq. (3.16) with P 2/P1 and
equating to zero.
   P  2 n  P  n 1n  
d  2 n P1  
      0
2 2

d ( P2 / P1 )  n  1 v1   P1   1  
P 
  
Let P2/P1 = r. Then On simplification, we get
n
P  P   2  n 1
r  2  c  
 P1   P1   n  1  (3.17)
Eq. (3.17) is called critical pressure ratio and depends on the value of ‘n’.
Case 1: For Saturated Steam, n = 1.135.
The critical pressure ratio is r = 0.5774 = 0.58 (approximately).
Case 2: For superheated steam, n = 1.3
The critical pressure ratio is r = 0.5457 = 0.546 (approximately).
 Case 3: For wet steam, n = 1.035+0.1x.

 Critical temperature ratio

The ratio of the temperature at the section of the nozzle where the velocity is sonic to the
inlet temperature is called the critical temperature ratio.
n 1 n 1

T T P  n   2  n n1  n
 2 
 Critical temperature ratio  2  c   2     
T1 T1  P1    n  1   
 n  1  (3.18)
 

 Note worthy points:

 For a convergent nozzle, maximum mass flow through is obtained when the
pressure ratio across the nozzle is the critical pressure ratio.

 When a nozzle operates with the maximum mass flow rate, it is said to be choked.
A correctly designed convergent-divergent nozzle is always choked i.e. it must
have critical pressure at the throat in isentropic flow with zero approaching
velocity.

 For a convergent – divergent nozzle with sonic velocity at the throat, the cross-
sectional area of the nozzle at the throat fixes the maximum mass flow through the
nozzle for fixed inlet conditions.

 Nozzle efficiency and Coefficient of Discharge

When the steam flows through a nozzle, the final velocity of steam for a given pressure
drop is reduced due to the following reasons:

 The friction between the nozzle surface and steam;

 The internal friction of steam itself and The shock losses

These friction losses occur between the throat and exit in convergent – divergent nozzle.
These losses entail the following effects:

 The expansion is no more isentropic and enthalpy drop is reduced;

 The final dryness fraction is steam is increased as the kinetic energy gets
converted into heat due to friction and is absorbed by the steam.
  The specific volume of the steam is
increased as the steam becomes more
dry due to this frictional heating.
Definition: Nozzle efficiency is defined as the
ratio of actual enthalpy drop to enthalpy drop in
isentropic expansion process. In other words, it
is the ratio of actual gain in kinetic energy to the
gain in kinetic energy in isentropic expansion process.

nozzle 
h  h 
1
'
2 actual C 2  C12
 22
'

 h1  h3 isentropic C2  C12 (3.19)

If C1 is small compared to C2, then nozzle efficiency is given by

I
C2
nozzle  22  K n2
C2

Where Kn – velocity coefficient of the nozzle. Thus velocity coefficient is square root of
nozzle efficiency, when the inlet velocity is assumed to be negligible.
Definition: Coefficient of discharge of a nozzle may be defined as the ratio of actual
mass flow rate to the mass flow rate due to isentropic expansion.
mactual
Coefficient of disch arg e, cd 
misentropic (3.20)
Note: If the coefficient of discharge and nozzle efficiency is given, then the throat area
should be calculated based on the coefficient of discharge and nozzle efficiency should be
used to calculate exit area.

 Supersaturated flow in Nozzles

 During the expansion of initially dry saturated steam in a nozzle, due to the
effect of friction, the actual discharge is about 3 to 5% less than theoretical value
but the measured value is found to be 1 to 3% greater than the theoretical value.
  During the expansion of superheated steam in a nozzle, the increase in discharge
is just sufficient to compensate the losses due to friction, so the measured value is
more or less in agreement with the theoretical one.

 The increase in measured discharge to the theoretically calculated discharge is due

to the time lag in the condensation of steam and thus the steam remains in dry
state instead of wet; this phenomenon is called “supersaturation”.

There are three causes involved in supersaturation.

(a) In commercial steam generation process, tiny dust particles are always present and the
condensation starts surrounding them. When such particles are absent, then the
condensation process is considerably delayed and the temperature continues to fall. This
phenomenon is known as supersaturation. When a certain degree of supersaturation is
reached, it appears that the presence of foreign particles is no longer necessary and that
the equilibrium can then be attained completely.
(b) A certain time interval is essential for the collection of molecules to form droplets.
The flow of the steam through a short convergent part of the nozzle is with a high
velocity and of the order of one-ten thousandth of a second, which may be quite
inadequate for the condensation of steam and the condensation is delayed and therefore,
the flow is supersaturated.
(c) Water drops are not formed when
steam and water are in thermal
equilibrium. At any given
temperature, the vapor pressure
which is proportional to the no. of
vapor molecules per unit volume
must be greater surround the tiny
droplet. As a result, the molecules of
a very small water droplet will go on
evaporating into a space that is
saturated and the space will therefore
become supersaturated with water vapor.

The supersaturation phenomenon is shown in the fig. The initial condition of the steam is
at the point 1 in superheated region on the pressure line P1. Process 1-C shows the
isentropic expansion of the steam in thermal equilibrium up to saturation. Due to above
mentioned 3 reasons, the condensation of steam will not start at point C resulting in delay
of equilibrium between vapor and liquid phase. The vapor continues to expand in dry
state instead of wet state. This process continues until the density of superheated steam is
about 8 times the density of saturated vapor of the same pressure. When this limit is
reached at point 2, the steam will suddenly condense at constant pressure and constant
enthalpy to its normal state, as shown by the horizontal line 2-3. The limit of
supersaturation can be represented by a line known as Wilson line on the Mollier chart as
shown in fig.
The process C-2 represents the expansion under supersaturation condition, which is
not in equilibrium. The zone between the Wilson line and the dry saturated line is called
the supersaturated zone and the flow through this zone is called the supersaturated flow.
This is also called undercooled because at any pressure P2 and P3 i.e. within the
supersaturated zone, the temperature of the vapor is always less than saturation
temperature corresponding to that pressure.
Process 2-4’ represents the isentropic expansion of steam when there is no
supersaturation. Because of supersaturation, the expansion process follow the path 3-4,
which is isentropic but in thermal equilibrium.
It is assumed that the supersaturated vapor behaves like a superheated steam and the
index of steam is 1.3. So the equation for the expansion of superheated steam is
n 1
T2  P3  n
 
T1  P1  (3.21)
From eq. (3.21) the actual temperature (T3) of the supersaturated steam can be calculated.
Velocity at the throat for the supersaturated flow is given by eq. (3.14).

2n   P n 1n 
C2  
1 1 1 
Pv 2
 
n 1   P1  
 
 where the subscripts 1 and 2 refers to entry and throat conditions.
At critical pressure ratio
n
P  P   2  n 1
r  2  c  
 P1   P1   n  1 
For superheated steam, n = 1.3. The critical pressure ratio is r = 0.5457 = 0.546.
For maximum flow conditions,

2n P1   P2  n  P2  
2 n 1
n
m
       0.66726 P1
A2 n  1 v1   P1   P1   v1
  (3.23)
Effects of super saturation

 The heat drop is reduced below that for thermal equilibrium as a consequence the
exit velocity of the steam is reduced considerably.

 There is an increase in the entropy and specific volume of the steam.

 The dryness fraction of the steam increases.

 Since the condensation does not takes place during supersaturation, the
temperature at which it occurs will be less than the saturation temperature
corresponding to the pressure. Therefore, the density of steam will be more than
that for the equilibrium conditions which gives the increase in the mass of the
steam discharged.
5.1) Definition of Steam Condenser:
“Condenser is a closed vessel in which exhaust steam from steam turbine is condensed by
cooling water, and vacuum is maintained, resulting in an increase in work done and thermal
efficiency of steam turbine plant and use of condensate as feed water to the boiler.”

5.2) Advantages of a Condenser in a steam power plant:

i. Improved work done and efficieny due to low pressure of the condense.

ii. Recovery of condensate to be fed to the boiler as a high quality feed water for reuse.

iii. Reduced steam consumption for the same power output due to increased work done.

iv. Reduced thermal stresses due to high pressure of feed water entering to boiler.

v. Economy in water softening plant as only make up water is to be treated instead of

full feed water.

5.3) Requirements of a Steam Condensing Plant:

The principal requirements of a condensing plant as shown in fig 5.2 are as follows

 Condenser:
It is a closed vessel in which steam is condensed .The steam gives up latent heat to coolant
(which is water) during the process of condensation.

 Condensate pump:
It is a pump, which extract condensate (I.e. condensed steam) from the condenser to the hot-
well.

 Hot well:
It is a sump between the condenser and boiler, which receives condensate pumped by the
condensate pump.

 Boiler Feed water pump:

It is a pump, which pumps the condensate from hot well to boiler. This is done by increasing
the pressure of condensate above the boiler pressure.
 Fig. 5.2 Requirements of steam condensing plant

 Air Extraction pump:

The function of air extraction pump is to remove air and other non-condensable gases from
the condenser.

 Cooling Tower:
A cooling Tower or a spray pumps to re-cool the circulating water of the condenser which is
heated in the condenser due to condensation of steam. Cooling Tower is essential where
there is a scarcity of water.

 Cooling water circulation pump:

It is a pump, which circulates the cooling water through the condenser.

 Relief valve:
The purpose of Relief valve is to relieve the steam from the condenser when the
condenser is not in working order. Using this, the plant becomes a non-condensing unit.

5.4) Classification of Steam Condensers:

Condensers can be broadly classified on the basis of type of heat exchange i.e. direct or
indirect contact condensers.
(i) Direct contact type or mixing type or Jet condenser
 (ii) Indirect contact type or Non-mixing type or Surface condenser
(iii) Evaporative condenser
Jet condenser: Jet condensers have direct contact between steam and cooling fluid thereby
causing contamination of condensate. Jet condensers are divided into:
a) Parallel flow jet condenser: In this condenser, the steam and cooling water flow are
in the same direction.
b) Counter flow jet condenser: In this condenser, the steam flows in opposite direction
to the cooling water.
Surface condenser: Surface condensers have indirect heat exchange through metal
interface and the two fluids do not come in direct contact to each other.
The surface condensers are classified according to:
a) Number of water passes- single pass and multi pass condensers
b) Direction of condensate flow and tube arrangement- Down flow type and Central
Flow type.
Evaporative condenser: Evaporative condensers use evaporation of water for heat
extraction and is well suited for dry weather so that evaporation is not difficult.

5.4.1) Jet Condensers:

a) Parallel flow Jet Condenser:

In parallel flow jet condensers, both the steam and water enter at the top and the
mixture is removed from the bottom.

The principle of this condenser is shown in fig. The exhaust steam is condensed when
it mixes up with water. The condensate, cooling water and air flow downwards and are
removed by two separate pumps known as air pump and condensate pump. Sometimes a
single pump known as the wet air pump is also used to remove both air and condensate. But
the former gives a greater vacuum. The condensate pump delivers the condensate to the hot
well, from where surplus water flows to the cooling water tank through an overflow pipe.
b) Counter flow jet condenser:

The vacuum is created by the air pump, placed at the top of the condenser shell. This
draws the supply of cooling water, which falls in a larger number of jets, through perforated
conical plate as shown in fig.5.4. The falling water is caught in the trays, from which it
escapes in a second series of jets and meets the exhaust steam entering at the bottom. The
rapid condensation occurs and the condensate and cooling water descends through a vertical
pipe to the condensate pump, which delivers it to the hot well.
 Fig. 5.4 counter flow Jet condenser

c) Barometric or high level jet condensers:

These condensers are provided at a high level with a long vertical discharge pipe as
shown in fig.5.5. In high level jet condensers, exhaust steam enters at the bottom, flows
upwards and meets the down coming cooling water in the same way as that of low level jet
condenser. The vacuum is created by the air pump, placed at the top of the condenser shell.
The condensate and cooling water descends through a vertical pipe to the hot well without the
aid of any pump. The surplus water from the hot well flows to the cooling water tank through
an overflow pipe.
 Fig. 5.5 High level or barometric jet condenser

d)Ejector condenser:
In ejector condensers, the steam and water mix up while passing through a series of
metal cones. Water enters at the top through a number of guide cones. The exhaust steam
enters the condenser through non return valve arrangement. The steam and air then passes
through the hollow truncated cones.

After this it is dragged into the diverging cones where its kinetic energy is partly transformed
to pressure energy. The condensate and cooling water is then discharged to the hot well as
shown in fig.5.6
 Fig 5.6 Ejector condenser

5.4.2) Surface condensers:

A surface condenser has a great advantage over the jet condensers, as the condensate
does not mix up with the cooling water. As a result of this, whole condensate can be reused in
the boiler. This type of condenser is essential in ships which can carry only a limited quantity
of fresh water for the boilers. It is also widely used in land installations, where inferior water
is available or the better quantity of water for feed is to be used economically.

Fig shows a longitudinal section of a two pass surface condenser. It consists of a

horizontal cast iron cylindrical vessel packed with tubes, through which the cooling water
flows. The ends of the condenser are cut off by vertical perforated type plates into which
water tubes are fixed. This is done in such a manner that the leakage of water into the centre
condensing space is prevented. The water tubes pass horizontally through the main
condensing space for the steam. The steam enters at the top and is forced to flow downwards
over the tubes due to the suction of the extraction pump at the bottom.

The cooling water flows in one direction through the lower half of the tubes and return to
opposite direction through the upper half as shown in fig.

Types of surface condensers:

The surface condensers may be further classified on the basis of the direction of flow
of the condensate, the arrangement of tubing system and the position of the extraction pump,
into following four types:
 a) Down flow surface condensers
b) Central flow surface condenser
c) Regenerative surface condenser

a) Down flow surface condenser:

In down flow surface condensers, the exhaust steam enters at the top and flow down wards
over the tubes due to force of gravity as well as suction of the extraction pump fitted at the
bottom. The condensate is collected at the bottom and then pumped by the extraction pump.
The dry air pump suction pipe, which is provided near the bottom, is covered by a baffle so as
to prevent the entry of condensed steam into it as shown in fig.5.7.

Fig. 5.7 Two pass Down flow surface condenser

As the steam flows perpendicular to the direction of flow of cooling water, this is also
called a cross surface condenser.

b) Central flow surface condenser:

In central flow surface condensers, the exhaust steam enters at the top and flow down
wards. The suction pipe of the air extraction pump is placed in the centre of the tube nest as
shown in fig. This causes the steam to flow radially inwards over the tubes towards the
suction pipe. The condensate is collected at the bottom and then pumped by the extraction
pump as shown in fig.5.8.
 Fig. 5.8 Central flow surface condenser

The central flow surface condenser is an improvement over the down flow type as the
steam is directed radially inwards by a volute casing around the tube nest. It thus, gives an
access to the whole periphery of the tubes.

c) Regenerative surface condenser:

In regenerative surface condenser, the condensate is heated by a regenerative method.
The condensate after leaving the tubes is passes through the exhaust steam from the engine or
turbine. It thus, raises the temperature for use as feed water for the boiler.

5.4.3) Evaporative condenser:

The steam to be condensed enters at the top of a series of pipes outside of which a
film of cold water is falling. At the same time, a current of air circulates over the water film,
causing rapid evaporation of some of the cooling water. As a result of this, the steam
circulating inside the pipe is condensed.

The remaining cooling water is collected at an increased temperature and is reused. Its
original temperature is restored by the addition of the requisite quantity of cold water.
 Fig. 5.9 Evaporative Condenser

The evaporative condensers are provided when the circulating water is to be used
again and again. These condensers consist of sheets of gilled piping, which is bent backwards
and forward and placed in a vertical plane as shown in fig.5.9.

5.5) Sources of Air Leakage:

The performance of condenser is adversely affected by the presence of air in the
condenser. The sources of air in the condenser are due to following:

 Leakage through packing glands and joints.

 Leakage through condenser accessories, such as atmospheric relief valve etc.
 Air associated with exhaust steam may also liberate at low pressure.
 In the jet condenser, the dissolved air in the cooling water liberates at low pressure.
It is to be noted that in a well designed and properly maintained surface condenser, the
amount of air leakage is about 5kg per 10,000 kg of steam condensed in a steam turbine plant
and 15 kg per 10,000 kg of steam in a steam engine plant.

5.6) The Effects of presence of air in a condenser:

 The pressure in the condenser is increase; this reduces the work done by the engine
or turbine.
 Partial pressure of steam and temperature are reduced. The steam tables tell us that
at lower pressure, the latent heat of steam is more. In order to remove this great
quantity of heat, more cooling water has to be supplied and thus under-cooling of
condensate is likely to be more severe resulting in lower overall efficiency.
  The presence of air reduces the rate of condensation of steam since the abstraction of
heat by the circulating cooling water is partly from the steam and partly from the air.
 The rate of heat transfer from the vapour is reduced due to poor thermal
conductivity of air. Thus, the surface area of the tubes has to be increased for a given
condenser duty.
 An air extraction pump is needed to remove air; still some quantity of steam escapes
with the air even after shielding of the air extraction section. This reduces the
amount of condensate. Moreover, the condensate is under-cooled, with the result that
more heat has to be supplied to the feed water in the boiler.

5.7) Methods to detect Air leakage in Condensers:

The most important reason for air in the condenser is due to leakage of air. The
following method is adopted to check whether there is a leakage in the condenser or not.

The plant is run until the pressure and temperature conditions are steady in the
condenser. At this stage the steam supply from the engine is shut-off, and the air and
condenser extraction pumps are simultaneously closed down bringing about complete
isolation of the condenser. The vacuum gauge and thermometer readings are recorded. If
there is any leakage, the vacuum gauge readings will fall after sometimes.

The source of air leakage can be checked by the following methods-

 By passing a candle flame over possible openings, large leakages can be detected
when the condenser is under vacuum.
 By putting the condenser under air pressure, Its effect on soap water is observed at
the points where infiltration is possible.
 Under operating conditions, peppermint oil is spread on joint from where the leakage
is suspected, a Check is made of the peppermint odour in the air ejector discharge.
Thus it is most important to check all the air leakages and to remove any air that may be in
the condenser. In practice of course, it is impossible to remove all the air. Therefore, it is
continuously removed by the air pump suction, which sucks it from the condenser,
compresses it to a little above atmospheric pressure so that it is forced out.
5.8) Comparison of Jet condensers and surface condensers
S.No. Jet Condensers Surface Condensers
1 Cooling water and steam are mixed Cooling water and steam are not mixed up.
up.
2 Not Suitable for high capacity Suitable for high capacity plants
plants
3 Condensate is wasted. Condensate is re-used.
4 It requires less quantity of It requires a large quantity of circulating
circulating cooling water cooling water.
5 Condensing plant is simple and Condensing plant is complicated and
economical. expensive.
6 Maintenance cost is low. Maintenance cost is high.
7 More power is required for air Less power is required for air pump.
pump.
8 High power is required for water Less power is required for water pumping.
pumping.

5.10) Advantages and disadvantages of Jet condensers:

Advantages:
The following are the advantages and disadvantages of jet condensers:

1) Smaller quantity of circulating water: It requires less quantity of circulating water for
the condensation of steam due to direct mixing of water and steam.
2) More intimate mixing: There is a more thorough mixing of water and steam with the
result that the temperature of the condensate and water are same.
3) Less building space: It requires a less building space due to direct mixing.
4) Simple and low cost equipment: The equipment is simple and low in cost.
5) Absence of pumps: Barometer and Jet condensers do not require cooling water pumps.
Disadvantages:
1) Wastage of condensate: The condensate is mixed with water and where pure water is
not available .It cannot be used as feed water, thus it is wasted.
2) Pure cooling water: If the condensate is to be used as feed water, the cooling water
should be pure and free from harmful impurities.
3) Costly pipe: In the barometric condenser, long pipe is used which increases the cost of
the condenser.
4) Engine flood: In the low level jet condenser, there is always a possibility of the water
rushing into the engine, if condensate extraction pump is fails.
5) Reduced vacuum: There is reduced vacuum on account of leakage in the long exhaust
pipe of the barometric condenser and liberation of air dissolved in cooling water.
6) High power extraction pump: The air extraction pump needs almost double the
amount of power required by the surface condenser.
5.12) Dalton’s Law of Partial pressure:
Dalton’s law of partial pressure is very helpful for the analytical treatment of problems
dealing with a mixture of gases or vapor. This law states that.-
“The total pressure exerted in a container having a mixture of gases or gas and vapor is
equal to the sum of the partial pressures of the individual constituents at the common
temperature.”
Suppose there is a mixture of air and steam in condenser.
Let
pa = partial pressure of air at temperature, t 0C
ps = partial pressure of steam (water vapor) or saturation pressure of steam at
temperature, t oC.
p= total pressure in condenser.
t= temperature of mixture in condenser.
Then according to Dalton’s law
p= pa + ps
Or
pa = p - ps

5.13) Vacuum Efficiency:

“Vacuum efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual vacuum as recorded by vacuum gauge to
the ideal vacuum, when the air is absent.”

But ideal vacuum = Barometric pressure- Absolute pressure of steam

Ƞvacuum=

Thus vacuum efficiency is measure of the degree of perfection to maintain a desired

vacuum in the condenser. The value of vacuum efficiency depends up on the effectiveness of
air cooling and the rate at which the air removed by the air pump. The vacuum efficiency is
generally around 98% and 99%.

5.14) Condenser Efficiency:

“The condenser Efficiency is defined as the ratio of actual rise in temperature cooling water
to the maximum possible rise in temperature of the cooling water.”

Let ts = Saturation temperature corresponding to condenser pressure in 0C

tw1 and tw2 = Inlet and outlet water temperature of cooling water in 0C

Ƞcondense=
Condenser efficiency generally varies from 75% to 85%.

5.15) Mass of circulating water required:

The function of the circulating water in a condenser is to absorb heat from the steam and
thereby to condense it. In surface condenser, the temperature of the condensate and exit water
is not the same while in jet condenser it is the same. To design a condenser, it is essential to
calculate the quantity of circulating water necessary for a certain capacity of steam to be
condensed. Fig shows an energy exchange in a surface condenser.

Fig. 5.12 Heat Exchange in Condenser

Let suffixes 1 and 2 refer to inlet and outlet conditions and s, w, a and c refers to
steam, water, air and condensate respectively.

Let

Q = heat given up by the steam, kJ

mw = mass of circulating water, kg/h

mc2 = mass of condensate at outlet, kg/h

tc2 = temperature of the condensate at outlet, 0C

hwc2 = sensible heat of condensate at outlet, kJ/kg

tc1 = temperature of exhaust steam of inlet, 0C

hw1 = sensible heat or enthalpy of water at ts1 0C, kJ/kg

 L1 = latent heat at ts1 0C, kJ/kg

x1 = dryness fraction of steam

tw1, tw2 = inlet and outlet temperature of cooling water in 0C

ma1, ma2 = mass of inlet and extracted air, kg/h

ms1, ms2 = mass of entering and extracted steam, kg/h

hs1, hs2 = enthalpy of entering and extracted steam, kJ/kg

ha1, ha2 = enthalpy of entering and extracted air, kJ/kg

Neglecting kinetic and potential energy, energy entering is equal to energy leaving.

(ms1 × hs1 + ma1 × ha1) = Q + (ms2 × hs2 + ma2 × ha2) + mc2× hwc2

Q = (ms1 × hs1 + ma1 × ha1) - (ms2 × hs2 + ma2 × ha2) - mc2× hwc2

If all the air is extracted, then

ma1 = ma2

ha1 = ha2 may be assumed for simplicity

If there is no extraction or steam by the air pump, then

ms2 = 0, thus ms1 = mc2 + ms2 = mc2

Therefore,

Q = mc2 (hs1 – hwc2)

But, hs1 = hw1 + x1.L1

Q = mc2 (hw1 + xL1 – hwc2)

Heat received by cooling water, = mw.Cpw (tw2 – tw1)

Heat given up by steam = heat received by cooling water

mc2 (hw1 + xL1 – hwc2) = mw.Cpw (tw2 – tw1)

mw =

For jet condenser, tw2 = tc2

mw =
 GAS TURBINES AND JET PROPULSION

Classification of Gas turbines:

(A) On the basis of combustion process

(i) Continuous combustion or constant pressure type: The cycle working on this principle is called
Joule or Brayton cycle.
(ii) The explosion or constant volume type: The cycle working on this principle is known as Atkinson
cycle.
(B) On the basis of the action of expanding gases similar to steam turbine
(i) Impulse turbine and (ii) Impulse reaction turbine.

(C) On the basis of path of working substance

(i) Open cycle gas turbine (working fluid enters from atmosphere and exhaust to
Atmosphere.)
(ii) Closed cycle gas turbine (working fluid is confined within the plant), and
(iii) Semi-closed cycle (part of the working fluid is confined within the plant and another part
flows from and to the atmosphere)

(D) On the basis of direction of flow

(i) Axial flow and (ii) Radial Flow

Applications of Gas turbines

(i) Locomotive propulsion
(ii) Central power stations
(a) Utility plants (b) combined cycle and cogeneration plants (c) stand by plants for hydro
installations.
(iii) Industrial gas turbines: In Natural or crude oil pumping in the form of driver of compressors or
pumps
(iv) Space applications: Turbo jet, turbo prop, ram jet, pulse jet, rocket
(v) Marine applications.

(i) Simple open cycle Gas Turbine:(constant pressure heat addition)

Atmosphere air is compressed from p1 to a high pressure p2 in the compressor and delivered to the
burner or combustion chamber (CC) where fuel is injected and burned. The combustion process
occurs nearly at constant pressure. Due to combustion heat is added to the working fluid and
temperature of working fluid rises from T2 to T3. The products of combustion from the combustion
chamber are expanded in the turbine from p2 to atmosphere pressure p1, and then discharges into
atmosphere. The turbine and compressor are mechanically coupled, so the network is equal to the
difference between the work done by the turbine and work consumed by compressor.
P-V and h-s (T-s) diagrams:

Heat supplied= h3  h2  c p T3  T2 

Heat rejected= h4  h1  c p T4  T1 

Net work=Heat supplied –Heat rejected= c p T3  T2   T4  T1 

Work done by turbine= h3  h4  c p T3  T4 
Work consumed by compressor= h2  h1  c p T2  T1 
Thermal Efficiency = net work/Heat supplied

c p T3  T2   T4  T1   T4  T1
=  1
c p T3  T2  T3  T2
 1  1

T p  T p 
We know that 2   2  && 3   3 
T1  p1  T4  p4 
T
th  1  1
T2
 1 1
th  1   1  1  1

 p2    rp  
p 
 1

Actual cycle:

 c =Isentropic compression work/Actual compression work

T2  T1
c 
T21  T1

Turbine Efficiency=Actual turbine work/Isentropic Turbine work

Actual turbine work= h3  h41  c pg T3  T41 

T3  T41
Turbine efficiency= t 
T3  T4
Methods for improving the efficiency of Gas turbine:

(i) Intercooling

Theoretically
 Work input with Inter cooling = c p T2  T1   T4  T3 
 Work ratio=Net work/Gross work out put.
= (Work of Expansion-work of compression)/Work of expansion
Work of expansion, i.e turbine work = h5  h6  c p T5  T6 
Compressor work = (h2  h1 )  (h4  h3 )
= c p T2  T1   T4  T3 

T5  T6   T4  T3   T2  T1  

So thermal efficiency =  
T5  T4
For minimum compression work in the compressor or maximum work out put in this cycle, only the
compressor is responsible. And here T3=T1.
T 
c p T2  T1   T4  T3  = c pT1  2  1  4  1
T
 T1 T1 
 1  1
 
 px    p2   
c pT1    1     1
 p1   px  
 
 1
Let c pT1  A and a

  p a  p2  
a

wc   A    2    
x

  p1   px  
 For minimum work, differentiate wc wrt px and equal to zero.
apx a 1 p1 a  apx  a 1 p2a  0
px a 1 p2 a

p1a px a 1
px  p1 p2

 Heat supplied with Inter cooling= c p T5  T4 

 Heat supplied without Inter cooling= c p T5  Ta 
Thus heat supplied when intercooling is used is greater than woth no intercooling. Although
the network out put is increased by intercooling, it is found that the increase in heat to be
supplied causes the thermal efficiency to decrease.

Reheating:

By reheating or adding heat to the gases after they have passed through a part of the rows of the turbine
blading, a further increase in work done is obtained. In reheating, the gas temperature, which has dropped
due to expansion is brought back to approximately the initial temperature for the expansion in the next
stage.

Theoritically,

Net work = (h3  h4 )  (h5  h6 )  (h2  h1 )

Heat supplied= (h3  h2 )  (h5  h4 )

(h3  h4 )  (h5  h6 )  (h2  h1 )

th 
(h3  h2 )  (h5  h4 )
For maximum work output, there must ve an optimum pressure at which reheating should be done. As we
know, the compressor work Wc is not effected by reheating, so for the maximum output, we have to find
the condition where turbine work Wt is maximum.

Wt  c p (T3  T4 )  c p (T5  T6 )

   1
   1

   px  
   
p1  
= c p T3 1      T5 1    
 
   p2     px   
   

Here T3= and cp, T3, p1,p2 are constants. The only variable is px.

 1
Let c pT3  A and a


  p a  p1  
a

Then wt   A    2    
x

  p2   px  

For maximum work, differentiate the above equation with respect to px and equate to zero.

apx a 1 p2 a  apx  a 1 p1a  0

px a 1 p1a

px a px a 1

or

px  p1 p2

or  px   p2 
  
 p1   px 
Open cycle Gas turbine with regeneration:

In this method, the air delivered by the compressor passes through a heat exchanger utilizing the gases
exhausted from the turbine. The heated air then passes into the combustion chamber and part of it is
employed to burn the fuel. Since some heat is added already to the air in the heat exchanger itself, so the
same turbine gas inlet temperature is achieved with lower fuel consumption. Hence the thermal efficiency
is accordingly higher.

Wnet  (h3  h4 )  (h2  h1 )  c p (T3  T4 )  c p (T2  T1 )

Heat supplied= h3  h5  c p (T3  T5 )

c p (T3  T4 )  c p (T2  T1 )
Thermal Efficiency = th 
c p (T3  T5 )
Open cycle gas turbine with Inter cooling, reheat and regeneration:

Constant volume combustion gas turbine cycle

In a constant volume combustion turbine, the compressed air from an air compressor C is admitted into the
combustion chamber D through the valve A. when the valve A is closed, the fuel is admitted into the
chamber by means of a fuel pump P. Then the mixture is ignited by means of a spark plug S. The
combustion takes place at constant volume. The valve B opens and the hot gases flow to the turbine T, and
finally they discharged, into atmosphere. The energy of the hot gases is thereby converted into mechanical
energy. For continuous running of the turbine these operations are repeated.
Jet Propulsion:

The principle of jet propulsion involves imparting momentum to a mass of fluid in such a manner that the
reaction of imparted momentum provides a propulsive force. It may be achieved by expanding the gas,
which is at high temperture and pressure through a nozzle due to which a high velocity jet of hot gases is
produced that gives a propulsive force.

The propulsion systems may be classified as

1. Air stream jet engines.

(a) Steady combustion systems; continuous air flow

(i) Turbo Jet (ii) Turbo-prop (iii) Ram jet

(b) Intermittent combustion systems; Intermittent flow

(i) Pulse jet or flying bomb.

2. Self- contained rocket Engines:

(i) Liquid
Propellent (ii) Solid Propellent

In air stream jet engines the oxygen necessary for the combustion is taken from the surrounding
atmosphere where as in rocket engine the fuel and the oxidiser are contained in the body of the unit which
is to be propelled.

(i) Turbo Jet :

 It consists of a diffuser at entrance which shows down the air and part of the kinetic energy of the
air stream is converted into pressure. This type of compression is called as Ram compression.
 The air is further compressed to a pressure of 3 to 4 bar in a rotory compressor.
 The compressed air is then enters the combustion chamber where the fuel is added.
 The hot gases then enters the gas turbine where the partial expansion takes place. The power
produced is just sufficient to drive the compressor.
 The exhaust gases from the gas turbine which are at higher pressure than atmosphere are expended
in a nozzle and a very high velocity jet is produced which provides a forward motion to the air craft
by the jet reaction.

Fig. Turbo jet

Most suited to the air crafts travelling above 800km/h.

Advantages:
1. Construction is much simpler.
2. Engine vibrations absent.
3. Much higher speeds are possible.
4. Power supply is uninterrupted and smooth.
5. Weight to power ratio is superior.
6. Rate of climb is higher.
7. Radio intereference much less.
8. Smaller frontal area.
9. Fuel can be burnt over large range of mixture strength.

Disadvantages:
1. Less efficient.
2. Life of the unit is comparitively shorter.
3. The turbo jet becomes rapidly inefficient below 550km/h.
4. More noisy.
5. Materials required are quite expensive.
6. Required longer strip since length of take-off is too much.
7. At take-off the thrust is low, this effect is over come by boosting.

Basic cycle for Turbo-Jet Engine:

(i) Diffuser:
Applying Steady flow energy Equation:
ca2 c2
 h1  Q12  2  h2  W12 where Ca ( C1 ) = velocity of entering air from atmosphere.
2 2
In an Ideal diffuser C2  0, Q12  0 &W12  0.
Ca2
Enthalpy at state 2 is h2  h1 
2
Ca2
T2  T1 
2C p
T2  T1
Diffuser efficiency d 
T21  T1

Compressor:
Wc  h3  h2  c p (T3  T2 )
h3  h2
c 
h31  h2
Combustion Chamber:
Ideal heat supplied per kg = Q  h4  h3  c p (T4  T3 )
mf
Actual Heat supplied = Qa  c pg (1  )h4  h31
ma
Turbine:
Wt   h4  h5   c p (T4  T5 )


Actual turbine work= Wt  h4  h51   c (T
p 4  T51 )
Jet Nozzle: =0
2 2
c51 c61
h51    h16  W12
2 2

2
c1
h h  6
1
5
1
6
2

Thrust:
Thrust is the force produced due to change of momentum.

Absolute velocity of gases leaving the air craft= c j  ca

Absolute velocity of air entering the air craft=0;
mf
Mass of products leaving the nozzle per kg of air= 1 
ma
c j is the velocity of jet relative to the exit nozzle.
 mf 
Change in momentum = 1    c j  ca 
 ma 
 mf 
hence Thrust = T  1    c j  ca  N / kg.air / s
 ma 
Thrust Power:
It is defined as the rate at which work must be developed by the engine if the air craft is to be kept moving
at a constant velocity Ca against friction force or drag.

 Thrust Power = Forward thrust x Speed of the air craft.

 mf 
T.P = T  1    c j  ca  ca W/kg of air.
 ma 
  c j  ca  ca W/kg of air if mass of fuel is neglected.

Propulsive Power:
The energy required to change the momentum of the mass flow of gas represents the propulsive power. It
is expressed as the difference between the rate of kinetic energies of the entering air and exit gases.
 mf  2
1  Cj
 ma  Ca2
P.P   W / kg
2 2
2 2
C C
 j  a W / kg neglecting the mass of the fuel.
2 2
Propulsive efficiency:
The ratio of thrust power to propulsive power is called propulsive efficiency.
 mf 
1    c j  ca  ca
 ma 
 mf  2
1  Cj 2
 ma   Ca
2 2
Neglecting the mass of the fuel,
2ca
c j  ca
Thermal Efficiency:
It is defined as the ratio of propulsive work and the energy released by combustion of the fuel.

 mf  2
1   C j  Ca
2

 ma 
m
2 f  C.V
ma
Overall efficiency is given by

Turbo-Prop:
  Here the expansion of gases taken place partly in turbine (80%) and partly in nozzle(20%). The
power developed by the turbine is consumed in running the compressor and the propeller. The
propeller and jet produced by the nozzle give forward motion to the air craft.
 The turbo-prop entails the advantages of turbo jet and propeller power for take- off and high
propulsion efficiency at speeds below 600kmph.
 The overall efficiency of the turbo-prop is improved by providing the diffuser before the
compressor.

RAM JET

 Also called athodyd, lorin tube or flying stove. It has the capability to fly at supersonic speeds.
Ramjet engine is the simplest of jet engines having no moving parts. Ramjet is a typically shaped
duct open at both ends with air being compressed merely due to forward motion of engine. Fuel is
subsequently added for combustion and thus high pressure, high temperature gases exit from
exhaust nozzle.
 High pressure air is continuously available as engines keeps on moving forward. These ramjets are
extensively used for propulsion in number of high speed aircrafts.
 The ram jet engine consists of a diffuser, combustion chamber and nozzle.
 The pressure rise in the engine is provided by the ram effect of the incoming high-speed air being
rammed against a barrier. Therefore, a ramjet engine needs to be brought to a sufficiently high
speed by an external source before it can be fired.
 The ramjet performs best in aircraft flying above Mach 2 or 3 (two or three times the speed of
sound). In a ramjet, the air is slowed down to about Mach 0.2, fuel is added to the air and burned at
this low velocity, and the combustion gases are expended and accelerated in a nozzle.

Advantages of ramjet engine are:

(i) It has no moving parts and hence ramjet are better balanced.
(ii) It yields greater thrust per unit mass as compared to any other propulsion engine at supersonic
speed.
(iii) It is much simpler in construction and light in weight.
(iv) It yields much greater thrust per unit frontal area at supersonic speeds. Best performance
can be had at 1700km/hr to 2200 km/hr speed range.
(v) Variety of fuels can be used in ramjet.
(vi) These are ideal propulsion device for aircraft missiles.
Disadvantages of ramjet engine are:

(i) Forward motion is very much necessary to realize ram compression.

(ii) Ram pressure ratio increases gradually.
(iii) Ramjets are unable to work at low flight speeds.

PULSE JET ENGINE

 It is quite similar to ramjet engine except the difference that pulse jet employs a non-return type mechanical valve
of V-type for preventing flow of hot gases through diffuser. Pulse jet engine has diffuser section in which ram
compression occurs and after diffuser section a grid of non-return valves is put for maintaining intermittent flow
of compressed air.
 In combustion section fuel is atomized during injection and burnt using spark plug or igniters. Combustion of air
and fuel results in combustion products having high pressure and temperature. Due to high pressure of combustion
product non-return valve remains closed and causes flow through tail pipe so as to produce thrust.
 When combustion gases move out from combustion chamber then the pressure lowers down in this side as
compared to pressure available in diffuser section. Due to this pressure differential the flow of compressed air
again occurs into the combustion chamber which again burns and flows out from exit nozzle. Thus there occur the
processes of suction, combustion and exhaust one after the other.
 Pulse jet engine tube shown in Fig. has temperature varying continuously from inlet to exit. This pulse jet engine
has advantages of being cheap compared to turbojet engine and produces static thrust. Pulse jet engine produces
thrust more than drag at lower speed compared to ramjet. Pulse jet engines have disadvantages of noise,
maintenance in view of mechanical operation of valves, high fuel consumption rate and vibration etc.

PRINCIPLE OF ROCKET PROPULSION

 Rocket engines are non-air breathing engines and carry their own oxidiser for burning of fuel. Rocket propulsion
is realized by the thrust produced by combustion products leaving exit nozzle. It has injection system for fuel and
oxidizer followed by combustion chamber and exit nozzle as shown in Fig.
 In rocket engines the combustion products get discharged from the exit nozzle with supersonic velocity and thus
have very high kinetic energy. Rocket gets desired thrust by the reaction available from the nozzle stream. Thrust
is available due to change of momentum and pressure with which jet comes out.

Net thrust T  mpCe  Ae  pe  pa 

'

'
where is m p is the mass flow rate of propellant, jet exit velocity Ce, area of exit nozzle Ae, pressure of exit jet pe
and atmospheric pressure is pa.

 Above expression shows that for maximizing thrust exit velocity should be maximized, pressure difference at exit
(pe – pa) should be maximized. Thus rocket would get maximum thrust when atmospheric pressure is not there
i.e., pa = 0, which means maximum thrust would be available in vacuum. Thrust could also be given in terms of
rocket performance parameter called effective jet velocity.

T  m'pCe  Ae  pe  pa   m'pCej
Ae
Here Cej is effective jet velocity which could be given as, Cej  Ce   pe  pa 
m'p
T
Specific impulse can be given as I sp   Cej
m'p
i.e., Specific impulse is the thrust produced per unit mass flow rate of propellant. Thrust power in case of rocket
engine can be given as;

TP  T .Ca  m'pCej Ca , here Ca is the velocity with which rocket moves forward.

Propulsive efficiency: For rocket engine

TP
 prop 
TP  Lossofkineticenergy

2Ca / Cej
 prop 
1   Ca / Cej 
2
 Learning Material
1. Necessity of Refrigeration
i) Perishable food items such as vegetables, fruits, beverages, poultry products, etc.
can be preserved for longer duration at low temperatures without losing taste, since
the bacteria cannot sustain at low temperatures.
ii) Development of certain scientific equipment and their operation under controlled
environment needs proper refrigeration and air conditioning.
iii) Industries such as spinning mills require maintaining proper temperature and
humidity to avoid wastage of threads due to breakage.
iv) Photographic materials show excellent prints when the environment is maintained at
required temperature.
v) Air conditioning of work spaces such as workshops, offices, etc. increases the
efficiency of workers.
vi) Air conditioning of theatres, commercial shops, etc. attracts the customers and
improves the business.
vii) Air conditioning of operation theatres, scanning centers, etc. is necessary for proper
functioning of equipment.
viii) Finally, air conditioning is used to provide the comfort to human beings in all
seasons.
All the above things require refrigeration for maintaining required temperature and
humidity.

2. Applications of Refrigeration
i) Ice manufacturing
ii) Cooling and storage of perishable food, drinks and medicines.
iii) Food processing, preservation and distribution.
iv) Comfort air-conditioning of hospitals, hotels, theatres and residences etc.
v) Air conditioning of industries such as textiles, printing, manufacturing,
photographic, etc.
vi) Air conditioning of computer centers, CNC Machines, etc.
vii) Liquefying gases and vapours in chemical and pharmaceutical industries.
viii) Manufacturing and treatments of metals.
ix) Oil refining and manufacturing of synthetic rubber.
x) Cooling of concrete in big buildings and dams.
The refrigeration has also wide applications in rockets, aircrafts and sub-marine ships.

3. Unit of Refrigeration
The unit of refrigeration is ton refrigeration and is denoted by TR.
It is equivalent to the production of cold at the rate at which heat is to be removed from 1
tonne (1000 kg) of water at 0oC to freeze it to ice at 0o C in one day or 24 hours. Thus,
 =

or 210 kJ/min or 3.5 kW.

Note: latent heat of fusion of ice = 80 kcal/kg.
 A refrigerator or an air-conditioner of 1 TR can extract 210 kJ of heat in a minute or
3.5 kJ of heat in a second from a low temperature space.

5. Coefficient of Performance (COP)

 It is defined as the ratio of desired effect to the work input.
 The desired effect is the refrigerating effect or cooling effect produced at a low
temperature space in the case of refrigerator. Therefore,

 The desired effect is the heating effect or the quantity of heat supplied to a high
temperature space in the case of heat pump. Therefore,

 Therefore, the COP of a heat pump is one greater than the COP of a refrigerator.
 Since the COP of a heat pump is always greater than unity, running the heat pump is
quite economical over electric resistance heater for heating applications.
6. Types of Refrigeration Systems
i) Air cycle refrigeration system
ii) Vapour compression refrigeration system
iii) Vapour absorption refrigeration system
iv) Steam Jet refrigeration system
v) Thermoelectric refrigeration system

7. Air Cycle Refrigeration

7.1 Air Cycle Refrigeration System
The schematic diagram of Air Cycle refrigeration system is shown in figure . The air
cycle refrigeration system works on Bell Coleman or reversed Brayton cycle. The air is
compressed in the compressor during the isentropic compression process 1-2. The
compressed air is cooled at constant pressure in the cooler during the process 2-3,
wherein it rejects heat to the coolant. The compressed and cooled air is expanded in the
expander during the isentropic expansion process 3-4 so that the air leaves the expander
at a low temperature. The chilled air at state point 4 passes through the refrigerator and
extracts heat during the constant pressure heating process 4-1 from the cooled space.
Figure : Bell Coleman Cycle

The Bell Coleman cycle consists of the following four processes as shown in figure :
Process 1-2: Isentropic compression of air in the compressor from low pressure to high pressure
Process 2-3: Cooling of air at constant pressure in the cooler
Process 3-4: Isentropic expansion of air in the expander from high pressure to low pressure
Process 4-1: Heating of air (extraction of heat from low temperature space) at constant pressure in
the refrigerator
 Comparison of reversed Carnot cycle and reversed Brayton cycle is given in figure.
From figure , it is observed that the average temperature of heat extraction is low and
the average temperature of heat rejection is high in reversed Brayton cycle as
compared to reversed Carnot cycle. Hence, the COP of reversed Brayton cycle is
much lower as compared to that of Carnot cycle.
7.1.1 Analysis of Air Cycle Refrigeration
The relationship between the various temperatures of the cycle is given by the isentropic
relations applied to both compression and expansion processes, viz.,

Also,
assuming air to be a perfect gas, we have per unit mass of air circulated:
Refrigerating effect,
Heat rejected,
Compressor work,

Expander work,
Net work of the cycle,

The coefficient of performance is, therefore,

7.2.2 Polytropic and Multistage Compression

The polytropic compression with cooling would reduce the net work of the cycle by reducing
the average temperature of the compression process and the value of the compression index
from to n. Then, the expression for compressor work becomes

The net work is

and the COP is

 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

7.2 Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

The vapour compressor refrigeration system, as shown in figure, consists of a compressor, a
condenser, an expansion device and an evaporator.

Figure : Schematic Diagram of Vapour Compression Refrigeration System

The refrigerant vapour formed in the evaporator at low pressure are continuously sucked by
the compressor and compressed and discharged into the high pressure condenser. The
refrigerant vapour is condensed in the condenser by the rejecting heat to the coolant
circulated through it. The liquid refrigerant is throttled in the expansion device from
condenser pressure to evaporator pressure. Upon throttling, some liquid flashes in to vapour
and temperature is decreased. The liquid vapour mixture of refrigerant flows through the
evaporator coil and absorbs heat energy from the refrigerated space at low temperature and
becomes vapour.
7.2.1 Vapour Compression cycle
The cycle with dry compression of vapour and throttling of liquid is named as the vapour
compression cycle and because of its high coefficient of performance it is most widely used
in commercial refrigeration systems. A complete vapour compression cycle is shown on the
T-s, p-v,and on the p-h diagrams.
 Figure: Vapour Compression Cycle on p – h diagram

7.2.2 Analysis of vapour compression cycle:

Refrigerating effect,
–
Heat rejected,
–
Work input to the compressor,
–
(COP)Refrigerator =

7.3 Vapour Absorption System

7.3.1 Simple Vapour Aqua Ammonia Vapour Absorption Refrigeration System
In the vapour-absorption system, the function of the compressor is accomplished in a three-
step process by the use of the absorber, pump and generator or re-boiler as follows:
(i) Absorber: Absorption of the refrigerant vapour by its weak or poor solution in a suitable
absorbent or adsorbent, forming a strong or rich solution of the refrigerant in the
absorbent / adsorbent.
(ii) Pump: Pumping of the rich solution raising its pressure to the condenser pressure.
(iii) Generator: Distillation of the vapour from the rich solution leaving the poor solution or
recycling.
A simple vapour-absorption system, therefore, consists of a condenser, an expansion device
and an evaporator as in the vapour-compression system, and in addition, an absorber, a pump,
a generator and a pressure-reducing valve to replace the compressor. The schematic
representation of the system is shown in figure in which various components of the system
are arranged according to their pressures and temperatures.
The refrigerating effect is shown as Q0 at temperature T0 and the heat rejected in the
condenser as Qc at temperature Tc=Tk of the environment. The compressor work is replaced
by the heat supplied in the generator Qh plus pump work Qp. Cooling must be done in the
absorber to remove the latent heat of the refrigerant vapour as its changes into the liquid state
by absorption by the weak solution. Let this heat rejected in the absorber be QA at absorber
temperature TA=Tk. Then the energy balance of the system is

Where Qk represents the net heat rejected to the environment

Figure: Schematic Representation of Simple Aqua Ammonia Vapour Absorption System

The pump work , is very small compared to the compressor work in the
vapour compression system, as the specific volume v of the liquid is extremely small
compared to that of the vapour . The energy consumption of the system is mainly
in the generator in the form of heat supplied Qh.
The overall coefficient of performance is expressed as
 neglecting pump work which is small compared to Qk.
7.3.2 Desirable characteristics of Refrigerant – Absorbent Solutions:
Some of the desirable characteristics of a refrigerant-absorbent pair for an absorption system
are
 low viscosity to minimize pump work,
 low freezing point and
 good chemical and thermal stability.
In addition to the above, two main thermodynamic requirements of the mixture are:
i) Solubility requirement: A strong solution, highly rich in the refrigerant, is formed in
the absorber by the absorption of the refrigerant vapour.
ii) Boiling points requirement: There should be a large difference in the normal boiling
points of the two substances, at least 200oC, so that the absorbent exerts negligible
vapour pressure at the generator temperature. Thus, almost absorbent-free refrigerant
is boiled off from the generator and the absorbent alone returns to the absorber.
7.3.4 Common Refrigerant – Absorbent Systems
The two commonly used pairs of refrigerant – absorbent systems are;
i) Refrigerant NH3 and absorbent H2O,
ii) Refrigerant H2O and adsorbent LiBr2.
 In the ammonia-water system, ammonia is the refrigerant and water is the absorbent.
From the point of view of the solubility requirement, it is satisfactory. But the
difference in their boiling points is only 138oC. Hence the vapor leaving the
generator contains some amount of water vapor.
 Thus, the ammonia-water system is not suitable from the point of view of the boiling
point requirement.
 In the water-lithium bromide system, water is the refrigerant and lithium bromide is
the adsorbent. Hence the mixture is used only in air-conditioning applications since
water freezes at 0oC.
 The mixture is satisfactory from the point of view of the solubility requirement. Since
lithium bromide is a salt, it exerts no vapour pressure. So the vapour leaving the
generator is a pure refrigerant. The mixture, therefore satisfies the boiling point
requirement also.
 However, it is corrosive and the plant works under high vacuum, both in condenser
and evaporator. Hence, a purge unit is used.
7.3.5 Practical (Two Shell) Water-Lithium Bromide Vapour Absorption Chiller
A two shell water - Lithium Bromide absorption system is shown in figure. The generator
and condenser are housed in the single-cylindrical vessel 1 and the flash evaporator and
absorber in another similar vessel 6. Water is boiled off from vessel 1 by the steam coils 4.
The vapour is condensed in the condenser over the cooling water coils 2 and collected in the
tray 3. The condensate is flashed through expansion valve 5 into the vessel 6. The
refrigerant water is collected in the tray 8. Chilled water is circulated by the pump 12 and is
returned to the system at 13.
The strong brine from vessel 1 flows by gravity through the heat exchanger 7 and the
pressure reducing valve 9 to the vessel 6. The flashed water vapour filling the space in 6 is
absorbed by this solution. The absorber heat is removed by the cooling coils 10. Again, there
is separate cooling water line for the absorber. The weak salt solution leaving the absorber is
then returned to the generator by the pump 11 through the liquid-liquid regenerative heat
exchanger 7.
The chilled water, used as a secondary refrigerant, and refrigerant water are kept separate.

Figure :Single-Effect Water-Lithium Bromide Absorption Chiller

Both the vessels 1 and 6 are maintained under high vacuum, vessel 1 corresponding to the
condensing temperature (e.g. 55.3 mm Hg pressure at 40oC) and vessel corresponding to the
flashed refrigerant water temperature (e.g. 4.9 mm Hg pressure at 1oC). To remove air and
other non-condensable gasses that may enter the sealed system through pump glands, a two-
stage purge unit is provided. To avoid corrosion, the temperature in the boiler should not be
higher than 120oC. The overall COP of the system is reported to be approximately 0.7. The
lithium bromide-water system is thus found to be more suitable in applications involving low
heat-source temperatures such as are obtained with low-pressure (1 to 8 bar) or even exhaust
(say 0.4 bar) steam, waste heat, solar energy, etc. Absorption chillers are available in
capacities from 100 TR upwards up to 7500 TR.
7.3.6 Comparison of vapour absorption and vapour compression refrigeration systems

Sl.No. Vapour Absorption System Vapour Compression System

The compressor is replaced with
1 Compressor is the heart of the system
absorber, solution pump and generator.
It is primarily heat operated machine and It requires high grade work energy as
2
hence utilizes low grade heat energy. input.
3 The Coefficient of Performance is low. The Coefficient of Performance is high
The performance of the system does not Poor part load characteristics and the
4 get affected by load variation due to performance decreases with decrease in
good part load characteristics. load.
8.0 Psychrometry
The subject which deals with the behavior of moist air is known as psychrometry
8.1.1 Working Substance in Air Conditioning
Moist Air is a mixture to two gases. One of these is dry air which itself is a mixture of a
number of gases and the other is water vapour which may exist in a saturated or superheated
state.
Thus, moist air consists of two parts: one, comprising dry air, considered as the fixed part,
and the other, solely of water vapour, considered as the variable part.
Both dry air and water vapour can be considered as perfect gases since both exist in the
atmosphere at low pressures. Hence, perfect gas laws can be applied to them individually.
8.1.2 Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressures
Consider a homogeneous mixture of non-reaching ideal gases 1, 2, etc. at temperature T,
pressure p and occupying volume V as shown in figure. Let the number of moles of
individual gases be n1, n2, …etc., and their respective masses be m1, m2,…..etc. Then we have
for total number of moles n and total mass m

Figure Gas Mixture

In the Dalton’s model, each gas is conceived of as existing separately at the temperature T
and total volume V of the mixture as show in figure .

Figure: Figure Illustrating Dalton’s Model

If one were to measure the pressures exerted by individual gases, they would be found to be
p1, p2,….etc., viz., less than the total pressure p of the mixture. There are referred to as partial
pressures.
Thus, for a mixture of ideal gases, the total pressure p is equal to the sum of the partial
pressures. This is known as the Dalton’s law of partial pressures.
8.1.3 Amagat Law of Partial Volumes
In the Amagar model, each component gas is considered as existing separately at the total
pressure p and temperature T of the mixture as shown in figure.
Let the volumes of individual gases under these conditions be V1, V2,…..etc. These are
referred to as partial volumes.
The total volume is equal to the sum of the partial volumes. This is known as the
Amagat Law of partial volumes.
The ratios V1/V, V2/V, ….. etc. are referred to as volume fraction.
or
8.1.4 Mole Fractions of Component Gases
It is seen from the above section that

Thus, the ratio of partial pressure to total pressure, and volume fraction are equal to
the mole fraction yi of the gas. It also shows that both Dalton’s law and Amagat law are
equivalent.
8.1.5 Molecular Mass of Mixture
Since , and , we have

Thus or
Where, M represents the molecular mass of the mixture. Note that
etc. Similarly, for the mixture n=m/M.

8.1.6 Psychrometric Properties

The properties of moist air are called psychrometric properties.

8.1.7.1 Specific Humidity or Humidity Ratio

 Specific or absolute humidity or humidity ratio or moisture content denoted by the symbol
‘w’ is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapour (w.v.) to the mass of dry air (d.a.) in
a given volume of the mixture.
Let and are the masses of water vapour and dry air present in a certain volume V of
moist air at pressure P and temperature T.
Thus

Where the subscripts and refer to dry air and water vapour respectively.
Now

The units of are kg of water vapour per kg of dry air.

Also, since p denotes the actual total atmospheric pressure, then from Dalton’s law

so that
Considering that the total atmospheric pressure remains constant at a particular locality, we
can see that

 Thus, the specific humidity is a function of the partial pressure of water vapour only.
It may be noted that since is very small compared to barometric pressure p, the
denominator in Eq remains more or less constant, i.e.,

 Hence, is approximately a linear function of .

8.1.7.2 Dew Point Temperature
The water vapour existing at temperature T of the mixture and partial pressure of the
vapour in the mixture is normally in a superheated state. Moist air containing moisture in
such a state is considered as unsaturated air.

Figure: Thermodynamic State of Water Vapour in Moist Air

If a sample of such unsaturated moist air containing superheated water vapour is cooled (at
constant pressure), the mixture will eventually reach the saturation temperature of water
vapour corresponding to its partial pressure , at which point the first drop of dew will be
formed, i.e., the water vapour in the mixture will start condensing. This temperature is
called the dew point temperature (DPT).
 Dew Point Temperature is the temperature to which moist air must be cooled at
constant pressure before condensation of moisture takes place.
 Moisture can be removed from humid air by bringing the air in contact with a cold
surface or cooling coil whose temperature is below its dew point temperature.
 It is seen that the dew point temperature can be found by knowing, from the steam
tables, the saturation temperature at the partial pressure of the water vapour.
8.1.7.3 Degree of Saturation
Figure . again shows the superheated thermodynamic state 1 of water vapour in unsaturated
moist air representing the control volume V in figure. The water vapour exists at the dry bulb
temperature T of the mixture and partial pressure .

Figure: An Imaginary Isothermal Process Representing Change of State of Water Vapour in

Unsaturated Air to that of Saturated Air at the Same Temperature
Consider now that more water vapour is added in this control volume V at temperature T
itself. The partial pressure will go on increasing due to the addition of water vapour until
it reaches a value corresponding to state 2 in figure , after which it cannot increase further
as is the saturation pressure or maximum possible pressure of water at temperature T. The
thermodynamic state of water vapour is now saturated at point 2. The air containing moisture
in such a state is called saturated air. In this state the air is holding the maximum amount of
water vapour at temperature T of the mixture. The maximum possible specific humidity,
at temperature T is thus

 The ratio of the actual specific humidity to the specific humidity of saturated air
at temperature T is termed as the degree of saturation denoted by the symbol . Thus

 The degree of saturation is a measure of the capacity of air to absorb moisture.

8.1.7.4 Relative Humidity
 Relative humidity denoted by the symbol or RH is defined as the ratio of the mass
of water vapour in a certain volume of moist air at a given temperature to the mass
of water vapour in the same volume of saturated air at the same temperature.
Thus, referring to Figure again, if and are the specific volumes of water vapour in the
actual moist air and saturated air respectively at temperature T and in volume V, viz., at
points 1 and 2 respectively, we see that

Also,
Using the perfect-gas relationship between points 1 and 2, viz.,
or
we have
  Thus, relative humidity turns out to be ratio of partial pressures of water vapour in a
certain unsaturated moist air at a given temperature T to the partial pressure of water
vapour in saturated air at the same temperature T. It is usually measured in
percentage.
 When is equal to , is equal to unity, and the air is saturated and is considered
to have 100 percent RH.

8.1.7.5 Enthalpy of Moist Air

According to Gibb’s law, the enthalpy of a mixture of perfect gases is obtained by the
summation of the enthalpies of the constituents. Thus the enthalpy of moist air h is equal to
the sum of the enthalpies of dry air and associated water vapour, i.e.,

per kg of dry air, where is the enthalpy of the dry air part and is the enthalpy of the
water vapour part.
Considering the change in enthalpy of a perfect gas as a function of temperature only, the
enthalpy of the dry air part, above a datum of 0oC, is expressed as
kJ/kg.

Figure: Evaluation of Enthalpy of Water Vapour Part

At low pressures for an ideal gas, the enthalpy is a function of temperature only.

The latent heat of vaporization of water at 0oC is 2500 kJ/kg.

Thus the enthalpy of moist air
kJ/kg d.a.
8.1.7.6 Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT) and Wet Bulb Temperature (WBT)
A psychrometer comprises of a dry bulb thermometer and a wet bulb thermometer.
 The dry bulb thermometer is directly exposed to the air and measures the actual
temperature of air. Such a temperature is called Dry Bulb Temperature (DBT or ).
 The bulb of the wet bulb thermometer is covered by wick thoroughly wetted by water
as shown in figure . The temperature which is measured by the wick-covered bulb of
such a thermometer indicates the temperature of liquid-water in the wick and is called
the wet bulb temperature (WBT or ).

Figure: Flow of Air Over the Wick-Covered Bulb of a Wet Bulb Thermometer

The change of state of water vapor in air flowing over a wet bulb thermometer is shown in
figure. below.

Figure: Change of State of Water Vapour in Air Flowing Over a Wet Bulb Thermometer
 The difference between the dry bulb and wet bulb temperatures is called wet bulb
depression (WBD). Thus, WBD= .
 If the ambient air is saturated, viz., the RH is 100 percent, then there will be no
evaporation of water on the bulb and hence WBT and DBT will be equal. The wet
bulb depression will be zero. Thus WBT is an indirect measure of the dryness of air.
The wet bulb temperature is essentially not a thermodynamic property. It is the temperature
of equilibrium reached by het transfer from air to water in the wick due to the temperature
difference causing the evaporation of water and the consequent diffusion of water
vapour into air due to the partial pressure difference , where is the saturation
water vapour pressure at temperature .
8.1.8 Measurement of Psychrometric Properties
 There is no convenient way of measuring . They are properties which have to
be calculated.
 The measurable properties are dry bulb, wet bulb and dew point temperatures.
 The dry bulb temperature is measured by putting ordinary bulb thermometer in a stream
of air.
 The dew point temperature is measured by cooling a bulb in a stream of air until the first
dew appears on the bulb.
 The wet bulb temperature is measured by rotating the wick-covered bulb of a
thermometer at 160 to 660 rpm in air.
 From the dew point temperature, the saturation pressure of water can be obtained from
the steam table which in turn is equal to the actual partial pressure of water vapour in the
air. It is generally difficult to accurately measure the dew point temperature.
 The wet bulb temperature is easily measured with the help of a psychrometer. The wet
bulb temperature, as stated earlier, is not a thermodynamic property. Therefore, no
analytical expression can be derived to relate WBT with or the thermodynamic
properties. Empirical relations exist of obtain the value of in terms of . One of such
relations is Carrier Equation:

Where, = Partial pressure of water vapour

= Partial pressure of water vapor at wet bulb temperature
= Dry bulb temperature in oC
= Wet bulb temperature in oC
4.1.9 Psychrometric Chart
All data essential for the complete thermodynamic and psychrometric analysis of air-
conditioning processes can be summarized in a psychrometric chart. The chart which is most
commonly used is the chart, i.e. a chart which has specific humidity or water vapour
pressure along the ordinate and the dry bulb temperature along the abscissa. The chart is
normally constructed for a standard atmospheric pressure of 760 mm Hg or 1.01325 bar,
corresponding to the pressure at the mean sea level. A typical layout of this chart is shown in
figure .
8.2 Psychrometric or Air-Conditioning Processes
Four basic thermodynamic processes and four combinations of processes by which the state
of moist air can be altered are shown in figure. They are:
i) Sensible heating – process OA
ii) Sensible cooling – process OB
iii) Humidification – process OC
iv) Dehumidification – process OD
v) Heating and humidification – process OE
vi) Cooling and dehumidification – process OF
vii) Cooling and humidification – process OG
viii) Heating and dehumidification – process OH.

Figure: Basic Psychrometric Process

 The first two processes, viz., sensible heating and cooling, involve only a change in
the dry bulb temperature, whereas the processes of humidifying and dehumidifying
involve a change in the specific humidity.
 Thus, when the state of the air moves from O to A or to B, there is no change in the
moisture content of the air; if the state changes from O to C or to D, the DBT remains
constant. However, most practical moisture-transfer processes involve a change in
temperature as well.
 The last four fundamental processes listed above involve both changes in temperature
as well as in humidity.
8.2.1 Sensible Heat process – Heating or Cooling
When the state of moist air is altered along the =constant line such as AB in figure, the heat
has to be transferred which goes to change the temperature of the air. The heat transfer, is
given by

Figure: Sensible Heat Process

  If a building to be air conditioned receives or loses heat due to transmission or other
reasons, it is supposed to have sensible heat load.
 Heat gain in buildings will require the conditioning of air to lower temperatures,
causing a cooling load on the air-conditioning equipment. However, heat loss in
buildings will require the heating of air causing a heating load on the equipment.
8.2.2 Latent Heat Process – Humidification or Dehumidification
When the state of air is altered along the t = constant line, such as BC in figure, moisture in
the form of vapour has to be transferred to change the humidity ratio of the air. This transfer
of moisture is given by

Figure: Latent Heat Process

Because of this change in the humidity ratio, there is also a change in the specific enthalpy of
the air given by as shown in figure. In air-conditioning practice, this change in
enthalpy due to the change in the humidity ratio is considered to cause a latent-heat transfer
given by

 Accordingly, if a building gains or losses moisture, it is supposed to have a latent-heat

load. A loss of moisture will require the condensation of moisture for the
dehumidification of air in the conditioning apparatus, and hence a cooling load. On
the other hand, a gain of moisture will necessitate the evaporation of water for the
humidification of air in the apparatus and hence a heating load.
8.2.3 Total Heat Process
Consider now a change in the state of air along the path AC as shown in figure. This
involves both a change in temperature as well as in the humidity ratio.
 Figure: Total Heat Process
The change in temperature causes a sensible heat load given by

and a latent heat load given by

Adding above Eqs. we obtain an expression for total heat load as

Sensible Heat Factor (SHF)

The ratio of the sensible heat transfer to the total heat transfer is termed as the sensible heat
factor. Thus,

we obtain

 The sensible heat transfer taking place along AB is proportional to SHF and the latent
heat transfer along BC is proportional to 1 – SHF. The process line AC is called the
sensible heat factor line or process or condition line.
 It is obvious that a sensible heat factor of unity corresponds to no latent heat transfer
and the SHF line is horizontal on the psychrometric chart.
 However, a zero SHF line is vertical on the psychrometric chart and implies no
sensible heat transfer.
 An SHF of 0.75 to 0.8 is quite common in air-conditioning practice in a normal dry
climate. A lower value of SHF, such as 0.65, implies a high latent heat load, which is
quite common in a humid climate.
8.2.4 Bypass Factor
Figure shows the process that the moist air undergoes while flowing over a surface. The air
enters at 1 and leaves at 2 when the surface is maintained at S. The state of the contacted air
is that of saturated air at the temperature of the surface. The un-contacted air remains at the
entering state. Thus the end state of the air after mixing of contacted and un-contacted air
will be at state point 2 as shown in figure.
 Figure: Bypass Factor and Leaving Air State
Thus one can define a bypass factor (BPF) of the apparatus representing the fraction of “un-
contacted” air in terms of the states 1, 2 and S, as

Conversely, one can define a contact factor (1-X) representing a fraction of the contacted air.
8.3 Mixing Process
Let us consider the adiabatic mixing of different quantities of air in two different states at
constant pressure as shown in figure . Let subscripts 1 and 2 refer to the two steams of air,
and let refer to the mass of dry air in the steam.

Fig: Adiabatic Mixing of Air Streams

Figure: Mixing Process on Psychrometric Chart

Then by moisture balance, we have for the specific humidity of the mixture.

Where by dry air mass balance, the mass of dry air in the mixture

Also, by energy balance, we similarly get the expression for the enthalpies and temperatures
as

Summer air conditioning systems:

In most of the places the summer season is hot and humid. Hence, in order to provide
comfortable conditions to the occupants during summer, it is required to supply cold and dry
air to the occupied space. This requires systems wherein the hot and humid air can be cooled
to temperatures lower than the dew point temperature, so that the water vapour in air can be
removed by condensation, and the resulting cold and dehumidified air supplied to the
conditioned space in required quantity for providing thermal comfort. Thus it can be seen that
a typical summer air conditioning system requires a refrigeration system that reduces the
temperature of the air to temperatures much lower than the surroundings. Of course, in some
areas such as deserts, the summer is hot and dry. Air conditioning systems for these hot and
dry climates also require cooling of air below the ambient temperatures, however, instead of
removing water vapour it may be required to add water to the air supplied to the conditioned
space.
Winter Air Conditioning System
In winter air conditioning, the air is heated which is generally followed by humidification.
The schematic arrangement of the system is shown in Fig. The outside air flows through a
damper and mixes up with the re-circulated air (which is obtained from the conditioned
space). The mixed air passes through a filter to remove dirt, dust and other impurities. The air
now passes through a preheat coil in order to prevent the possible freezing of water and to
control the evaporation of water in the humidifier. After that, the air is made to pass through a
reheat coil to bring the air to the designed dry bulb temperature. Now, the conditioned air is
supplied to the conditioned space by a fan. From the conditioned space, a part of the used air
is exhausted to the atmosphere by the exhaust fans or ventilators. The remaining part of the
used air (Known as re-circulated air) is again conditioned as shown in Fig. The outside air is
sucked and made to mix with re-circulated air, in order to make up for the loss of conditioned
(or used) air through exhaust fans or ventilation from the conditioned space.