Communication and its functions: Sharing,

socialisation, entertainment, education,

motivation, persuasion, propaganda, culture.
Types of communication: Intrapersonal,
interpersonal, group, mass.
Models of Communication: Explaining how a
variable works. No single theory or model.
Aristotle: First model of communication - Speaker-
Speech-Audience.
1st and 2nd World War: Magic bullet -
communication not a linear one-way flow.
Lasswell Model (1948): Political scientist Harold
D. Lasswell.
Who Says What in Which Channel To Whom With
What Effect.
Who - Source, What - message, Whom -
audience, What effect: Effectiveness.
Harold Lasswell and David Berlo (1960) : SMCR
(Source, Message, Channel, Receiver) - widely
accepted.
Shannon and Weaver Model (1949): Base model
which led to development of other models. Also
referred to as the transmission model of
communication.
Information sources (message) - Transmitter
(signal) - Channel+Noise (received signal) -
Receiver (message) - Destination.

1
Entropy - redundancy: Repetition to reduce the
role of noise.
Lacked feedback.
Charles Osgood's model (1954): Dynamic,
interactive process between the source and the
receiver of the message.
Encoder+Interpretor+Decoder (-Message -)
Decoder+Interpretor+Encoder
Feedback and interpretation taken into account.
Schramm Model (1954): Wilbur Schramm,
Introduced the concept of shared orientation
between sender and receiver.
Source - Encoder + (Signal) + Decoder -
Destination.
George Gerbner (1956, 1973): Cultivation theory,
content analysis; Human perception is
determined by culture. Helps explain different
interpretation of same message by different
audience.
Barriers: Physical, psychological, social-cultural,
linguistic, technical, information overload.
Effective communication: Clarity, reinforcement,
feedback.
***
Technological Revolution and Global
Communication
Communication and Mass Media.
2
 Information Revolution
Decentralised, local media (mid-1960s)
New World Information and Communication
Order (NWICO) - Non-Aligned countries, Cultural
Colonialism
Invasion of mass media as a substitute for
dialogue
Gutenburg to Electronic era: Machine and
communication - neutrality of technology
***
Classification of theories:
Era of mass society, era of scientific perspective,
era of limited effects and the era of cultural
theory.
Sociological, psychological, critical, cultural
and media society theories.

Sociological theories explain the role of media

with regard to social relationships and in
economic and political contexts.
Cultivation Theory: Gerbener's
cultivation theory tries to draw an equation
between equation between symbolic
structures, audience views and behaviour.
Active audience theory challenges the long term
cumulative effects of cultivation theory.

3
 Agenda Setting Theory: First discussed
in terms of election campaigns in 1972 by
Max McCombs and Donald Shaw.
News media tells the public what are the
important issues of the day.
Uses and Gratification Theory
Limited effects theory which suggests media are
not supreme and audience are not passive.
Expectation of audience from media is based
upon the socio-cultural context of the audience.
Dependency Theory
Melvin De Fleur and Sandra Ball-Rokeach
(1975) - the power of mass medium is
decided by how much the audiences are
dependent on that medium.
Psychological Theories
Attitudinal Change Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Theory of Social Learning
Critical and Cultural Theories
Marxist Theories: Influenced by media
ownership. Stuart Hall - Media channels
appear to reflect reality while are actually
constructing it.
Critical Theories: Frankfurt School of
Critical Theory. Theodor Adorno, Herbert

4
Marcuse and Max Harokheimer. Later
Antonio Gramsci (hegemony) and Jurgen
Habermas were associated with critical
theories.
Cultural Studies: Richard Hoggart (1964)
Cultural study researchers also probe the
association of power with the emerging social
phenomena such as gender, class, ethnicity, race
and national identity. Thus, many approaches
including the feminist theories, critical race
theory, structuralism and literary theories lie
under its gamut
***
Stuart Hall also contributed to Cultural Studies.
Political Economy Theory: Harold Innis
Inspired Marshal McLuhan to formulate his
theories.
Focus areas: Media ownership, government
policies.
***
*Media Society Theories*
Technological Determinism: Marshal
McLuhan - Principal element in deciding the
course of social change is technology.
McLuhan: Medium is the Message. The
world is a global village.
Media and Public Sphere
5
Jurgen Habermas theorised public sphere in 1991
as a space where public meets private.
Audience Theories
Hypdermic needle model (text received
without negotiation)
Two step flow (opinion leaders, gatekeepers,
Karz 1957)
Reception theory (meaning derived will differ
for all individuals)
Active audience theory: Zimmerman and
Bauer revealed that audience plays active role in
production of media messages.
Feminist Media theories (explore definition
and representation of gender or related
concepts)
Liberal Feminism: calls for equal rights
Radical Feminism: need to change social
structures
Marxist feminism: means of production
with men
***
Gatekeeping:
What is communication?
Communication process is the flow of information
from one person to another (Axley, 1984)

6
The process by which people interactively create,
sustain, and manage meaning (Conrad & Poole,
1998).
WHAT IS THEORY?
Theories simply provide an abstract
understanding of the communication process
(Miller, 2002).
Think of theories as a pair of glasses. Corrective
lenses allow wearers to observe more clearly, but
they also impact vision in unforeseen ways. For
example, they can limit the span of what you
see, especially when you try to look peripherally
outside the range of the frames.
Other functions of theories are to focus attention
on particular concepts, clarify our observations,
predict communication behavior, and generate
personal and social change (Littlejohn, 1999).
Evaluating Theory
We are not talking about evaluation in terms of
“good” versus “bad” but evaluating the
usefulness of the theory. Each of you is likely to
find some of the theories presented in this text
more useful than others.
Accuracy
The first area of focus is accuracy. Simply put, the
best theories correctly summarize the way
communication actually works

7
Thus, in assessing this quality, you should look at
research studies that have used the theory and
see whether the research supports the theory or
fails to find support for it.
Practicality
A second way to evaluate theories is practicality.
The best theories can be used to address real-
world communication problems; in fact,
Lewin (1951) said, “There is nothing so practical
as a good theory”.
Succinctness
Has the theory been formulated with the
appropriate number (fewest possible) of concepts
or steps?
Consistency
Does the theory demonstrate coherence within
its own premises and with other theories?
Acuity
To what extent does the theory make clear an
otherwise complex experience?

Cognitive Dissonance (First advanced by Leon

Festinger in the 1950s)
Consonance vs dissonance: music
Humans strive for cognitive consistency at least
according to the theory of cognitive dissonance

8
and a host of consistency theories that emerged
in the mid-20th century.
Leon Festinger proposes that inconsistencies
among our beliefs, attitudes, knowledge, and/or
behaviour can give rise to the uncomfortable
feeling of cognitive dissonance.

Upon experiencing this feeling, humans are

motivated to reduce it in order to return to a
more consistent state.
Festinger theorized that cognitive dissonance can
occur, he did not suggest that cognitive
dissonance always occurs when people are faced
with inconsistency.
The experience of dissonance depends upon
three factors: (a) the number of consonant
elements, (b) the number of dissonant elements,
and (c) the importance of each element.
A more important dissonant belief will cause
more cognitive dissonance than a less important
dissonant belief.
One dissonant belief and many consonant beliefs
will produce less dissonance than many
dissonant and many consonant beliefs.
The experience of dissonance can motivate
people to engage in any of a number of
dissonance reduction strategies.

9
The objectives of these strategies are to (a)
increase the number and/or importance of
consonant elements and/or (b) to decrease the
number and/or importance of dissonant
elements.
This can be done by changing one’s attitudes,
beliefs, or behaviours.

***
The Neo-Marxist Perspective on The Media
Neo Marxists argue that cultural hegemony
explains why we have a limited media agenda.
Journalists have more freedom than traditional
Marxists suggest, and the media agenda is not
directly controlled by owners. However,
journalists share the world view of the owners
and use gatekeeping and agenda setting to keep
items which are harmful to elites out of the
media agenda and thus voluntarily spread the
dominant ideology.
This perspective is also known as the Dominant
Ideology, or Hegemonic perspective on the
media.
The Neo-Marxist Perspective on the Media.png
Neo-Marxists emphasize cultural hegemony
Hegemony is where the norms and values of the
ruling class are taken as common sense.

10
According to Neo-Marxists, the reason why we
have a limited media agenda is because of
cultural hegemony, not because of direct control
by wealthy media owners. In other words,
cultural factors are more important than
economic factors in explaining narrow media
content.
Simply put, Journalists have accepted the
conservative worldview of the ruling class as
common sense, and they share this world view
with the ruling class – they thus unconsciously
spread the dominant ideology themselves
without the need for direct control by the media
owners.
Journalists voluntarily spread the dominant
ideology
Journalists have the freedom to report as they
please, so other factors besides economic
control/ ownership determine media content,
factors such as the interests of journalists and
industry news values.
HOWEVER, the broad agenda of the media is still
limited because the journalists share the same
world view as the ruling class and the owners
(this is known as ‘cultural hegemony’).

This is at least partly because Journalists are

themselves mostly white and middle class, with
more than 50% of them having gone to private
11
schools. They thus present a conservative/ neo-
liberal view of the world on autopilot.
Also, journalists do not want to risk their careers
by annoying owners and so are reluctant to
publish content which might annoy owners.
***
Agenda setting and gate keeping
Agenda setting and gatekeeping are the two
processes through which journalists limit media
content. They are normally used in relation to the
selection and presentation of The News.
Gatekeeping = the process of choosing which
items are selected for coverage, and others are
kept out.
Agenda setting = deciding how media items are
going to be framed, for example, who is going to
be invited to discuss topics and what kind of
questions are going to be asked.
According to neo-Marxists gatekeeping and
agenda setting tend to result in issues which are
harmful to the elite being kept out of the media,
thus reinforcing the dominant ideology.
Examples of agenda setting and gate keeping
include:
Only having two political parties discuss a news
item – we rarely hear from the Green Party, for
example.

12
Focussing on the violence at riots and protests,
rather than the issues which are being protested
about, or the cause of the riots.
The news taking the side of the police and the
government, rather than hearing from criminals
or terrorists.
**
Criticisms of Neo-Marxism
Traditional Marxists argue that it underestimates
the important of economic factors, for example
the power of owners to hire and fire journalists
As with traditional Marxism, the role of new
media may make this perspective less relevant. It
is now much harder to maintain the dominant
ideology, for example.
Pluralists point out that this perspective still
tends to assume the audience are passive and
easily swayed by the dominant ideology. In
reality, the audience may be more active and
critical.
***
Mass media and mass communication - built on
the foundation of industrialism and popular
democracy
Early mass media (newspapers, magazines,
phonogram, cinema and radio) - television in the
mid-twentieth century

13
*information, opinions and entertainment-relation
to sources of power in society-impact and
influence

*Mass communication as described is no longer

the only means of society-wide (and global)
communication - New technologies have been
developed and taken up that constitute an
alternative potential network of communication
*Mass communication - large-scale, one-way flow
of public content-no longer carried only by the
‘traditional’ mass media - supplemented by new
media and new types of content and flow - differ
mainly in being more extensive, less structured,
often interactive as well as private and
individualized.
*Significance of mass media in politics, culture,
social and economic life:
Politics - provide an arena of debate - channels
for making policies, candidates, relevant facts
and ideas more widely known - providing
politicians, interest groups and agents of
government with a means of publicity and
influence.
Culture - main channel of cultural representation
and expression - primary source of images of
social reality and materials for forming and
maintaining social identity.

14
Social life - strongly patterned by the routines of
media use - media content influences the way
leisure time is spent - lifestyles - conversational
topics and models of behaviour
*All types and processes of communication that
are extensive, public and technically mediated
*Public and private - no absolute line
A subject of this kind cannot simply be studied
‘objectively’ by a single set of methods.
What is theory?
A theory is a general proposition, itself based on
observation and logical argument, that states the
relationship between observed phenomena and
seeks either to explain or to predict the relation,
in so far as this is possible.
Purpose of Theory
To make sense of an observed reality and guide
the collection and evaluation of evidence.
Concept:
A concept is a core term in a theory that
summarizes an important aspect of the problem
under study and can be used in collecting and
interpreting evidence.
Model:
A model is a selective representation in verbal or
diagrammatic form of some aspect of the
dynamic process of mass communication - also

15
describes the spatial and temporal relation
between elements in a process.
**Society and culture cannot exist without each
other, although mass comm theory deals with
them separately.
Society:
Primarily social relationships of all kinds, ranging
from those of power and authority (government)
to friendship and family relations as well as all
material aspects of life.
Culture:
Refers to ideas, beliefs, identity, symbolic
expression of all kinds, including language, art,
information and
entertainment, plus customs and rituals.
*Two other components:
One - Norms and values: Norms and values that
apply to the conduct of media organizations -
what media ought to be doing or not doing,
rather than simply with why they do what they
do.
Two - consequences of media change for theory:
Because of the rise of new, interactive media,
such as the Internet, that are ‘mass media’ in the
sense of their availability, but are not really
engaged in ‘mass communication’ as it has been
earlier defined.

16
- Whether ‘new media’ require new and different
theory from that applying to ‘mass
communication’ and whether mass
communication is in decline.

***
Structure of media:
‘Structures’ (III) deals with three main topics.
First, it deals with the overall media system and
the way it is typically organized at a national
level.
Media ‘institution’ -
Media as a branch of industry subject to
economic laws, and
Media as a social institution meeting needs in
society and subject to some requirements of law
and regulation, guided in some degree by public
policy.
Second: Deals with is a detailed inquiry into the
normative expectations from media on the part
of the public, government and audiences, with
particular references to the principles and
standards of their performance.
Thirdly: growing phenomenon of global media
and the ‘world system’ of media that has its
origins both in the new computer-based

17
technologies of production and transmission and
in larger globalizing trends of society.
*‘Organizations’ (IV)
Locus of media production, whether a
firm or a department within a larger firm, and
deals with the numerous influences that shape
production.
Pressures and demands from outside the
boundaries of the organization, the requirements
of routine ‘mass production’ of news and culture,
and the personal and professional tendencies of
the ‘mass communicators’.
Discusses theories and models that seek to
explain observed regularities in the process of
selection and internal
shaping of ‘content’ before it is transmitted.
*‘Content’ part (V) - two chapters.
First - analysis of content according to internally
given labels, but more importantly to understand
its ‘true meaning’.
Secondly - observed regularities in content, with
particular reference to the news genre.
‘Audiences’ (VI):
Refers to all who are the targets for media
transmission - Without the audience there would
be no mass communication - audience dynamic
role in shaping the flow and effects of media.

18
Audience analysis is more than audience
‘measurement’ - audience theory deals not only
with the ‘why’ of media use, but also with its
determinants and correlates
in social and cultural life.
Media ‘use’ - intertwined with other activities in
our experience.
Is the image of a passive recipient is still
adequate?
**‘Effects’ (Part VII)
At the centre of social and cultural concern about
mass media - alternative paths towards the goal
of assessing effects - differences of type of effect
are explained, especially intended and
unintended effect and between short-term
impact on individuals and longer-term influence
on culture and society.
The main areas of media effects - potentially
harmful social and cultural effects of the most
popular forms of content, especially
representations of sex and violence, and - media
influence on public knowledge and opinion.
**
Themes and Issues in Mass Communication
Time - communication takes place in time and it
matters when it occurs and how long it takes -
role of technology in increasing speed at which
information is transmtted.
19
Place
Power
Social reality
Meaning
Causation and determinism
Mediation
Identity
Cultural difference
Governance

- Postpositivist Theory: Positivism, Theory based

on empirical observation guided by the scientific
method
- Hermeneutic Theory: The study of
understanding, especially by interpreting action
and text
- Critical Theory: Theory seeking emancipation
and change in a dominant social order. Critical
theory is nonrepresentational. Its goal is to
change existing realities.
- Normative Theory: Theory explaining how a
media system should operate in order to conform
to or realize a set of ideal social values
* A liberal-pluralist or market model.
*social responsibility or public interest model

20
*professional model
* alternative media model
- Evaluating Theory
- Flexible Social Science
- Mass Communication Theory
*Media Freedom as Principle, Media Diversity as
Practice; Media Accountability
***Media Institutions: 185: Political, Technology,
Economics

Four Theories of the Press and Beyond:

Communism, ‘authoritarian’, ‘libertarian’ and
‘social responsibility
- Habermas' public sphere: the public sphere
refers to a notional ‘space’ which provides a
more or less autonomous and open arena
or forum for public debate

Four Eras of Mass Comm Theory:

* Convergence: The erasure of distinctions
among media
- Emergence of the Limited-Effects Perspective
- Competing Cultural Perspectives Challenge

21
The Era of Mass Society and Mass Culture: Elites,
negative role of media in West, penny press,
yellow journalism, capitalists
*Reductionism: Reducing complex
communication processes and social phenomena
to little more than narrow propositions generated
from
small-scale investigations
*Neo-Marxism: Social theory asserting that media
enable dominant social elites to maintain their
power
*British cultural studies: Perspective focusing on
mass media and their role in promoting a
hegemonic worldview and a dominant culture
among various subgroups in a society
*Deterministic assumptions: Assumptions that
media have powerful, direct effects
*Cultural criticism: Collection of perspectives
concerned with the conflict of interests in society
and the ways communication
perpetuates domination of one group over
another
*Framing theory: Assertion that people use
expectations of the social world to make sense of
that social world
*Media literacy: The ability to access, analyze,
evaluate, and communicate media messages

22
*Culture war: Struggle to define the cultural
foundation of the broader social order in which
we live

The Rise of Yellow Journalism

- Mass Society Critics and the Debate over Media
- Oligopoly, digital rights management, functional
displacement
- Assumptions of Mass Society Theory -
= Direct-effects assumption: The media, in
and of themselves, can produce direct effects
- Early Examples of Mass Society Theory
Mass Society Theory in Contemporary Times
*mechanical solidarity: In Durkheim’s conception,
folk cultures bound by consensus and traditional
social roles
*organic solidarity: In Durkheim’s conception,
modern social orders bound by culturally
negotiated social ties

The Origin of Propaganda

- Propaganda Comes to the United States:
*engineering of consent: Official use of
communication campaigns to reach “good” ends

23
*behaviorism: The notion that all human action is
a conditioned response to external environmental
stimuli
*magic bullet: theory Idea that propaganda is
powerful enough to penetrate most people’s
defenses and condition them to act in ways that
are useful to the propagandist
*Freudianism: Freud’s notion that human
behavior is the product of the conflict between an
individual’s Id, Ego, and Superego
Harold Lasswell’s Propaganda Theory: Lasswell’s
theory of propaganda blended ideas borrowed
from behaviorism and Freudianism into a
particularly pessimistic vision of media and their
role in forging modern social orders.
* scientific technocracy
- Walter Lippmann’s Theory of Public Opinion
Formation: The public was vulnerable to
propaganda, so some mechanism or agency was
needed to protect them from it.
- Reaction against Early Propaganda Theory: One
prominent critic of propaganda theory was
philosopher John Dewey (Pragmatism school of
Philosophy). Dewey was a tireless and prolific
defender of public education as the most
effective means of defending democracy against
totalitarianism. He refused to accept the need for
a technocracy that would use scientific methods
to protect people from themselves.
24
The Institute for Propaganda Analysis
Modern Propaganda Theory
Libertarianism Reborn

The Origin of Normative Theories of Media

- The Origin of Libertarian Thought:
*radical Libertarianism: The absolute belief in
Libertarianism’s faith in a good and rational
public and totally unregulated media
*technocratic control: Direct regulation of media,
most often by government agency or commission
*social responsibility theory: A normative theory
that substitutes media industry and public
responsibility for total media freedom on the one
hand and for external control on the other.
*authoritarian theory: A normative theory that
places all forms of communication under the
control of a governing elite or authorities

The Marketplace of Ideas: A New Form of Radical

Libertarianism
Government Regulation of Media
Professionalization of Journalism: Fourth Estate
Limitations of Professionalization
Social Responsibility Theory of the Press: A
Postwar Compromise
25
*Chicago School Social researchers at the
University of Chicago in the 1940s who
envisioned modern cities as “Great Communities”
made up of hundreds of interrelated small groups
- The Cold War Tests Social Responsibility Theory
Using Social Responsibility Theory to Guide
Professional Practice
Is There Still a Role for Social Responsibility
Theory?
The Public Interest in the Internet Era
Other Normative Theories
*developmental media theory: A normative
theory calling for government and media to work
in partnership to ensure that media assist in the
planned beneficial development of the country
*Democratic participant theory: A normative
theory advocating media support for cultural
pluralism at a grassroots level
*Western concept: A normative theory combining
aspects of Libertarianism and social responsibility
theory
*Development concept: A normative theory
describing systems in which government and
media work in concert to ensure that the media
aid the planned, beneficial development of a
given nation

26
*revolutionary concept: A normative theory
describing a system in which media are used in
the servic
*authoritarian concept: A normative theory
advocating the complete domination of media by
a government for the purpose of forcing those
media to serve the government
*communism concept A normative theory
advocating the complete domination of media by
a Communist government for the purpose of
forcing those media to serve the Communist
Party

FROM LIMITED EFFECTS TO CRITICAL CULTURAL

THEORIES

The Rise of Limited Effects Theory

The Development of Limited-Effects Theory
- The Two-Step Flow of Information and Influence:
Gatekeepers, opinion leaders, opinion followers
- Limitations in the Lazarsfeld Approach:
MacFadden-lazarsfeld, 1940s, women's
magazine, advertisement, survey
Limited-Effects Theory
From Propaganda Research to Attitude-Change
Theories

27
- Carl Hovland (Psychologist) and the
Experimental Section: experimental evaluations
of the effectiveness of various programs of the
Information and Education Division
The Communication Research Program
Mass Communication Research and the Focus on
Media Effects
- The Selective Processes: Lazarsfeld found that
people seemed to seek out media messages
consistent with the values and beliefs of those
around them
*cognitive consistency: The idea that people
consciously and unconsciously work to preserve
their existing views
*cognitive dissonance: Information that is
inconsistent with a person’s already-held
attitudes creates psychological discomfort, or
*dissonance selective processes: Exposure
(attention), retention, and perception;
psychological processes designed to reduce
dissonance
*selective exposure: The idea that people tend to
expose themselves to messages that are
consistent with their preexisting attitudes and
beliefs
*selective retention: The idea that people tend to
remember best and longest those messages that
are most meaningful to them

28
*selective perception The idea that people will
alter the meaning of messages so they become
consistent with preexisting attitudes and beliefs

Limitations of the Experimental Persuasion

Research
Contemporary Selective Exposure: The Return of
Minimal Effects
Elite Pluralism
C. Wright Mills and The Power Elite
Drawbacks of the Limited-Effects Perspective
The Hovland-Lazarsfeld Legacy 172

Moving Beyond Limited Effects: Focus on

Functionalism and Children
- Functional Analysis approach
* functionalism: Theoretical approach that
conceives of social systems as living organisms
whose various parts work, or function, together
to maintain essential processes
Children and Violence
TV Violence Theories
Video Games and Media Violence
Media and Children's

29
*transmissional model: The view of mass media
as mere senders or transmitters of information

The Emergence of Critical Cultural Theories of

Mass Communication
Marxist Theory
Neo-Marxism
- The Frankfurt School: Group of neo-Marxist
scholars who worked together in the 1930s at the
University of Frankfurt. Max Horkheimer and
Theodor Adorno
Political Economy Theory
The Debate Between Cultural Studies and
Political Economy Theorists
- Cultural Studies: Transmissional versus Ritual
Perspectives
*transmissional perspective: View of mass
communication as merely the process of
transmitting messages from a distance for the
purpose of control
*ritual perspective: View of mass communication
as the representation of shared belief where
reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and
transformed
Research on Popular Culture in the United States
-Marshall McLuhan: The Medium is the Message
and the Massage
30
*technological determinist: A person who
believes that all social, political, economic, and
cultural change is inevitably based on the
development and diffusion of technology
- Harold Innis: The Bias of Communication:
systematically speculated at length about the
possible linkages between communication media
and the various forms of social structure found at
certain points in history
*In Empire and Communication (1950) and The
Bias of Communication (1951), he argued that
the early empires of Egypt, Greece, and Rome
were based on elite control of the written word
- McLuhan: Understanding Media: Medium is the
message; Global village

CONTEMPORARY MASS COMMUNICATION THEORY:

FROM ACTIVE-AUDIENCE TO MEANING-MAKING
THEORIES

Audience Theories: Uses, Reception and Effects

Audience Theories: From Source-Dominated to
Active-Audience Perspectives
Limitations of Early Audience-Centered Research
Confusion of Media Functions and Media Uses
Revival of the Uses-and-Gratifications Approach
The Active Audience Revisited
31
Uses-and-Gratifications Research and Effects
Development of Reception Studies: Decoding and
Sensemaking
Feminist Reception Studies
New Directions in Audience Effects Research: The
Rise of Moderate-Effects Theories
Information-Processing Theory
Processing Television News
Elaboration Likelihood Model
Entertainment Theory

Media and Society: Media in the Social World

Information (Innovation) Diffusion Theory
Social Marketing Theory
- Media System Dependency Theory: Idea that
the more a person depends on having needs
gratified by media use, the more important the
media’s role will be in the person’s life and,
therefore, the more influence those media will
have
The Knowledge Gap
Agenda-Setting
- The Spiral of Silence: Idea that people holding
views contrary to those dominant in the media
are moved to keep those views to themselves for
fear of rejection
32
News Production Research
Media Intrusion Theory

Media and Culture Theories: Meaning-making

Symbolic Interactionism
Pragmatism and the Chicago School
Current Applications of Symbolic Interactionism
Social Constructionism
Framing and Frame Analysis
Recent Theories of Frames and Framing
Framing and Objectivity
Effects of Frames on News Audiences
Reforming Journalism Based on Framing Theory
- Cultivation Analysis: the idea that television
blurs, blends, and bends reality
The Controversy
The Products of Cultivation Analysis
- The Mean World Index: most people would take
advantage of you if they got the chance
A Final Note on Cultivation
Media as Culture Industries: The Commodification
of Culture
Advertising: The Ultimate Cultural Commodity
The Media Literacy Movement
33
Future: The End of Mass Communication Theory:
The Rise of Media Theory

Indian Theory of Communication

Indian Culture:
Modern society has religion playing a critical role.
Indian society: Family and culture is a pervasive
influence.
Indian Culture: Vedic, Buddhism, Jainism,
Sikhism, Sufism, Contemporary Globalisation
Indian Society not as open as its philosophy -
commitment to truth
Western communication theoretical limitations -
assumption of homogenous society as they
originated in Graeco-Roman, Anglo-Western
societies whose social and cultural values were
same.
Homogeneity absent in India - poverty of the
body does not mean poverty of the spirit.
Modernisation not westernisation.
In India, political consciousness preceded
economic development unlike in the west.
**

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Bharata is an acronym for the three syllables:
bha for bhāva (mood), rā for rāga (melodic
framework), and ta for tāla (rhythm)
Sadharanikaran Model of Communication - rooted
in Bharata Muni’s Natyashastra and Bhartrihari’s
Vakyapadiya
Sadharnikaran means: “generalized
presentation” (Vedantatirtha, 1936, p. 35),
“simplification” (Yadava, 1998, p. 187), and
“universalization”
Senders and receivers accomplish the process of
sadharanikaran, they attain saharidayata and
become sahridayas.
essence of sadharanikaran is to achieve
commonness or oneness among the people. In
this light, the Latin word ‘communis’ and its
modern English version ‘communication’ come
close to sadharanikaran
The model comprises the following elements:
1. Sahridayas (Preshaka, i.e., sender, and
Prapaka, i.e., receiver)
2. Bhava (Moods or emotions)
3. Abhivyanjana (Expression or encoding; verbal
or non-verbal)
4. Sandesha (Message or information)
5. Sarani (Channel)

35
6. Rasaswadana (Firstly receiving, decoding and
interpreting the message and finally achieving
the rasa)
7. Doshas (Noises)
8. Sandarbha (Context)
9. Pratikriya (Process of feedback)
Human being in his/her essential characteristics
is a bundle of bhavas that constitutes his/her
being and form part of his/her total
consciousness.
Abhivyanjana refers to the activities that a source
goes to translate bhavas into a form that may be
perceived by the senses. It can be understood as
expression or encoding in English.
With the completion of the process of
abhivyanjana, bhavas are manifested as
sandesha. In other words, sandesha is outcome
of the abhivyanjana process.
For transmission of sandesha, there needs sarani
(channel or medium), which is the means through
which sandesha travels across space - auditory
(hearing), tactile (touching), visual (seeing),
olfactory (smelling) and taste (tasting through
the taste buds on the tongue) channels.
Hindu perspective on communication would not
be completed unless both manas (mind) and
sharira (human body) are understood as sarani.
At least, it is so for spiritual dimension of the

36
process. The manas is considered as the sixth
indriya (sensory organ) in Hindu belief. It is the
vibhu (master) of five senses. However, it is not
the final authority in this regard. Its vibhu is the
atman.
Sansaar-Sanyaas
The body is only a temporary abode of atman,
and it is an instrument or means used by the
atman. In other words, sharira is a sarani by
using which atman has to attain moksha.
As abhivyanjana was crucial for the sender, so is
rasaswadana for the receiver...In case of casual
human communication, rasaswadana is said to
be successful if the receiver shares the message
as intended by the sender. However, the spiritual
dimension goes beyond.
Not all communication result in the attainment of
rasa in its ideal form. Rasa is the essence or
aesthetic enjoyment. Bharata Muni terms this as
rasa because it is worthy of being tested
(relished). There is unique corresponding rasa to
each bhava.
According to Bharata Muni, the combination of
vibhavas and anubhavas together with
vyabhichari bhavas produce rasa. It is the
sthayee bhava that leads to rasa
Bharat Muni describes sadharanikaran as that
point in the climax of a drama when the audience
becomes one with the actor who lives an
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experience through his/her acting on stage and
starts simultaneously reliving the same
experience. The process has been described as
rasaswadana. When sadharanikaran happens,
sharing or commonness of experience takes
place in full form.
According to Bhattanayak, the essence of
sadharanikaran is to achieve commonness or
oneness among the people.
Two things are to be noted here. First, the vak
(word or speech) in the continuum of para-
sakshatkara is identified with the Brahman.
Hence, sakshatkara is the state of experiencing
the Self as the Brahman (“Aham Brahmasmi”).
Second, the Brahman is aslo considered as
supreme rasa (“rasovaisah”).
In this stage also there is unity of the Self and the
Brahman. In either ways, sadharanikaran
qualifies to be a means for moksha (Adhikary,
2007c).
There is no such thing as perfect communication.
There are continuous forces at work, doshas or
noises, which tend to distort the message and
lead to miscommunication. If we draw on Hindu
poetics, the concept of rasa-bhanga (disruption in
rasaswadana) is there.
Though both the sender and receiver of the
message must be sahridayas Bhartrihari
theorizes communication from the receiver’s

38
viewpoint...In brief, sandarbha (context), as
discussed above, and intuition (pratibha), which
is innate to the receiver, ensure proper
understanding of any message.
Pratikriya refers to the responses of the receiver
after receiving the message. It is the process of
feedback, which allows the receiver to have
active role in the communication process.
The scope of communication from Hindu
perspective is broad. As envisioned in the model,
communication is broader enough to deal with all
of the three dimensions of life: adhibhautika
(physical or mundane), adhidaivika (mental) and
adhyatmika (spiritual).
*****
Sabdapurvayoga: Indian Communication Theory
and Practice
The scientific view of language in Indian tradition
as established in the Vedas, Upanishads, and the
works of scholars and sages like Panini, Patanjali,
Bharatmuni, Bhartrihari, and Abhinavagupta,
connects the structure and rules of language,
objective reality, and the absolute reality.
The essential message of Indian classical
textswith regard to language and communication
is that there are different levels of language
between the two extremes termed as Pasyanti
and Vaikhari, which correspond to different levels
of consciousness of the Absolute Reality.
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Language is not a machine that can be put
together on an assembly line. It is a complex
system that develops with the thought and
action.
In human society, when this balance and
harmony is disturbed, there isdisorder and
suffering.
Satya and Dharma:
In Indian tradition, on theother hand, truth is best
defined in Mahabharata when it says, ” Satya is
dharma,tapas (austerity) and yoga. Satya is
eternal brahma, Satya is also the foremostyajna,
and everything is established on Satya”, (MB, V,
p.497). In an illustration ofthis principle,
Mahabharata says that speaking truthfully to a
criminal is notacceptable as the truth. Verbal
truth is only one side of the concept which is
muchmore general. Truth is signified by virtue of
conformity to the order of
righteousness,interdependence and harmony on
which the cosmos and social order is founded.
****
Nispattih - Rasa theory of Bharat
Bharat
expressed rasas, eight in number each one is
consisting its sthyāyibhāva and its colours and
deity (Devtā). Nāṭyaśāstra is

40
believed to be written in 1st century but exact
date of its existence is under doubt
Niṣpattiḥ is the result of the saṁyoga of vibhāva
+ anubhāva + vyabhichāribhāvas and it leads to
the revelation of Rasa in a Kāvya or Nāṭak.
Entertainment is a desired effect of performance
arts but not the primary goal, and that the
primary goal is to transport the individual in the
audience into another parallel reality… and
reflects on
spiritual and moral questions
RASA : MEANING AND DEFINITION
“Rasa” like Dharma is one of the keywords and
philosophy of Indian culture characterizing its
aesthetic aspect
The word “Rasa” stands for a number of
meanings especially in Indian context. At one
time it meant ‘water’, ‘juice’ or ‘wine’. At another
time it emplied ‘essence’.
In another context it meant ‘relish’ or savouring’,
In ancient time it has been associated with the
primary constituents of medicine. In the relation
of art and literature ‘Rasa’ stands for ‘aesthetic
pleasure’ or ‘enjoyment’. - a meaning or
association of meaning with which we are
essentially concerned
‘Rasa’ is composed of two letters Ra and sa. ‘Ra’
means ‘to give’ and ‘sa’ means ‘Motion’. Various
41
meanings of Rasa as given by V.S. Apte are – ‘to
flow’, ‘to make wet all over’, ‘to tase’, ‘to relish’,
‘liquid’, ‘pleasure’, ‘delight’, … ‘elegance, and
beauty’ etc
In Taittirῑyopaniśhad Rasa has been examined
metaphysically and indentified with Brahman. It
quotes: “RasovaisahRasam
Rasas are nine in number. Though Bharat
explained eight rasas in his Natyasastra but the
ninth rasa has been given and explained by
Abhinavgupta in ‘Abhinavbharati’ as ‘Shānta’.
Theory of Nispattih:
To prove and explain this meaning Bharat gave
his sutra, is known as Rasa sūtra. It is as follows :
“Vibhāvanubhāva-vyabhicāri-saḿyogat Rasa
niṣpattiḥ
Bharat acknowledged only eight kinds of Rasa
(astaunatyarasahsmrtah). His list of Rasa as
translated by M.M. Ghosh is as follows : 1. Erotic
(Śrṁgara) 2. Comic (Hāsya) 3.Pathetic (Karuna)
4.Furious (Raudra) 5.Heroic (vira) 6.Terrible
(Bhayānaka) 7.Odious (Bibatsa) and 8. Marvelous
(adbhuta)13.

Rasās
1.Śriṁgār-This rasa is called the Rasa raj. It
appeals to human mind as life is a never ending
guest for love ad affection. The styāyibhāva for
42
śriṁgār rasa is Rati (love) Bharat devided this
rasa into his kinds
(i) Saṁyog (Sambhog) śriṁgār (love in union).
(ii)Viyoga (Vipralamba) Śriṁgār (love in
separation)
2. HāsyaRasā
two kinds Ātmastha (Subjective) when one laughs
at himself and Parastha (objective) when one
makes another laugh
3. Karun Rasa – 'Śoka' is the dominant emotion
4.Raudra Rasa – The Sthāyibhāva of Raudra is
'Krodh'. Raudra Rasa is reflected in the Tāndav,
Dance of lord Shiva
5.Vir Rasa – 'Zeal' or 'Utsāha' is the Sthāyaibhāva
of Vir Rasa. This Ustsāha or Bravery is not limited
to the battle filed.
6.Adbhuta Rasa- It is a Rasa where amazing or
surprisingly delightful events occur. The
Sthāyibhāva for the Rasa is 'vismaya'.
7. Bhayānak Rasa – 'Bhaya', is the Sthāyibhāvaof
Bhayānak Rasa. When the Raudra Rasa is at its
peak it transforms into the Bhayānak Rasa.
8.Bibhatsa Rasa- TheSthāyibhāva of Bibhatsa is
'jugupsā'. All elements which arouse feeling of
delight are responsible for arousing Bibhatsa
Rasa. This Rasa forms the chief roal in tragic
dramas.

43
***
The alternatives to social science offered by
cultural studies are in other ways no less western
in character.
we cannot expect the study of mass
communication to provide theoretically neutral,
scientifically verified information about the
‘effects’ or the significance of something that is
an immensely complex as well as intersubjective
set of processes.
it is often difficult to formulate theories about
mass communication in ways that are open to
empirical testing.
Left (power exercised by media) vs right in media
theory (liberal bias)

44
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