Subsidiary Mathematics

For

Associate Nursing Program

Learner’s Book
Senior Five
 © 2021 Rwanda Basic Education Board
All rights reserved.
This book is the property for the Government of Rwanda.
Credit must be given to REB when the content is quoted
 Preliminary

FOREWORD

Dear Student,
Rwanda Basic Education Board (REB) is honored to present
Subsidiary Mathematics book for senior five students of of
Associate Nursing Program. This book will serve as a guide to
competence-based teaching and learning to ensure consistency
and coherence in the learning of the Mathematics. The Rwandan
educational philosophy is to ensure that you achieve full potential
at every level of education which will prepare you to be well
integrated in society and exploit employment opportunities.
The government of Rwanda emphasizes the importance of aligning
teaching and learning materials with the syllabus to facilitate
your learning process. Many factors influence what you learn,
how well you learn and the competences you acquire. Those
factors include the relevance of the specific content, the quality of
teachers’ pedagogical approaches, the assessment strategies and
the instructional materials available. In this book, we paid special
attention to the activities that facilitate the learning process in
which you can develop your ideas and make new discoveries
during concrete activities carried out individually or with peers.
In competence-based curriculum, learning is considered as a
process of active building and developing of knowledge and
meanings by the learner where concepts are mainly introduced by
an activity, situation or scenario that helps the learner to construct
knowledge, develop skills and acquire positive attitudes and
values.

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

For efficiency use of this textbook, your role is to:

ᇢ Work on given activities which lead to the development of
skills;
ᇢ Share relevant information with other learners through
presentations, discussions, group work and other active
learning techniques such as role play, case studies,
investigation and research in the library, on internet or
outside;
ᇢ Participate and take responsibility for your own learning;
ᇢ Draw conclusions based on the findings from the learning
activities.
To facilitate you in doing activities, the content of this book is
self explanatory so that you can easily use it yourself, acquire and
assess your competences. The book is made of units as presented
in the syllabus. Each unit has the following structure: the key
unit competence is given and it is followed by the introductory
activity before the development of mathematical concepts that are
connected to real world problems or to other sciences.
The development of each concept has the following points:
ᇢ It starts by a learning activity: it is a hand on well set activity
to be done by students in order to generate the concept to be
learnt;
ᇢ Main elements of the content to be emphasized;
ᇢ Worked examples; and
ᇢ Application activities which are activities to be done by the
user to consolidate competences or to assess the achievement
of objectives.
Even though the book has some worked examples, you will
succeed on the application activities depending on your ways of
reading, questioning, thinking and grappling ideas of calculus not
by searching for similar-looking worked out examples.

ii
 Preliminary

Furthermore, to succeed in Mathematics, you are asked to keep

trying; sometimes you will find concepts that need to be worked
at before you completely understand. The only way to really grasp
such a concept is to think about it and work-related problems
found in other reference books.
I wish to sincerely express my appreciation to the people who
contributed towards the editing of this book, particularly, REB
staffs and teachers for their technical support.
Any comment or contribution would be welcome to the
improvement of this text book for the next edition.

Dr. MBARUSHIMANA Nelson

Director General, REB

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I wish to express my appreciation to the people who played a major
role in the development and the editing of Subsidiary Mathematics
book for Senior five students of Associate Nursing Program. It
would not have been successful without active participation of
different education stakeholders.
I owe gratitude to Curriculum Officers and teachers whose efforts
during the editing exercise of this book were very much valuable.
Finally, my word of gratitude goes to the Rwanda Basic Education
Board staffs who were involved in the whole process of in-house
textbook production.

Joan MURUNGI
Head of Curriculum, Teaching and learning Resources Department

iv
 Contents
FOREWORD........................................................................... i
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.......................................................... iv

Unit 1. Trigonometric Formulae and Equations ...................... 1

1.1. Trigonometric formulae.................................................. 2
1.1.1. Addition and subtraction formulae............................3
1.1.2. Double angle formulae................................................5
1.1.3. Half angle formulae.....................................................7
1.1.4. Transformation of product into sum........................10
1.1.5. Transformation of sum into product........................11
1.2. Trigonometric equations............................................... 12
1.2.1.The solution of equations reducible to the
form sin( x + α
= ) k , cos( x + α = ) k for k ≤ 1 and tan( x + α =) b for b ∈ 
sin( x + α
= ) k , cos( x + α
= ) k for k ≤ 1 and tan( x + α
= ) b for b ∈  ......................................12
1.2.2. Solving the equation of the form
a sin x + b cos x = c ..............................................15
1.3. Applications.................................................................. 16
1.3.1. Simple harmonic motion..........................................16
1.3.2. Refraction of light.....................................................17
1.3.3. Application in medicine...........................................20
Unit Summary...................................................................... 22
End of Unit Assessment....................................................... 24

Unit 2. Sequences..................................................................... 25
2.1. Arithmetic and harmonic sequences............................ 26
2.1.1. Definition..................................................................26
2.1.2. General term of an arithmetic sequence..................29
2.1.3. Arithmetic means......................................................32
2.1.4. Sum of arithmetic sequence.....................................34
2.1.5. Harmonic sequences.................................................36
2.2. Geometric sequences.................................................... 39
2.2.1. Definition..................................................................39
2.2.2. General term of a geometric sequence.....................42
2.2.3. Geometric means.......................................................45
2.2.4. The sum of n terms of a geometric sequence...........47
2.2.3. Geometric series........................................................50
2.3. Convergent or divergent sequences.............................. 52
2.4. Applications of sequences in real life.......................... 53

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Unit Summary...................................................................... 59
End of Unit Assessment....................................................... 61

Unit 3. Logarithmic and Exponential Equations.................... 64

3.1. Introduction to Exponential and logarithmic functions..
....................................................................................... 65
3.2. Exponential and logarithmic equations....................... 67
3.3. Applications.................................................................. 73
Exponential growth................................................................73
Exponential decay..................................................................74
Doubling time and halving time............................................75
Unit Summary...................................................................... 82
End of Unit Assessment....................................................... 83

Unit 4. Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses.............. 84

4.1. Generalities on trigonometric functions and their in-
verses............................................................................. 85
4.1.1. Domain and range of six trigonometric functions...85
4.1.2. Domain and range of inverses of trigonometric
functions....................................................................89
4.1.3. Parity of trigonometric functions..............................96
4.1.4. Period of trigonometric functions.............................98
4.2. Limits of trigonometric functions and their inverses.105
4.2.1. Limits of trigonometric functions...........................105
4.2.2. Limits of inverse trigonometric functions..............112
4.3. Differentiation of trigonometric functions and their
inverses........................................................................ 114
4.3.1. Derivative of sine and cosine .................................114
4.3.2. Derivative of tangent and cotangent.......................115
4.3.3. Derivative of secant and cosecant..........................116
4.3.4. Derivative of inverse sine and inverse cosine........117
4.3.5. Derivative of inverse tangent and inverse
cotangent.................................................................120
4.3.6. Successive derivatives............................................122
4.4. Applications................................................................ 125
Unit Summary............................................................. 128
End of Unit Assessment.............................................. 130

Unit 5. Vector Space of Real Numbers.................................. 132

5.1. Vectors and operations in R3...................................... 133
5.2. Scalar product of two vectors..................................... 142
5.3. Magnitude (or norm or length) of a vector................. 144

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 Preliminary

5.4. Angle between two vectors......................................... 146

5.5. Vector product............................................................. 150
5.6. Mixed product............................................................. 153
5.7. Applications ............................................................... 155
5.7.1. Work done as scalar product..................................155
5.7.2. Area of a parallelogram...........................................157
5.7.3. Volume of a parallelepiped.....................................159
Unit Summary.................................................................... 166
End of Unit Assessment..................................................... 168

Unit 6. Matrices and Determinant of Order 3...................... 170

6.1. Square matrices of order three................................... 171
6.1.1. Definitions ..............................................................171
6.1.2. Types of matrices....................................................172
6.1.3. Operations on matrices...........................................174
6.1.4. Scalar multiplication..............................................176
6.2. Determinants of order three........................................ 183
6.2.1. Determinant............................................................183
6.2.2. Matrix inverse.........................................................190
6.3. Application.................................................................. 193
6.3.1. System of 3 linear equations..................................193
Unit Summary.................................................................... 201
End of Unit Assessment..................................................... 204

Unit 7. Bivariate Statistics..................................................... 205

7.1. Covariance................................................................... 206
7.2. Regression lines........................................................... 211
7.3. Coefficient of correlation............................................ 217
7.4. Applications................................................................ 227
Unit Summary.................................................................... 231
End of Unit Assessment..................................................... 232

Unit 8. Conditional Probability and Bayes Theorem........... 238

8.1. Independent events..................................................... 239
8.2. Conditional probability............................................... 241
8.3. Bayes theorem and its applications ........................... 246
Unit Summary............................................................. 251
End of Unit Assessment.............................................. 252

References .................................................................................. 255

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Icons used in this book

To guide you, each activity in the book is marked by a symbol or icon to
show you what kind of activity it is. The icons are as follows:
Practical Activity icon
The hand indicates a practical activity such as curve
sketching, draw figures, to have a selection of objects,
individually or in a group, and then present your results
or comments.
Group Work icon
Group work means that you are expected to discuss
something in groups and report back on what your group
discussed. In this way, you learn from each other and how
to work together as a group to address or solve a problem.

Pairing Activity icon

This means that you are required to do the activity in
pairs, exchange ideas and write down your results.

Research Activity icon

Some activities require you to do research either by
reading textbooks or using the internet.

Good luck in using the book!

viii
Unit Trigonometric
1 Formulae and
Equations
Introductory activity
The height h of the cathedral is 485 m. The angle of elevation
of the top of the Cathedral from a point 280 m away from the
base of its steeple on level ground is θ . By using trigonometric
concepts, find the value of this angle θ in degree.

Trigonometry studies relationship involving lengths and angles

of a triangle. The techniques in trigonometry are used for
finding relevance in navigation particularly satellite systems
and astronomy, naval and aviation industries, land surveying, in
cartography and (creation of maps) and medicine. Even if those
are the scientific applications of the concepts in trigonometry,
most of the mathematics we study would seem to have little real-
life application. Trigonometry is really relevant in our day to day
activities.
Objectives
By the end of this unit, a student will be able to:
ᇢ Solve trigonometric equations.
ᇢ Use trigonometric formulae and equations in
real life.

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

1.1. Trigonometric formulae

Activity 1.1

In the diagram, the angle MOR=A and POT=B are each acute
and the angle POR=(A+B) is also acute. PT is perpendicular to
OY, PR is perpendicular to OZ and QT is perpendicular to PR.
Since QT is parallel to OS,
∠QTO = ∠TOS = A
Since ∠PTO =90 , ∠PTQ =90 − A.
 

As PQT is a triangle, thus, ∠PQT + ∠PTQ + ∠QPT =180

That is, 90 + ( 90 − A ) + ∠QPT =180
180 − A + ∠QPT =180
Thus, ∠QPT = A .
Hence, use right triangles ORP, OST and OTP to find the
formula of
a) sin( A + B)
b) cos( A + B)
Deduce the formula of
tan( A + B ),sin( A − B ), cos( A − B ), tan( A − B )

Deduce the formula of

tan( A + B ),sin( A − B ), cos( A − B ), tan( A − B )

2
 Trigonometric Formulae and Equations

1.1.1. Addition and subtraction formulae

From activity 1.1:
The addition and subtraction formulae are
cos ( =
x + y ) cos x cos y − sin x sin y
cos ( =
x − y ) cos x cos y + sin x sin y
sin ( x=
+ y ) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
sin ( x=
− y ) sin x cos y − cos x sin y

Also,
tan x + tan y
tan ( x + y ) =
1 − tan x tan y
tan x − tan y
tan ( x − y ) =
1 + tan x tan y
cot x cot y − 1
cot ( x + y ) =
cot y + cot x
cot x cot y + 1
cot ( x − y ) =
cot y − cot x

Addition and subtraction formulae are useful for finding

trigonometric number of some angles.

Example 1.1
Use addition and subtraction formulae to find cos 75 .

Solution
cos 75 cos ( 45 + 30 )
=
= cos 45 cos 30 − sin 45 sin 30
2 3 21
= −
2 2 2 2
6− 2
=
4

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Example 1.2
Find the value of sin 630 cos 27 0 + cos 630 sin 27 0

Solution
sin ( A + B )
We know that sin A cos B + cos A sin B =

Therefore, sin 63 cos 27 + cos 63 sin 27 = sin ( 63 + 27 )= sin 90 = 1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0

Example 1.3
5π
Use addition and subtraction formulae to find tan
3
Solution
5π π
Using the concept of opposite angle we have: = 2π −
3 3
Then,
5π  π
tan
= tan  2π − 
3  3
π
tan 2π − tan
= 3
π
1 + tan 2π tan
3
0− 3
= = − 3
1+ 0

4
 Trigonometric Formulae and Equations

Application activity 1.1

1. Without using calculator, find:
a) sin 750 b) tan 750 c) tan1050 d) sec1050
2. Find the value of sin 400 cos100 − cos 400 sin100
3. Evaluate without using a calculator
0
a) sin150 b) cos150 c) tan150 d) cot15
3 5
4. If tan θ = and tan φ = , find;
4 12
a) tan (θ + φ ) b) cot (θ − φ )
5 1 π
5. If tanA = and tan B = , prove that A + B = .
6 11 4

1.1.2. Double angle formulae

Activity 1.2
For each of the following relations, replace y by x and give your
results.
1. cos ( =
x + y ) cos x cos y − sin x sin y
2. cos ( =
x − y ) cos x cos y + sin x sin y
3. sin ( x=
+ y ) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
tan x + tan y
4. tan ( x + y ) =
1 − tan x tan y
cot x cot y − 1
5. cot ( x + y ) =
cot y + cot x
From activity 1.2, we have
cos 2 x + sin 2 x =
1
This relation is called the fundamental relation of trigonometry.
From this relation, we can write
2 2
cos 2 x = 1 − sin 2 x and sin x = 1 − cos x
sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x
cos
= 2 x cos 2 x − sin 2 x

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

2 tan x
tan 2 x =
1 − tan 2 x
cot 2 x − 1
cot 2 x =
2 cot x
The above four formulae are known as double angle formulae

Example 1.4
From double angle formulae and fundamental relation of
trigonometry, prove that
2 tan x
sin 2 x =
1 + tan 2 x

Solution

sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x

Dividing the right hand side by sin 2 x + cos 2 x , gives
2sin x cos x
sin 2 x =
sin 2 x + cos 2 x
Dividing each term of the right hand side by cos 2 x , we get
2sin x cos x 2sin x
2
sin 2 x
= cos x ⇔= sin 2 x cos x
sin 2 x + cos 2 x sin 2 x
+1
cos 2 x cos 2 x
2 tan x
⇔ sin 2 x =
tan 2 x + 1
2 tan x
Hence, sin 2 x = as required.
1 + tan 2 x
Example 1.5
Express cos 4x in function of sin x only

Solution

cos 4 x = cos 2 ( 2 x ) = 1 − 2sin 2 2 x

6
 Trigonometric Formulae and Equations

= 1 − 2 ( 2sin x cos x )
2

= 1 − 2 ( 4sin 2 x cos 2 x )
= 1 − 8sin 2 x cos 2 x
1 − 8sin 2 x (1 − sin 2 x )
=
1 − 8sin 2 x + 8sin 4 x
=

Application activity 1.2

1. Express sin 4x in function of sin x and cos x .

2. Express cos8x in function of sin x .
3. Evaluate each of the following without using a
calculator: 0 0
 1  1
0
a) 2sin15 cos15 0
b) 2sin  22  cos  22 
 2  2
π π 2 π π
c) sin × cos d) cos − sin 2
8 8 12 12
4. From double angle formulae, prove the following
formulae known as t-formulae, where t = tan x :
2t 1− t2 2t
a) sin 2 x = b) cos 2 x = c) tan 2 x =
1+ t2 1+ t2 1− t2

1.1.3. Half angle formulae

Activity 1.3

1. Show that cos 2 x = 1 − 2sin 2 x . By letting θ = 2x , deduce

θ
the value of sin .
2
2. Show that = cos 2 x 2 cos 2 x − 1 . By letting θ = 2x , deduce
θ
the value of cos .
2
θ
3. Using results in 1 and 2, deduce the value of tan . (Recall
2
sin x
that tan x = ).
cos x

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

From activity 1.3:

θ
1 − cos θ . By permuting θ by x We can write
sin = ± .
2 2
x 1 − cos x
sin = ±
2 2
x cos x + 1
Also, cos θ = ± cos θ + 1 . We can write cos = ±
2 2 2 2
The half angle formulae are:
x 1 − cos x
sin = ±
2 2
x cos x + 1
cos = ±
2 2 ,the sign + or – is chosen depending on the

x
quadrant in which lies.
2
x 1 − cos x x sin x
tan = or tan =
2 sin x 2 1 + cos x

Example 1.6
0
Using the half angle formula, find the exact value of cos15 .

Solution
0
150 is in first quadrant, then cos15 must be positive
1 
cos1500 = cos  1 ( 3000 ) 
cos15 = cos  2 ( 30 ) 
2 
1 + cos 3000 3
= 1 + cos 30 1+
= 2 2
2 =
2
2+ 3
=
2

Example 1.7
7 1 1 1
If cos A = − , find the values of sin A, cos A and tan A .
25 2 2 2

8
 Trigonometric Formulae and Equations

Solution
1 1 − cos A
sin A= ±
2 2
 7  7
1−  −  1+
1  25  1 25
⇒ sin A =
± ⇒ sin A =
±
2 2 2 2

1 32
⇒ sin A=
±
2 50

1 16 4
Finally, sin A=
± =
±
2 25 5
7
1−
1 1 + cos A 1 25
cos A = ± ⇒ cos A =
±
2 2 2 2

1 18
⇒ cos A =
±
2 50

1 9 3
Thus, cos A= ± =
±
2 25 5
1 1 − cos A
tan A = ±
2 1 + cos A

7
1+
1 25 ⇒ tan 1 A = 32
⇒ tan A =
± ±
2 7 2 18
1−
25

1 16 4
Finally, cos A=
± =
± .
2 9 3
Application activity 1.3

1 1 1
1. If cos A = − , find the values of sin A, cos A .
3 2 2
7 π
2. If tan 2=
A , 0 < A < , find the value of tan A .
24 4
3. Find sin x, cos x and tan x if cos 2 x = 1 .
8

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

1.1.4. Transformation of product into sum

Activity 1.4
From addition and subtraction formulae, evaluate:
1. sin ( x + y ) + sin ( x − y ) 2. sin ( x + y ) − sin ( x − y )
3. cos ( x + y ) + cos ( x − y ) 4. cos ( x + y ) − cos ( x − y )

From activity 1.4:

The formulae for transforming product in sum are:
1
cos x cos
= y cos ( x + y ) + cos ( x − y ) 
2
1
sin x sin y =− cos ( x + y ) − cos ( x − y ) 
2
1
sin x cos
= y sin ( x + y ) + sin ( x − y ) 
2
1
cos x sin
= y sin ( x + y ) − sin ( x − y ) 
2

Example 1.8
Transform in sum the product sin 3 x cos 4 x .

Solution
1
sin 3 x cos
=sin ( 3 x + 4 x ) + sin ( 3x − 4 x ) 
4x
2
1
= sin 7 x + sin ( − x ) 
2
1
= [sin 7 x − sin x ]
2

Example 1.9
Change the following product into a sum or difference: sin 9 x sin11x

10
 Trigonometric Formulae and Equations

Solution
11
− ( 2sin
sin 9 x sin11x == x + 11xx)) − cos ( 9 x − 11x ) 
cos9(x9sin11
2 2
1 1
= − cos 20 x − cos ( −2 x )  = − ( cos 20 x − cos 2 x )
2 2
1
= ( cos 2 x − cos 20 x )
2
Application activity 1.4
Transform in sum:
5x 3x
1. sin x cos 3 x 2. cos12 x sin 9 x 3. 2 cos cos
2 2

1.1.5. Transformation of sum into product

Activity 1.5
Using the relations x + y =p and x − y =q , express each of the
formulae for transforming product in sum in function of p and
q.
Hint:
 p+q
 x=
 x + y =p  2
 ⇒
=
 x − y q y = − q
p

 2

From activity 1.5, the formulae for transforming sum in product

are:
p+q p−q
cos p + cos q =2 cos cos
2 2
p+q p−q
cos p − cos q =−2sin sin
2 2
p+q p−q
sin p + sin q =
2sin cos
2 2
p+q p−q
sin p − sin q =
2 cos sin
2 2

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Example 1.10
Transform in product the sum cos 2 x − cos 4 x

Solution
 2x + 4x 2x − 4x 
cos 2 x − cos 4 x =
−2  sin sin 
 2 2 

−2sin 3 x sin ( − x ) .
Or cos 2 x − cos 4 x =
So, cos 2 x − cos 4 x =
2sin 3 x sin x .
Application activity 1.5
Transform in product:
1. cos x + cos 7 x 2. sin 4 x − sin 9 x 3. sin 3 x + sin 4 x

1.2. Trigonometric equations

1.2.1. The solution of equations reducible to the form
sin( x + α
= ) k , cos( x + α
= ) k for k ≤ 1 and tan( x + α
= ) b for b ∈ 

Activity 1.6
1
1. Find at least three angles whose sine is .
2
2. Find at least three angles whose cosine is 2 .
2

The solutions of a trigonometric equation for which 0 ≤ x ≤ 2π

are called principle solutions while the expression (involving
integer k ) of solution containing all values of the unknown angle
is called the general solution of the trigonometric equation. When
the interval of solution is not given, you are required to find the
general solution.
When solving trigonometric equations, the following identities
are helpful:

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 Trigonometric Formulae and Equations

sin α =sin (α + 2kπ ) , k ∈  sin

= α sin (π − α )
cos α =cos (α + 2kπ ) , k ∈  α cos ( −α )
cos=
tan α = tan (α + kπ ) , k ∈  tan α tan (α + π )
=

Example 1.11
Find the principal solutions of the equation:
1
sin x =
2

Solution
1
sin x = is positive ⇒ x lies in the 1st or 2nd quadrant.
2
1 π  π
Here sin= x = sin or sin  π − 
2 4  4
π 3π
⇒x
= or
= x
4 4
π 3π
Thus, x = or x = .
4 4
Example 1.12
3
Solve in the set of real numbers cos 2 x = − .
2
Solution
3 is negative ⇒ 2 x lies in the 2nd or 3rd
cos 2 x = −
2
quadrant.
π π  π
Here, cos 2 x =
− cos = cos  π −  or cos  π + 
6  6  6
5π 7π
⇒ 2x = + 2kπ or + 2 kπ , k ∈ 
6 6

Example 1.13
x 3
Solve sin = − for x ∈ [ 0, 2π ]
3 2

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Solution
x 3
sin = − for x ∈ [ 0, 2π ]
3 2
 π  π
− + 2 kπ x − 3 + 2kπ −π + 6kπ
x  3 =  = ⇒x  , k ∈
=
3   π 3  4π + 2kπ 4π + 6kπ
π −  −  + 2 kπ  3
  3 
Since we are given the condition x ∈ [ 0, 2π ] , we need to substitute
k with some integers (…, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2 …). But doing this, no value
can be found in the given interval. Thus, there is no solution.

Application activity 1.6

Solve:
1
1. cos8 x = −
2
2. sin 3 x cos 7 x = 0 for 0 ≤ x ≤ π
1
3. sin 3 x = for x ∈ [ 0, 2π ]
2
4. 6 cos 2 θ + sin θ − 5 = 0 for 00 < θ ≤ 3600
Hint. Let t = sin θ ;cos θ = 1 − sin θ
2 2

5. 2 cos 2 x − 5sin x + 1 =0 for x ∈ [ 0, π ]

6. tan 3 x = 1
7. Using transformation of sum or difference of trigonometric
expressions into the product, solve the following equations:
a) sin 3 x = sin x b) cos 4 x = cos x
c) sin 4 x + sin 2 x =
0 d) cos 3 x + cos x =
0

14
 Trigonometric Formulae and Equations

1.2.2. Solving the equation of the form

a sin x + b cos x =
c
Activity 1.7

Consider the equation 3 cos x − sin x =3

1. Using t-formulae (Exercise 1.2 Question 4), express the
x
given equation in terms of t where t = tan .
2
2. Solve the quadratic equation obtained in 1).

3. From t, find the value of x. Hint: Remember that t = tan x .

2

Form activity 1.7, one of the methods of solving trigonometric

equation of the form a sin x + b cos x =
c , is to use the t-formulae.
1− t2 2t x
Since cos x = 2
and sin x = 2
where t = tan ,
1+ t 1+ t 2
2at 1− t2
a sin x + b cos x =
c⇔ + b c
=
1+ t2 1+ t2
⇔ 2at + b − bt 2 = c (1 + t 2 )
⇔ ( b + c ) t 2 − 2at =c − b
⇔ ( b + c ) t 2 − 2at − c + b =0
which is a quadratic equation in t.

Example 1.14
Solve 3 sin x + cos x =
2

Solution
1− t2 2t
Using t-formulae, cos x = 2
and sin x = 2
where t = tan x ,
1+ t 1+ t 2
By substitution,
2 3t 1 − t 2
+ 2
=
1+ t2 1+ t2

15
 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

By cross multiplying and collecting like terms,

3t 2 − 2 3t + 1 =0
By solving, we get:

( 2 3 )= 2 3 3
2
=∆ − 12 0 t1= t2= =
6 3
3 x 3 x π
t = ⇔ tan = ⇒ = + kπ , k ∈  (1)
3 2 3 2 6

x  π
or =  π +  + kπ ( 2 )
2  6
π
For (1), x= + 2 kπ
3
7π
For (2),= x + 2 kπ
3
Application activity 1.7
Solve in 
1. cos x + 3 sin x =
3 2. cos x + sin x =2
3. 3sin x + 3 cos x =
3 2 , 00 ≤ x ≤ 3600
4. 3cos x + 4sin x =

1.3. Applications
1.3.1. Simple harmonic motion

Activity 1.8
Discuss how trigonometric theory is used in harmonic motion.

An object that moves on a coordinate axis is in simple harmonic

motion if its distance from the origin, d , at time t is given by
either d = a cos ωt or d = a sin ωt .
The motion has amplitude a , the maximum displacement of
2π
the object from its rest position. The period of the motion is ,
ω
where ω > 0 . The period gives the time it takes for the motion to
go through one complete cycle.

16
 Trigonometric Formulae and Equations

In describing simple harmonic motion, the equation with the

cosine function, d = a cos ωt , is used if the object is at its greatest
distance from rest position, the origin, at t = 0 . By contrast, the
equation with the sine function, d = a sin ωt , is used if the object is
at its rest position, the origin at t = 0 .
Approximatively “ π = 3.14 ” and the unit of angle in simple
harmonic motion is “radian.”

Example 1.15
If the instantaneous voltage in a current is given by the equation
E = 204 sin 3680t , where E is expressed in volts and t is expressed
in seconds, find E if t = 0.27 seconds.

Solution
E = 204 sin 3680t E = 204sin 993.6
E = 204 sin ( 3680 )( 0.27 )  E ≈ 154 volts

Example 1.16
The horizontal displacement d of the end of a pendulum is
d = K sin 2π t . Find K if d=12 centimetres and t = 3.25 seconds.

Solution
d = K sin 2π t
12 ≈ K sin ( 2 )( 3.1415 )( 3.25 ) 
12 ≈ K sin 20.42
12
K≈
sin 20.42
K ≈ 12

1.3.2. Refraction of light

Activity 1.9
Discuss how trigonometric theory is used in refraction of light.

17
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

In optics, light changes speed as it moves from one medium to

another (for example, from air into the glass of the prism). This
speed change causes the light to be refracted and to enter the new
medium at a different angle (Huygens principle).
A prism is a transparent optical element with flat, polished surfaces
that refract light.
a

θ1

white light
red

blue

The degree of bending of the light’s path

normal

depends on the angle that the incident

θ1 beam of light makes with the surface,
and on the ratio between the refractive
indices of the two media (Snell’s law).
interface
n1 v1 If the light is traveling from a rarer region
0 n2 v2 (lower n) to a denser region (higher n), it
will bend towards the normal but if it is
traveling from a denser region (higher n)
θ2 to a rarer region (lower n), it will bend
away from the normal.
Snell’s law states that: n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2
Q

Example 1.17
Light travels from air into an optical fiber with an index of
refraction of 1.44.
a) In which direction does the light bend?
b) If the angle of incidence on the end of the fiber is 220 , what
is the angle of refraction inside the fiber?

18
 Trigonometric Formulae and Equations

c) Sketch the path of light as it changes media.

Solution
a) Since the light is traveling from a rarer region (lower n) to a
denser region (higher n), it will bend towards the normal.
b) We will identify air as medium 1 and the fiber as medium 2.
Thus, n1=1.00 (index of air), n2 = 1.44 and θ1 = 220
sin 22
n1 sin θ1 = n2 sin θ 2 , sin 22 = 1.44sin θ 2 , sin θ 2 =
1.44
θ 2 = sin −1 ( 0.26 ) ⇒ θ 2 = 15 0

c) The path of the light is shown in the figure below:

n1 = 1.00 θ 2 = 15

θ1 = 22o n 2 = 1.44

Example 1.18
A ray of light is incident through glass, with refractive index 1.52,
on an interface separating glass and water with refractive index
1.32. What is the angle of refraction if the angle of incidence of the
ray in glass is 25 °?

Solution
Let the needed angle be t, use Snell’s law to write:
1.52sin 250 = 1.32sin t

1.52sin 250
⇔ sin t =
1.32
 1.52sin 250 
t = sin −1  
 1.32 
⇒t =29.10

19
 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

1.3.3. 1.3.3 Application in medicine

Activity 1.10
Conduct research in different books of the library or on the
internet to discover the application of trigonometry in the field
of medicine such as heart’s electrical activities, trucking the
rhythms of lungs capacity, testing electrical activities of the
brain and abnormalities in the brain...

Trigonometric concepts such as sinusoidal waves contribute to

various medical testing and interpretation of those test results.
1. Electrocardiography: The measurement of electrical activities
in the heart. Through this process, it is possible to determine
how long the electrical wave takes to travel from one part of
the heart to the next by showing if the electrical activity is
normal or slow, fast or irregular.
2. Pulmonary function testing: a spirometer is used to measure
the volume of air inhaled and exhaled while breathing by
recording the changing volume over time. The output of a
spirogram can be quantified using trigonometric equations
and generally, it is possible to describe any repeating rhythms
by a sine wave:

 A   2π 
= y   sin  (t)  + s y where y is some property that exhibits
2  p 
a rhythm, t is time , A is the amplitude, p is the period, and
sy is a phase shift in the height of y compared to the simplest
sine wave ( y = sin t , where sy =0). For the simplest sine wave,
the amplitude is 2 , the period 2π of a wave is the time for
completion of one cycle.

20
 Trigonometric Formulae and Equations

In humans, when each breath is completed, the lung still

contains a volume of air, called the functional residual capacity
(approximately 2200 mL in humans). Each inhalation adds from
500 mL of additional air for normal (resting) breathing. Each
exhalation removes approximately the same volume as was
inhaled. The volume of air inhaled and exhaled normally is called
the tidal volume. It takes approximately 5 seconds to complete a
single cycle. With this information, we can develop an equation for
lung capacity as a function of time for normal (resting) breathing.
Since sy describes the midpoint of the sine wave, we take the
functional residual capacity plus 1/2 the amplitude to give us
sy=2200+250=2450 mL. Our period is the time for a single cycle,
or p=5 seconds. The volume of air inhaled gives the amplitude, or
A=1000 mL. We therefore have the following equation for normal
breathing:
 500   2π 
=Lung capacity   sin  (t )  + 2450
 2   5 

Graph: Rhythms of lungs capacity

21
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Unit Summary
1. The addition and subtraction formulae:
cos ( =
x + y ) cos x cos y − sin x sin y
cos ( =
x − y ) cos x cos y + sin x sin y
sin ( x=
+ y ) sin x cos y + cos x sin y
sin ( x=− y ) sin x cos y − cos x sin y
tan x + tan y
tan ( x + y ) =
1 − tan x tan y
tan x − tan y
tan ( x − y ) =
1 + tan x tan y
cot x cot y − 1
cot ( x + y ) =
cot y + cot x
cot x cot y + 1
cot ( x − y ) =
cot y − cot x

2. The double angle formulae:

sin 2 x = 2sin x cos x
cos
= 2 x cos 2 x − sin 2 x
= 1 − 2sin 2 x
= 2 cos 2 x − 1
2 tan x
tan 2 x =
1 − tan 2 x
cot 2 x − 1
cot 2 x =
2 cot x
T- formulae
x
If t = tan ,
2
2t 1− t2 2t
a) sin x = b) cos x = 2 c) tan x =
1+ t 2
1+ t x 1 − cos x 1 − t
2

3. The half angle formulae: sin = ±

2 2
x 1 − cos x x cos x + 1
sin = ± cos = ±
2 2 2 2
x cos x + 1 x 1 − cos x
cos = ± tan = ±
2 2 2 1 + cos x
22 x 1 − cos x 1 − cos x
tan = ± =
2 1 + cos x sin x
1 − cos x sin x
= =
sin x 1 + cos x
 Trigonometric Formulae and Equations

x 1 − cos x
tan =
2 sin x or

x sin x
tan =
2 1 + cos x

4. The formulae for transforming product in sum:

1
cos x cos
= y cos ( x + y ) + cos ( x − y ) 
2
1
− cos ( x + y ) − cos ( x − y ) 
sin x sin y =
2
1
sin x cos
= y sin ( x + y ) + sin ( x − y ) 
2
1
cos x sin
= y sin ( x + y ) − sin ( x − y ) 
2
5. The formulae for transforming sum in product:
p+q p−q
cos p + cos q =
2 cos cos
2 2
p+q p−q
cos p − cos q =−2sin sin
2 2
p+q p−q
sin p + sin q =
2sin cos
2 2
p+q p−q
sin p − sin q =
2 cos sin
2 2
6. When solving trigonometric equation, transform the sum or
difference if any, into product or rearrange and rewrite the
given expression using trigonometric identities to remain
with a simple equation. Simple equation involves one
1
trigonometric function with one unknown, like sin x = .
2
In solving the equation a sin x + b cos x =
c , use t-formulae;
x
from t = tan , find the value of x .
2

23
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

End of Unit Assessment

1. Express tan 4x in function of tangent.
2. Express cot 4x in function of cotangent and tangent.
tan 690 + tan 660
3. Evaluate .
1 − tan 690 tan 660
a 1 π
4. If tanA = and tan B = , prove that A + B = .
a +1 2a + 1 4
5. Find, without using calculator, the exact value of
 45    
2 45
a) 2sin 75 cos 75
 
b) cos 2
 − sin  
 2   2 
 135  
2 tan  
 2 
c) d) 1 − 2sin 2 15
 135 

1 − tan 2  
 2 
3
6. If cos θ = and θ is acute, find the exact value of cos 2θ .
5
12
7. If tan θ = and θ is acute, find the exact value of tan 2θ .
5
8. Transform in product:
a) cos8 x − cos 9 x b) sin 3 x + sin11x
9. Transform in sum
a) sin 4 x cos11x b) cos 7 x sin 9 x
10. Solve the following equations:
1
a) 2 cos 2 x − 5cos x + 2 =0 b) sin 2 x − 2 cos x + 0
=
4
c) 2sin 2 x + 3 cos x + 1 =0 d) 3 tan 2 x + 2 3 tan x − 3 =0
11. Solve the following equations:
a) cos 5 x + cos 3 x =
0 b) sin 8 x = sin 3 x
c) sin 2 x + sin 6 x + sin 4 x =
0 d) sin mx + sin nx =
0
12. Solve the following trigonometric equations:
a) cos x + sin x =
1 b) 3 cos x − sin x =
1
c) 2sin x + 3 cos x =
1 + sin x d) cos x + sin x =2

24
Unit Sequences
2
Introductory activity
Suppose that an insect population is growing in such a way
that each new generation is 2 times as large as the previous
generation. If there are 126 insects in the first generation, on a
piece of paper, write down the number of insects that will be
there in second, third, fourth,…nth generation.

Objectives
By the end of this unit, a student will be able to:
ᇢ Define a sequence.
ᇢ Identify an arithmetic, a harmonic or a
geometric sequence.
ᇢ Determine nth term and the sum of the first n
terms of an arithmetic or geometric sequence.
ᇢ Apply the concepts of sequences to solve
problems involving arithmetic, harmonic or
geometric sequence.
ᇢ Determine the convergence or divergence of a
sequence.
When a set of numbers follows a pattern where there is a clear
rule for finding the next number in the pattern, then we have ‘a
sequence’
The following are examples of sequences
a) 1,2,3,4,.. a sequence of counting numbers
b) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, … a sequence of odd numbers
c) 0,2,4,6,8,10,… a sequence of even numbers

25
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Each number in the sequence is called a ‘term’ of the sequence.

In dealing with sequences, we usually use subscripted letters,
such as u1 to represent the first term, u2 for the second term, u3
for the third term and so on. The nth term of a sequence is denoted
un and the term before un is un −1 That is, a sequence is denoted
{u1 , u2 , u3 ,..., un−1 , un } A sequence is a function whose domain is a
subset of the set of natural numbers

A sequence is denoted shortly by {un } or (un ) .

The natural number n is called term number and value un is called

a general term of a sequence and the term u1 is the initial term or
the first term.

2.1. Arithmetic and harmonic sequences

2.1.1. Definition

Activity 2.1
Suppose that you want to build a tower with blocks.
a) On a piece of paper, draw that tower starting with 15
blocks for the bottom row until you are not able to add
another row.
b) How many rows are there?
c) Write down the number of blocks that are in each row
(from bottom row to the top row).
d) In the numbers written down each number can be found
by adding a constant number to the previous, refer to
the following picture and guess that constant number .

Sequences of numbers that follow a pattern of adding a fixed

number from one term to the next are called arithmetic sequences
or arithmetic progressions.

26
 Sequences

A sequence ( an ) is said to be arithmetic if an +1 − an = d , n ∈ 

where d is a constant. The constant d is called the common
difference of the sequence.

Example 2.1
A sequence ( an ) is given by the formula an =3n + 2, n ∈  . Prove
that it is an arithmetic sequence.

Solution
an = 3n + 2 ⇒ an +1 = 3 ( n + 1) + 2 = 3n + 5
( 3n + 5) − ( 3n + 2 ) = 3 which is a constant.
an +1 − an =
Hence ( an ) is an arithmetic sequence.

Example 2.2
A sequence ( an ) is given by the formula an =n 2 + 2, n ∈  . Prove
that it is not an arithmetic sequence.
Solution
( n + 1)
2
an = n 2 + 2 ⇒ an +1 = + 21 = n 2 + 2n + 2
an +1 − an = (n 2
+ 2n + 2 ) − ( n 2 + 2 ) = 2n which is not constant.
Hence, ( an ) is not an arithmetic sequence.

Note
If three terms are consecutive terms of an arithmetic sequence,
the double of the medium term is equal to the sum of extreme
terms. That is for an arithmetic sequence an −1 , an , an +1 , we have
2=an an −1 + an +1 .

Example 2.3
Show that 4,6,8 are three consecutive terms of an arithmetic
sequence.

27
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Solution
an −1 4,=
Here = an 6, =
an +1 8
If an −1 , an , an +1 are in arithmetic sequence, we have 2=
an an −1 + an +1
Or 2 × 6 = 8 + 4 ⇔ 12 = 12
Thus, 4,6,8 are three consecutive terms of an arithmetic
sequence.

Example 2.4
Find x such that 6, x,12 are in arithmetic progression.

Solution
If 6, x,12 are 3 consecutive terms of an arithmetic progression,
then
2 x = 6 + 12 ⇔ 2 x =18 ⇒ x = 9
Thus, 6, x,12 are in arithmetic progression, if x = 9 .

Example 2.5
Form an arithmetic progression of three numbers such that the
sum of its terms is 30 and the sum of the squares of its terms is
332.
Solution
Let the second term be x. The first term is x − d and the third term
is x + d where d is the common difference.
Now, x − d + x + x + d = 30 ⇒ 3 x = 30 or x = 10
Also, ( x − d ) + x 2 + ( x + d ) =
2 2
332

Or (10 − d ) + 100 + (10 + d ) =

2 2
332
Or 2d 2 =32 ⇒ d =±4
Therefore, the progression is 6, 10, 14 or 14, 10, 6.

Example 2.6
The nth term of the arithmetic sequence is a=
n 2n − 1 . Find its 7th
term.

28
 Sequences

Solution
Here, a=
n 2n − 1 , its 7th term is a7 = 2 × 7 − 1 = 13
Application activity 2.1
1. The following pairs of numbers are respectively the
first term and the common difference of an arithmetic
sequence. Find the first 4 terms and the 10th term of each
sequence:
a) 5, 6 b) 43, −5
c) −7, 4 d) −1, −7
2. Is the sequence 2, 7, 12, 17, 23, 27 arithmetic
progression? Why?
3. Determine the common difference of the sequence
{2n +1} .
4. Given that 24, 5 x + 1, x 2 − 1 are three consecutive terms
of an arithmetic progression, find the values of x and the
numerical value of the fourth term for each value of x
found.
5. The nth term of a sequence is given by an = 2n 2 − 5n + 17 .
Show that it is not an arithmetic sequence.

2.1.2. General term of an arithmetic sequence

Activity 2.2
If {un } is an arithmetic sequence with common difference d
and initial term u1 , then
u2= u1 + d
u3 = u2 + d = ( u1 + d ) + d = u1 + 2d
Continue in this manner up to u10 and conclude that the
general formula could be used for un .

From activity 2.2, the nth term, un , of an arithmetic sequence

{un } with common difference d and initial term u1 is given by
un = u1 + ( n − 1) d

29
 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

th
Generally, if u p is any p term of a sequence, then the nth term is
given by un = u p + ( n − p ) d

Example 2.7
Determine the 25th of an arithmetic progression (sequence) whose
9th term is -6 and common difference 5 .
4
Solution
5
an = a1 + ( n − 1) d ⇒ a9 = a1 + ( 9 − 1)
4
⇔ −6= a1 + 10 ⇒ a1 =−16
5
From an = a1 + ( n − 1) d , we get a25 =−16 + ( 25 − 1) =−16 + 30 =
14
4
Hence, the 25th term is 14
Alternative method:
We know that an = a p + ( n − p ) d
5 5
n 25,=
Here,= p 9,=
d ; then a25 =−6 + ( 25 − 9 ) =−6 + 20 =14
4 4
Hence, the 25 , the 9 term of arithmetic progression is 499 and
th th

499th term is 9. The term which is equal to zero is

i) 501st ii) 502nd
iii) 508th iv) None of these answers term is 14

Example 2.8
If the 3rd term and the 8th term of an arithmetic sequence are 5 and
15 respectively, find the common difference.
Solution
u3 5,=
= u8 15
Using the general formula: un = u p + ( n − p ) d

30
 Sequences

u3 = u8 + ( 3 − 8 ) d
5 15 − 5d
=
⇔ 5d =15 − 5
⇔ 5d = 10
⇔d= 2
The common difference is 2.

Example 2.9
Consider the sequence which went from 20 to -26 with -2 as
common difference. Find the number of terms.

Solution
We have
−26 = 20 + ( n − 1)( −2 )
⇔ −46 = −2n + 2 ⇒ n = 24
This means that there are 24 terms in the sequence.

Example 2.10
A body falls 16 metres in the first second of its motion, 48 metres
in the second, 80 metres in the third, 112 metres in the fourth and
so on. How far does it fall during the 11th second of its motion?

Solution
The distance through which the body falls in the first, second,
third, fourth,…seconds form an arithmetic progression:
16, 48,80,112,
=
Here, a1 16
= and d 32.
Distance through which it falls in 11th second is 11th term of the
arithmetic progression or a11
a11 =a1 + 10d =16 + 320 =336 .
Distance through which it falls in 11th second is 336m

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Application activity 2.2

1. If the 2nd term and the 6th term of an arithmetic sequence
are 4 and 16 respectively, find the common difference.
2. Find the number of terms in the sequence 1, 4, 7, 10, …,
25.
3. Consider the sequence 5, 8, 11, 14, 17, ..., 47 . Find the
number of terms in this sequence.
4. The 9th term of arithmetic progression is 499 and 499th
term is 9. The term which is equal to zero is
i) 501st ii) 502nd
iii) 508th iv) None of these answers
5. Write down the nth term of the arithmetic sequence
{4,11,18,} . What is the term nearest to 140? Find the
least value of n for which the 4th term is greater than
250.

2.1.3. Arithmetic means

Activity 2.3
Suppose that you need to form an arithmetic sequence of 7
terms such that the first term is 2 and the seventh term is 20.
Write down that sequence.

If three or more than three numbers are in arithmetic sequence,

then all terms lying between the first and the last numbers are
called arithmetic means. If B is arithmetic mean between A and C,
A+C
then B = .
2
To insert k terms called arithmetic means between two terms u1
and un is to form an arithmetic sequence of n= k + 2 terms whose
the first term is u1 and the last term is un .
As u1 and un are known, we get the common difference d from

32
 Sequences

un = u1 + ( n − 1) d taking n= k + 2 where k is the number of terms to

be inserted.

Example 2.11
Insert three arithmetic means between 7 and 23.

Solution
Here, k = 3 and then, n = k + 2 = 5 , u1 = 7 and u=
n u=
5 23 .
Then
u5 = u1 + ( 5 − 1) d
⇔ 23 = 7 + 4d ⇒ d = 4
Now, inserting the terms using d = 4 , the sequence is
7,11,15,19, 23 .

Example 2.12
Insert five arithmetic means between 2 and 20.

Solution
Here, k = 5 and then n = k + 2 = 7 , u1 = 2 and u=
n u=
7 20 .
Then,
u7 = u1 + ( 7 − 1) d
⇔ 20 = 2 + 6d ⇒ d =3
Now, insert the terms using d = 3 , the sequence is
2,5,8,11,14,17, 20 .

33
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Application activity 2.3

1. Insert 4 arithmetic means between -3 and 7.
2. Insert 9 arithmetic means between 2 and 32.
1 1
3. Find 12 arithmetic means between −3 and −42 .
2 2
4. The difference of two numbers is 4 and arithmetic
means between them is 6. Find the numbers.

2.1.4. Sum of arithmetic sequence

Activity 2.4

Consider a finite arithmetic sequence {un } = u1 , u2 , u3 ,...un with

common difference d. Let sn denote the sum of these terms.
We have;
u1 = u1
u2= u1 + d

un −1 = u1 + ( n − 2 ) d
un = u1 + ( n − 1) d

Sum up these terms and give the expression of sn .

For finite arithmetic sequence

n
{un } = u1 , u2 , u3 ,...un , the sum
∑u
r =1
r = u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un is called the sum of n terms of an
arithmetic sequence.
We denote the sum of the first n terms of the sequence by S n .
n
Thus, S n = u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un = ∑u
r =1
r

From activity 2.4, the sum of the first n terms of a finite arithmetic
n
sequence with initial term u1 is given by= Sn ( u1 + un ) .
2

If the initial term is u0 , the formula becomes

( n + 1)
= Sn ( u0 + u n )
2

34
 Sequences

Example 2.13
Calculate the sum of first 100 terms of the sequence 2, 4, 6,8,...
Solution
We see that the common difference is 2 and the initial term is
u1 = 2 . We need to find un = u100 .
2 + (100 − 1) 2
u100 =
= 2 + 198
= 200
Now,
100
S100
= ( u1 + u100 )
2
= 50 ( 2 + 200 )
= 10100

Example 2.14
Find the sum of the first k even integers ( k ≠ 0 ).
Solution
u1 = 2 and d = 2

un = uk Sn = Sk
k
=2 + ( k − 1) 2 = ( 2 + 2k )
2
= 2k
= k ( k + 1)

Application activity 2.4

1. Consider the arithmetic sequence 8, 12, 16, 20, … Find
the expression for S n .
2. Find the sum of the first twenty terms of the sequence 5,
9, 13, …
3. The sum of the terms in the sequence 1, 8, 15, … is 396.
How many terms does the sequence contain?
4. Find the sum of 9 terms of the arithmetic series
−12 − 5 + 2 +
5. Find the sum of all the multiple of 11 which are less than
1000.

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

2.1.5. Harmonic sequences

Activity 2.5
Consider the following arithmetic sequence: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,
14, 16.
Form another sequence whose terms are the reciprocals of the
terms of the given sequence. What can you say about the new
sequence?

Harmonic sequence is a sequence of numbers in which the

reciprocals of the terms are in arithmetic sequence.

Example 2.15
From the following sequences
1 1 1 1 1 1 1
i) , , ,... ii) , , , ,
3 6 9 a1 a1 + d a1 + 2d a1 + 3d

If you take the reciprocal of each term of the above sequences, you
get:
i) 3, 6, 9, ... which is an arithmetic sequence with a common
difference of 3.
ii) a1 , a1 + d, a1 + 2 d, a1 + 3d, which is an arithmetic sequence
with a common difference of d.

Example 2.16

Another example of harmonic sequence is 6, 3, 2. The reciprocals

1 1 1
of each term are , , which is an arithmetic sequence with a
6 3 2
1
common difference of .
6

36
 Sequences

Remark
To find the term of harmonic sequence, convert the sequence
into arithmetic sequence then do the calculations using the
arithmetic formulae. Then take the reciprocal of the answer
in arithmetic sequence to get the correct term in harmonic
sequence.

Example 2.17
Find the 9th term of the harmonic sequence 6, 4,3,

Solution

If sequence 6, 4,3, is harmonic, the sequence of reciprocals of

its terms is arithmetic.
1 1 1 1
That is, , , , are in arithmetic sequence ; a1 = and
6 4 3 6
1 1 3− 2 1 .
d= − = =
4 6 12 12
Let the 9th term of the given harmonic be h9 , thus, h9 = 1 .
a9
1 1 1 4 5
Or a9 = a1 + ( 9 − 1) d = + 8 × = + = .
6 12 6 6 6
6
Hence, 9 term of the given harmonic sequence is .
th
5
Notice
Harmonic means and harmonic series
If three terms a, b, c are in harmonic progression, the middle
one is said to be Harmonic mean between the other two and
2ac
b= .
a+c

Example 2.18
2 6
Insert 4 harmonic means between and .
3 19

37
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Solution
Let the four harmonic means be h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 .
2 6
Then, , h1 , h2 , h3 , h4 , are in harmonic progression
3 19
3 1 1 1 1 19
⇒ , , , , , are in arithmetic progression.
2 h1 h2 h3 h4 6
3 19
where a1 = and a6 =
2 6
19 19
a6 = ⇔ a1 + 5d = with d common difference.
6 6
3 19 19 3 10 1
⇒ + 5d = ⇔ 5d = − ⇔ 5d = ⇒ d =
2 6 6 2 6 3
1 3 1 11 st
h = + = ≡1 term of arithmetic Progression
2 3 6
 1
1 3 2 13 nd
h = + = ≡ 2 term of arithmetic Progression
 2 2 3 6
⇒
1 =
3 3 15 2 rd
+ = = ≡ 3 term of arithmetic Progression
 h3 2 3 6 5

1 =
3 4 17 th
+ = ≡ 4 term of arithmetic Progression
 h4 2 3 6
6 6 2 6
The four harmonic means are , , , .
11 13 5 17
Example 2.19
1 7 1 20
Find the nth term of the series 2 + 1 + 1 + +
2 13 9 23
Solution
5 20 10 20
The given series is + + + ,
2 13 9 23
2 13 9 23
The reciprocal of the terms are , , , ,
5 20 10 20
2
They are in arithmetic progression, with the first term and the
5
13 2 1
common difference − =
20 5 4
The given series in arithmetic progression: nth term of arithmetic

38
 Sequences

2 1 8 + 5n − 5 5n + 3
an = + ( n − 1) = =
progression: 5 4 20 20
1
Hence nth term of the given harmonic progression is hn = or
an
20
hn =
5n + 3
1 7 1 20 20
The nth term of the series 2 + 1 + 1 + + is .
2 13 9 23 5n + 3
Application activity 2.6

1. Find the 4th and 8th term of the harmonic series 6, 4,3,
2. Insert two harmonic means between 3 and 10.
3. Find the nth term of the harmonic progression, whose
first two terms are 6 and 3 respectively.
4. Find the nth term of the harmonic series
1 7 1 20
2 + 1 ,1 , ,
2 13 9 23
3 5 1
5. Which term of the series 2 + 1 + 1 + , is ?
4 9 2

2.2. Geometric sequences

2.2.1. Definition

Activity 2.6

Take a piece of paper which is in a square shape.

1. Cut it into two equal parts.
2. Write down a fraction corresponding to one part
according to the original piece of paper.
3. Take one part obtained in step (2) and cut, repeat step (1)
and then step 2).
4. Continue until you remain with a small piece of paper
that you are not able to cut it into two equal parts.
5. Observe the sequence of numbers you obtained and give
the relationship between any two consecutive numbers.

39
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Sequences of numbers that follow a pattern of multiplying a fixed

number from one term to the next are called geometric sequences
or geometric progression.
un +1
A sequence ( un ) is said to be geometric if = r , n ∈  where r
un
is a constant. The constant r is called the common ratio of the
sequence.

Example 2.20
The following sequences are examples of geometric sequences:
Sequence {un } : 5,10, 20, 40,80,...
Sequence {vn } : 2,1, 1 , 1 , 1 ,...
2 4 8
Sequence {wn } : 1, -2, 4, −8,16,...
Note
If three consecutive terms are in a geometric sequence, the
square of the middle term is equal to the product of extreme
terms. That is, for a geometric sequence un −1 , un , un +1 , we have
un2 un −1 ⋅ un +1
=

Example 2.21
Show that 6,12, 24 are consecutive terms of a geometric sequence

Solution

(12 )
2
=6 × 24 ⇔ 144 =144
Thus, 6,12, 24 are consecutive terms of a geometric sequence

Example 2.22
Find b such that 8, b,18 will be in geometric sequence.

Solution
± 144 =
b 2 =8 ×18 =144 b = ±12
Thus, 8,12,18 or 8, −12,18 are in geometric sequence.

40
 Sequences

Example 2.23
The product of three consecutive numbers in geometric progression
is 27. The sum of the first two terms and nine times the third is
-79. Find the numbers.

Solution
x
Let the three terms be , x, ax .
a
x
The product of the numbers is 27. So, xax = 27 ⇒ x3 = 27 ⇒ x = 3
a
The sum of the first two and nine times the third is -79:
x 3
+ x + 9ax =−79 ⇒ + 3 + 27 a =−79
a a
1
27 a 2 + 82a + 3 =0 ⇒ a =−3 or a =−
27
1
The numbers are: -1, 3, -9 or -81, 3, − .
9
Application activity 2.6
1. Find x such that 2, x, 18 are in geometric progression.
2. Is the sequence -2, 4, -8, 16, 32, 64 a geometric progression?
Why?

{
3. Determine the common ratio of the sequence 3 ( −2 ) .
n
}

41
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

2.2.2. General term of a geometric sequence

Activity 2.7
A person has two parents (father and mother), four grandparents,
eight great grandparents etc. Assuming that there are no
intermarriages:
1. Find the number of ancestors which the person has up to
6th generation?
2. Find the number of ancestors which the person has up to
8th generation?
3. Find the number of ancestors which the person has up to
10th generation?
4. Find the number of ancestors which the person has up to
12th generation?
Refer to thr table above and find the general formula that
should be used for finding the number of ancestors which
the person has up to nth generation.

Generation ( n ) Number of ancestors Observation

1st 2 2 ×1
2 nd

3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
12th

n

42
 Sequences

From activity 2.7, the nth term, un , of a geometric sequence {un }

with common ratio r and initial term u1 is given by un = u1r n −1 .
Generally,
If u p is the pth term of the sequence, then the nth term is given by
un = u p r n − p .

Example 2.24
If the first and tenth terms of a geometric sequence are 1 and 4,
respectively, find the nineteenth term.

Solution

u1 = 1 and u10 = 4
1
But un = u1r n −1 , then, 4 = 1r 9 ⇔ r = 9
4 or r = 4 9
Now,
u19 = u1r19−1
18
 1
= 1 4 9 
 
= 16

Thus, the nineteenth term of the sequence is 16.

Example 2.25

1
If the 2nd and the 9th terms of a geometric sequence are 2 and −
64
respectively, find the common ratio.

Solution
1
u2 = 2, u9 = −
64
Using the general formula: un = u p r n − p
u2 = u9 r 2−9

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

1 −7
2= − r
64
1
⇔ 128 =− 7
r
1
⇔ r7 =−
128
1 1
⇔ r =7 − ⇒ r =−
128 2

1
The common ratio is r = − .
2
Example 2.26
Find the number of terms in sequence 2, 4,8,16,..., 256 .

Solution

This sequence is a geometric sequence with common ratio 2, u1 = 2

and un = 256

But un = u1r n −1 , then 256 =×

2 2n −1 ⇔ 256 =
2n or 28 = 2n ⇒ n = 8 .
Thus, the number of terms in the given sequence is 8.

Application activity 2.7

1. Find the 4th term of the geometric progression whose 5th
term is 32 and whose 8th term is 256.
2. If the second and fifth terms of a geometric sequence are
6 and -48, respectively, find the sixteenth term.
3. If the third term and the 8th term of a geometric sequence
1 1
are and respectively, find the common ratio.
2 128

44
 Sequences

4. The first term of a geometric sequence is 54 and the

2
common ratio is .Find its 10th term.
3
5. Find the first term to exceed 1000 in each of the following
geometric sequences:
i) {16, 24,36,} ii) {1,1.3,1.69,}

2.2.3. Geometric means

Activity 2.8
Suppose that you need to form a geometric sequence of 6
terms such that the first term is 1 and the sixth term is 243.
Write down that sequence.

If three or more than three numbers are in geometric sequence,

then all terms lying between the first and the last numbers are
called geometric means. If G is geometric mean between A and C,
then G = ± AC .
To insert k terms called geometric means between two terms u1
and un is to form a geometric sequence of n= k + 2 terms whose
first term is u1 and the last term is un .
As u1 and un are known, we find the common ratio, r, from the
formula un = u1r n −1 by taking n= k + 2 where k is the number of
terms to be inserted.

Example 2.27
Insert three geometric means between 3 and 48.

Solution
u = 3 and u=
Here k = 3 and then n = 5 , 1 n u=
5 48

u5= u1r n −1 ⇔ 48= 3r 4 ⇒ r= 2

Inserting three terms using common ratio r = 2 gives 3, 6,12, 24, 48 .

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Example 2.28
1
Insert 6 geometric means between 1 and − .
128
Solution
1
Here k = 6 and then n = 8 , u1 = 1 and un = u8 = −
128
u8 = u1r n −1
1
⇔− =1r 7
128
1
⇔ r7 =
−
128
1
⇔ r7 =
−
( 2)
7

1
 1 7 1
⇔ r =−  7 
=−
 ( 2 )  2
Inserting 6 terms using common ratio r = − 1 gives
2
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .
1, − , , − , , − , , −
2 4 8 16 32 64 128

Application activity 2.8

1
1. Insert 5 geometric means between 1 and .
4 256
2
2. Insert 5 geometric means between 2 and .
729
27
3. Find the geometric mean between 3 and
2 2
4. For the numbers 4 and 9 find:
a) The arithmetic mean,
b) geometric mean.
5. Insert three geometric means between 1 and 9
9

46
 Sequences

2.2.4. The sum of n terms of a geometric sequence

Activity 2.9
1. Consider a geometric sequence with initial term u1 and
common ratio r.
Let sn = u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un
sn = u1 + u1r + u1r 2 + ... + u1r n −1 (1)
ᇢ Multiply both sides of (1) by r to obtain relation
(2),
ᇢ Subtract (2) from (1),

ᇢGive the general formula for S n .

2. Suppose that we need the product of u1 , u2 , u3 ,..., un .
2 n −1
Then, Pn = u1 × u2 × u3 × ... × un or Pn = u1 × u1r × u1r × ... × u1r
. Develop this relation and show the general formula that
should be used for Pn .
You will need the sum S n −1 =1 + 2 + ... + n − 1 which is
n −1 n ( n − 1)
S=
n −1 (1 + n =
− 1)
2 2
For finite geometric sequence {un } = u1 , u2 , u3 ,...un , the sum
n

∑u
r =1
r = u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un is called an the sum of n terms of a
geometric sequence.
We denote the sum of the firstn n terms of the sequence by S n .
Thus, S n = u1 + u2 + u3 + ... + un = ∑u
r =1
r

From activity 2.9, the sum of first n terms of a geometric sequence

u1 (1 − r n )
with initial term u1 and common ratio, r, is given by: sn =
1− r
with r ≠ 1 .
u0 (1 − r n +1 )
If the initial term is u0, then the formula is sn = with
1− r
r ≠ 1.

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

If r = 1 , sn = nu1
Also, the product of the first n terms of a geometric sequence with
n ( n −1)

initial term u1 and common ratio r is given by Pn = ( u1 ) r

n
2

n
( n +1)
If the initial term is u0 , then, Pn = ( u0 )
n +1
r2

Example 2.29
Find the sum of the first 20 terms of a geometric sequence if the
first term is 1 and common ratio is 2.

Solution
u1 1,=
Here, = r 2,=
n 20
Then,
1(1 − 220 ) 1 − 220
s20
= = = 1048575
1− 2 −1

Example 2.30
4
A geometric sequence has first term 27 and common ratio .
3
Find the least number of terms the sequence can have if its sum
exceeds 550.

Solution
4
Here u1 = 27 and r =
3
u1 (1 − r n )
Now suppose that Sn = 550 i.e. = 550
1− r
n n
4 4
1−   1−  
then, 27  3  = 3
550 ⇔ 27   = 550
4 1
1− −
3 3

48
 Sequences

n
  4 n  4 550
⇔ −81 1 −    =550 ⇔ 1 −   =−
  3   3 81

n n
4 631 4 631
⇔ −  = − ⇔  =
3 81 3 81

4 631
Taking logarithms ⇔ n log   = log
3 81
631
log
Hence, =⇔n = 81 7.136
4
log  
3
Thus, for S n > 550 , we require n > 7.136 i.e. n = 8 .

Example 2.31
Find the product of the first 20 terms of a geometric sequence if
the first term is 1 and common ratio is 2.

Solution
n ( n −1)

Pn = ( u1 ) r
n
2

u1 1,=
Here = r 2,=
n 20 ,
Thus,
20(19 )

P20 = (1) 2
20
2

= 2190

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Application activity 2.9

1. Find the sum of the first 8 terms of the geometric sequence
32, -16, 8, …
2. Find the sum of the geometric sequence with the first term
0.99 and the common ration is equal to the first term.
3. Find the first term and the common ratio of the
5n − 4 n
geometric sequence for which S n = n −1
4
4. Find the product of the first 10 terms of the sequence in
question 1.
1
5. Find the position of in the following sequence
4374
1 1 1 1
, , , ,...
2 6 18 54

2.2.3. Geometric series

Activity 2.10
∞
Consider the infinite geometric series ∑u r
n =1
1
n −1
where the sum of

u1 (1 − r n ) u1 (1 − r n )
the first n =terms is S n ( r ≠ 1) . Evaluate lim
1− r
for − 1 < r < 1. 1− r n →+∞

∞
A geometric series has the form ∑u r
n =1
1
n −1
.

From activity 2.10, the sum to infinity of a geometric series with first
u
term u1 and the common ratio, r, is S∞ = 1 provided −1 < r < 1 .
1− r
Example 2.32
Given the geometric progression 16, 12, 9, …. Find the sum of
terms up to infinity.

50
 Sequences

Solution
12 3
Here u=
1 16,=
r =
16 4
Thus, −1 < r < 1 and hence the sum to infinity will exist as
u1 16
S∞
= = = 64
1− r 1− 3
4
The sum to infinity is 64.

Example 2.33
Express the recurring decimal 0.32 as a rational number.

Solution
32 32 32
0.32 = + + + ... which is an infinite geometric
102 104 106
series with first term u1 = 0.32 and common ratio r = 0.01 .

Since −1 < r < 1 , the sum to infinity exist and equal to

u1 0.32 0.32 32
= = =
1 − r 1 − 0.01 0.99 99
32
Therefore, 0.32 =
99

Application activity 2.10

n
∞
 3x 
1. Consider the infinite geometric series ∑
n =1
10 1 −  .
 2 
a) For what values of x does a sum to infinity exist?
b) Find the sum of the series if x = 1.3 .
2. A ball is dropped from a height of 10 m and after each
bounce, returns to a height which is 84% of the previous
height. Calculate the total distance travelled by the ball
before coming to rest.

51
 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

2.3. Convergent or divergent sequences

Activity 2.11
Discuss the value of the general term of each of the following
sequences as n tends to +∞ (plus infinity) .
 3n 2 − 1 
1.  2 
 n 

2. {n }
2

A numerical sequence {un } is said to be convergent if the limit

lim un = L exists and finite whereas if the limit does not exist (or is
n →∞
infinity) the sequence is said to be divergent.

A number L is called a limit of a numerical sequence {un } if

lim un = L
n →∞

In other words, Convergent sequence is when lim un = L while

n →∞
divergent sequence is when lim un = ∞ or does not exist.
n →∞

Example 2.34
+∞
 n 
1. Determine whether the sequence   converges or
 2n + 1 n =1
diverges.

Solution
First, we find the limit of this sequence as n tends to infinity
n n 1
=lim =
lim
n →∞ 2n +1 n →∞ n 2 + 1  2
 n
+∞
 n  1
Thus,   converges .
 2n + 1 n =1 2
{8 − 2n}n=1
+∞
2. Determine whether the sequence converges or
diverges.

52
 Sequences

Solution
Firstly, we find the limit of this sequence as n tends to infinity
lim (8− 2n) = 8− 2(+∞) =−∞
n →∞
Thus, {8 − 2n}n =1 diverges.
+∞

Application activity 2.11

Which of the sequences converge, and which diverge? Find the
limit of each convergent sequence.
1 − 2 n   1 − 5n 4 
1) {2 + (0.1) n } 2)   3)  4 3
1 + 2 n   n + 8n 
 2n  7n2 + 2
4) {−1 }
n
5)   6)
n3 + 8
 3n + 1 

2.4. Applications of sequences in real life

Activity 2.12
Discuss how sequences are used in real life problems.

There are many applications of sequences. Sequences are useful in

our daily lives as well as in higher mathematics. For example; the
interest portion of monthly payments made to pay off an automobile
or home loan, and the list of maximum daily temperatures in one
area for a month are sequences. Sequences are used in calculating
interest, population growth, half-life and decay in radioactivity, in
construction, repeated drug dosage …

Example 2.35 Construction

A child building a tower with blocks uses 15 for the bottom row.
Each row has 2 fewer blocks than the previous row. Suppose that
there are 8 rows in the tower.
a) How many blocks are used for the top row?
b) What is the total number of blocks in the tower?

53
 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Solution
a) The number of blocks in each row forms an arithmetic
sequence with u1 = 15 and d = −2
b) n = 8, u8 = u1 + ( 8 − 1)( −2 ) . There is just one block in the top
row.
Here, we must find the sum of the terms of the arithmetic sequence
formed with=u1 15,= n 8,=u8 1
8
S=
8 (15 + 1=) 64
2
There are 64 blocks in the tower.

Example 2.36 Population growth

An insect population is growing in such a way that each new
generation is 1.5 times as large as the previous generation. Suppose
there are 100 insects in the first generation,
a) How many will there be in the fifth generation?
b) What will be the total number of insects in the five
generations?

Solution
a) The population can be written as a geometric sequence

with u1 = 100 as the first-generation population and

common ratio r = 1.5 . Then, the fifth generation population
(1.5) 506.25 . In the fifth generation, the
5 −1
=
will be u5 100
=
population will number about 506 insects.
b) The sum of the first five terms using the formula for the
sum of the first n terms of a geometric sequence.

= S5 = 1318.75
(
100 1 − (1.5 )
5
)
1 − 1.5
The total population for the five generations will be about 1319
insects.

54
 Sequences

Another application of sequences is their use in compound

interest and simple interest.
The compound interest formula:
kt
 r
=A P 1 +  with P = principle, t = time in years,
 k
r = annual rate, and k = number of periods per year.
The simple interest formula:
I = P rt with I = total interest, P = principle, r = annual rate, and
t = time in years.

Example 2.37 Compound interest 1

If Linda deposits $1300 in a bank at 7% interest compounded
annually, how much will be in the bank 17 years later?

Solution

P 1300,=
= r 7%
= 0.07,=
k 1
1×17
 0.07 
A=1300 1 +  =4106.46
 1 
The account will contain $4,106.46.

Example 2.38 Compound interest 2

Find the accumulated value of $15,000 at 5% per year for 18 years
using simple interest.

Solution
=P 15000,
= r 0.05,
= t 18

I = 15000 ( 0.05 )(18 )

= 13500
A total of $13,500 in interest will be earned.
Hence, the accumulated value in the account will be 13,500 +
15,000 = $28,500.

55
 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Example 2.39 Radioactivity

A mine worker discovers an ore sample containing 500 mg of
radioactive material. It is discovered that the radioactive material
has a half life of 1 day. Find the amount of radioactive material in
the sample at the beginning of the 7th day.
Solution
Half life of one day means that half of the amount remains after 1
day.
Beginning of 1st Beginning of 2nd Beginning of 3rd
...
day: 500 mg day: 250 mg day: 125 mg
End of 1st day: End of 2nd day: End of 3rd day:
...
250 mg 125 mg 62.5 mg
Decide to either work with the “beginning” of each day, or the
“end” of each day, as each can yield the answer. Only the starting
value and number of terms will differ. We will use “beginning”:
un = u1r n −1
7 −1
1
=u8 500
=   7.8125 mg
2

Example 2.40 Repeated drug dosage

Malaria is a parasitic infection transmitted by mosquito bites,
mainly in tropical areas of the world. The drug quinine is the
active ingredient and it is still used today. Suppose a person is
given a 50-mg dose of quinine at the same time every day for the
prevention of malaria. After the first dose, the person has 50 mg of
quinine in the body. What about after the second dose?
Each day, the person’s body metabolizes some of the quinine so
that, after one day, 23% of the original amount remains. After the
second dose, the amount of quinine in the body is the amount
from the second dose (50 mg) plus the remnants of the first dose
(that is, 50·0.23 = 11.5 mg) for a total of 61.5 mg. Let Qn represent

56
 Sequences

the quantity, in mg, of quinine in the body right after the nth dose.
Then
Q1 = First dose = 50.
Q2 = Second dose + Remnants of first dose = 50 + 50(0.23) =
61.5.
Q3 = Third dose + Remnants of previous doses = 50 + 61.5(0.23)
= 64.145.
Notice that we can multiply out the expression for Q3 to show the
contributions of the first and second dose separately:
Q3 = 50 + 61.5(0.23) = 50 + (50 + 50(0.23)) (0.23)
Q3 = 50 + 50(0.23) + 50(0.23)2,
so we have
Q3 = Third dose + Remnants of second dose + Remnants of first
dose.
The multiplied-out form of Q3 enables us to guess formulas for
later values of Qn:
Q4 = 50 + 50(0.23) + 50(0.23)2 + 50(0.23)3 = 64.753.
Q5 = 50 + 50(0.23) + 50(0.23)2 + 50(0.23)3 + 50(0.23)4 = 64.893.
Q6 = 50 + 50(0.23) + 50(0.23)2 + 50(0.23)3 + 50(0.23)4 + 50(0.23)5
= 64.925. . . .
Q10 = 50 + 50(0.23) + 50(0.23)2 + ··· + 50(0.23)8 + 50(0.23)9 =
64.935.
The values of Q6 and Q10 suggest that the quantity is stabilizing at
around 64.9 mg.
Qn =Q1 + Q1r + Q1r 2 + Q1r 3 + .............Q1r n −1

(1 − r n )
Qn Q1 , providedthat (r ≠ 1)
1− r
Remember that n is the number of terms in the sum Qn and r is the
common ratio

57
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

See Figure below showing the quantity of quinine levels off:

Application activity 2.12

1. Each morning, a patient receives a 25 mg injection of an
anti-inflammatory drug, and 40% of the drug remains in
the body after 24 hours. Find the quantity in the body:
(a) Right after the 3rd. injection. (b) Right after the 6 th
injection. (c) In the long run, right after an injection.
2. A smoker inhales 0.4 mg of nicotine from a cigarette.
After one hour, 71% of the nicotine remains in the body.
If a person smokes one cigarette every hour beginning at
7 am, how much nicotine is in the body right after the 11
pm cigarette?

58
 Sequences

Unit Summary
1. Numbers in sequence are denoted u1 , u2 , u3 ,..., un −1 , un ,... and
shortly {un } .
2. The natural number n is called term number and value un
is called a general term of a sequence and the term u1 is the
initial term.
3. Sequences of numbers that follow a pattern of adding a
fixed number from one term to the next are called arithmetic
sequences or arithmetic progressions.
4. For an arithmetic sequence un −1 , un , un +1 , we have
2=
un un −1 + un +1 .
5. If u p is any p term of a sequence, then the nth term is
th

given by un = u p + ( n − p ) d
6. The sum of first n terms of a finite arithmetic sequence
n
with initial term u1 is given by=sn [u1 + un ] .
2
7. Harmonic sequence is a sequence of numbers in which the
reciprocals of the terms are in arithmetic sequence: its nth
1
term is hn = where u p + ( n − p ) d
up + (n − p) d
is nth term of arithmetic sequence.
8. Sequences of numbers that follow a pattern of multiplying a
fixed number from one term to the next are called geometric
sequences or geometric progression.
un2 un −1 ⋅ un +1
9. For a geometric sequence un −1 , un , un +1 , we have =
10. The nth term, un , of a geometric sequence {un } with common
ratio r and initial term u1 is given by un = u1r
n −1

11. The sum of first n terms of a geometric sequence

with initial term u1 and common ratio r is given by:
u1 (1 − r n )
sn = with r ≠ 1 .
1− r

59
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

12.

13. Also, the product of first n terms of a geometric sequence

with initial term u1 and common ratio r is given by
n ( n −1)

Pn = ( u1 ) r
n
2 .
u1 (1 − r n )
14. For the formula sn =
1− r
u1
If −1 < r < 1 , S∞ = .
1− r
15. Sequences are used in calculating interest, population
growth, half-life and decay in radioactivity.

60
 Sequences

End of Unit Assessment

1. Find the 20th term of the following arithmetic progressions
and calculate the sum of first 20 terms:
a) 2, 6, 10, 14, …
b) -5, -3.5, -2, -0.5, …
2. Find the nth term of the following arithmetic progression and
calculate the sum of first n terms:
a) 4, 6, 8, 10, …
b) 17, 14, 11, 8, …

c) 1, n − 1 , n − 2 , n − 3 ,...
n n n
3. In an arithmetic progression, we have:
u1 4,=
a) = n 8 ; find un and sum of terms.
d 2,=
d 4,=
b)= un 39,
= n 10 ; find u1 and sum of terms.
u1 3,=
c) = un 21,=
S n 120 ; find n and d.
un 199,
d)= = n 100,
= S n 10000 ; find u1 and d.
4. Form an arithmetic progression such that the 4th term and
12th term are 40 and 42 respectively.
5. In an arithmetic progression, the sum of the 8th and 14th terms
is 50. The 5th term is equal to 13. Find that progression.
1
6. Insert 8 arithmetic means between -2 and.
4
7. Find x consecutive integer numbers known that the first
3
number is 8 and their sum is x .
8. The sum of 3 consecutive terms in arithmetic progression is
33 and their product is 1287. What are those numbers?
9. In a geometric progression, we have:
u1 3,=
a) = r 4,=
n 5 ; find un and sum of terms.
3
un
b) = , u1 12,
= = n 9 ; find r and sum of terms.
64

61
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

10. In a geometric progression, the first and the third terms are
8 and 18 respectively. Find the 5th term.
11. In a geometric progression, the first term is 32 and the
product of the 3rd and the 6th terms is 17496. Find the 8th
term.
12. Insert 3 geometric terms between 2 and 8.
13. The sum of 3 numbers forming a geometric progression is
21 and the sum of their squares is 189. Find those numbers.
14. In a geometric progression with 5 terms, the common ratio is
1
equal to the of the first term, and the sum of the first two
4
terms is 24. Find the 5th term.
15. Calculate the numbers x, y, z known that x, y, z form an
arithmetic progression, y, x, z form a geometric progression
and the product xyz is equal to 216.
16. The sum of three numbers that form arithmetic progression
is 51, and the difference between the squares of the greatest
and the least is 408. Find the numbers.
17. The sum of four numbers that form an arithmetic
progression is 38, and the sum of their squares is 406. Find
the numbers.
18. The sum of five numbers that form an arithmetic
progression is 10, and the product of the first, third and
fifth is -64. Find the numbers.
19. The fourth, seventh and sixteenth terms of an arithmetic
progression are in geometric progression. If the first six
terms of the arithmetic progression have a sum of 12, find
the common difference of the arithmetic progression and
the common ratio of the geometric progression.

62
 Sequences

20. The third, fifth and seventeenth terms of an arithmetic

progression are in geometric progression. Find the common
ratio of the geometric progression.
21. A mathematical child negotiates a new pocket money deal
with her unsuspecting father in which he/she receives
1 pound on the first day of the month, 2 pounds on the
second day, 4 pounds on the third day, 8 pounds on the
fourth day, 16 pounds on the fifth day, … until the end of
the month. How much would the child receive during the
course of a month of 30 days? (Give your answer to the
nearest million pounds.)
22. Find the common ratio of a geometric progression that has
a first term of 5 and sum to infinity of 15.
23. The sum of the first two terms of a geometric progression
is 9 and the sum to infinity is 25. If the common ratio is
positive, find the common ratio and the first term.
24. A culture of bacteria doubles every 2 hours. If there are
500 bacteria at the beginning, how many bacteria will
there be after 24 hours?
25. You complain that the hot tub in your hotel suite is not
hot enough. The hotel tells you that they will increase the
temperature by 10% each hour. If the current temperature
of the hot tub is 75º F, what will be the temperature of the
hot tub after 3 hours, to the nearest tenth of a degree?
26. The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180º, of a
quadrilateral is 360º and of a pentagon is 540º. Assuming
this pattern continues, find the sum of the interior angles
of a dodecagon (12 sides).

63
 Logarithmic
Unit and Exponential
3 Equations

Introductory activity
A pharmacist created a business which helped him to make
money in an interesting way so that the money he/she earns
each day doubles what he/she earned the previous day. If he/she
had 200 USD on the first day and by taking as the number of
days, discuss the money he/she can have at the day through
answering the following questions:
a) Draw the table showing the money this pharmacist will
have on each day starting from the first to the 10th day.
b) Plot these data in rectangular coordinates
c) Based on the results in a), establish the formula for the
economist to find out the money he/she can earn on the
nth day. Therefore, if is the time in days, express the
money for the pharmacist.
d) Now the pharmacist wants to possess the money under
the same conditions, discuss how he/she can know the
number of days necessary to get such money from the
beginning of the business.

Objectives
By the end of this unit, a student will be able to:
ᇢ solve exponential equations.
ᇢ solve logarithmic equations.
ᇢ apply exponential and logarithmic equations in
real life problems.

64
 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations

3.1. Introduction to Exponential and logarithmic functions

Activity 3.1

Draw the graph of y = 2 x

for −2 ≤ x ≤ 3
In the same plane, sketch the graph of y = 2 and y = −3 .
How many times does the horizontal line cross the curve of
y = 2 x ? How can you conclude?
Reflect y = 2 on the line y = x and name the new curve
x

g ( x) .

Remember that only a one to one function is invertible.

To find the inverse of the function y = a x , where a is a positive real
number different from 1, we make x the subject of the formula by
introducing a new function called logarithm and write x = log a y
which is read “x is logarithm of y in base a”.
The graph of a logarithmic function is found by reflecting the
graph of the corresponding exponential function in the line y = x
. Thus, from activity 1, the curve of y = 2 x and g ( x ) are inverse to
each other. Thus, g ( x ) = log 2 x .
Since g ( x ) = log 2 x is the inverse of y = 2 x , the curve of g ( x ) = log 2 x
is the image of the curve of y = 2 with respect to the first bisector,
x

y = x . Then, the coordinates of the points for y = 2 x are reversed to

obtain the coordinates of the points for g ( x ) = log 2 x .
Note that the words power, index, exponent and logarithm are
synonymous; they are four different words to describe exactly the
same thing.
power
exponent
index
logarithm
ac = b number a, b ∈ IR
 + and a ≠ 1
+

Base

65
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Example 3.1
In the same Cartesian plane, sketch the curve of the function
f ( x ) = 3x for −2 ≤ x ≤ 2 and its inverse f −1 ( x ) with the first
bisector.

Solution
Table of coordinates of f ( x ) = 3x
x -2 -1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2
y 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.6 2.4 3.7 5.8 9.0

Table of coordinates of f −1 ( x )
x 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 1.0 1.6 2.4 3.7 5.8 9.0
y -2 -1.6 -1.2 -0.8 -0.4 0 0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 2

Curve
y
9

8
f ( x ) = 3x
7

6
y=x
5

2
f −1
( x ) = log 3 x
1
x
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
-1

Application activity 3.1

Sketch the following functions in Cartesian plane with their
inverses:
x x
1 1
1.=y   , −3≤ x ≤ 3 y   ,− 2 ≤ x ≤ 2
2. =
2 3

66
 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations

3.2. Exponential and logarithmic equations

Each exponential expression has a corresponding logarithmic
expression.
The relationship is b = ac ⇔ c =log a b . Thus, we may write
b = a loga b .
For example, 100 =102 ⇔ 100 =10log 10 100
⇒ log10 100 = 2
81 = 34 ⇔ 81 = 3log 3 81
⇒ log 3 81 = 4
There are two common bases for logarithms, 10 and e
 e is irrational number and e ≈ 2.718281828, which we will prove in senior 6 
 x 
 that can be expressed=  1 
 as e lim 1 +  
 x →∞
 x 
You should find an "ln" button on your calculator which will
evaluate logarithms to base e and "log" button to evaluate
logarithms to base 10.

Activity 3.2
Let p = log a x , and q = log a y , where a > 0 and a ≠ 1 .
Remember that these two statements can be written as
q
x = a p and y = a .
From product rule of exponent, express log a xy in terms
of log a x and log a y .

mc ⇔ log m b =
HINT: b = c
x
Hence, prove that log a=
  log a x − log a y
 y
Basic rules for exponents

For a > 0 and a ≠ 1, m, n ∈ IR

3. ( a m ) = a mn
n
1. a m × a n =
a m+n 2. a m : a n = a m − n
1 m
1
4. a − n = 5. a n = n a 6. a n = n a m
an
7. a loga b = b

67
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Basic rules for logarithms

∀x, y ∈ ]0, +∞[ , a ∈ ]0, +∞[ \ {1} :
1
a) log=
a xy log a x + log a y b) log a = − log a y
y
x
c) log
= a log a x − log a y d) log a x r = r log a x
y
Example 3.2
Write 26 = 64 in logarithmic form.

Solution
26 = 64 ⇔ 26 = 2log 2 64 ⇒ log 2 64 = 6

Example 3.3
Write log m b = c in exponential form.

Solution
log m b = c ⇒ b = mc

Example 3.4

Find x if log 2 32 = x
Solution
log 2 32 =x ⇒ 32 =2 x
But 32 = 25 . So 32 = 2 x ⇔ 25 = 2 x ⇒ x = 5

Example 3.5
Find the numerical value of log 3 3 9 .

68
 Logarithmic
1 and Exponential Equations
⇔ 3y =
93
1 1
2
Solution ⇔ 3y =
93 ⇔ 3y =  
3  3
1 1 2
2
Let y = log 3 ⇔9 3, ythen
3  
9 3 3 =⇔3 39y =
y
= 3  3 ⇔ 3 y =
33
1 1 2
2  2
⇔3 =
9 ⇔3 =
y
3 3 y  3
⇔3 =
y
3 ⇒y=
3
3
1
2  3 y 2 3
2
2
Hence,
⇔3 =
y log
3 3 3  ⇔93= = 3 ⇒y=
3 3
2 2
⇔ 3y = y=
3 3 ⇒ activity
Application 3.2
3
2
1. Prove basic rules for exponents:
⇒y=
3 a) a m × a n =
( )
m n
a m+n b) a m : a n = a m − n c) a = a mn
−n 1 1 m
d) a = e) a n
= n
a f) a n
= n am
an
2. Write each of the following in logarithmic form:
x
−3 1 1
3
a) 4 = 64 b) 2 = c)   = y
8 2
3
d) p = q e) 8 x = 0.5 f) 5− p = q
3. Find the exact value of x , showing your working:
b) log x 125 = 3 c) log x 64 = 0.5
a) log 2 8 = x
1 1
d) log 4 64 = x e) log 9 x = 3 f) log 2   = x
2 2
4. Find the numerical value of each of the following:
a) log 3 243 b) log 5 125 c) log 5 0.008
 1 
d) log 5   e) log 64 4 f) log 3 3
 125 
g) log a a h) log a 1

Activity 3.3
Prove each of the following logarithmic laws
1. log a ( m ) = p log a m The Power Law
p

log c b
2. log a b = The Change of Base Law
log c a

69
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

The change of base rule is very useful since all logarithmic

calculations are performed either in base 10 or in base e .
log10 x is usually written log x which is called
ᇢ
decimal (or common) logarithm.
log x ⇔ the which1010
the power to wich must bebe
must raised producex.x.
totoproduce
raised
ᇢ log e x is usually written as ln x which is called
natural logarithm.
Thus, ln x ⇔ the
the power
power to
to wich e must
whiche must bebe raised
raised producex.x.
totoproduce
Generally,
log a x ⇔ the
the power
power to
towich a must
whicha must bebe raised
raised producex.x.
totoproduce

Example 3.6
Calculate to 3 significant figures, the value of log 2 10 .

Solution
log10 1
log
= 2 10 = = 3.322 ( 3 s. f .)
log 2 0.30103
Or
ln10 2.302585
log=
2 10 = = 3.322 ( 3 s. f .)
ln 2 0.693147

Example 3.7
If y = 2 x3 , find a linear expression connecting log x and log y .

Solution
Introducing log on both sides of y = 2 x3 yields
log y = log 2 x3 ⇔ log y = log 2 + log x3
⇔ log y = log 2 + 3log x

Example 3.8
x3
Express log a in terms of log a x, log a y and log a z
y2 z

70
 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations

Solution
x3
log=
a 2
log a x 3 − log a y 2 z
y z
x3
⇔ log a 2
=3log a x − ( log a y 2 + log a z )
y z
x3
⇔ log a = 3log a x − 2 log a y − log a z
y2 z

Example 3.9
Write an expression equivalent to log y= 3 − 2 log x without using
logarithms.
log y= 3 − 2 log x
⇔ log y= log1000 − log x 2
1000
⇔ log y = log 2
x
1000
⇒y=2
x
Or log y= 3 − 2 log x
⇒ y = 103− 2log x as log a b = c ⇔ b = a c
2
103−log x
⇔ y=
103
⇔ y = log x2
10
1000
=⇒y = since b a loga b
x2

Example 3.10
Solve the equation 23 x = 32 x−1 .

Solution
23 x = 32 x−1 taking logarithms of both sides and applying logarithmic
laws give;

71
 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

( 2 x − 1) log 3 ⇔ 3x log 2 =
3 x log 2 = 2 x log 3 − log 3
⇔ 3 x log 2 − 2 x log 3 =
log 3
⇔ x ( 3log 2 − 2 log 3) =
log 3
log 3
⇔x=
3log 2 − 2 log 3
9.327
⇒x=

Example 3.11
Solve the equation 2 ( 52 x ) − 5 x =
6.

Solution
Let y 5 x , with y > 0.
=
Then 2 y 2 − y =6
Or 2 y 2 − y − 6 =0
( 2 y + 3)( y − 2 ) =
0
1
⇒y=−1 excluded since y =5 x must be positive
2
Or y = 2
log 2
So y = 2 gives 5 x = 2 ⇒ x = log 5 2 = = 0.431
log 5
Application activity 3.3
1. Given that log m x = p , express each of the following in
terms of p ;
a) log m ( x 4 ) b) log  1  c) log m ( mx )
m 2 
x
 
2. Simplify;
c) ln  x3e( − x ) 
2
b) eln x − 2ln y 2
a) e 2−ln x
 
3. Solve the equations
a) 2 x = 5 b) 3x = 23
c) 43 x+1 = 34 d) e 4 x − 13e 2 x + 36 =
0

72
 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations

3.3. Applications
Exponential growth

Activity 3.4
In a laboratory, for experiment, we start with 2 cells in a dish.
The number of cells in the dish doubles every 30 minutes.
a) How many cells are in the dish after four hours?
b) After what time are there 213 cells in the dish?

c) After 10 1 hours, there are 222 cells in the dish and an

2
experiment fluid is added which eliminates half of the
cells. How many cells are left?

A population whose rate of increase is proportional to the size of

the population at any time obeys a law of the form P = Ae kt . This
is known as exponential growth.

Example 3.12
According to United Nations data, the world population at the
beginning of 1975 was approximately 4 billion and growing at rate
of about 2% per year. Assuming an exponential growth model,
estimate the world population at the beginning of the year 2020.

Solution
Let t be time (in years) elapsed from the beginning of 1975 and
P ( t ) be world population in billions.
Since the beginning of 1975 corresponds to t = 0 , it follows from
( 0 ) 4 ( billions ) .
P0 P=
the given data that=

Since the growth rate is 2% ( k = 0.02 ) , it follows that the world

( t ) P=
population at time will be P= 0e
kt
4e0.02t .
Since the beginning of the year 2020 corresponds to t = 45 (2020-
1975=45), it follows that the world population by the year 2020

73
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

will be P ( 45 ) = 4e ( billlion )
0.02(45)

Or P ( 45 ) = 4e0.9 ( billion )
= 4 ( 2.459603)( billion )
= 9.838412 ( billion )

Which is a population of approximately 9.8 billion.

Exponential decay

Activity 3.5

The amount, A ( t ) gram, of radioactive material in a

 − t 
sample after t years is given by A ( t ) = 80  2 100  .
 
a) Find the amount of material in the original sample.
b) Calculate the half-life of the material (the half-life is the
time taken for half of the original material to decay).
c) Calculate the time taken for the material to decay
1gram .

A population whose rate of decrease is proportional to the size

of the population at any time obeys a law of the forms P = Ae − kt
.The negative sign on exponent indicates that the population is
decreasing. This is known as exponential decay.
If a quantity has an exponential growth model, then the time
required for it to double in size is called the doubling time.
Similarly, if a quantity has an exponential decay model, then the
time required for it to reduce in value by half is called the halving
time. For radioactive elements, halving time is called half-life.

74
 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations

Doubling time and halving time

Activity 3.6
Show that the doubling time (T ) for a quantity with an
exponential growth model ( k > 0 ) depends only on the growth
1
rate not on the amount present initially and is T = ln 2 .
k
Doubling and halving times depend only on the growth rate and
not on the amount present initially.
Doubling time for a quantity with an exponential growth model

( k > 0 ) is T = 1 ln 2 and halving time for a quantity with an

k
1
exponential decay model ( k < 0 ) is T = − ln 2 .
k
Example 3.13
The radioactive element carbon-14 has a half-life of 5,750 years. If
100 grams of this element are present initially, how much will be
left after 1,000 years?

Solution
1
As T = − ln 2 , the decay constant is
k
1
k = − ln 2
T
1
= − ln 2
5750
1
= − 0.693147181
5750
=-0.000120547
 −0.00012
Radioactive decay obeys a law of the forms P ( t ) = P0 e .
− kt

Thus, if we take t = 0 to be the present time, then=

P0 P=( 0 ) 100 ,
thus, the amount of carbon-14 after 1,000 years will be

75
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

P (1000 ) = 100e
−0.00012(1000 )

= 100e −0.12
 100 ( 0.88692 )
 88.692
Thus, about 88.692grams of carbon-14 will remain.

Example 3.14
Magnitudes of earthquakes are measured using the Richter scale.
On this scale, the magnitude R of an earthquake is given by
 I 
R = log   where I 0 is a fixed standard intensity
 I0 
used for comparison, and I is the intensity of earthquakes being
measured.
a) Show that if an earthquake measures R = 3 on Richter
scale, then its intensity is 1,000 times the standard, that
is , I = 1, 000 I 0 .
b) The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 registered R = 8.2
on Richter scale. Express its intensity in terms of the
standard intensity.
c) How many times more intense is an earthquake measuring
R = 8 than on measuring R = 4?

Solution
a) If an earthquake measures R = 3 on Richter scale,
 I 
then log   = 3
 I0 
I
⇒ = 103
I0
103 I 0
⇔I=
⇔ I=1000 I0

Therefore, intensity is 1,000 times the standard, that is,

76
 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations

I = 1, 000 I 0 .
b) The San Francisco earthquake of 1906 registered
 I 
R = 8.2 on Richter scale. It means that log   = 8.2
I  I0 
or = 108.2 ⇔ I= 108.2 I 0 expresses its intensity in
I0
terms of the standard intensity.

c) Let E1 , E2 be earthquakes measuring R = 8 and R = 4

respectively.
I
For E1 : R = 8 ⇒ =108 ⇔ I =108 I 0 ;
I0
I
For E2 : R = 4 ⇒ = 104 ⇔ I = 104 I 0 ;
I0
Intensity of E1 is I1 = 108 I 0 (1)
4
Intensity of E2 is I 2 = 10 I 0 (2)
The ratio of two above equations yields
I1 108 I 0
= 4
= 104 ⇒ I1 = 104 I 2 ⇔ I1 = 10, 000 I 2
I 2 10 I 0
An earthquake measuring R = 8 is 10,000 times more intense
than one measuring R = 4 .

Example 3.15
Jack operates an account with a certain bank which pays a
compound interest rate of 13.5% per annum. He opened the account
at the beginning of the year with 500,000 Frw and deposits the
same amount of money at the beginning of every year. Calculate
how much he will receive at the end of 9 years. After how long
will the money have accumulated to Frw 3.32 million?

Solution
The compound interest formula:
The 1st deposit will be

77
 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

500, 000 ×13.5  13.5 

500, 000 + 500, 000 1 +
= 
100  100 

Or
500, 000 ×13.5
500, 000 + 500, 000 ×1.135
=
100

The 2nd deposit will grow to 500, 000 × (1.135 )

2

The 3rd deposit will grow to 500, 000 × (1.135 )

3

The nth deposit will grow to 500, 000 × (1.135 )

n

So the 9th deposit will grow to 500, 000 × (1.135 )

9

The total sum

500, 000 × (1.135 ) + 500, 000 × (1.135 ) + 500, 000 × (1.135 ) +  + 500, 000 × (1.135 )
2 3 9

= 500, 000 1.135 + (1.135 ) + (1.135 ) +  + (1.135 ) 

2 3 9
 
 1− r 
n
From S n = u1   , we get
 1− r 
  1 − (1.135 )9  
S9 = 500, 000 1.135  
  1 − 1.135  
 

−500, 000 ×1.135 × 2.125811278

Or S9 =
−0.135
Or S9 = 8,936, 281
Finding how long it will take the money to accumulate to 3,320,000
Frw
S n = 3,320, 000

  1 − (1.135 )n  
⇒ 500, 000 1.135   =3,320, 000
  1 − 1.135  
 

1 − (1.135 ) 1 − (1.135 )
n n
3,320,000 3,320, 000
⇒ = ⇔ =
1 − 1.135 500,000 ×1.135 −0.135 500, 000 ×1.135

78
 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations

332 × 0.135 332 × 0.135

⇔ 1 − (1.135 ) =− ⇔ (1.135 ) − 1 =
n n

50 ×1.135 50 ×1.135

⇔ (1.135 ) − 1 =0.7897
n

(1.135 ) 0.7897 + 1
n
=
(1.135) = 1.7897
n

Introducing logarithm to the base 10 on both sides gives

n log (1.135 ) = log (1.7897 )
log (1.7897 )
n=
log (1.135 )
n ≈ 4.6
Hence it will take 4.6 years for the amount to accumulate to 3.32
million Frw.

Example 3.16
A man deposits 800,000 Frw into his savings account on which
interest is 15% per annum. If he makes no withdrawals, after how
many years will his balance be 8 million Frw?

Solution
Here, the interest rate will be compound such that amount is
n
 r 
P 1 +  , where n=period of time.
 100  n
 15 
8,=
000, 000 800, 000 1 + 
 100 
(1 + 0.15)
n
10=
10 = (1.15 )
n

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

log10 = log (1.15 )

n

1 = n log (1.15 )
1
n=
log (1.15 )
n ≈ 16.5 years

Example 3.17
Cholera, an intestinal disease, is caused by a cholera bacterium
that multiplies exponentially by cell division as modelled by
N=N 0 e1.386t , where N is the number of bacteria present after t
hours and N0 is the number of bacteria present at t = 0. If we start
with 1 bacterium, how many bacteria will be present in
a) 5 hours?
b) 12 hours?

Solution
For t = 5
N= N0 e1.386t
N0 =1 and t=5
N=e1.386*5
N=e6.93
N=1,022.493
After t =5, there will be 1,022.493 bacteria
for t =12 hours
N=N0e1.386t
N0 =1 and t=12
N=e1.386*12
N = e16.632
N=16,718,057.823
After t =12, there will be 16,718,057.823 bacteria

80
 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations

Application activity 3.4

1. A certain cell culture grows at a rate proportional to the
number of cells present. If the culture contains 500 cells
initially 800 after 24h , how many cells will be there after
a further 12h ?
2. A radioactive substance decays at a rate proportional to
the amount present. If 30% of such a substance decays in
15 years, what is the half-life of the substance?
3. A colony of bacteria is grown under ideal conditions in
laboratory so that the population increases exponentially
with time. At the end of three hours there are 10,000
bacteria. At the end of 5 hours there are 40,000. How many
bacteria were present initially?
4. A radioactive material has a half-life of 1,200 years.
a) What percentage of the original radioactivity of a
sample is left 10 years?
b) How many years are required to reduce the
radioactivity by 10%?
5. Scientists who do carbon-14 dating use a figure of 5700
years for its half-life. Find the age of a sample in which
10% of the radioactive nuclei originally present have
decayed.
6. How much money needs to be invested today at a nominal
rate of 4% compounded continuously, in order that it
should grow to Frw 10,000 in 7 days?
7. The number of people cured is proportional to the number
y that is infected with the disease.
a) Suppose that in the course of any given year the
number of cases of disease is reduced by 20 %. If
there are 10,000 cases today, how many years will it
take to reduce the number to 1000?
b) Suppose that in any given year the number of cases
can be reduced by 25% instead of 20% .
(i) How long will it take to reduce the number of
cases to 1000?
(ii) How long will it take to eradicate the disease,
that is, to reduce the number of cases to less
than 1?

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Unit Summary
1. To find the inverse of the function y = a x , we write
x = log a y .
2. The graph of a logarithmic function is found by reflecting
the graph of the corresponding exponential function in the
line y = x .
3. Each exponential expression has a corresponding
logarithmic expression. The relationship is
b = ac ⇔ c =log a b . Thus, we may write b = a
log b
. a

4. Basic rules for exponents

For a > 0 and a ≠ 1, m, n ∈ 

a) a m × a n =
a m+n b) a m : a n = a m − n
1
c) (a ) m n
= a mn
−n
d) a =
an
1 m

e) a = a
n n
f) a = n am
n

g) a loga b = b
5. Basic rules for logarithms
∀x, y ∈ ]0, +∞[ , a ∈ ]0, +∞[ \ {1} :
a) log= log a x + log a y 1
a xy b) log a = − log a y
y
x
d) log a x = r log a x
r
c) log
= a log a x − log a y
y
log c b
e) log a b =
log c a
6. Exponential and logarithmic functions are used in
population growth, half life, and decay in radioactivity.
Logarithmic functions are also used to find interest rate
problems.

82
 Logarithmic and Exponential Equations

End of Unit Assessment

In number 1-6, find the numerical value
1. log 2 32 2. log 4 8 3. log 6 7

4. log 5 125 5. log 5 0.008 6. log 9 10

In number 7-12, solve for x
7. log 3 x = 4 8. ln ( x − 2 )( x −=
1) ln ( 2 x + 8 )
9. ln ( x − 2 ) + ln ( x −=
1) ln ( 2 x + 8 )
10. log x 5 = log 5 x 11. 144 x = 12
12. 9 x − 2 × 3x+1 =27
13. The population of a country grows according to the law
P = Ae0.06t where P million is the population at time t
years and A is a constant. Given that at time t = 0 , the
population is 27.3 million, calculate the population
when;
a) t = 10 b) t = 15 c) t = 25
14. The population of a city, P ( n ) , n years after the
 30n 
population was p is given by P ( n ) = p  e  . Find:
 
a) The time taken for the population to double.
b) The time taken for the population to reach 1 million
from an original population of 10000.
15. The speed V ( t ) , of a certain chemical reaction at t C is
t
given by V= ( t ) V ( 0 ) × 530 . At what temperature will the
speed of reaction be twice that at 0 C ?
16. The speed, S ( t ) ms −1 , at which a man falls t seconds after
jumping from a plane is given by S= ( t ) 48 (1 − 2−0.3t ) . After
how long is the man falling at;
−1
a) 24 ms b) 30 ms −1 c) 45 ms −1 ?

83
Unit Trigonometric
4 Functions and
their Inverses
Introductory activity

=
Given the function ( x) cos x ,
y f=
a) Complete the table of values of y = f ( x) for
−2π ≤ x ≤ 2π
b) use the values obtained from a) to draw the graph
for y = f ( x) ,

c) Find the values of x for which f ( x) = 0 . They are

f −1 (0) .
1. You studied trigonometry in previous levels, give two
examples of applications of trigonometric functions in
real life.

Objectives:
By the end of this unit, a student will be able to:
ᇢ find the domain and range of trigonometric
functions and their inverses.
ᇢ study the parity of trigonometric functions.
ᇢ study the periodicity of trigonometric functions.
ᇢ evaluate limits of trigonometric functions.
ᇢ differentiate trigonometric functions and their
inverses.

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

4.1. Generalities on trigonometric functions and

their inverses
4.1.1. Domain and range of six trigonometric
functions

Activity 4.1
State the values of x where the following functions are not
defined:
1. y = sin x 2. y = cos x 3. y = tan x 4. y = cot x

Cosine and sine

sin x and cos x are functions which are defined for all positive
and negative values of x even for x = 0 . Thus, the domain of sin x
and cos x is the set of real numbers. The range of sin x and cos x

is [ −1,1] .

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Tangent and cotangent

π 3π
Function tan x is not defined for x =
± , ± ,... . Generally,
2 2
π
tan x is not defined for x =+ kπ , k ∈  . Thus, domain of tan x is
2
π 
 \  + kπ  , k ∈  . The range of tan x is the set of
2 
real numbers.
Function cot x is not defined for x = 0, ±π , ±2π ,... . Generally,
cot x is not defined for
= x kπ , k ∈  . Thus, domain of cot x is

 \ {kπ } , k ∈  . The range of cot x is the set of real numbers.

86
 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

Secant and cosecant

π 3π
Function sec x is not defined for x =
± , ± ,... .
2 2
π
Generally, sec x is not defined for x =+ kπ , k ∈  .
2
π 
Thus, similar to tangent, domain of sec x is  \  + kπ  , k ∈  .
2 
Since
1 1
sec x = and range of cosine is [ −1,1] , will vary
cos x cos x
from negative infinity to -1 or from 1 to positive infinity. Thus, the
range of sec x is ]−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞[

Function csc x is not defined for x = 0, ±π , ±2π ,... . Generally, csc x

=
is not defined for x kπ , k ∈  . Thus, similar to cotangent, domain

of csc x is  \ {kπ } , k ∈  .
1 1
Since csc x = and range of sine is [ −1,1] , will
sin x sin x
vary from negative infinity to -1 or from 1 to positive infinity.
Thus, the range of csc x is ]−∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞[

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Application activity 4.1

Find the domain of definition for each of the following functions:

1
1. ( x ) sin x + cos x
f= 2. f ( x ) = sin
x
 x +1 
3. f ( x ) = cos  
 x 

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

4.1.2. Domain and range of inverses of

trigonometric functions
Activity 4.2
Use properties of inverse functions and state the values of x
where the following functions are not defined:
−1 −1
1. y = sin x 2. y = cos x 3. y = tan −1 x

Inverse sine and inverse cosine

sin x and cos x are defined on the entire interval ( −∞, +∞ ) . They
have the inverses called inverse sine and inverse cosine denoted
by sin −1 x and cos −1 x respectively.
−1
Note that the symbols sin −1 x and cos x are never used to denote
1 1 1 1
and respectively. If desired, and can be
sin x cos x sin x cos x
written as ( sin x )−1 and ( cos x ) (or csc x and
−1

sec x ) respectively.

In older literature, sin −1 x and cos −1 x are called arcsine of x and

arccosine of x and they are denoted by arc sin x and arc cos x
respectively.

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Remark
The inverses of the trigonometric functions are not functions,
they are relations. The reason they are not functions is that for a
given value of x , there is an infinite number of angles at which the
trigonometric functions take on the value of x . Thus, the range of
the inverses of the trigonometric functions must be restricted to
make them functions. Without these restricted ranges, they are
known as the inverse trigonometric relations.
To define sin −1 x and cos −1 x , we restrict the domain of sin x and
π π
cos x to the interval  − ,  and [ 0, π ] respectively
 2 2
to obtain a one-to-one function.
There are other ways to restrict the domain of sin x and cos x
to obtain one-to-one functions, we might have required that
3π 5π −5π −3π
≤x≤ and π ≤ x ≤ 2π (or ≤x≤
2 2 2 2
and −2π ≤ x ≤ −π ) respectively.

Because sin x (restricted) and sin −1 x ; cos x (restricted) and cos −1 x

are inverses to each other, it follows that:
ᇢ sin −1 ( sin y ) = y if − π ≤ y ≤ π ; sin ( sin −1 x ) = x if
2 2
−1 ≤ x ≤ 1 .
ᇢ cos −1 ( cos y ) = y if 0 ≤ y ≤ π ; cos ( cos −1 x ) = x if
−1 ≤ x ≤ 1 .
From these relations, we obtain the following important result:

Theorem 4.1
π π
If −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and − ≤ y ≤ , then y = sin x and
−1
ᇢ
2 2
sin y = x are equivalent.
ᇢ If −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ y ≤ π , then y = cos −1 x and
cos y = x are equivalent.

90
 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

Example 4.1
Find;
1
a) sin −1   b) sin −1  − 1 
2  
 2

Solution
1
a) Let y = sin −1   . From Theorem 4.1, this equation is
2
1 π π
equivalent to sin y = , − ≤ y ≤ . The only value
2 2 2
π −1  1  π
satisfying these conditions is y = , so sin   =
6 2 6
 1 
b) =
Let y sin −1  − .
 2
From Theorem 4.1, this equation is equivalent to
1 π π
sin y = − ; − ≤ y ≤ . The only value satisfying
2 2 2
π π.
these conditions is y = − , so sin −1  − 1  =
4   −4
 2
Example 4.2
Simplify the function cos ( sin −1 x ) .

Solution
The idea is to express cosine in terms of sine in order to take
advantage of the simplification sin −1 ( sin x ) = x .
Thus, we start by the identity cos θ = 1 − sin θ and substitute
2 2

θ = sin −1 x to obtain cos 2 ( sin −1 x ) = 1 − sin 2 ( sin −1 x )

Or by taking square root cos sin −1 x= ( ) 1 − sin 2 ( sin −1 x )

Or cos ( sin −1 x=
) 1 − x2
π π
Since − ≤ sin −1 x ≤ , it follows that cos ( sin −1 x ) is non-
2 2
negative.

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Thus, we can drop the absolute value and write cos ( sin −1 x=
) 1 − x2

Inverse tangent

Tangent of x, denoted tan x , is a function which is defined for all

positive and negative values of x except ±900 , ±2700 ,... . The range

of tan x is ( −∞, +∞ ) . It has the inverse called inverse tangent and

is denoted by tan −1 x .
π π
To define tan −1 x , we restrict the domain of tan x to  − ,  .
 2 2

Because tan x (restricted) and tan −1 x are inverse to each other, it

follows that:
π π
ᇢ tan −1 ( tan y ) = y if − < y <
2 2
ᇢ tan ( tan −1 x ) = x if −∞ < x < +∞
From these relations, we obtain the following important result:

Theorem 4.2
π π
ᇢ If −∞ < x < +∞ and − < y < , then y = tan −1 x and
2 2

92
 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

tan y = x are equivalent.

Example 4.3
Simplify the function sec 2 ( tan −1 x ) .

Solution
The idea is to express secant in terms of tan x to take the advantage
of simplification tan ( tan x ) = x .
−1

Let θ = tan −1 x in the identity sec 2 θ = 1 + tan 2 θ , we get

sec 2 ( tan −1 x ) =
1 + tan 2 ( tan −1 x ) =
1 + x2

Thus, sec 2 ( tan −1 x ) = 1 + x 2

Inverse secant

The inverse secant, denoted sec −1 x , is defined to be the inverse of

restricted secant function.
π π
f ( x ) = sec x , 0 ≤ x < or< x ≤π .
2 2
π
If we let y = sec −1 x , then we find that x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 and 0 ≤ y <
2
π
or < y ≤ π .
2
Thus, the domain of sec x is ( −∞, −1] ∪ [1, +∞ ) and the range is
−1

 π  π 
0, 2  ∪  2 , π 

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Theorem 4.3
π π
If x ≤ 1 or x ≥ 1 and if 0 ≤ y < or < y ≤ π , then y = sec −1 x
2 2
and sec y = x are equivalent statements.

Example 4.4
Simplify tan 2 ( sec −1 x ) .

Solution
We know that sec θ = 1 + tan θ , then tan
2 2
= 2
θ sec 2 θ − 1

Putting θ = sec −1 x , we have tan ( sec x ) = sec ( sec x ) − 1 = x − 1

2 −1 2 −1 2

Thus, tan 2 ( sec −1 x=

) x2 −1
Inverse cotangent and inverse cosecant
We will summarise their properties briefly

y = cot −1 x is equivalent to x = cot y if 0 < y < π and −∞ < x < +∞

π π
y = csc −1 x is equivalent to x = csc y if − ≤ y < 0 or 0 < y ≤
2 2
and x ≥ 1

94
 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

Notice
If α and β are acute complementary angles, then from
basic trigonometry, sin α and cos β are equal. Let us write
α cos β so that α = sin x and β = cos −1 x .
−1
=x sin
=
π π
Since α + β = , we obtain the identity sin −1 x + cos −1 x = .
2 2
Similarly, we can obtain the identities
π π
tan −1 x + cot −1 x = and sec −1 x + csc −1 x =
2 2

Remark
sin −1 ( − x ) =− sin −1 x

tan −1 ( − x ) =− tan −1 x

sec −1 ( − x ) = π + sec −1 x, if x ≥ 1

Example 4.5
For which values of x is true that:
a) tan −1 ( tan x ) = x b) tan ( tan x ) = x
−1

c) csc ( csc x ) = x d) csc ( csc −1 x ) = x

−1

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Solution
The values of x are:
π π
a) − < x < b) −∞ < x < +∞
2 2
π π
c) − ≤ x < 0 or 0 < x ≤ d) x ≥ 1
2 2

Application activity 4.2

Find the domain of definition of the following functions:
1
1. f ( x )= + sin −1 2 x f ( x ) cos −1 x + tan −1 x
2. =
x
x 1
3. f ( x ) = cos −1 4. f ( x ) = sin −1
x x

4.1.3. Parity of trigonometric functions

Activity 4.3
For the function:
sin x , find f − x , − f x and compare the two
1. f ( x) = ( ) ( )
x
results to f ( x ) .
cos x
2. g ( x ) = , find g ( − x ) , − g ( x ) and compare the two
x
results to g ( x ) .

Even function
A function f ( x ) is said to be even if the following conditions are
satisfied:
ᇢ ∀x ∈ Domf , − x ∈ Domf
ᇢ f (−x) =f ( x)
The graph of such function is symmetric about the vertical axis.
i.e x = 0

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

O x

Example 4.6
The function cos x is an even function since ∀x ∈ , − x ∈  and
f ( − x )= cos ( − x )= cos x= f ( x )

Odd function
A function f ( x) is said to be odd if the following conditions are
satisfied:
ᇢ ∀x ∈ Domf , − x ∈ Domf
ᇢ f (−x) =− f ( x)
The graph of such function looks the same when rotated through
half a revolution about 0. This is called rotational symmetry.
y

O x

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Example 4.7
The function sin x is an odd function since ∀x ∈ , − x ∈  and
f (−x) =sin ( − x ) =− sin x =− f ( x)

Application activity 4.3

Study the parity of the following functions:
x2
1. f ( x) = 2. f ( x )= x + sin 4 x
cos x
tan x
3. f (=
x ) 3 x + sin x 4. f ( x ) =
x +1

4.1.4. Period of trigonometric functions

Activity 4.4
What would be the value(s) of P to make the following
relations true?
1. sin ( x + P ) =
sin x 2. cos ( x + P ) =
cos x
3. tan ( x + P ) =
tan x

A function f is called periodic if there is a positive number P such

that f ( x +=
P ) f ( x ) (*) whenever x and x + P lie in the domain of
f.
We call P a period of the function. The smallest positive period
is called the fundamental period (also primitive period, basic
period, or prime period) of f.
A function with period P repeats on intervals of length P, and these
intervals are referred to as periods.
Geometrically, a periodic function can be defined as a function
whose graph exhibits translational symmetry. Specifically, a
function is periodic with period P if its graph is invariant under
translation in the x-direction by a distance of P.

98
 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

The most important examples of periodic functions are the

trigonometric functions.
Any function which is not periodic is called aperiodic.

Example 4.8
a) For the sine and cosine functions, 2π is the period since
sin x and cos ( x + 2π ) =
sin ( x + 2π ) = cos x .
Also 4π , 6π ,8π ,... , are periods for sine and cosine functions
since
sin ( x +=
4π ) sin x,sin ( x +=
6π ) sin x,sin ( x +=
8π ) sin x,... and
cos ( x =
+ 4π ) cos x, cos ( x=
+ 6π ) cos x, cos ( x=
+ 8π ) cos x,... .
The fundamental period of sine and cosine functions is 2π .

b) For tangent and cotangent functions, π is a period since

tan x and cot ( x + π ) =
tan ( x + π ) = cot x . Also, 2π ,3π , 4π ,... are
periods, but π is the fundamental period.
Or using definition, and solving for P;
For sin x , we have sin ( x + P ) =
sin x
⇔ x + P = x + 2kπ , k integer

⇔P= 2kπ . Since we need the smallest positive period, we

take k = 1
Thus, P = 2π

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For cos x , we have cos ( x + P ) =

cos x ⇔ x + P = x + 2kπ , k ∈ 
2kπ . Since we need the smallest positive period, we
⇔P=
take k = 1

Thus, P = 2π

For tan x , we have tan ( x + P ) =

tan x ⇔ x + P = x + kπ , k ∈ 
kπ . Since we need the smallest positive period we
⇔P=
take k = 1
Thus, P = π

Example 4.9
2π
For sin 3x and cos 3x functions, the fundamental period is
3
  2π 
since sin 3  x +  = sin ( 3x + 2π =
) sin 3x and
  3 
  2π 
cos 3  x +
3  cos ( 3x + 2π =
= ) cos 3x .
  

Theorem 4.4
If a ≠ 0 and b ≠ 0 , then the functions a sin bx and a cos bx have
2π
fundamental period and their graphs oscillate
b
between –a and a. The number a is called the amplitude of the
function.

Example 4.10

Find the fundamental period of f ( x ) = 2sin 6 x and g ( x ) = 4 cos 3 x

Solution
For f ( x ) , we have 2sin 6 ( x + P ) =
2sin 6 x
⇔ 6 x + 6 P = 6 x + 2 kπ , k ∈ 

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

2 kπ .
⇔ 6P =
Since we need the smallest positive period, we take k = 1
π
Thus, P =
3
For g ( x ) , we have 4 cos 3 ( x + P ) =
4sin 3 x
⇔ 3 x + 3 P = 3 x + 2 kπ , k ∈ 
2 kπ .
⇔ 3P =
Since we need the smallest positive period, we take k = 1
2π
Thus, P =
3

Application activity 4.4

Find the fundamental period of the following functions:
 2x 
1. f ( x ) = sin 2 x 2. f ( x ) = cos  
 3 
3. g ( x ) = tan 3 x 4. h ( t ) = 2sin t

f ( t ) sin ( wt + ϕ )
5. = f ( x ) tan ( 2 x + 3)
6. =

Combining periodic functions

Activity 4.5
Find the Lowest Common Multiple of:

1. π and 2π 2. π and π
2

We have seen that sine and cosine are both periodic and have
the same period. When we add them up, subtract them, multiply
them, etc we get functions that are also periodic.
To see this, let us assume that f ( x + kP ) =
f ( x ) is true for all real
x, k integers.
Simply multiplying each side by some constant does not change
the equation and adding or subtracting some constant to each side
does not change periodicity.

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If we have two functions f ( x ) and g ( x ) with the same period, P

say, we can throw them together any way we want.
( x ) f ( x ) + g ( x ) , at any value a of x:
Let h=
h (a) = f (a) + g (a) = c

h ( a + kP ) = f ( a + kP ) + g ( a + kP ) = c
Thus, h (=
a ) h ( a + kP )
This is different for functions that don’t have the same fundamental
period.
Let us say that we have two periodic functions f ( x ) and g ( x )
with period P and Q respectively:
f ( x + kP ) =
f ( x ) is true for all real x, k integers.
g ( x + kQ ) =
g ( x ) is true for all real x, k integers.
Now, we cannot construct that nice h ( x ) as we did before because
we have different periods.

Consider the following case:

If a function repeats every 2 units, then it will also repeat every
6 units. So if we have one function with fundamental period 2,
and another function with fundamental period 8, we have got no
problem because 8 is a multiple of 2, and both functions will cycle
every 8 units.
So, if we can patch up the periods to be the same,we know that
if we combine them, we will get a function with the patched up
period.
What we have to do is to find the Lowest Common Multiple (LCM)
of two periods.
What about if one function has period 4 and another has period 5?
We can see that in 20 units, both will cycle, so they are fine.

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

Example 4.11
Find the fundamental period of the function
 x +1   2x +1 
f ( x ) = tan   sin  
 2   5 
Solution
 x + 1  P = 2π
For tan  , 1
 2 

 2x +1 
For sin   , P2 = 5π
 5 
LCM ( 2π ,5π ) = 10π , P = 10π
Another important case is where the periods are fractions.
Suppose that we have function f ( x ) with period 13 and another
12
2
function g ( x ) with period . What we need are two numbers of
21
periods that we can multiply by the periods to get some common,
patched up period.
First, we can simplify the problem by multiplying each period by
its denominator to find whole number periods. So, we know that
f ( x ) has period of 13 (in 12 fundamental periods) and g ( x ) a
period of 2 (in 21 fundamental periods).
Now we can simply do what we did before and multiply both
periods to find a period for the new combination function. So the
combination function has a period of 26.
This suggests the following theorem:

Theorem 4.5
If two periodic functions have rational periods, then any
addition or multiplication combination of those functions (not
composition) will also be periodic.
Also if f ( x ) is a periodic function and g ( x ) is not a periodic
function, then g ( f ( x ) ) is periodic and f ( g ( x ) ) is not.

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Example 4.12
sin 3 x
Find the fundamental period of the function f ( x ) =
tan 7 x
Solution
2π
For sin 3x , P1 =
3
π
For tan 7 x, P2 =
7
P1 is 2π in 3 fundamental periods
P2 is π in 7 fundamental periods
But 2π is a multiple of π
Thus, P = 2π

Example 4.13
( x ) sin x + sin 4 x
Find the fundamental period of the function f =
Solution
For sin x, P1 = 2π
π
For sin 4 x, P2 =
2
 π
P = LCM  2π ,  P = 2π
 2
Application activity 4.5
Find the fundamental period of the following functions:
f ( x ) 3sin 2 x − tan 5 x
1. = f ( x)
2.= 2 sin 4 x + sin 5 x

3. ( x ) cos x − tan 2 x
f= f ( x ) cos 3 x + sin 6 x
4. =

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

4.2. Limits of trigonometric functions and their

inverses
4.2.1. Limits of trigonometric functions
Activity 4.6
A. Evaluate
1) lim
x →0
sin x 2) lim
x →0
x sin x 3) lim cos x
x →0

1 cos x
4) lim
x →0 x
5) lim
x →0 x
sin x
B. Consider the function f ( x ) = where x is in radians.
x
1) Use a calculator to complete the following tables;

sin x sin x
x x
x x
1 -1
0.9 -0.9
0.8 -0.8
0.7 -0.7
0.6 -0.6
0.5 -0.5
0.4 -0.4
0.3 -0.3
0.2 -0.2
0.1 -0.1
0.01 -0.01
0.001 -0.001
0.0001 -0.0001

3) From results in 1), what is the limit of sin x as x

x
approaches 0 from the right side.
sin x
4) From results in 1), what is the limit of as x
x
approaches 0 from the left side.
5) What can you say about lim sin x ?
x →0 x

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From activity 4.6,

sin x
lim =1
x →0 x
There is another way to prove this.
Let us consider the trigonometric circle below:
y C

D
tan x
sin x

x
0 B A x

Assume 0 < x <

π . Since the circle is trigonometric the radius
2
OA = 1 .
1 1
The area of the triangle OAD is OA sin x = sin x
2 2
The area of the sector OAD :
Recall that the area of a sector with subtended angle measuring
2 θ
x radian is A = r , where r is the radius. The subtended angle
2
of sector OAD is x and radius is r, the area of the sector OAD is
1 2 1
OA x = x
2 2
1 1
The area of the triangle OAC is OA tan x = tan x
2 2
From the figure we see that
area of ∆OAD ≤ area of sector OAD ≤ area of ∆OAC

1 1 1 sin x
Or sin x ≤ x ≤ tan x ⇔ sin x ≤ x ≤
2 2 2 cos x
x 1
Dividing by sin x , we get 1 ≤ ≤
sin x cos x

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

Taking the inverse [remember that when taking the inverse the
sin x
order of the inequality must be changed], we get cos x ≤ ≤1
x
sin x
Taking limit as x approaches 0, we get 1 ≤ lim ≤1
x →0 x
sin x
Using Squeeze theorem, since cos x ≤ ≤ 1 and
x
sin x
lim cos
= x lim1 = 1 then lim =1
x →0 x →0 x → 0 x
sin x
Thus, lim =1
x →0 x
This result will help us find limit of some other trigonometric
functions.

Example 4.14
1 − cos x
Evaluate lim
x →0 x
Solution
1 − cos x 0
lim = Indeterminate case (I.C)
x →0 x 0
x x
2sin sin  x
1 − cos x 2 2 2sin 2 1 − cos x 2sin 2 x 
Since 1 − cos x =
lim lim = 
x →0 x x →0 x  2 2 
x
2sin
= lim 2 lim sin x
x →0 x x →0 2
x
2sin
= lim 2 lim sin x
x →0 x x →0 2
2
2
x
sin
= lim 2 lim sin x
x →0 x x →0 2
2
= 1× 0
=0

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1 − cos x
Thus, lim =0
x →0 x
Example 4.15
x
Evaluate lim =1
x →0 sin x
Solution
x 0
lim = I.C
x →0 sin x 0
x x
lim = lim
x →0 sin x x → 0 sin x
x
x
1 lim1
= lim
= x →0
x → 0 sin x sin x
lim
x x →0 x
1
== 1
1
x
Thus, lim
x → 0 sin x
=1

Example 4.16
tan x
Evaluate lim =1
x →0 x
Solution
tan x 0
lim = I.C
x →0 x 0
sin x
tan x
lim = lim cos x
x →0 x x →0 x
sin x
= lim
x → 0 x cos x

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

sin x 1
= lim
x →0 x cos x
sin x 1
= lim lim
x →0 x x →0 cos x
= 1× 1 = 1

tan x
Thus, lim =1
x →0 x

Example 4.17
cot x
Evaluate lim
x →0 x
Solution
cot x ∞
lim = = ∞
x →0 x 0
Or
cot x 1
lim = lim cot x lim = ∞ × ∞ = ∞
x →0 x x →0 x →0 x

cos x
Left and right hand limits: cot x
= sin = x cos x
x x x sin x

π π
x − 0
2 2

cos x + 1 +
x - 0 +
sin x - 0 +
x sin x + 0 +
cos x ||
+ ∞ +
x sin x
cot x cot x
Thus, lim+ = +∞ and lim− = +∞ and hence
x →0 x x → 0 x
cot x
lim does not exist.
x →0 x

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

When finding limits of trigonometric functions, sometimes we

need to change the variable.

Example 4.18
1 − 2 cos x
Evaluate lim
π π
x→
3 x−
3

Solution
1
1− 2×
1 − 2 cos x 2 0
lim =
π
=
π π
( I.C.)
x→
π
x− − 0
3
3 3 3
π π π
Let x − =t ⇒ x =t + . If x → ,t → 0
3 3 3
 π  π π
1 − 2 cos  t + π  1 − 2  cos t cos π − sin t sin π 
1 − 2 cos  t + 3  1 − 2  cos t cos 3 − sin t sin 3 
lim  3  = lim  3 3
tlim
→0 t = limt → 0 t
t →0 t t →0 t
1 3 
1 − 2  1 cos t − 3 sin t 
1 − 2  2 cos t − 2 sin t 
= lim 2 2 
= lim
t →0 t
t →0 t
1 − cos t + 3 sin t
= lim 1 − cos t + 3 sin t
= lim
t →0 t
t →0 t
 1 − cos t 3 sin t 
= lim  1 − cos t + 3 sin t 
= lim t →0
 t + t 
t →0  t t
 
1 − cos t 3 sin t
= lim 1 − cos t + lim 3 sin t
= lim t →0 t + lim
t →0 t
t →0 t
1 − cos t
t →0 tsin t
= lim 1 − cos t + 3 lim sin t
= lim t →0 t + 3 lim t →0 t
t →0 t t →0 t
=0 + 3 ×1
=0 + 3 ×1
= 3
= 3

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

Example 4.19
x −3
Evaluate lim
x →3 sin π x

Solution
x −3 0
lim = I.C
x →3 sin π x 0
Let t = x − 3 ⇒ x = t + 3 . If x → 3, t → 0
x −3 t
lim = lim
x →3 sin π x t → 0 sin (π t + 3π )

t
= lim
t →0 sin π t cos 3π + cos π t sin 3π
t
= lim [ Since cos 3π = 0]
−1, sin 3π =
t →0 − sin π t

t 1
π 1
= − lim π t = − lim
t → 0 sin π t
= −
t → 0 sin π t π
πt π t
Application activity 4.6
Find the limit of the following functions:
cos 2 x
1. limπ (θ tan θ ) 2. limπ
θ→
4
x→ 1 − sin x
2
1 − cos t sin 3t
3. lim 4. lim
t →0 sin t t →0 t

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

4.2.2. Limits of inverse trigonometric functions

Activity 4.7
1. Find the exact value of:
a) cos −1 ( −1) b) tan −1 ( −1)
1
c) csc −1 (1) d) cos −1  
2
2. Evaluate the following limits;
−1
a) lim cos 1 − 2 x
x →1
2
( ) b) lim tan −1 ( x − 1)
x →0

x −1 x2 −1
c) lim cos −1 d) lim
x →1 1 − x2 x →1 sin −1 (1 − x )

We can also evaluate the limits of inverse trigonometric functions.

We find the numerical value of the given function at given value
and see if the result is indeterminate case or not. One of the
methods used to remove indeterminate case is l’Hôpital’s rule:
f ( x) 0 f ( x) ∞
Recall that if lim = or lim
x→a g ( x )
= , we remove this
x→a g ( x) 0 ∞
indeterminate case by differentiating function f ( x ) and g ( x ) and
f ( x) 0 f ( x) ∞
then evaluate the limit. That is if lim = or lim =
x→a g ( x) 0 x→a g ( x ) ∞
f '( x)
then we evaluate lim .
x→a g '( x)
We do this until the indeterminate case is removed. Other methods
used to remove indeterminate cases are also applied.

Example 4.20
1
Evaluate xlim cos −1  
→+∞
x

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

Solution
1  1 
lim cos −1   = cos −1  
x →+∞
x  +∞ 
= cos −1 ( 0 )
π
=
2

Example 4.21
 x −1 
Evaluate xlim cos −1  
→+∞
 2x 
Solution
 x −1  ∞
lim cos −1   = cos −1   I.C
x →+∞
 2x  ∞
Remove this indeterminate case by l’Hôpital’s rule
 x −1  1
lim cos −1   = xlim cos −1  
x →+∞
 2x  →+∞
2
π
=
3
Application activity 4.7
Evaluate the following limits

x +1 x
1. lim cos −1 2. lim sec −1
x →−2 2
x −2 x→4 x −1
−1 x −1 1 − x2
3. lim sec 4. lim tan −1
x →−1
1 + x2 x →−1 2x + 2

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

4.3. Differentiation of trigonometric functions

and their inverses
4.3.1. Derivative of sine and cosine

Activity 4.8
1. Using definition of derivative, find the derivative of sin x .
π 
cos x sin  − x  to find the
2. Use result in 1) and relation =
2 
derivative of cos x .

The functions f ( x ) = sin x and f ( x ) = cos x are differentiable on

the set of real numbers. In addition, from activity 4.8,
( sin x ) ' = cos x and ( cos x ) ' = − sin x .
After differentiation of composite functions, if u is another
function, then ( sin u ) ' = u 'cos u and ( cos u ) ' = −u 'sin u

Example 4.22
f ( x ) sin ( 3x 2 + 4 )
Find the derivative of=

Solution

( 3x 2 + 4 ) 'cos ( 3x 2 + 4 )
f '( x) =
= 6 x cos ( 3 x 2 + 4 )

Example 4.23
Find the derivative of f ( x ) = cos ( 3 x )

Solution
f ' ( x ) = − ( 3 x ) 'sin ( 3 x )
= −3sin ( 3 x )

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

Application activity 4.8

Find the derivative of the following functions:
f ( x ) sin ( x 2 + 3)
1. = f ( x ) sin 3 ( x 2 + 4 )
2.=

f ( x ) = cos 3 x 2 4. f ( x ) = cos 2 x
3
3.

4.3.2. Derivative of tangent and cotangent

Activity 4.9
1. Use rule for derivative of a quotient and the relation
sin x
tan x = to find the derivative of tan x .
cos x
π 
2. Use result in 1) and relation = cot x tan  − x  to find the
2 
derivative of cot x .

π 
The function f ( x ) = tan x is differentiable on  \  + kπ  k ∈ 
2 
and the function f ( x ) = cot x is differentiable on  \ {kπ } k ∈  . In
addition, from activity 4.9,

π If u is another, function
∀x ≠ + kπ , k ∈ 
2 then,
1 u'
( tan x ) ' = ( tan u ) ' =
cos 2 x cos 2 u
= sec 2 x = u 'sec 2 u
= 1 + tan 2 x = u ' (1 + tan 2 u )
Thus, ( tan x ) ' = 1 + tan 2 x
u ) ' u ' (1 + tan 2 u )
Thus, ( tan =

∀x ≠ kπ , k ∈  If u is another function, then,

−1 −u '
( cot x ) ' = ( cot u ) ' =
sin 2 x sin 2 u
= − csc 2 x = −u 'csc 2 u
=− (1 + cot 2 x ) −u ' (1 + cot 2 u )
=

Thus, ( cot x ) ' =− (1 + cot 2 x ) −u ' (1 + cot 2 u )

Thus, ( cot u ) ' =

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Example 4.24
Find the derivative of f ( x ) = x tan x .
2

Solution
f '( x)
= ( x ) ' tan x + x ( tan x ) '
2 2

= 2 x tan x + x 2 sec 2 x

Example 4.25
Find the derivative f ( x ) = cot x .
2

Solution
f ' ( x ) = − ( x 2 ) 'csc 2 x 2
= −2 x csc 2 x 2

Application activity 4.9

Find the derivative of the following functions:
1. f ( x ) = x tan x f ( x ) tan ( 3 x + 2 )
2. =
f ( x ) cot ( x 2 − 5 )
3. = 4. f ( x ) = sin x cot 4 x

4.3.3. Derivative of secant and cosecant

Activity 4.10

1. Use rule for derivative of reciprocal of a function and

1
relation sec x = to find the derivative of sec x .
cos x
2. Use rule for derivative of reciprocal of a function and
1
relation csc x = to find the derivative of cscx.
sin x
From activity 4.10,
and ( csc x ) ' = − csc x cot x
( sec x ) ' = sec x tan x
If u is another function, then
( sec u ) ' = u 'sec u tan u and ( csc u ) ' = −u 'csc u cot u

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

Example 4.26
f ( x ) sec ( 2 x + 1) .
Find the derivative of =

Solution
f ' ( x ) = 2sec ( 2 x + 1) tan ( 2 x + 1)

Example 4.27
f ( x ) csc ( x 2 + 1) .
Find the derivative of =

Solution
−2 x csc ( x 2 + 1) cot ( x 2 + 1)
f '( x) =

Application activity 4.10

Find the derivative of the following functions:
f ( x ) sec ( 3 x + 2 )
1. = 2. f (θ ) = θ 3 csc 2θ
3. f ( x ) = sec 4 3 x

4.3.4. Derivative of inverse sine and inverse cosine

Activity 4.11

1. We know that f ( x ) = sin −1 x for x ∈ [ −1,1] and x = sin y for

 π π
y ∈  − ,  where y = f ( x ) . Use rule for derivative of
 2 2
composite functions to find the derivative of sin −1 x , the
inverse of sine function.
2. We also know that f ( x ) = cos −1 x for x ∈ [ −1,1] and x = cos y
for y ∈ [ 0, π ] where y = f ( x ) . Use rule for derivative of
composite functions to find the derivative of cos −1 x , the
inverse of cosine function.

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

From activity 4.11,

∀ x ∈ ]−1,1[ ,

1 −1
( sin x ) ' = and ( cos x ) ' =
−1 −1

1 − x2 1 − x2
If u is another function, then

u' −u '
( sin u ) ' = and ( cos u ) ' =
−1 −1

1− u 2
1− u2

Example 4.28
Find the derivative of f ( x ) = sin −1 x 3 .
Solution

f '( x) =
=
(x )' 3
3x 2
1− ( x ) 3 2 1 − x6

Example 4.29
=
Find the derivative of f ( x ) cos −1 ( 2 x + 1) .

Solution
− ( 2 x + 1) '
f '( x) =
1 − ( 2 x + 1)
2

−2
=
1 − 4x2 − 4 x −1
−1
=
− x2 − x
Example 4.30
of y sin (1 − x ) .
−1 2
Find the derivative=

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

Solution
−2 x −2 x
=y' =
1 − (1 − x 2 )
2
− x4 + 2x2

Example 4.31
of y 3cos ( x + 0.5 ) .
−1 2
=
Find the derivative

Solution
−2 x −6 x
=y ' 3=
1 − ( x 2 + 0.5 )
2
0.75 − x 2 − x 4

Example 4.32
y
Find the derivative of = (x 2
+ 1) sin −1 4 x .

Solution
4 4 ( x 2 + 1)
=y' ( 2 x ) sin −1
4 x + ( x + 1)
2
= + 2 x sin −1 4 x
1 − ( 4x2 )
2 2
1 − 16 x

Application activity 4.11

Find the derivative of the following functions:
−1 1
1. f ( x ) = cos 2. f ( x ) = cos −1 x 2
x
3. =f ( x ) sin −1 (1 − x ) 4. f ( x ) = sin −1 2 x

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4.3.5. Derivative of inverse tangent and inverse

cotangent
Activity 4.12
1. We know that f ( x ) = tan x for x ∈  and x = tan y for
−1

 π π
y ∈  − ,  where y = f ( x ) . Use rule for derivative of
 2 2 −1
composite functions to find the derivative of tan x ; the
inverse of tangent function.
2. We also know that f ( x ) = cot x for x ∈  and x = cot y
−1

for y ∈ ]0, π [ where y = f ( x ) . Use rule for derivative of

composite functions to find the derivative of cot x ; the
inverse of cotangent function.

From activity 4.12,

( tan x ) ' = 1 +1x

−1
2 and ( cot −1 x ) =
' −1
1 + x2
If u is another function, then

( tan u ) ' = 1 +uu'

−1
2 , and ( cot −1 u ) ' =
−u '
1+ u2

Example 4.33

Find the derivative of f ( x ) = ( tan 2 x ) .

−1 4

Solution

f ' ( x ) = 4 ( tan −1 2 x ) ( tan −1 2 x ) '

3

3 2 
= 4 ( tan −1 2 x )  2 
 1+ 4x 
8 ( tan −1 2 x )
3

=
1 + 4 x2

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

Example 4.34
Find the derivative of f ( x ) = 2 cot 3 x .
−1

Solution
−2 ( 3 x ) ' −6
f '( x)
= =
1 + ( 3x ) 1 + 9 x
2 2

Application activity 4.12

Find the derivative of the following functions:
1
1. f ( x ) = c ot −1 x f ( x ) cos −1
2. = − cot −1 x
x
f ( x ) cot −1 x − 1
3. =

Derivative of inverse secant and inverse cosecant

Activity 4.13

1. We know that f ( x ) = sec −1 x for x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 and

π
x = sec y for y ∈ [ 0, π ] , y ≠ where y = f ( x ) . Use rule for
2
derivative of composite functions to find the derivative
−1
of sec x ; the inverse of secant function.
2. We know that f ( x ) = csc x for x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 and
−1

 π π
x = csc y for y ∈  − ,  , y ≠ 0 where y = f ( x ) . Use
 2 2
rule for derivative of composite functions to find the
derivative of, csc −1 x ; the inverse of cosecant function.

From activity 4.13,

1
( sec x ) ' =
−1
−1
x x 2 − 1 and ( csc x ) =
−1 '

x x2 −1
If u is another function, then
−u '
and ( csc u ) ' =
u'
( sec u ) ' =
−1 −1

u u2 −1 u u2 −1

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Example 4.35
Find the derivative of f ( x ) = sec −1 2 x .
Solution
2
f '( x) =
2x 4x2 −1
Example 4.36
Find the derivative of f ( x ) = csc −1 x .

Solution
1
−
2 x −1
=f '( x) =
( )
2 2
x x −1 2x x −1

Application activity 4.13

Find the derivative of the following functions:
f ( x ) sec −1 ( 2 x + 1)
1.= 2. f ( x ) = sec −1 5 x
3. ) csc−1 ( x 2 + 1) , x > 0
f ( x=

4.3.6. Successive derivatives

Activity 4.14
Consider the function g ( x ) = sin ( 4 x ) . Find
1. g '( x)
2. the derivative of the function obtained in 1.
3. the derivative of the function obtained in 2.
4. the derivative of the function obtained in 3.
5. the derivative of the function obtained in 4.

We have seen that the derivative of a function of x is in general

also a function of x. This new function may also be differentiable,
in which case the derivative of the first derivative is called the
second derivative of the original function.

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

Similarly, the derivative of the second derivative is called the third

derivative and so on.
The successive derivatives of a function f are higher order
derivatives of the same function.
We denote higher order derivatives of the same function as follows:
The second derivative is:
d  dy  d 2 y
= ( x) y "
 = f "=
dx  dx  dx 2
The third derivative is:
d  d2y  d3y
 = ( x ) y "'
 = f "' =
dx  dx 2  dx 3

And the nth derivative is:

d  d n −1 y  d n y
 n= −1 
= n ( x ) y(n)
f (n) =
dx  dx  dx

Example 4.37
Find the nth derivative of y = sin x

Solution
 π
=y ' cos
= x sin  x + 
 2
 2π 
y '' =− sin x =
sin  x + 
 2 
 3π 
y ''' =
− cos x =sin  x + 
 2 
:
 nπ 
y ( ) sin  x +
n
= 
 2 
 nπ 
y ( ) sin  x +
n
Thus, if y = sin x ,= 
 2 

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Example 4.38
Find the nth derivative of y = cos x

Solution
 π
π 
yy '' = = − sin
− sin xx = = cos
cos  xx ++ 2 
 2
yy '''' =
 2π
2 π 
= − cos
− cos xx = = cos
cos  xx ++ 2 

 2
yy '''''' sin xx sin
 3π
3 π 
=
= =
sin
= sin  xx + + 2 
 2 
::

yy (( n )) cos
n  nπ
n π 
=
= cos  xx +
+ 2 
 2 

 nπ 
y ( n ) cos  x +
Thus, if y = cos x= 
 2 

Application activity 4.14

1. Find the first, second and third derivatives of
a) y = tan x b) y = sec x
sin x
c) y = cos ( x ) d) y =
2

x
2. Find the nth derivative of
a) f ( x ) = cos 2 x b) f ( x ) = sin 2 x cos 3 x

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

4.4. Applications
Simple harmonic motion

Activity 4.15
Discuss how differentiation of trigonometric functions is used
to find the velocity, acceleration and jerk of a moving object
knowing the function representing its position.

In simple harmonic motion (SHM), the displacement x ( t ) of a

particle from its equilibrium position is defined by the equation
=x xm cos (ωt + φ ) in which xm is the amplitude of the displacement,
the quantity (ωt + φ ) is phase of the motion, and φ is the phase
constant. The angular frequency ω is related to the period and
the frequency of the motion by
2π
ω = 2π f .
=
T
The motion of an object or weight bobbing freely up down with no
resistance on the end of a spring is an example of simple harmonic
motion. The motion is periodic and repeats indefinitely, so we
represent it using trigonometric functions. If we have the function
representing the position, say S ( t ) , then,
ds
ᇢ The velocity of the object is v = .
dt
d 2s
ᇢ The acceleration of the object is a = .
dt 2
d 3s
ᇢ The jerk of the object is j = .
dt 3
Example 4.39
A weight hanging from a spring is stretched down 5 units beyond
its rest position and released at time t = 0 to bob up down. Its
position at any later time t is s = 5cos t . What are its velocity,
acceleration and jerk at time t ?

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Solution
Position: s = 5cos t
Velocity (derivative of function representing the position):
ds d
v= = ( 5cos t ) = −5sin t
dt dt
Acceleration (derivative of function representing the velocity):
dv d
a= = ( −5sin t ) =−5cos t
dt dt
Jerk (derivative of function representing the acceleration):
da d
j = =( −5cos t ) =
5sin t
dt dt

Pulmonary function testing

In addition to that, sine waves are also used in pulmonary function
testing (we can describe any repeating rhythm by a sine
wave):
 A   2π 
= y   sin  (t)  + s y , where y is some property that exhibits a
2  p 
rhythm, t is time, A is the amplitude, p is the period, and sy is a
phase shift in the height of y compared to the simplest sine wave
( y = sin t , where sy =0).
We therefore have the following equation for normal breathing:
 500   2π 
Lung capacity 
=  sin  (t )  + 2450
 2   5 

As the degree of activity increases, the volume inhaled and exhaled

increases from 500 up to 3000 and the functional residual volume
decreases as greater amounts of air are exhaled. In our equation for
lung capacity, this is reflected as an increase in amplitude (A) and
a decrease in functional residual capacity.

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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

The sinusoidal wave figure above shows the lungs capacity

with respect to time. It describes the rhythm of the lungs
in normal breathing, the rhythm of the lungs when there is
increasing of the activity, the residual volume when lungs
increase their activity, the vital capacity and total lung
capacity.
Application activity 4.15
1. A body oscillates with simple harmonic motion
 π
=
according to the equation x 6 cos  3π t +  ( x in metre )
 3
At time t = 2 s , what are
a) the displacement b) the velocity
c) the acceleration d) the phase of motion
e) the frequency f) the period of the motion.
2. An object oscillates with simple harmonic motion along
the x − axis . Its displacement from the origin varies in
metre with time according to the equation  π
= x 4 cos  π t + 
where t is in seconds and the angles  4
in radians.
a) Determine the amplitude, frequency, period of
motion and angular frequency.
b) Calculate the velocity and acceleration of the object
at any time.
c) Find displacement, velocity and acceleration at t = 1
d) Determine the maximum speed and maximum
acceleration

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Unit Summary
1. Domain and range of trigonometric functions
Function Domain Range
y = sin x  −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
y = cos x  −1 ≤ y ≤ 1
y = tan x π  
 \  + kπ  , k ∈ 
 2 
y = csc x  \ {k π } , k ∈  y ≤ −1 or y ≥ 1

y = sec x π  y ≤ −1 or y ≥ 1
 \  + kπ  , k ∈ 
2 
y = cot x  \ {k π } , k ∈  

2. Domain and range of inverses of trigonometric functions

Function Domain Range
−1
y = sin x −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 π π
− ≤ y≤
2 2
−1
y = cos x −1 ≤ x ≤ 1 0≤ y ≤π
y = tan −1 x  π π
− < y<
2 2
−1
y = csc x x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 π π
− ≤ y≤ ,y≠0
2 2
y = sec −1 x x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1 π
0 ≤ y ≤π, y ≠
2
y = cot −1 x  0< y <π
3. A function f ( x ) is said to be even if the following
conditions are satisfied:
� ∀x ∈ Domf , − x ∈ Domf � f (−x) =f ( x)
The graph of such function is symmetric about the vertical axis.
i.e x = 0

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

4. A function f ( x ) is said to be odd if the following conditions

are satisfied:
� ∀x ∈ Domf , − x ∈ Domf � f (−x) =− f ( x)
The graph of such a function looks the same when rotated
through half a revolution about 0. This is called rotational
symmetry.
5. A function f is called periodic if there is a positive number
P such that f ( x + P ) =
f ( x ) whenever x and x + P lie in the
domain of f. We call P a period of the function.
6. When finding limit of trigonometric functions, we use the
sin x
result saying that lim =1
x →0 x
7. Derivative of trigonometric functions and their inverses:
( sin u ) ' = u 'cos u , ( cos u ) ' = −u 'sin u
u' −u '
( tan u ) ' = ( cot u ) ' =
cos 2 u sin 2 u
= u 'sec 2 u = −u 'csc 2 u
= u ' (1 + tan 2 u ) −u ' (1 + cot 2 u )
=

( sec u ) ' = u 'sec u tan u , ( csc u ) ' = −u 'csc u cot u

u' −u '
( sin u ) ' =
−1
, ( cos −1 u ) ' =
1− u2 1− u2
u' −u '
( tan −1 u ) ' 1=
=
+u 2 (
, cot −1 u ) '
1+ u2
−u '
( sec−1 u ) ' = u2' , ( csc u ) ' = u u 2 − 1
−1

u u −1

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End of Unit Assessment

1. State whether each of the following functions is periodic.
If the function is periodic, give its fundamental period:

a) f ( x ) = sin 3 x b) f ( x ) = 1 + tan x
d) f ( x ) = cos ( x )
2
f ( x ) cos ( x + 1)
c) =
e) f ( x ) = cos 2 x f) f ( x )= x + sin x
2. Study the parity of the following functions:
sin x
a) f =( x ) cos x + sin x b) f ( x ) = 2
x +1
sin x x + sin x
c) f ( x ) = 2 d) f ( x ) =
x +1 x2
3. Find the limit of the following functions:
1 − cos3 x
a) lim (1 + cot x ) b) lim
x→
π x →0 sin 2 x
4
1 + sin x csc 2 x − 2
c) lim d) limπ
x →0 1 + cos x x→ cot x − 1
4

sin 7 x sin 8 x
e) lim f) lim
x →0 x x →0 sin 5 x
x
sin 2 sin 2 ( −11x )
g) lim 2 h) lim
x →0 4 x 2 x →0 tan 9 x
sin 3 x sin 5 x sin ( x 2 − 3 x )
i) lim j) lim
x →0 7 x2 x →3 x2 − 9

k) lim
(x 2
− x ) sin ( x − 1)
l) lim
sin x − sin a
x →1 2
x − 2x +1 x→a x−a
sin ( a + x ) + sin ( a − x ) − 2sin a
m) lim
x →0 x sin x
sec x − 1 3sin x − sin 3 x
n) lim o) lim
x →0 x2 x →0 x3
1 sec 9 x − sec 7 x
p) lim x 2  sin  csc x q) lim
x x → 0 sec 5 x − sec 3 x
x →0


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 Trigonometric Functions and their Inverses

sec x − tan x x 2 + sin 3 x

r) lim s) lim
π π x → 0 2 x + tan 2 x
x→
2 −x
2
sec θ − tan θ 1 + cos π x
t) lim u) lim
π π x →1
(1 − x )
2
θ→
2 −θ
2
5 + cos x − 2 2 − cos x − sin x
v) lim w) limπ
x →π π −x x→ ( 4x − x)
2
4

4. Find the first derivative of the following functions:

f ( x ) 3sec x − 10 cotx
a) =
( x ) 3x −4 − x 2 tan x
b) f =

sin t
c) y 5sin x cos x + 4 csc x
= d) P ( t ) =
3 − 2 cos t
e) y 4 cos ( 6 x 2 + 5 ) f) y 3sin ( 2 x + 1)
3 4
= =

( x − cos x ) h) y = 2 x + 3
2 4
y
g) =
sin 4 x
1
i) y = x 1 − x 2 + cos −1 x j) y = sec −1
x
x
k) y = csc −1 y
l) = x 2 − 1 − sec −1 x
2
m)=y x sin −1 x + 1 − x 2

5. Suppose that the amount of money in a bank account is

given by P ( t ) =+ 500 100 cos t − 150sin t where t is in years.
During the first 10 years in which the account is open,
when is the amount of money in the account increasing?
6. Evaluate the following limits
1− 2x 1+ x
a) lim tan −1 b) lim sin ( cos −1 x ) c) lim sin −1
x→2 x +1 x →t x →1 2x
1
tan −1  x +1 −1  −1  1 − x 
2
d) lim− x −1
e) limcos  f) lim tan

  
 x 
−1
x → 0 cos x  2x + 2 
x →0 x →−1

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Unit Vector Space of
Real Numbers
5
Introductory activity
A vector space (also called a linear space) is a collection of
objects called vectors, which may be added together and
multiplied by numbers, called scalars in this context.
To put it really simple, vectors are basically all about directions
and magnitudes. These are critical in basically all situations.
In physics, vectors are often used to describe forces, and forces
add as vectors do.
a) Discuss the properties of addition of vectors.
b) What happens when a vector is multiplied by a
scalar(real number)?
c) Give at least 3 examples of vectors in real life.

Objectives
By the end of this unit, a student will be able to:
ᇢ define and apply different operations on vectors.
ᇢ Calculate the scalar and vector product of two
vectors.
ᇢ calculate the angle between two vectors.
ᇢ apply and transfer the skills of vectors to other
area of knowledge.

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

5.1. Vectors and operations in R3

Activity 5.1

1. In space, from the point A (3, 2, 2), along x-axis measure

OM = 3 units, measure MN = 2 units parallel to y-axis,
then measure NP = 2 units parallel to z-axis. OM, MN
and NP are coordinates of point A in space.
2. In the same space, present the point B (1,3,2) and then
join points A and B with arrow from A to B.
3. Find B-A

Position of points and vectors in 3 dimensions

In plane, the position of a point is determined by two coordinates
x and y obtained with reference to two straight lines ( x − axis
and y − axis respectively) intersecting at right angle. The position
of point in space is, however, determined by three coordinates
x, y, z , obtained with reference to three straight lines ( x − axis ,
y − axis and z − axis respectively) intersecting at right angles.

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Meaning and components of a vector in 3 dimension

A vector is a directed line segment. That is to say, a vector has

a given length (magnitude) and a given direction. The vector

joining point A and point B is denoted by AB and its components
are found by subtracting the coordinates of point A from the
coordinates of point B.

For example, the components of vector AB defined by two points

A (a1 , a 2 , a 3 ) and B (b1 , b2 , b3 ) are given by (b1 , b2 , b3 ) − (a1 , a 2 , a 3 ) .

Example 5.1
 
Given the points A (3, −2,5) and B(−1,3, 2) . Find vectors AB and BA

Solution
 
AB = (−4,5, −3) and BA = (4, −5,3)
Then a vector in space may be described by an ordered triple of
coordinates (a, b, c) .

The point A is called the initial point or tail of AB and B is called
the terminal point or tip. If the initial point is fixed, the vector is
called a bound or localised vector. All other vectors are called free
vectors. The set of vectors of space is denoted by V.
A vector is entirely determined by only one of its couples or by
only one of its representatives. Let the point 0 be fixed, as common
origin of all representatives. This point 0 will be called the origin
of the space E and define a bijection of the set of points of the
space E on the set V of vectors of the space E.

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

The set of vectors of the space E with origin 0 is denoted by E0 and


=E0 {OA : a ∈ E} .

The position vector in 3 dimension


The vector OP joining the origin, 0, to the point P is called the
position vector of P with respect to 0, or simply the position

vector of P . We sometimes denote the position vector of P by P .
 
That is OP = P .
 
Example: The vector OP = P is described by an ordered triple
of coordinates (2, 3, 5) as shown by the figure .


The zero vector ( o, o, o ) is denoted by 0

Parallel vectors in 3 dimensions

Two vectors are parallel if and only if
a) they have the same direction, or
b) they have opposite directions.

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Thus, two vectors are parallel if and only if one can be expressed

as a scalar multiple of the other. i.e. if vector U is parallel to
    
vector V , then U = rV or V = sU for real numbers r and s. In this
 
case, we write U  V

Equal vectors in 3 dimensions

Two vectors are equal if they have the same length and the same
   
direction. If U is equal to V , we writeU = V .

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

Opposite vectors in 3 dimensions

Two vectors are opposite if the coordinates of one vector are

additive inverse of the coordinates of the other. That is, if U and
     
V are opposite then U = −V . Then, U + V = 0

Operations on vectors in 3 dimensions

Sum of two vectors

Two non-parallel (or opposite) vectors of the same origin (means
that their tails are together) determine one and only one plane in
space.

The addition of two vectors of the same origin is done by means of

parallelogram technique or by using algebraic method.

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

 
a + b = (a1 + b1 , a2 + b2 , a3 + b3 ) .

If the tails are not together, and the tail of b is joined to the tip of
   
a , then the sum a + b is the vector joining the tail of a and the

tip of b .

Particular cases
1. If two vectors are parallel, to find the sum; the second is
newly replaced by equal vector but having its origin at the
end of the first one

1. If two vectors are opposite, their sum is zero vector. The opposite of
 
the vector a is denoted by −a .

  
a + ( − a) =0
From the addition of vectors, we define the subtraction of vectors
   
as a − b = a + ( − b) .
   
If a = (a1 , a 2 , a 3 ) and b = (b1 , b 2 , b3 ) then a − b = (a1 − b1 , a2 − b2 , a3 − b3 ) .

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

Example of vectors:
1) Gravitational force as opposite vectors

From the graph, the two objects A and B exerts forces in opposite
directions to attract each other (from Newton’s Law)

m1 is the mass of the first object

m2 is the mass of the second object

d is the distance from the centre of A to the centre of B

F1 is the force exerted by A

F2 is the force exerted by B

 m ×m
The gravitation force FG = G 1 2 2 unit vector, where
d
G 6.67 ×10−11 Nm / kg 2
= is the gravitation constant.

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

  
2) The weight = F m=.g m. ( 9.81) j , the force on each object of
mass m which is oriented towards the center of earth, where

g = 9.81m / s 2 and j is the unit vector towards the centre of
earth.

Example 5.2

Calculate the force of gravity between block B1 (20kg ) and block

B2 (30kg ) if the distance between them is 2m.

Solution
m1 = 20kg
m2 = 30kg
d = 2m
G 6.67 ×10−11 Nm / kg 2
=
m ×m
FG = G 1 2 2
d
20kg × 30kg
FG 6.67 ×10−11 N (m / kg ) 2
=
(2m) 2
FG =66.7 ×10−10 N ×15
FG =66.7 ×10−10 N ×15
=FG 1,000.05 ×10−10
FG 10.005 ×10−8 N
=

Properties of vectors under addition

1. The addition defined above verifies the closure property in
   
E0 . That is, ∀a, b ∈ E0 , a + b ∈ E0
     
2. It is commutative. That is, ∀a, b ∈ E0 , a + b = b + a ∈ E0

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

        
( )
3. It is associative. That is, ∀a, b, c ∈ E0 , a + b + c =a + b + c ∈ E0 ( )
4. The identity element is zero vector. That is,
      
∀a ∈ E0 , 0 ∈ E0 : a + 0 = 0 + a = a
5. The symmetric element is the opposite of a vector. That is,
    
∀a ∈E0 , ∃ − a ∈ E0 : a + (−a ) = 0

Scalar multiplication

The definition of scalar multiplication in space E0 is the same as


in plane. The multiplication of a vector a with a real number α is

defined by α (a ) . It change the magnitude of the vector.

 
If a = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) , α a = (α a1 , α a 2 , α a 3 )

Note
If the real number α is positive, the resulting vector has the same

direction as a and if it is negative the resulting vector has the

opposite direction to that of a

Properties of scalar multiplication

  
ᇢ Associative property, ∀ a ∈ E0 , r , s∈ ;(rs )a =r ( sa )
ᇢ Distributive property with respect to addition of
vectors
     
∀ a, b ∈ E0 , r ∈ , r (a + b) = ra + rb

ᇢ Distributive property with respect to addition of

real numbers
   
∀ a ∈ E0 , r , s∈  (r + s )=
a (ra ) + ( sa )

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ᇢ 1 is the identity for scalar multiplication

  
∀ a ∈ E0 ,1× a =a

Application activity 5.1

Given points A(6, 0, −3) and B(3, −3, 0) ; vectors
 
=u (3,
= 4, 6) and v (1,1,1) .
Find;
   
1) Vector AB 3) Sum 2 AB − 3u + v
     
2) Sum AB + u − v 4) Sum 4u − AB + 2v

5.2. Scalar product of two vectors

Activity 5.2

Use the formula ( a, b, c ) ⋅ ( d , e, f ) = ad + be + cf to find:

a) ( 3,1, 4 ) ⋅ ( −4,3,1) b) ( 4, 2, −2 ) ⋅ (1,5, 6 )

The scalar product or dot product (or sometimes inner product)

is an algebraic operation that takes two coordinate vectors and
returns a single number.

Algebraically, the scalar product of vectors u = ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) and
  
v = ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) of space is defined by u ⋅ v= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3 .

Properties of scalar product

 
∀u , v ∈ E0
      
a) If u = 0 or v = 0 , then u ⋅ v =0
     
b) If u  v and u , v have same direction, then u ⋅ v > 0
     
c) If u  v and u , v have opposite direction, then u ⋅ v < 0
   
d) If u ⊥ v , then u ⋅ v =0

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

     
e) ∀u , v ∈ E0 , u ⋅ v = v ⋅ u
         
f)
      
( )
∀u , v, w ∈ E0 , u av + bw = av.u + bu.w ,

( )
au + bv ⋅ w = au ⋅ w + bv ⋅ w
   
g) {}
∀u ∈ E0 \ 0 , u ⋅ u > 0
    2
We define the square of u to be u ⋅ u =u ()
Example 5.3
Find the scalar product of vectors ( 3, 2, 4 ) and ( −1, 4, 2 ) .

Solution
The scalar product is
( 3, 2, 4 ) ⋅ ( −1, 4, 2 ) = 3 × ( −1) + 2 × 4 + 4 × 2
=−3 + 8 + 8
= 13
Example 5.4
 
The scalar product of u = ( 2,3, 4 ) and =
v (1, −2, 2 ) is
 
u ⋅v = 2 − 6 +8 = 4.
  
The square of u = ( 2,3, 4 ) is u ⋅ u = 4 + 9 + 16 = 29 .

Application activity 5.2

 
Find the scalar product u ⋅ v if;
 
1. u = ( −3, 2, 6 ) and v = ( 2,1,5 )
 
2. u = ( −2,1, 2 ) and =v ( 4, −3,1)
 
=3. u (12, 21, −5 ) and v = ( −20,5,12 )
 
4.=u ( 2, 0, −5 ) and v = ( 0,11, 25 )

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5.3. Magnitude (or norm or length) of a vector

Activity 5.3

Use the formula ( a, b, c ) = a 2 + b 2 + c 2 to find;

a) ( 3, 4,5) b) ( −3, 6,1)
 
The magnitude of the vector u denoted by u is defined as its

length and is the square root of its square. Thus, if u = ( a, b, c ) then

u = a 2 + b2 + c2 .

Note
The notation of absolute value is also used for the magnitude

of a vector. That is, the magnitude of a vector u is also denoted

by u .

Properties of magnitude of a vector

   
a) ∀u ∈ E0 , if u = 0 then u = 0
  
b) ∀u ∈ E0 , k ∈  , ku = k u
c) Distance between two points: If A and B are two points,

we can form a vector AB and the distance between these

two points denoted as d ( A, B ) is given by AB . Thus, if
A ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) and B ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) then

d ( A, B ) = AB = ( b1 − a1 ) + ( b2 − a2 ) + ( b3 − a3 )
2 2 2

 
d) Consider two vectors u and v on the same line:
   
If they have the same direction then u ⋅ v =u v
   
If they have the opposite direction then u ⋅ v =− u v .
 
e) Let θ be the angle between two vectors u and v .

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

 
If θ is an obtuse angle then the scalar product u ⋅ v is negative.
 
If θ is an acute angle then the scalar product u ⋅ v is positive.

f) Unit vector: A vector u is said to be unit vector if and only if its

magnitude is 1. That is u = 1 .
g) Normalised vector: The normalised vector of a vector is a vector
in the same direction but with magnitude 1. It is also called the unit
 
vector. Given a vector v , the normalised vector parallel to v and

v
with same direction is given by  .
v
Remark
A vector is said to be a normal vector or simply the normal to a
surface if it is perpendicular to that surface. Often, the normal unit
vector is desired, which is sometimes known as the unit normal.
The terms normal vector and normalised vector should not be
confused, especially since unit norm vectors might be called
normalised normal vectors without redundancy.

Example 5.5

Find the magnitude of u = ( 3, 6,8 ) .

Solution

The magnitude is u = 32 + 62 + 82 = 109

Example 5.6
Find the distance between A (1, −1,3) and B ( 2, 4,5 ) .

Solution
The distance is

d ( A, B ) = ( 2 − 1) + ( 4 + 1) + ( 5 − 3)
2 2 2
= 1 + 25 + 4 = 30

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Example 5.7

Find the normalised vector parallel to v = ( 2, 4, 4 ) and with the
same direction.

Solution
The needed vector is given by

 v 1  11 → 1 1 
e
= =
 =v vv = ( 2, 4, 4 ) (2, 4, 4) which is e =  1 , 2 , 2 
=
v v 22 ++16
2
4 ++ 416
2 2
64 + 16 + 16  
3 3 3

Application activity 5.3

Find the magnitude of:
 
1. u = ( −3, 2, 6 ) v ( 4, −3,1)
2. =
 
=3. u (12, 21, −5 ) 4. v = ( 0,11, 25 )

5.4. Angle between two vectors

Activity 5.4
 
Consider two vectors u = ( −1, −1, −1) and v = ( 7, 7, 7 ) .
 
1. Find the scalar product u ⋅ v .
 
2. Find the product u v .
   
−1  u ⋅ v 
3. Evaluate cos   .
 u v 
 
 
u
Consider two non zero vectors and v . Geometrically, the scalar
 
product of u and v is the product of their magnitudes and the
cosine of the angle between them. That is, the scalar product of
       
vectors u and v is also defined to be u ⋅ v = u ⋅ v ⋅ cos u , v . ( )
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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

 
  u ⋅v
( )
From this definition, we can write cos u , v =   .
u ⋅ v

v

θ 
u
Note
When we are calculating the angle between two vectors, we
calculate the smallest positive angle (the acute angle).

Properties
ᇢ If the two vectors are perpendicular, their scalar
product is zero which means that the angle between
π π
them is (if the second is upward) or − 2 (if the
2    
second is downward). Thus, if u ⊥ v then, u ⋅ v =0.
   
ᇢ If the two vectors are parallel, then, u ⋅ v =u v or
   
u ⋅ v =− u v , which means that the angle between
them is 0 (if they have the same direction) or π (if
they have the opposite direction).

Example 5.8
 
Find the angle between vectors u = ( −2,1, 2 ) v
and = ( 4, −3,1) to
nearest degree.

Solution
 
u ⋅v
cos θ =  
u v
Let θ be the angle between the two vectors, then

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−9 −3  −3 
cos θ
= = = ⇒ θ cos −1   ≈ 126
0

3 26 26  26 
The obtained angle is not acute, then the required angle is
1800 − 1260 =
540
 
Therefore, the angle between vectors u = ( −2,1, 2 ) v
and = ( 4, −3,1)
0
is 54 .

Example 5.9

Consider the vector u = ( 3,8,1) . What is the measure of the angle
between this vector and z-axis of coordinates system?

u = ( 3,8,1)

Solution

Take the normal vector on z-axis, e = ( 0, 0,1)
 
We need θ = ∠ u , e .( )
 
u ⋅e 1 1
cos θ =
=   =
u e 9 + 64 + 1 ⋅ 1 74

1 1
cos θ= ⇔ θ= arccos = 83.3
74 74

Notice
Direction cosine
Direction cosine (or directional cosine) of a vector is the angles
between the vector and the three coordinates axes. Or equivalently,
it is the component contributions of the basis to the unit vector.

The direction cosines of the vector v = ( x, y, z ) are
x y
cos α = , cos β = and
x2 + y 2 + z 2 x + y2 + z2
2

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

z
cos γ = .
x + y2 + z2
2

Note that the sum of squares of direction cosines of a vector is 1.

In fact,
2 2 2
 x   y   z 
cos α + cos β=
2
+ cos γ 
2 2
 +  + 
 x2 + y 2 + z 2   x2 + y 2 + z 2   x2 + y 2 + z 2 
     

x2 y2 z2 x2 + y 2 + z 2
cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos=
2
γ + + = = 1
x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2 x2 + y 2 + z 2
Thus, cos 2 α + cos 2 β + cos 2 γ =
1

Example 5.10
Determine the direction cosines of the vector with components
(1, 2, −3) .
1 1
=cos α =
12 + 22 + ( −3)
2
14

2 2
=cos β =
12 + 22 + ( −3)
2
14

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−3 −3
=cos γ =
12 + 22 + ( −3)
2
14

Application activity 5.4

1. Find the angle formed by the vectors:
 
a) = ( −3, 2, 6 ) and v = ( 2,1,5 )
u
 
b) u = (1,3, 4 ) and u = ( 6, 4, 2 )
 
c) u (12, 21, −5 ) and v = ( −20,5,12 )
=
 
d)= u ( 2, 0, −5 ) and v = ( 0,11, 25 )
2. Find the direction cosines of the vector:
 
a) u = ( 2,3, 4 ) b) =v (12, −3, 0 )
 
c) u = (1, −2, −14 ) d) v = ( 22, 0, 0 )

5.5. Vector product

Activity 5.5
 
1. Consider vectors u = ( 4, 2,1) and v = ( −2, 4, 2 ) . Find vector
  
w that is perpendicular to both u and v .
2. Calculate the determinant
  
i j k
4 2 1
−2 4 2
3. Comment on results in 1 and 2.

The vector product (or cross product or Gibbs vector product) is

a binary operation on two vectors in three-dimensional space. It
results in a vector which is perpendicular to both of the vectors
being multiplied and therefore normal to the plane containing
them.

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

  
=
Consider i (1,
={0, 0 ) , j ( = }
0,1, 0 ) , k ( 0, 0,1) , a positive
orthonormal basis of E0 and two linearly independent vectors
 
u = ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) and v = ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) .
   
The vector product of u and v is denoted u × v . From activity 5.4,
  
i j k
  a2 a3  a1 a3  a1 a2 
u × v a1 a2=
= a3 i− j+ k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3
Or
  a a3 a a3 a1 a2 
u×v  2
= ,− 1 , 
 b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2 
 
u ×v


v

u

Example 5.11
 
Find the vector product of=u (1,3, −3) and v = ( 4,3,1) .

Solution
  
i j k
  3 −3  1 −3  1 3    
u × v= 1 3 −3 = i− j+ k = 12i − 13i − 9k
3 1 4 1 4 3
4 3 1
Or
    
u × v= 12i − 13i − 9k

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Example 5.12
 
Find the vector product of u = ( 2,3,5 ) and v = ( −2,5, 6 ) .
Solution
  
i j k
  3 5 2 5  2 3    
u × v =2 3 5 = i− j+ k =−7i − 22 j + 16k
5 6 −2 6 −2 5
−2 5 6
Or
 
u × v =( −7, −22, +16 )

Properties of vector product

      
1. If w is vector product u and v , then, w ⊥ u and w ⊥ v .
   
2. The vector product is anti-symmetric: u × v =−v × u .
      
3. If u = 0 and v = 0 then u × v =0.
4. If two vectors are linearly dependent then their vector
product is a zero vector.
      
5. If u × v =0 then u = 0 or v = 0 .
6. The
 vector
  product
  is bilinear:
 
( ) ( ) (
u × rv + sw = r u × v + s u × w )
      
( ) ( ) (
ru + sv × w= r u × w + s v × w . )
7. The vector product is not associative:
     
( )
u×v ×w ≠ u× v×w . ( )
Application activity 5.5
 
Calculate the vector product u × v of the following vectors:
   
1. u = (11, 2, −1) , v = ( −1, 0,1) 2. u = ( 0, 0, 2 ) , v = ( −1,1, 0 )
   
3. u =(1,1, −1) , v =( 9,1,1) = 4. u (= 6,3,1) , v (1,1, 0 )
 
5. u = ( 5,1, 2 ) , v = ( −1, 0, 2 )

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5.6. Mixed product

Activity 5.6
  
i j k
1. Find the determinant a1 a2 a3
b1 b2 b3
  
=
Where i (1,
= 0, 0 ) , j ( =
0,1, 0 ) , k ( 0, 0,1) .

2. Find the scalar product of vector u = ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) and vector
obtained in 1).

The mixed product (also called the scalar triple product or box
product or compound product) of three vectors is a scalar which
numerically equals the vector product multiplied by a vector as
the dot product.
 
Then the mixed product of the vectors u = ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) , v = ( b1 , b2 , b3 )

and w = ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) is equal to the dot product of the first vector by
  
the vector product of the other two. It is denoted by u , v, w .
     
( )
Thus, u , v, w =u ⋅ v × w .
From activity 5.5,
   b b3 b b b b
(
u⋅ = )
v × w a1 2
c2 c3
− a2 1 3 + a3 1 2
c1 c3 c1 c2

this product is equivalent to the development of a determinant

whose columns are the coordinates of these vectors with respect
to an orthonormal basis.
That is,
a1 a2 a3
  
(
u ⋅ v× w = )
b1 b2 b3
c1 c2 c3

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Mixed product properties

1. The mixed product does not change if the orders of its factors
are circularly rotated, but changes sign if they are transposed.
That is,
        
( ) ( )
u ⋅ v × w =w ⋅ u × v =v ⋅ w × u and( )
        
(
u ⋅ v× w = ) (
−w ⋅ v × u = )
−v ⋅ u × w . ( )
2. If three vectors are linearly dependent, the mixed product is
zero.

Example 5.13
  
  
( )
Calculate the mixed product u ⋅ v × w of the following vectors:
u ( 2, −1,3)=
= , v ( 0, 2, −5 ) and w = (1, −1, −2 ) .
  
i j k
    
v × w =0 2 −5 =−9i − 5 j − 2k =− ( 9, −5, −2 )
1 −1 −2
  
( )
u ⋅ v × w =( 2, −1,3) ⋅ ( −9, −5, −2 ) =−18 + 5 − 6 =−19

2 −1 3
  
( )
Or u ⋅ v × w =0 2 −5 =−8 + 0 + 5 − 6 − 10 − 0 =−19
1 −1 −2
Application activity 5.6
  
(
Calculate the mixed product u ⋅ v × w of the following )
vectors:
  
1. u = (11, 2, −1) , v = ( −1, 0,1) and w = (1, 2,1)
  
2. u = ( 0, 0, 2 ) , v = ( −1,1, 0 ) and= w ( 3,1, −1)
  
3. u =(1,1, −1) , v =( 9,1,1) and w = (1, 6,3)
  
= 4. u (= 6,3,1) , v (1,1, 0 ) and w = ( 3, 2, 6 )
  
5. u = ( 5,1, 2 ) , v = ( −1, 0, 2 ) and w = ( 2,1,1)

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5.7. Applications
5.7.1. Work done as scalar product
Activity 5.7
From the definition of work done by a force on a body, if a
constant force F acting on a particle displaces from
A to B,

express the work done in function of vectors F and AB .

From activity 5.6, if a constant force F acting on a particle displaces

 
it from A to B, the work done is given by work done= F ⋅ AB

Example 5.14
       
Constant forces P = 2i − 5 j + 6k and Q =−i + 2 j − k act on a particle.
Determine the work done when the particle is displaced from A to
     
B, the position vectors of A and B being 4i − 3 j + 2k and 6i + j − 3k
respectively.

Solution
        
( ) ( )
Total force: 2i − 5 j + 6k + −i + 2 j − k = i − 3 j + 5k
        
( ) ( )
Displacement: 6i + j − 3k − 4i − 3 j − 2k = 2i + 4 j − k
     
( )( )
Work done: i − 3 j + 5k 2i + 4 j − k =2 − 12 − 5 =−15
Work done is 15 unit of work.

Example 5.15
Forces of magnitudes 5 and 3 units acting in the direction
     
6i + 2 j + 3k and 3i − 2 j + 6k respectively act on a particle which is
displaced from the point ( 2, 2, −1) to ( 4,3,1) . Find the work done
by the forces.

Solution
  
First force of magnitude 5 units, acting in the direction 6i + 2 j + 3k

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  
6i + 2 j + 3k 5   
is 5
62 + 22 + 32 7
= (
6i + 2 j + 3k )
Second force of magnitude 3 units, acting in the direction
  
   3i − 2 j + 6k 3   
3i − 2 j + 6k is 3 = (
3i − 2 j + 6k)
32 + ( −2 ) + 62 7
2

5    3    1   
( ) ( ) (
Resulting force is 7 6i + 2 j + 3k + 7 3i − 2 j + 6k= 7 39i + 4 j + 33k )
Displaced from the point ( 2, 2, −1) to ( 4,3,1) is
        
( ) ( )
4i + 3 j + k − 2i + 2 j − k = 2i + j + 2k
1       1 148
Work done:
7
( )(
39i + 4 j + 33k ⋅ 2i + j + 2=
k
7
)
( 78 + 4 + 66=)
7
units

Application activity 5.7

     
1. A particle acted on by constant forces 2i + j − k , i − 2 j + 3k
  
and 3i + j + 5k is displaced from the point i + 2 j + 3k to
  
the point 6i + 3 j + k . Find the work done.
        
2. Constant forces 12i − 15 j + 6k , i + 2 j − 2k and 2i + 8 j + k
act
 on  a point P which is displaced
  from the position
2i − 3 j + k to the position 4i + 2 j + k . Find the total work
done.
3. The point of application of force ( −2, 4, 7 ) is displaced
from the point ( 3, −5,1) to the point ( 5,9, 7 ) . But the force
is suddenly halved when the point of application moves
half the distance. Find the work done.
  
4. A force of magnitude 6 units acting parallel to 2i − 2 j + k
displaces the point of application from (1, 2,3) to ( 5,3, 7 ) .
Find the work done.

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

5.7.2. Area of a parallelogram

Activity 5.8
Consider the following figure

Write down the formula for area of this parallelogram in terms

 
of u , v and sin θ and give its equivalent relation using vector
product.

Geometrically, the magnitude of the vector product of two vectors

is the product of their magnitudes and the sine of the angle between
them.
 
From activity 5.7, the area of a parallelogram with vectors u and v
 
as two adjacent sides is given by S= u × v .
 
Thus, the magnitude of the vector product of two vectors u and v
 
represents the area of a parallelogram with vectors u and v as two
adjacent sides.

Example 5.16

Find the area of parallelogram with vectors u = ( 3, 0, 4 ) and

v = ( 3, 2,1) as two adjacent sides.

Solution
  
i j k
  0 4 3 4  3 0    
u × v =3 0 4 = i− j+ k =−8i + 9 j + 6k
2 1 3 1 3 2
3 2 1
    
S = u × v = −8i + 9 j + 6k = 64 + 81 + 36 = 181 sq. units

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Notice: Area of a triangle

Since the area of the parallelogram is twice the area of the
triangle, we may use the vector product to find the area of
triangle.
 
Thus, the area of triangle with vectors u and v as two sides is
1  
=S u×v .
2

Consider the triangle ABC whose vertices are points

A ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) , B ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) and C ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) . Letting A to be the
 
starting point, we can form two vectors AB and AC and the area
1  
of this triangle is = S AB × AC .
2
Example 5.17
 
Find the area of triangle with vectors u = ( 3, 0, 4 ) and v = ( 3, 2,1) as
two sides.

Solution
  
i j k
  0 4 3 4  3 0    
u × v =3 0 4 = i− j+ k =−8i + 9 j + 6k
2 1 3 1 3 2
3 2 1
1   1    1 1
S = u×v = −8i + 9 j + 6k = 64 + 81 + 36 = 181
2 2 2 2 Sq units.

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

Application activity 5.8

1. Find the  area of a parallelogram
 with vectors;
a) u = (1, −2, −14 ) and v = ( 22, 0, 0 ) as two adjacent
sides.
 
b) u ( 21, 4, −2 ) and =
= v ( 0, −1, 0 ) as two adjacent sides.
2. Find
 the area of triangle with vectors u = (1, 0, 0 ) and
v = ( 3,3,3) as two sides.
3. Find the area of triangle
  formed
  by the points  whose
position vectors are 3i + j , 5i + 2 j + k , i − 2 j + 3k .
4. The vertices of a triangle are (1,1,1) , ( 0,1, 2 ) and ( 3, 2,1) .
Find the area of the triangle.

5.7.3. Volume of a parallelepiped

Activity 5.9
Consider the following figure.

Write down the formula for volume of this parallelepiped

  
in terms of u , v , w , cos θ and sin α and give its
equivalent relation using mixed product.

Geometrically, the magnitude of the mixed product represents the

volume of the parallelepiped whose edges are three vectors that
meet in the same vertex.
 
From activity 5.8, for a parallelepiped which has vectors u , v and
  
w as three concurrent edges, where v and w define its base, the
  
(
volume is given by V = u ⋅ v × w . )
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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

  
Remember that if u = ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) , v = ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) and w = ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) ,
a1 a2 a3
  
(
then, u ⋅ v × w =b1 ) b2 b3 .
c1 c2 c3
If the parallelepiped is defined by four points A ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) ,

B ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) , C ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) and D ( d1 , d 2 , d3 ) , its volume is

  
(
V = AD ⋅ AB × AC )

Example 5.18
Find the volume of the parallelepiped formed by the vectors:
  
, v ( 2, 2, −1) and w = ( −4,3, 2 ) .
u ( 3, −2,5 )=
=

Solution
3 −2 5
  
(
V= u ⋅ v × w = ) 2 2 −1= 12 + 30 − 8 + 40 + 9 + 8= 91 cube units
−4 3 2

Example 5.19
Consider the following cube with vertices a, b, c, d , a ', b ', 0, c '

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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

z-axis

d c

a b ( 2, 2, 2 )
e3

c'
e1 0 e2 y-axis

x-axis a' b'

a) From coordinates of the vertex b, find the coordinates of

other vertices.
b) Calculate the area of triangle a ' bc ' .
c) Calculate the volume of this cube.

Solution

a) First: The vertices a ', c ', d are intercepts of coordinate axes.

a ' is x-axis intercept. It has the form a ' ( m, 0, 0 ) .
c ' is y-axis intercept. It has the form c ' ( 0, n, 0 ) .
d is z-axis intercept. It has the form d ( 0, 0, k ) .
Second: Considering the xy-plane and the given figure,
vertex b is 2 units upwards, meaning that the vertices
a, c and d are also 2 units upward since the figure is a
cube. Then the z-coordinate of a, c and d are the same and
equal to 2.
Third: Considering the xz-plane and the given figure,
vertex b is 2 units in direction of y-positive, meaning that
the vertices b ', c and c ' are also 2 units in direction of
y-positive since the figure is a cube. Then the y-coordinate
of b ', c and c ' are the same and equal to 2.
Fourth: Considering the yz-plane and the given figure,
vertex b is 2 units in direction of x-positive, meaning that

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

the vertices a, a ' and b ' are also 2 units in direction of

x-positive since the figure is a cube. Then the x-coordinate
of a, a ' and b ' are the same and equal to 2.
Fifth: Vertex a lies on xz plane, thus its y-coordinate is
zero. Vertex c lies on yz plane, thus its x-coordinate is zero.
Vertex b ' lies on xy plane, thus its z-coordinate is zero.
Combining the above results we get:
a ( 2, 0, 2 ) , a ' ( 2, 0, 0 ) , b ' ( 2, 2, 0 ) , c ( 0, 2, 2 ) , c ' ( 0, 2, 0 ) and
d ( 0, 0, 2 )

b) Area of triangle a ' bc ' .

 
This triangle is built from vectors a ' b and a ' c ' . The area is given
1  
by a ' b × a ' c ' .
2
 
a ' b = ( 0, 2, 2 ) , a ' c ' = ( −2, 2, 0 )
  
i j k
    
a ' b × a ' c ' =0 2 2 =−4i − 4 j + 4k
−2 2 0
1   1
The area is a ' b × a ' c=
' 16 + 16 + 16
= 2 3 Sq. units.
2 2
c) The volume of the given cube is:
  
(
V = d ⋅ a '× c ' )
0 0 2
V = 2 0 0 = 0 + 8 + 0 − 0 − 0 − 0 = 8 cube units.
0 2 0
Remark
A parallelepiped is a prism (or polyhedron) which has a
parallelogram as its base.

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

Example 5.20 The volume of an automatic glassware washer

Calculate the volume of an automatic glassware washer in the
form of a cuboid formed by the following vectors:
  
u = (5,1, 0) , v = (−5, 4,1) , w = (5, 7, 6)

Solution:
  
u = (5,1, 0) , v = (−5, 4,1) , w = (5, 7, 6)

The volume is
5 −5 5
1 4 7= (120 − 0 + 5 − 0 − 35 + 30 )= 155 − 35= 120 cube units
0 1 6

The volume of the automatic glassware washer is 120 cube units

Notice
Volume of a triangular prism
The parallelepiped can be split into 2 triangular prisms of equal
volume. Since the volume of a parallelepiped is the magnitude of
the mixed product, then the volume of a triangular prism is equal
1
to 2 of the magnitude of the mixed product.
Thus, the volume of a
triangular prism which

has vectors u = ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) ,
 
v = ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) and w = ( c1 , c2 , c3 )
as three concurrent edges,
 
where v and w define its
base, is given by
a1 a2 a3
1
V = b1 b2 b3
2
c1 c2 c3

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Example 5.21
Find the volume of a triangular prism whose vertices are the points
A (1, 2,1) , B ( 2, 4, 0 ) , C ( −1, 2,1) and D ( 2, −2, 2 ) .

Solution
  
AB
= (1, 2, −1) AC = ( −2, 0, 0 ) AD= (1, −4,1)
The volume is
1 2 −1
1 1
V = −2 0 0 = ( 0 − 8 + 0 − 0 − 0 + 4 ) =−2
2 2
1 −4 1
We need to take absolute value. Thus, the volume is V = 2 cube
cubic units
units.

Volume of a tetrahedron
The parallelepiped can be split into 6 tetrahedra of equal volume.
Since the volume of a parallelepiped is the magnitude of the mixed
product, then the volume of a tetrahedron is equal to 1 6 of the
magnitude of the mixed product.
Thus, the volume of a
tetrahedron which has vectors
 
u = ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) , v = ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) and

w = ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) , as three concurrent
 
edges, where v and w define its
base, is given by
a1 a2 a3
1
V = b1 b2 b3
6
c1 c2 c3

Remark
A tetrahedron is also called triangular pyramid.

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

Example 5.22
Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are the points
A ( 3, 2,1) , B (1, 2, 4 ) , C ( 4, 0,3) and D (1,1, 7 ) .

Solution
  
AB = ( −2, 0,3) AC= (1, −2, 2 ) AD =( −2, −1, 6 )

The volume is
−2 0 3
1 1 5
V= 1 −2 2 = ( 24 − 3 + 0 − 12 − 4 − 0 )= cube units
6 6 6
−2 −1 6

Application activity 5.9

1. Find the volume of a triangular prism whose vertices are
the points;
a) A (1, 2,1) , B ( 0, −2, 4 ) , C (1,1,1) and D (1, 6, 4 ) .
b) A ( −1,3,1) , B ( 0, −1, 0 ) , C ( 3,1, 2 ) and D (1, 2, 4 ) .
2. Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are the
points;
a) A ( 3,1, 4 ) , B (1, 0, 0 ) , C ( 3, 4,1) and D (1, 0, 2 ) .
b) A ( −1, −2,1) , B ( −5, 2,3) , C (1,1,1) and D (1,1, 0 ) .
3. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with adjacent sides
         
OA =3i − j , OB =j + 2k , OC =+ i 5 j + 4k extending from
origin of coordinates.
4. Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are

the points A ( 2, −1, −3) , B ( 4,1,3) , C ( 3, 2, −1) and D (1, 4, 2 )

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Unit Summary

1. The scalar product of vectors u = ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) and
  
v = ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) of space is defined by u ⋅ v= a1b1 + a2b2 + a3b3

 
2. If u = ( a, b, c ) then, u = a 2 + b2 + c2 .

3. If A ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) and B ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) then,

d ( A, B ) = AB = ( b1 − a1 ) + ( b2 − a2 ) + ( b3 − a3 )
2 2 2

 
4. The scalar product of vectors u and v is also defined to be
     
( )
u ⋅ v = u ⋅ v ⋅ cos u , v .
5. If a constant force F acting on a particular particle
displaces it from A to B , the work done is given by
 
work done= F ⋅ AB .
   
6. The vector product of u and v is denoted u × v and defined
by
  
i j k
  a2 a3  a1 a3  a1 a2 
u × v a1 a2=
= a3 i− j+ k
b2 b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3

7. The magnitude of the vector product of two vectors u and
 
v represents the area of a parallelogram with vectors u and

v as two adjacent sides.
 
8. The area of triangle with vectors u and v as two sides is
1  
=S u×v .
2 
9. The mixed product of the vectors u = ( a1 , a2 , a3 ) ,
 
v = ( b1 , b2 , b3 ) and w = ( c1 , c2 , c3 ) is denoted and defined by
    
u ,v, =
 w (
 u. v × w .
 )

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

 
10. The volume of a parallelepiped which has vectors u , v and
  
w as three concurrent edges, where v and w define its
  
( )
base, is given by V = u ⋅ v × w .
 
11. The volume of a triangular prism which has vectors u , v
  
and w as three concurrent edges, where v and w define its
1   
base, is given by V =
2
(
u ⋅ v× w .)   
12. The volume of a tetrahedron which has vectors u , v and w
 
as three concurrent edges, where v and w define its base,
1   
is given by V =
6
( )
u ⋅ v× w .

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

End of Unit Assessment

1. Find each of the following vector product;
     
a) i × i b) i × j c) i × k
     
 
d) j × k e) i × j × k ( ) ( )
f) i × j × k
 
2. The vectors a and b are two sides of a parallelogram in each
of the following. Calculate the area of each parallelogram;
      
a) a =3i + j , b =−3i − 2 j + 2k
       
b) a = 4i − j + 3k , b = 8i + 3 j + k
      
c) a =2i − 2 j + k , b =− i 5k
       
d) a =2i + 3 j − 5k , b =+ i 5 j − 6k
  
3. Let u = ( 2, −1,3) , v =( 0,1, 7 ) and w = (1, 4,5) . Find:
     
a) u ⋅ v b) u ⋅ w c) v ⋅ w
  
4. Let u = ( 2, −1,3) , v =( 0,1, 7 ) and w = (1, 4,5) . Find:
        
(
a) u × v × w
  
) ( )
b) u × v × w
   
(  
)
c) u × v − 2 w
 
(
d) u × v − 2 w) ( ) (
e) u × v × v × w ) ( ) (
f) v × w × u × v )
5. Find the area of the triangle having vertices P, q and R;
a) P (1,5, −2 ) , Q ( 0, 0, 0 ) , R ( 3,5,1)
b) P ( 2, 0, −3) , Q (1, 4,5 ) , R ( 7, 2,9 )
  
6. What is wrong with expression u × v × w ?
 
7. Find the volume of the parallelepiped with sides a, b and

c;
  
a) a =( 2, −6, 2 ) , b =( 0, 4, −2 ) , c =( 2, 2, −4 )
           
b) a =3i + j + 2k , b = 4i + 5 j + k , c =i + 2 j + 4k

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 Vector Space of Real Numbers

8. Consider the parallelepiped with sides

           
a =3i + 2 j + k , b =i + j + 2k and c =+
i 3 j + 3k
a) Find the volume.
 
b) Find the area of the face determined by a and c .
9. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are;
a) ( 2,1,3) , ( 3, 0, 2 ) , ( 4,1, 2 )
b) ( a, 0, 0 ) , ( 0, b, 0 ) , ( 0, 0, c )
10. Find the area of the triangle whose vertices are;
( 0, 0, 0 ) , ( x1 , y1 , z1 ) and ( x2 , y2 , z2 )
11. Find the volume of the tetrahedron whose vertices are;
( 0,1, 2 ) , ( 3, 0,1) , ( 4,3, 6 ) , ( 2,3, 2 ) .

12. Calculate the angle between the vectors u = ( 2, 4,5 ) and

v= ( −6, 4, −3) .
13. Estimate the gravitational force between two sum of
wrestlers, with masses 220kg and 240kg, when they are
embraced and their centers are 1.2m apart

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Unit Matrices and
Determinant
6 of Order 3

Introductory activity
A pharmacist sold 3 types of medicines to patients in three
consecutive months as follows:
First month: 7 boxes of type I, 2 boxes of type II, 9 boxes of type
III.
Second month: 5 boxes of type I, 4 boxes of type II, 6 boxes of
types III
Third month: 8 boxes of type I, 7 boxes of type II, 9 boxes of
type III
a) Write a matrix A representing the distribution of
 a11 a12 a13 
 
boxes in three months in the form A =  a21 a12 a13  .
a 
 31 a32 a33 
For the form aij , i stands for months and j stands
for type
b) If there is a number DET A such that
Det A = a11a22 a33 + a12 a23a31 + a13a21a32 − a31a22 a13 − a32 a23a11 − a33a21a12
Calculate DET A from (a)
c) Give 3 examples of real-life problems where
matrices are applied.

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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

Objectives
By the end of this unit, a student will be able to:
ᇢ define and give example of matrix of order three.
ᇢ perform different operations on matrices of order
three.
ᇢ find matrix representation of a linear
transformation
ᇢ find the determinant of order three.
ᇢ find the inverse of matrix of order three.
ᇢ solve system of three linear equations by matrix
inverse method.

6.1. Square matrices of order three

6.1.1. Definitions

Activity 6.1
Consider the transformation
f ( x, y, z ) =−
( 12 x − 5 z,3x − 2 y + z, 6 x + 2 y )
Rewrite this transformation in the form
 a b c  x 
  
 d e f  y 
 g h i  z 
  
where a, b, c, d , e, f , g , h and i are constant.

A square matrix is formed by the same number of rows and

columns.
Square matrix of order three has the form
 a11 a12 a13 
 
M =  a21 a22 a23 
a a32 a33 
 31
The elements of the form ( aij ) , where the two subscripts i and j

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are equal, constitute the principal diagonal (or leading diagonal

or main diagonal or major diagonal or primary diagonal).
The secondary diagonal (or minor diagonal or antidiagonal or
counterdiagonal) is formed by the elements with i + j = n + 1 .

Example 6.1
Matrix of order three

1 -2 4
Secondary diagonal
2 3 2
Leading diagonal
5 7 0
6.1.2. Types of matrices

Upper triangular matrix

In an upper triangular matrix, the elements located below the
leading diagonal are zeros.

Example 6.2
1 1 3
 
M = 0 3 1
0 0 2
 
Lower triangular matrix
In a lower triangular matrix, the elements above the leading
diagonal are zeros.

Example 6.3
1 0 0 
 
N = 2 2 0 
 3 2 −2 
 
Diagonal matrix
In a diagonal matrix, all the elements above and below the leading
diagonal are zeros.

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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

Example 6.4
11 0 0 
 
M =  0 9 0
 0 0 4
 
Scalar matrix
A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix in which the leading diagonal
elements are equal.

Example 6.5
5 0 0
 
M = 0 5 0
0 0 5
 

Identity matrix or unity matrix

An identity matrix (denoted by I) is a diagonal matrix in which the
leading diagonal elements are equal to 1.

Example 6.6
Identity matrix of order three
1 0 0
 
I = 0 1 0
0 0 1
 

Equality of matrices
Two matrices are equal if the elements of the two matrices that
occupy the same position are equal.
 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 
   
If  a21 a22 a23  =  b21 b22 a23  ,
a a32 a33   b31 b32 b33 
 31
= 11 , a12
a11 b= 12 , a13
b= b13
=
then 21 , a22
a21 b= 22 , a23
b= b23
= 31 , a32
a31 b= 32 , a33
b= b33
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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Application activity 6.1

1. Give five examples of
a) matrices of order three
b) upper triangular matrices of order three
c) diagonal matrices of order three
2. Given matrices
 1 2 x − 7 x 2 − 7 x + 10   1 x−2 0 
   
A  2
= 5 y +1  , B =  2 5 −1 ,
 −2 y − 4
2
4   −2 0 4 
  
if A = B find the value(s) of x and y .

6.1.3. Operations on matrices

Activity 6.2

1 2 1   2 0 −1
   
Consider the matrices A =  0 1 1  , B =  0 3 2  , and
 1 2 −1  3 0 −1 1 0 1 
   
 
C =  5 1 2  find;
1 4 0 
 
1. A + 3B 2. 2 A − B 3. A + ( − A )
4. A + B and B + A . From the results, give your comment.
5. A + ( B + C ) and ( A + B ) + C . Give your comment.
6. Interchange/switch the rows and columns of matrix A, B
and C .

Adding matrices
When adding two matrices of the same dimension, the resultant
matrix’s elements are obtained by adding the elements that occupy
the same position.
 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 
If A =  a21  and B =  b 
a22 a23   21 b22 b23  , then
a a33  b b33 
 31 a32  31 b32
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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13   a11 + b11 a12 + b12 a13 + b13 
     
A + B=  a21 a22 a23  +  b21 b22 b23 =  a21 + b21 a22 + b22 a23 + b23 
a a32 a33   b31 b32 b33  a +b a32 + b32 a33 + b33 
 31  31 31
 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13   a11 − b11 a12 − b12 a13 − b13 
     
A − B=  a21 a22 a23  −  b21 b22 b23 =  a21 − b21 a22 − b22 a23 − b23 
a a32 a33   b31 b32 b33  a −b a32 − b32 a33 − b33 
 31  31 31

Example 6.7
 2 0 1 1 0 1 
 
Considering the matrices A =  3 0 0 and B = 1 2 1  ,
5 1 1 1 1 0 
find A + B and A − B .    

Solution
 2 +1 0 + 0 1+1  3 0 2
   
A + B =  3 +1 0 + 2 0 + 1 = 4 2 1
 1 + 1 1 + 0   2 1 
 5 +1 6
 2 −1 0 − 0 1−1  1 0 0
   
A − B =  3 −1 0 − 2 0 − 1 = 2 −2 −1
 5 −1 1 − 1 1 − 0  4 0 1 
 
Properties
1. Closure property
The sum of two matrices of order three is another
matrix of order three.
2. Associative property
A + ( B + C ) = ( A + B) + C
3. Additive identity
A + 0 = A , where 0 is the zero-matrix of the same
dimension.
4. Additive inverse
A + ( − A) = O
The opposite matrix of A is -A.
5. Commutative property
A + B = B + A

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6.1.4. Scalar multiplication

Given a matrix, A = ( aij ) , and a real number, k ∈ IR , the product
of a real number by a matrix is a matrix of the same dimension as
A, and each element is multiplied by k.
k · A = ( k aij )

 a11 a12 a13   ka11 ka12 ka13 

If A =  a21  , then kA =  ka ka22 ka23 

 a22 a23   21
a a32 
a33   ka ka32 ka33 
 31  31

Example 6.8
 2 0 1
 
Consider the matrix A =  3 0 0  , find 2A .
5 1 1
 
Solution
2 0 1  4 0 2
   
=2 A 2=
 3 0 0  6 0 0
5 1 1 10 2 2 
   
Properties
1. ( β A)
α= (αβ ) A, A ∈ M m×n , α , β ∈ IR .

2. α (A+ B
= ) α A + α B, A, B ∈ M m×n , α ∈ IR .
3. (α + β )=
A α A + β A, A ∈ M m×n , α , β ∈ IR .

4. 1A= A, A ∈ M m×n .

Application activity 6.2

3 2 1  1 0 −1  1 2 −1
 
A  0 −1 1  , B = 4 3 2 , and C =  3 0 1  .
If=  
 
1 0 0  1 −1 1  1 2 0 
     
Evaluate;
1. A+2B 2. A+B–C 3. 3A–4B+C

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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

Transpose matrix

Activity 6.3
 3 3 1  0 1 −1
  =  
Consider the matrices=A  1 −1 1 and B  1 −1 1 
find;  2 −2 1  −2 −1 0 
   
1. Interchange/switch the rows and columns of matrix A and
B.
2. Add two matrices obtained in 1.
3. Add matrices A and B.
4. Interchange/switch the rows and columns of matrix
obtained in 3.
5. What can you say about result in 2 and 4?
6. Interchange/switch the rows and columns of matrix A
twice. What can you conclude?

Given matrix A, the transpose of matrix A, denoted At , is another

matrix where the elements in the columns and rows have switched.
In other words, the rows become the columns and the columns
become the rows.
 a11 a12 a13   a11 a21 a31 
If A =  a21  , then At =  a a22 a32 

a22 a23   12
a a32 
a33  a a23 a33 
 31  13
Example 6.9
1 3 6  1 0 3
   
=A 0 2 0 =A  3 2 5
t

3 5 8  6 0 8
   

Properties of transpose of matrices

Let A, B be matrices of order three

(A )
t t
(A + B ) = At + B t
t
1. = A 2.

(α × A) =α × At , α ∈  ( A× B)
t t
3. 4. =B t × At

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Application activity 6.3

0 1 2  1 1 0
   
Consider matrices A =  1 0 1  and B =  −4 1 3  .
 3 −2 1   0 2 2
Evaluate;    

3. ( −3B + 4 A )
t
( A + B)
t
1. 2. 3 At + B
1 2 x2 
 
4. Find the value of x in M =  4 1 0  if
 1 4 1 1 x +3 8 
 
 
M t =  2 1 1
 4 0 8
 

Multiplying matrices

Activity 6.4

 −1 1 1   1 1 −1
   
Consider the matrices P =  2 1 2  and Q =  1 2 3  .
 0 3 −1  −1 0 2 
   
Given that
 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 
   
=A × B  a21 a22 a23  ×  b21 b22 b23 
a a a  b b32 b33 
 31 32 33   31
 a11b11 + a12b21 + a13b31 a11b12 + a12b22 + a13b32 a11b13 + a12b23 + a13b33 
 
=  a21b11 + a22b21 + a23b31 a21b12 + a22b22 + a23b32 a21b13 + a22b23 + a23b33 
a b +a b +a b a31b12 + a32b22 + a33b32 a31b13 + a32b23 + a33b33 
 31 11 32 21 33 31
Find P.Q

Two matrices A and B can be multiplied together if and only if the

number of columns of A is equal to the number of rows of B.
Mm × n × Mn × p =
Mm × p

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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

The element, cij , of the product matrix is obtained by multiplying

every element in row i of matrix A by each element of column
j of matrix B and then adding them together. This method of
multiplication is called ROCO (row, column).
 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 
   
If A =  a21 a22 a23  and B =  b21 b22 b23  , then
a a33  b b33 
 31 a32  31 b32
 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 
   
= A × B  a21 a22 a23  ×  b21 b22 b23 
a a32 a33   b31 b32 b33 
 31
 a11b11 + a12b21 + a13b31 a11b12 + a12b22 + a13b32 a11b13 + a12b23 + a13b33 
 
=  a21b11 + a22b21 + a23b31 a21b12 + a22b22 + a23b32 a21b13 + a22b23 + a23b33 
a b +a b +a b a b +a b +a b 
 31 11 32 21 33 31 31 12 32 22 33 32 a31b13 + a32b23 + a33b33 

Example 6.10
 2 0 1 1 0 1 
   
=
Consider matrices A  3 0 0  and B = 1 2 1  , find A × B .
5 1 1 1 1 0 
   
Solution
 2 0 1  1 0 1
   
A × B  3 0 0  × 1
= 2 1
 5 1 1  1 1 0 
  
 2 × 1 + 0 × 1 + 1× 1 2 × 0 + 0 × 2 + 1× 1 2 × 1 + 0 × 1 + 1× 0 
 
=  3 ×1 + 0 ×1 + 0 ×1 3 × 0 + 0 × 2 + 0 ×1 3 ×1 + 0 ×1 + 0 × 0 
 5 × 1 + 1× 1 + 1× 1 5 × 0 + 1× 2 + 1×1 5 ×1 + 1×1 + 1× 0 

 3 1 2
 
=  3 0 3
7 3 6
 

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Application activity 6.4

 1 −2 6   0 8 9  13 −2 0 
    and C = 10 0 3  .
A  2 2 −5  , =
If = B 14 4 6   
0 4 8   0 6 7  9 1 −5 
     
Evaluate;
1) A × B 2) A × C 3) B × C

Properties of matrices multiplication

Activity 6.5
 3 0 1  0 1 −1 
   
=
Consider the matrices A  0 −=1 1 B  1 1 −2 
 −2 3 2   −1 0 1 
   

 1 1 −1
 
=
and C  1 −2 1  find:
 −1 1 0 
 
2. ( A × B ) and B t × At
t
1. A × B and B × A
3. A × ( B × C ) and ( A × B ) × C 4. A × ( B + C ) and A × B + A × C
Comment on your results.

Let A, B, C be matrices of order three

1. Associative
A× ( B × C ) = ( A× B)× C

2. Multiplicative identity
A× I =A , where I is the identity matrix with the
same order as matrix A.
3. Not commutative
A× B = B × A
4. Distributive
A× ( B + C ) = A× B + A× C

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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

( A× B)
t
5. =B t × At

Example 6.11
Given the matrices:
2 0 1 1 0 1 
  and B = 1 2 1 
A =  3 0 0  
5 1 1 1 1 0 
   
Find;
a) The product A × B b) The product B × A

Solution
a)
 2 0 1  1 0 1
   
A × B  3 0 0  × 1 2
= 1
 5 1 1  1 1 0 
  
 2 × 1 + 0 × 1 + 1× 1 2 × 0 + 0 × 2 + 1× 1 2 × 1 + 0 × 1 + 1× 0 
 
=  3 ×1 + 0 ×1 + 0 ×1 3 × 0 + 0 × 2 + 0 ×1 3 ×1 + 0 ×1 + 0 × 0 
 5 × 1 + 1× 1 + 1× 1 5 × 0 + 1× 2 + 1×1 5 ×1 + 1×1 + 1× 0 

 3 1 2
 
=  3 0 3
7 3 6
 

b)
1 0 1   2 0 1
   
B × A 1 2 1  ×  3 0
= 0
1 1 0   5 1 1 
  
 1× 2 + 0 × 3 + 1× 5 1× 0 + 0 × 0 + 1× 1 1× 1 + 0 × 0 + 1× 1 
 
=  1× 2 + 2 × 3 + 1× 5 1× 0 + 2 × 0 + 1× 1 1× 1 + 2 × 0 + 1× 1 
 1× 2 + 1× 3 + 0 × 5 1× 0 + 1× 0 + 0 ×1 1×1 + 1× 0 + 0 ×1

 7 1 2
 
= 13 1 2 
 5 0 1
 

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Notice
ᇢ If AB = 0 , it does not necessarily follow that A = 0
or B = 0 .
ᇢ Commuting matrices in multiplication
In general, the multiplication of matrices is not commutative,
i.e, AB ≠ BA , but we can have the case where two matrices A and
B satisfy AB = BA . In this case, A and B are said to be commuting.

Example 6.12
1 0 0  2 4 0
   
Show that matrices A =  0 1 0  and B =  3 1 0 
1 0 2  −1 −4 1 
   
commute in multiplication.

Solution
 1 0 0  2 4 0   2 4 0 
  1 0 0  2 4 0   2 4 0
=AB = 0 1 0  3 1 0   3 1 0 
  
=  1 0 AB  =0 1 0  3 0 1−4 02  3 1 0
 2  −1 −4 1   
 1 0 2  −1 −4 1   0 −4 2 
  
 2 4 0  1 0 0   2 4 0 
  2 4 0  1 0 0   2 4 0
=BA = 3 1 0  0 1 0    3 1 0   
=  −1 −4BA1 = 3 1 0  0 1 0   3 1 0
  1 0 2   0 −4 2   0 −4
 −1 −4 1  1 0 2   2 
⇒ AB = BA
⇒ AB = BA
ᇢ Trace of matrix
The sum of the entries on the leading diagonal of a square
matrix, A, is known as the trace of that matrix, denoted tr ( A ) .

Example 6.13
 1 −2 4
1. Trace of  2 3 
2 = 1+ 3 + 2= 6

5 7 2 

1 2
2. Trace of  = 1 + 1= 2
3 1
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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

Properties of trace of matrix

1. tr ( A + B=
) tr ( A) + tr ( B ) 2. tr (α A )= α tr ( A )
3. tr ( A ) = tr ( A )
t
4. tr ( AB ) = tr ( BA )
5. ( ABC ) tr=
tr= ( BCA) tr ( CAB ) , cyclic property.
6. tr ( ABC ) ≠ tr ( ACB ) , arbitrary permutations are not
allowed.

Application activity 6.5

1 0 1  −2 0 1 
   
Consider the matrices=A  1 −1 1  B =  1 0 2  and
 1 0 −1 0 0 0  −1 0 1 
  find;    
C =  −2 2 0 
 −1 1 0 
 
1. A × B and B × A 2. A × ( B × C ) and ( A × B ) × C
3. A × ( B + C ) and A × B + A × C 4. tr ( AB )

6.2. Determinants of order three

6.2.1. Determinant

Activity 6.6

Observe the following notation of Matrix A and the corresponding

explanation:

The arrows and signs mean that

DetA = a11a22 a33 + a21a32 a13 + a31a23 a12 − a13 a22 a31 − a23 a32 a11 − a33 a21a12 .

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Refer to your observation, use the same signs and

evaluate detP and detQ where
 1 −4 2   10 2 4 
   
P =  3 6 1  and Q =  −6 5 2 
5 0 1  0 3 1
   

 a11 a12 a13 

 
The determinant of a matrix A =  a21 a22 a23  is noted by
a a33 
 31 a32
a11 a12 a13
detA = a21 a22 a23 and calculated using the rule of SARRUS.
a31 a32 a33
The terms with a positive sign are formed by the elements of the
principal diagonal and those of the parallel diagonals with its
corresponding opposite vertex.
The terms with a negative sign are formed by the elements of the
secondary diagonal and those of the parallel diagonals with its
corresponding opposite vertex.

DetA = a11a22 a33 + a21a32 a13 + a31a23 a12 − a13 a22 a31 − a23 a32 a11 − a33 a21a12
Or we can work out as follows:
To calculate the 3x3 determinant, we rewrite the first two rows
below the determinant (or first two columns to the right of the
determinant).

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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

DetA = a11a22 a33 + a21a32 a13 + a31a23 a12 − a13 a22 a31 − a23 a32 a11 − a33 a21a12
Or

det = a11a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21a32 − a31a22 a13 − a32 a23 a11 − a33 a21a12
As multiplication of real numbers is commutative, the three are
the same.

Example 6.14

3 2 1
0 2 −5 = 3 × 2 × 4 + 0 ×1×1 + ( −2 ) × ( −5 ) × 2 − 1× 2 × ( −2 ) − ( −5 ) ×1× 3 − 4 × 0 × 2
−2 1 4
= 24 + 0 + 20 + 4 + 15 − 0
= 63

General rule for nxn matrices (minor and cofactor)

General method of finding the determinant of matrix with nxn
dimension ( 2 × 2, 3 × 3, 4 × 4, 5 × 5, …) is the use of cofactors.

Minor
An element, aij , to the value of the determinant of order n−1,
obtained by deleting the row i and the column j in the matrix is
called a minor.
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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

1 2 1
1 1
2 [ 5] 4→
3 2
3 6 2
Cofactor

The cofactor of the element aij is its minor prefixing:

The + sign    if i+j is even.
The − sign    if i+j is odd.
1 2 1
2 1
[ 2] 5 4 → −
6 2
3 6 2
The value of a determinant is equal to the sum of the products
of the elements of a line (row or column) by its corresponding
cofactors:
a11 a12 a13
a a23 a a23 a a22
A = a21 a22 a23 = a11 22 − a12 21 + a13 21
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a31 a32 a33

Example 6.15
3 2 1
2 −5 0 −5 0 2
0 2=−5 3 −2 +1
1 4 −2 4 −2 1
−2 1 4
= 3 ( 8 + 5 ) − 2 ( 0 − 10 ) + 1( 0 + 4 )
= 39 + 20 + 4
= 63

Note that we choose only one line (row or column).

Application activity 6.6

Find the determinants of the following matrices:
 1 −1 1   1 2 −1  1 0 1
     
1. A=  −2 3 0  2. B =  −1 1 1  3. C =  −1 0 1 
 −3 1 2   1 −3 1   −1 −4 0 
     

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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

Properties of a determinant

Activity 6.7
1 0 1  −2 1 −1
 
Consider the matrices= A  1 −1 1  , B =  1 3 4  ,
 
0 0 0  −1 4 3 
   
 1 0 −1  1 3 −1
  and D =  −1 2 2  find:
C = 0 2 1   
0 0 3   0 1 −1
   
1. A and B
2. C ⋅ D and C ⋅ D . How can you conclude?
3. Product of leading diagonal elements of matrix C and C .
How can you conclude?

1. The determinant of matrix A and its transpose At are equal.

At = A

Example 6.16

2 3 0 2 3 2
A=3 2 7 A =3 2 1,
t
A = At = −2
2 1 6 0 7 6

2. A= 0 if:
ᇢ It has two equal lines

Example 6.17
2 3 2
=A 3=2 3 0
2 3 2

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

ᇢ All elements of a line are zero.

Example 6.18
2 3 2
=A 3=2 3 0
0 0 0
ᇢ The elements of a line are a linear combination of the
others.

Example 6.19
2 3 2
=A 1=2 4 0
3 5 6
r 3 = r1 + r2
3. A triangular matrix determinant is the product of the leading
diagonal elements.

Example 6.20
2 0 0
A = 1 2 0 = 2 × 2 × 6 = 24
3 5 6

4. If a determinant switches two parallel lines its determinant

changes sign.

Example 6.21
2 1 2 1 2 0
A= 1 2 0= −2 1 2
3 5 6 3 5 6

5. If the elements of a line are added to the elements of another

parallel line previously multiplied by a real number, the
value of the determinant is unchanged.

188
 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

Example 6.22
2 1 2 2 1 7
1 2 0= 16 c3= 2c1 + c2 + c3 1 2 4 = 16
3 5 6 3 5 17

6. If a determinant is multiplied by a real number, any line can

be multiplied by the above mentioned number, but only one.

Example 6.23
2 1 2 2× 2 1 2 4 1 2 2 1 2
2× 1 2 0 =
2 ×1 2 0 =
2 2 0=32 2 × 1 2 0 =2 ×16 =32
3 5 6 2×3 5 6 6 5 6 3 5 6

7. If all the elements of a line are formed by two addends, the

above mentioned determinant decomposes in the sum of two
determinants.

Example 6.24
2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1 2
a+b a+c =
a+d a a a + b c d
3 5 6 3 5 6 3 5 6

Example 6.25
1 2 1 1 2 1 1 2 1
7=8 9 2 4 8+5 4 1
3 2 3 3 2 3 3 2 3
8 24 − 16
=
8=8
8. The determinant of a product equals the product of the
determinants.
A× B = A × B

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Example 6.26
 1 2 1  3 −1 1 
   
=Let A =2 4 8, B 0 4 1
 3 2 3  3 2 2
   
6 9 5 6 9 5
  A × B 30 =
= 30 22 72
 30 30 22 
A× B =
 18 11 11  18 11 11
 
1 2 1 3 −1 1
=A 2=4 8 24,
= B 0 =
4 1 3
3 2 3 3 2 2
A × B = 24 × 3 = 72

Application activity 6.7

Find the determinants of the following matrices:
 12 0 1   1 4 5  6 7 6
   
1. A =  34 0 2  2. B =  2 6 8  3. C =  2 4 8 
 −3 0 3   3 2 5 1 3 9
     

6.2.2. Matrix inverse

Activity 6.8
1 1 1
 
=
Consider the matrix A 2 1 −1
3 2 1 

1. Calculate the determinant A of A.
2. Replace every element in matrix A by its cofactor to find
a new matrix called cofactor matrix.
3. Find the transpose of the cofactor matrix.
4. Multiply the inverse value of determinant obtained in 1
by the matrix obtained in 3.
5. Multiply matrix A by matrix obtained in 4. Discuss your
result.

190
 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

−1
Calculating matrix inverse of matrix A, is to find matrix A such
that,
A · A−1
= A
= −1
·A I
Where I is identity matrix.
From activity 6.8, the matrix inverse of matrix A is equal to the
inverse1 value of its determinant multiplied by the adjugate matrix.
A−1 = .adj ( A )
A
Where adj ( A ) is the adjoint matrix which is the transpose of the
cofactor matrix. The cofactor matrix is found by replacing every
element in matrix A by its cofactor.

Example 6.27
Find the inverse of the following matrix:
 2 0 1
 
A =  3 0 0
5 1 1
 
Solution
We find its inverse as follows:
a) A =3
b) Cofactor of each element:
0 0 3 0 3 0
C (2) = c ( 0) =
− c (1) = 3
−3 =
=
1 1 5 1 5 1
0 1 2 1 2 0
C (3) = c ( 0) = = −3 c ( 0) =
− −2
=
1 1 5 1 5 1
0 1 2 1 2 0
C (5) = c (1) =
− 3
= c (1) = 0
=
0 0 3 0 3 0

The cofactor matrix is

 0 −3 3   0 1 0
 
 , and then adj ( A ) =− 
 1 −3 −2   3 −3 3 
0 3 0   3 −2 0 
   

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

 0 1 0
1 1 
The matrix inverse of A is A = adj ( A ) =  −3 −3 3 
−1

A 3 
 1   3 −2 0 
0 3
0
 
Therefore, A−1 =−
 1 −1 1 
 −2 
1 0
 3 

Example 6.28
Find the inverse of the following matrix:
 2 3 −1
 
A = 1 0 2 
3 3 1 
 
Solution
A =0
Since the determinant is zero, the given matrix has no inverse.
Properties of the Inverse Matrix

1. ( A · B)
−1
= B −1 · A−1 2. (A )
−1 −1
= A

(α · A ) = α −1 · A−1 (A ) (A )
−1
t −1 −1 t
3. 4. =

Application activity 6.8

Find the inverse of the following matrices:
 1 4 5  1 4 5
   
1. A =  2 6 8  2. B =  2 6 8 
 3 2 5  3 2 5
   

 6 7 6  −3 5 1
   
3. C =  2 4 8  4. D =  2 10 1
1 3 9  1 8 1
   

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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

6.3. Application
6.3.1. System of 3 linear equations

Activity 6.9
Consider the following system of 3 linear equations in 3
unknowns.
a11 x + a12 y + a13 z =
c1

a21 x + a22 y + a23 z =c2
a x + a y + a z = c3
 31 32 33

1. Rewrite this system in matrix form.

2. If we premultiply (multiply to the left) both sides of the
−1
 a11 a12 a13 
equality obtained in 1) by  a21 a22

a23  , what will

a a32 a33 
 31
be the new equality?

From activity 6.9, the solution of the following system of 3 linear

equations in 3 unknowns.
a11 x + a12 y + a13 z =
c1

a21 x + a22 y + a23 z =c2
a x + a y + a z = c3
 31 32 33

x
is  y  = A−1 B , provided that A−1 exists.
 
z 
 
where

 a11 a12 a13   c1 

  and B =  c 
A =  a21 a22 a23   2
a  c 
 31 a32 a33   3

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Notice
ᇢ If at least, one of ci is different from zero, the
system is said to be non-homogeneous and if all
ci are zero the system is said to be homogeneous.
ᇢ The set of values of x, y, z that satisfy all the
equations of system (1) is called solution of the
system.
ᇢ For the homogeneous system, the solution
x= y= z= 0 is called trivial solution. Other
solutions are non-trivial solutions.
ᇢ Non- homogeneous system cannot have a trivial
solution as at least one of x, y, z is not zero.
x
  −1
ᇢ It is not allowed to use  y  = BA
z 
 

Alternative method: Cramer’s rule

Consider the system
a11 x + a12 y + a13 z =
c1

a21 x + a22 y + a23 z =c2
a x + a y + a z = c3
 31 32 33

We use Cramer’s rule as follows:

a11 a12 a13 c1 a12 a13
∆ = a21 a22 a23 ∆ x =c2 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 c3 a32 a33

a11 c1 a13 a11 a12 c1

∆ y =a21 c2 a23 ∆ z =a21 a22 c2
a31 c3 a33 a31 a32 c3

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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

∆x ∆y
=x = , y and z = ∆ z
∆ ∆ ∆
Recall that
ᇢ The solution b , b ≠ 0 means impossible.
0
0
ᇢ The solution means indeterminate.
0
Example 6.29
Solve
x + y + z = 6

2 x + y − z = 1
3 x + 2 y + z =10


Solution
1 1 1  x  6 
    
 2 1 −1  y  =
1 
 3 2 1   z  10 
    

1 1 1  x 6 
     
=A  2 1 −1 , X =  y  , B = 1 
3 2 1  z  10 
     
We find the inverse of A. A is invertible if its determinant is not
zero.
1 1 1
det ( A ) =2 1 −1 =1 + 4 − 3 − 3 + 2 − 2 =−1 ≠ 0 , then A has
3 2 1
inverse.
We have seen that the adjugate matrix and determinant of a matrix
are used to find its inverse.

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Let use another useful method.

1 1 1 
 
We have= A  2 1 −1 , to find its inverse, suppose that
3 2 1 
 
its inverse is given by
a d g
−1 
A = b e h
c f i 


We know that AA−1 = I , then,

a + b + c = 1

2a + b − c= 0 (1)
3a + 2b + c = 0

 1 1 1  a d g   1 0 0  d + e + f = 0
     
 2 1 −1 b e h =  0 1 0  ⇒ 2d + e − f= 1 ( 2)
 3 2 1  c
  f i   0 0 1  3d + 2e + f = 0

 g + h + i =0

2 g + h − i= 0 ( 3)
3 g + 2h + i = 1


We solve these three systems to find value of a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h,

and i.
a + b + c =1 a =−3

2a + b − c= 0 (1) ⇒ b= 5
 
3a + 2b + c =0 c =−1

d + e + f =0 d =−1

2d + e − f= 1 ( 2 ) ⇒ e= 2
3d + 2e + f = 0 f = −1
 
g + h + i 0 =
= g 2

2 g + h − i = 0 ( 3) ⇒ h = −3
= i 1
3 g + 2h + i 1 = 

196
 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

Then,
 −3 −1 2 
 −1 
=A  5 2 −3 
 −1 −1 1 
 
 x   −3 −1 2   6   1 
      
x=
 y = 5 2 −3   1  = 2
 z   −1 −1 1   10   3 
      

Therefore, S = {(1, 2,3)}

Alternative method

1 1 1 6 1 1
∆ = 2 1 −1 = −1 ∆ x = 1 1 −1 =−1
3 2 1 10 2 1

1 6 1 1 1 6
∆ y =2 1 −1 =−2 ∆ z =2 1 1 =−3
3 10 1 3 2 10

∆ x −1 ∆ y −2 ∆ z −3
x
= y =
= = 1,= z =
= 2 ,= = 3
∆ −1 ∆ −1 ∆ −1

Therefore, S = {(1, 2,3)}

Example 6.30
A dietitian at Hospital wants a patient to have a meal that has 65
grams of protein, 95 grams of carbohydrates, and 905 milligrams of
calcium. The hospital food service tells the dietitian that the dinner
for today is chicken , baked potatoes, and 2% milk. Each serving
of chicken has 30 grams of protein, 35 grams of carbohydrates,
and 200 milligrams of calcium. Each serving of baked potatoes
contains 4 grams of protein, 33 grams of carbohydrates, and 10
milligrams of calcium. Each glass of 2% milk contains 9 grams of
protein, 13 grams of carbohydrates, and 300 milligrams of calcium.
How many servings of each food should the dietitian provide for
the patient?

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Solution:
Let C , B, and M represent the number of serving of chicken, baked
potatoes, and milk respectively.
 30C + 4 B + 9 M = 65 protein equation

 35C + 33B + 13M = 95 carbohydrates equation
200C + 10 B + 300 M =
905 calcium equation

30 4 9
=∆ 35
= 33 13 205250
200 10 300
65 4 9
307875 3
=
∆C 95 33 =
13 307875 ⇔
= C =
205250 2
905 10 300
30 65 9
102625 1
=
∆B 35 95 = 13 102625 ⇔
= B =
205250 2
200 905 300
30 65 4
410500
=
∆M 35 33 95 = 410500 ⇔=
M = 2
205250
200 10 905
Therefore, the will be 2 glasses of milk, 1 baked potato and 3 of
2 2
chicken for each serving.

Example 6.31
Food perfect corporation manufactures three models of the perfect
food processor. Each Model X processor requires 30 minutes of
electrical assembly, 40 minutes of mechanical assembly and 30
minutes of testing. Each Model Y processor requires 20 minutes
of electrical assembly, 50 minutes of mechanical assembly and 30
minutes of testing. Each Model Z processor requires 30 minutes
of electrical assembly, 30 minutes of mechanical assembly and 20
minutes of testing. If 2500 minutes of electrical assembly, 3500
minutes of mechanical assembly and 2400 minutes of testing are
used in one day; how many of each model will be produced?

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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

Solution: The following table summarizes the given information:

Model Time used

X Y Z
Electrical assembly 30 20 30 2500
Mechanical assembly 40 50 30 3500
Testing 30 30 20 2400
Let assign variables to represent the unknowns:
x = the number of Model X produced
y = the number of Model Y produced
z =the number of Model Z produced
Based on the table , we obtain the following system of equations:
30 x + 20 y + 30 z =
2500

40 x + 50 y + 30 z =
3500
30 x + 30 y + 20 z =
2400

Divide each equation by 10
3 x + 2 y + 3 z =
250

4 x + 5 y + 3z =350
3 x + 3 y + 2 z =
240

Write the system by use of matrices
 3 2 3 x   250   3 2 3
      
 4 5 3 = y  350  ⇔=
A  4 5 3
 3 3 2 z   240   3 3 2
      
findthe det A
3 2 3
DetA = 4 5 3 = −4
3 3 2
250 2 3
D −160
Dx =350 5 3 =−160 ⇔ x = x = =40
D −4
240 3 2
3 250 3
D −80
Dy =4 350 3 =−80 ⇔ y = y = = 20
D −4
3 240 2
3 2 250
D −120
Dz =4 5 350 =−120 ⇔ z = z = =30 199
D −4
3 3 240
S = {( 40, 20,30 )}
Dx =350 5 3 =−160 ⇔ x = = =40
D −4
240 3 2
3 250 3
−80 Dy
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five
Dy =4 350 3 =−80 ⇔ y = = = 20
D −4
3 240 2
3 2 250
D −120
Dz =4 5 350 =−120 ⇔ z = z = =30
D −4
3 3 240
S = {( 40, 20,30 )}

In one day , Food Perfect Corporation produce

40 Model X , 20 ModelY and 30 Model Z perfect processors
Application activity 6.9
1) Use matrix inverse method to solve the following systems:
3 x + y + z = 0 4 x + y − z = 1
 
1. 2 x − y + 2 x = 0 2.  x − 3 y + z = 2
7 x + y − 3 z = 0 5 x − 2 y = 4
 

x + y − z = 3

3. 3 x − y + z =1
−2 x + y + z = 0

2) A hospital dietician is planning a meal consisting of three
foods whose ingredients are summarized as follows:
Chicken breast Potato Spinach
Grams of 24 4 5
protein
Grams of 0 26 7
carbohydrates
Grams of fat 1.5 0 0.5
Determine the number of servings of each food needed to
create a meal containing 38 grams of protein, 40 grams of
carbohydrates and 2.5 grams of fat.

200
 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

Unit Summary
1. Square matrix of order three has the form
 a11 a12 a13 
 
 a21 a22 a23 
a a32 a33 
 31

2. In an upper triangular matrix, the elements located below

the leading diagonal are zeros.
3. In a lower triangular matrix, the elements above the leading
diagonal are zeros.
4. In a diagonal matrix, all the elements above and below the
leading diagonal are zeros.
5. A scalar matrix is a diagonal matrix in which the leading
diagonal elements are equal.
6. An identity matrix (denoted by I) is a diagonal matrix in
which the leading diagonal elements are equal to 1.
 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 
   
7. If  a21 a22 a23  =  b21 b22 a23  , then
a a32 a33   b31 b32 b33 
 31
= 11 , a12
a11 b= 12 , a13
b= b13
= 21 , a22
a21 b= 22 , a23
b= b23
= 31 , a32
a31 b= 32 , a33
b= b33

 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 

   
8. If A =  a21 a22 a23  and B =  b21 b22 b23  , then
a a33  b b33 
 31 a32  31 b32
 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13   a11 + b11 a12 + b12 a13 + b13 
     
A + B=  a21 a22 a23  +  b21 b22 b23 =  a21 + b21 a22 + b22 a23 + b23 
a a32 a33   b31 b32 b33  a +b a32 + b32 a33 + b33 
 31  31 31

 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13   a11 − b11 a12 − b12 a13 − b13 
     
A − B=  a21 a22 a23  −  b21 b22 b23 =  a21 − b21 a22 − b22 a23 − b23 
a a32 a33   b31 b32 b33  a −b a32 − b32 a33 − b33 
 31  31 31

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

 a11 a12 a13   ka11 ka12 ka13 

9. If A =  a21 a22
 , then
a23  
kA =  ka21 ka22 ka23 

a a32 a33   ka ka32 ka33 
 31  31

 a11 a12 a13   a11 a21 a31 

  t  
10. If A =  a21 a22 a23  , then A =  a12 a22 a32 
a a32 a33  a a23 a33 
 31  13

 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 

   
11. If A =  a21 a22 a23  and B =  b21 b22 b23  , then
a  b b33 
 31 a32 a33   31 b32
 a11 a12 a13   b11 b12 b13 
   
=A × B  a21 a22 a23  ×  b21 b22 b23 
a a a  b b b 
 31 32 33   31 32 33 
 a11b11 + a12b21 + a13b31 a11b12 + a12b22 + a13b32 a11b13 + a12b23 + a13b33 
 
=  a21b11 + a22b21 + a23b31 a21b12 + a22b22 + a23b32 a21b13 + a22b23 + a23b33 
a b +a b +a b a b +a b +a b a31b13 + a32b23 + a33b33 
 31 11 32 21 33 31 31 12 32 22 33 32
12. The sum of the entries on the leading diagonal of a square
matrix, A, is known as the trace of that matrix, denoted

tr ( A ) .
 a11 a12 a13 
 
13. Consider an arbitrary 3x3 matrix, A =  a21 a22 a23  .
a a32 a33 
 31
The determinant of A is defined as follows:
a11 a12 a13
A = a21 a22 a23 = a11a22 a33 + a12 a23a31 + a13a21a32 − a13a22 a31 − a12 a21a33 − a11a23a32
a31 a32 a33

14. Steps to calculate the inverse matrix:

a) Calculate the determinant of A, A . If the
determinant is zero the matrix has no inverse.

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 Matrices and determinants of Order 3

b) Find the cofactor matrix which is found by replacing

every element in matrix A by its cofactor.
c) Find the adjoint matrix, denoted adj ( A ) , which is
the transpose of the cofactor matrix.
d) The matrix inverse is equal to the inverse value of
its determinant multiplied by the adjugate matrix.
15. Consider the following system
a11 x + a12 y + a13 z =c1

a21 x + a22 y + a23 z= c2 (1)
a x + a y + a z = c3
 31 32 33

The system (1) can be written in the form

 a11 a12 a13  x   c1 
    
 a21 a22 a23  y  =  c2 
a    
 31 a32 a33  z   c3 
and the solution of system (1) is given by
−1
 x   a11 a12 a13   c1 
      , provided that
 y  =  a21 a22 a23   c2 
z  a a32 a33  c 
   31  3
−1
 a11 a12 a13 
 
 a21 a22 a23  exists.
a a33 
 31 a32
Or we can use Cramer’s rule as follows:
a11 a12 a13 c1 a12 a13
∆ = a21 a22 a23 ∆ x =c2 a22 a23
a31 a32 a33 c3 a32 a33

a11 c1 a13 a11 a12 c1

∆ y =a21 c2 a23 ∆ z =a21 a22 c2
a31 c3 a33 a31 a32 c3

∆x ∆y ∆
=x = , y and z = z
∆ ∆ ∆

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End of Unit Assessment

 3 −1 3  10 2 3  11 12 0 
     
1. If A =  1 0 −6  , B =  1 −4 6  and C =  1 0 8 
 0 −4 2   0 6 4  2 0 7
     
Evaluate:
a) A − B b) A + B − 2C
c) 2A − B + C d) A × B
e) A × C f) B × C
2. Find the inverse of:
1 0 0   2 −2 0 
 
a) A = 1 1 0  b) B =  1 3 4 
   3 1 4
1 1 1   
 
5 0 1
c) C =  2 3 7 
 
1 8 4
 
3. Using matrix inverse method, solve
A × X + 2 × B = 3 × C if
1 0 0  0 1 1 1 0 0
     
=A 1 1 0= B  1 0 0=
 C 0 1 0
1 1 1  0 0 1 1 0 1
     

4. Use matrix inverse method to solve:

 x + 3 y + 3z =0 x + y + z = 3
 
a) 3 x + 4 y − z =0 b) 2 x − y = 1
−3 x − 9 y + z = 0 4 x + y − z = 4
 
− x + y − z =−4
c) 3 x + 10 y + z =
10
x − y − z = 2


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Unit Bivariate
7 Statistics

Introductory activity
In Kabeza village, after her 9 observations about farming,
UMULISA saw that in every house observed, where there are
a number x of cows there are also y domestic ducks, and then
she got the following results of (x,y) pairs: (1,4), (2,8), (3,2),
(4,12), (5,10), (6,14), (7,16), (8,6), (9,18)
a) Represent this information graphically in a

( x, y ) − coordinates .
b) Chose two points, find the equation of a line joining
them and draw it in the same graph. How are the positions
of remaining points vis-a -vis this line?
c) According to your observation from (a), explain in
your own words if there is any relationship between the
variation of the number x of cows and the number y of
domestic ducks.

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Until now, we know how to determine the measures of central

tendency in one variable. In this unit, we will use those measures
in two quantitative variables known as double series. In statistics,
double series includes technique of analyzing data in two variables,
when we focus on the relationship between a dependent variable-y
and an independent variable-x. The linear regression method will
be used in this unit. The estimation target is a function of the
independent variable called the regression function which will be
a function of a straight line.
Objectives
By the end of this unit, a student will be able to:
ᇢ find measures of variability in two quantitative
variables.
ᇢ draw the scatter diagram of given statistical
series in two quantitative variables.
ᇢ determine the linear regression line of a given
series,
ᇢ calculate a linear coefficient of correlation of a
given double series and interpret it.

7.1. Covariance

Activity 7.1
Complete the following table

i xi yi xi − x yi − y ( x − x )( y − y )
i i

1 3 6
2 1 1
3 4 3
4 3 8
5 2 7
6 2 8
6 6 6

∑ xi = ...
i =1
∑ yi = ...
i =1
∑ ( x − x )( y − y ) =
i =1
i i ...

x = ..... y = .....

206
 Bivariate Statistics

“What can you get from the following expressions if you

divide each one by the total frequency?”
k

∑( )( )
k
1.
i =1
xi − x xi − x 2. ∑ ( x − x )( y − y )
i =1
i i

In case of two variables, say x and y, there is another important

result called covariance of x and y, denoted cov ( x, y ) , which is a
measure of how these two variables change together.
The covariance of variables x and y is a measure of how these
two variables change together. If the greater values of one variable
mainly correspond with the greater values of the other variable,
and the same holds for the smaller values, i.e. the variables tend to
show similar behavior, the covariance is positive. In the opposite
case, when the greater values of one variable mainly correspond
to the smaller values of the other, i.e. the variables tend to show
opposite behavior, the covariance is negative. If covariance is zero
the variables are said to be uncorrelated, meaning that there is no
linear relationship between them.
Therefore, the sign of covariance shows the tendency in the linear
relationship between the variables. The magnitude of covariance
is not easy to interpret.
Covariance of variables x and y, where the summation of frequencies
k

∑f
i =1
i = n are equal for both variables, is defined to be
1 k
cov ( x,=
y)
n i =1
(
∑ fi xi − x )( y − y )
i

Developing this formula we have:

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

1 k
( x, y )
cov=
n i =1
(
∑ fi xi yi − xi y − x yi + x y )
1 k 1 k 1 k 1 k
= ∑ fi xi yi − ∑ fi xi y − ∑ fi x yi + ∑ fi x y
= n i 1= n i 1= n i 1= ni1
1 k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1 k 1 
=
n
∑ fi xi yi − y ∑ fi xi − x ∑ fi yi + x y ∑ fi
=i 1 =i 1 =i 1 n n =i 1 = n  n ∑ fi =
 i1 n
1
×n =

1 k
= ∑ fi xi yi − x y − x y + x y
n i =1
1 k
= ∑ fi xi yi − x y
n i =1

Thus, the covariance is also given by:

1 k
cov ( x, y )
= ∑ fi xi yi − x y
n i =1

Example 7.1
Find the covariance of x and y in the following data sets
x 3 6 4 3 3 2
y 5 3 6 1 7 2

Solution
We have:

xi yi xi − x yi − y ( x − x )( y − y )
i i

3 5 -0.5 1 -0.5
6 3 2.5 -1 -2.5
4 6 0.5 2 1
3 1 -0.5 -3 1.5
3 7 -0.5 3 -1.5
2 2 -1.5 -2 3
6 6

∑ xi = 21 ∑y i = 24
6

∑ ( x − x )( y − y ) =
i =1 i =1
i i 1
21 24 i =1

x = 3.5 =
= y = 4
6 6

208
 Bivariate Statistics

1 6
cov ( x,=
y)
6 i =1
(
∑ fi xi − x )( y − y )
i

1
= (1)
6
1
=
6

Example 7.2
Find the covariance of the following distribution:
x 0 2 4
y
1 2 1 3
2 1 4 2
3 2 5 0

Solution
Convert the double entry into a simple table and compute the
arithmetic means:
xi yi fi xi fi yi fi xi yi fi
0 1 2 0 2 0
0 2 1 0 2 0
0 3 2 0 6 0
2 1 1 2 2 2
2 2 4 8 8 16
2 3 5 10 15 30
4 1 3 12 3 12
4 2 2 8 4 16
4 3 0 0 0 0
9 9 9 9

∑i =1
fi = 20 ∑ xi fi = 40
i =1
∑ yi fi = 41
i =1
∑x y f
i =1
i i i = 76

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

1 n
cov( x, y )
= ∑ fi xi yi − x y
n i =1
1 n
x= ∑ fi xi
n i =1
1 n
y = ∑ f i yi
n i =1

1 n 40
x
= ∑ fi=
n i =1
xi = 2
20
1 n 41
y
= ∑ fi =
n i =1
yi = 2.05
20
1 n
cov( x, y )
= ∑ fi xi yi − x y
n i =1
76
= − (2 × 2.05)
20
= 3.8 − 4.10
= −0.3
Alternative method
40 41
x
= = 2,= y = 2.05
20 20
76
cov ( x, y ) = − 2 × 2.05 =−0.3
20
x
y 0 2 4 Total

1 2 1 3 6
2 1 4 2 7
3 2 5 0 7
Total 5 10 5 20
1 1
x
= ( 0 × 5 + 2 ×10 + 4 × 5) y
= (1× 6 + 2 × 7 + 3 × 7 )
20 20
40 41
= = 2 = = 2.05
20 20

210
 Bivariate Statistics

1  0 × 1× 2 + 0 × 2 × 1 + 0 × 3 × 2 + 2 × 1× 1 + 2 × 2 × 4 
cov ( x, y )   − 2 × 2.05
20  +2 × 3 × 5 + 4 ×1× 3 + 4 × 2 × 2 + 4 × 3 × 0 
1
= ( 0 + 0 + 0 + 2 + 16 + 30 + 12 + 16 + 0 ) − 4.1
20
76
= − 4.1
20
= −0.3
Application activity 7.1
1. Find the covariance of x and y in following data sets:
x 3 5 6 8 9 11
y 2 3 4 6 5 8
2. The scores of 12 students in their mathematics and physics
classes are:
Mathematics 2 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 8 10 10
Physics 1 3 2 4 4 4 6 4 6 7 9 10
Find the covariance of the distribution

3. The values of two variables x and y are distributed

according to the following table:
x
y 100 50 25

14 1 1 0
18 2 3 0
22 0 1 2
Calculate the covariance.

7.2. Regression lines

We use the regression line to predict a value of y for any given
value of x and vice versa. The “best” line would make the best
predictions: the observed y-values should stray as little as possible
from the line.

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

This straight line is the regression line from which we can adjust
y ax + b .
its algebraic expressions and it is written as =

Activity 7.2

The regression line y on x has the form = y ax + b . We need the

distance from this line to each point of the given data to be
small, so that the sum of the square of such distances to be very

∑  y − ( ax + b )
2
∑ ( y − ax − b ) (1)
2
small. That is, D= or D=
is minimum.

1. Differentiate relation (1) with respect to b. In this case, y,

x and a will be considered as constants.
2. Equate relation obtained in 1) to zero, divide each side by
n and give the value of b.
3. Take the value of b obtained in 2) and put it in relation
obtained in 1). Differentiate the obtained relation with
respect to a, equate it to zero and divide both sides by n
to find the value of a.
4. Using the relations: The variance for variable x is
1
( )
2
σ x2
=
n
∑ x−x and the variance for variable y is
1
( )
2
σ y2
=
n
∑ y − y and the covariance of these two
1
variables is cov ( x, y )=
n
( )(
∑ x − x y − y , give the )
simplified expression equal to a.
5. Put the value of b obtained in 2) and the value of
y ax + b and give the
a obtained in 4) in relation =
expression of regression line y on x

From activity 7.2, the regression line y on x is written as

cov ( x, y )  cov ( x, y ) 
=y x+ y− x
σ 2
x  σ x2 

212
 Bivariate Statistics

We may write
cov ( x, y )
Ly / x ≡=
y− y
σ x2
x− x ( )
x cy + d given by
Note that the regression line x on y is =
cov ( x, y )
x−x
=
σ y2
( y − y)
This line is written as
cov ( x, y )
Lx / y ≡=
x−x
σ y2
( y − y)
Shortcut method to find regression lines
To abbreviate the calculations, the two regression lines can be
determined as follows:
a) Relation y-x is Ly / x ≡ y = ax + b and the values of a and b are
found by solving the simultaneous equations:
 k k

∑ i i
= f y a ∑ fi xi + b n
= i 1 =i 1
 k k k
 =
=
∑ fi xi yi a ∑ fi xi2 + b ∑ fi xi
 i 1 =i 1 =i 1

These equations are called the normal equations for y on x.

b) Relation x-y is Lx / y ≡ x = cy + d and the values of c and d are
found by solving the simultaneous equations:
 k k

∑ i i
= f x c ∑ fi yi + d n
= i 1 =i 1
 k k k
 =
=
∑ fi xi yi c ∑ fi yi2 + d ∑ fi yi
 i 1 =i 1 =i 1

These equations are called the normal equations for x on y.

Example 7.3
Find the regression line of y on x for the following data and

213
 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

x 4,=
estimate the value of y for= x 7,=
x 16 and the value of x for
y 7,=
= y 9,= y 16 .
x 3 5 6 8 9 11
y 2 3 4 6 5 8

Solution

( x − x) ( y − y) ( x − x )( y − y )
2 2
x y x−x y− y

3 2 -4 -2.6 16 6.76 10.4

5 3 -2 -1.6 4 2.56 3.2
6 4 -1 -0.6 1 0.36 0.6
8 6 1 1.4 1 1.96 1.4
9 5 2 0.4 4 0.16 0.8
11 8 4 3.4 16 11.56 13.6
6 6 6
∑( y − y) ∑ ( x − x )( y − y ) =
6 6

∑ ( x − x)
2 2

∑x
i =1
i = 42 ∑ y = 28
i =1
i
i =1
i 42
=
i =1
i 23.36
=
i =1
i i 30

42 28
x
= = 7,= y = 4.7
6 6
1 30
(
cov ( x, y ) = ∑ x − x y − y =
n 6
)(
= 5 )
42 = 23.36
= 7 , σ y = 3.89
2
σ=2
x
6 6
cov ( x, y )
Ly /=
x ≡ y− y
σ x2
( x − x)
5
Ly / x ≡ y − 4.7= ( x − 7)
7
Finally, the line of y on x is
5
Ly / x ≡ y = x − 0.3
7
And
cov ( x, y )
Lx=
/y ≡ x − x
σ y2
( y − y)
5
−7
Lx / y ≡ x= ( y − 4.7 )
3.89

214
 Bivariate Statistics

Finally, the line of x on y is

Lx / y ≡ y= 1.3 x + 1

Alternative method

x y x2 y2 xy

3 2 9 4 6
5 3 25 9 15
6 4 36 16 24
8 6 64 36 48
9 5 81 25 45
11 8 121 64 88
6 6 6 6 6

∑ xi = 42
i =1
∑ yi = 28
i =1
∑ xi2 = 336
i =1
∑ yi2 = 154
i =1
∑x y
i =1
i i = 226

Ly / x ≡ y = ax + b

 k k

∑ i i
= f y a ∑ fi xi + b n
= i 1 =i 1
 k k k
 =
=
∑ fi xi yi a ∑ fi xi2 + b ∑ fi xi
 i 1 =i 1 =i 1

 5
=28 42a + 6b a =
⇔ 7
 
=226 336a + 42b b = −0.3

Thus, the line of y on x is

5
Ly / x ≡ y = x − 0.3
7
If
x = 4 ⇒ y = 2.5
x = 7 ⇒ y = 4.7
x = 16 ⇒ y = 11.1

Lx / y ≡ x = cy + d

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

 k k

∑ i i
= f x c ∑ fi yi + d n
= i 1 =i 1
 k k k
 =
=
∑ fi xi yi c ∑ fi yi2 + d ∑ fi yi
 i 1 =i 1 =i 1

=42 28c + 6d c = 1.3

 ⇔
226
= 154c + 28d d = 1
Thus, the line of x on y is
Lx / y ≡ x= 1.3 y + 1

If
y = 7 ⇒ x = 10.1
y = 9 ⇒ x = 12.7
y = 16 ⇒ x = 21.8

Application activity 7.2

1. Consider the following table:
x y a) Find the regression line of y
60 3.1 on x.
61 3.6 b) Calculate the approximate y
62 3.8
63 4 value for the variable x = 64 .
65 4.1

2. The values of two variables x and y are distributed

according to the following table:
x
y 100 50 25

14 1 1 0
18 2 3 0
22 0 1 2
Find the regression lines.

216
 Conditional Probability and Bayes Theorem

7.3. Coefficient of correlation

Pearson’s coefficient of correlation or product moment
coefficient of correlation

Activity 7.3
Consider the following table:

x y 1. Find the standard deviations

σ x ,σ y .
3 6
5 9 2. Find covariance cov ( x, y ) .
7 12 cov ( x, y )
3. Calculate the ratio .
3 10 σ xσ y
2 7
6 8

The Pearson’s coefficient of correlation also called product moment

coefficient of correlation or simply coefficient of correlation,
denoted by r, is a measure of the strength of linear relationship
between two variables.
The coefficient of correlation between two variables x and y is
given by:
cov ( x, y )
r=
σ xσ y
Where,
cov ( x, y ) is covariance of x and y
σ x is the standard deviation for x
σ y is the standard deviation for y

Properties of the coefficient of correlation

a) The coefficient of correlation does not change the
measurement scale. That is, if the height is expressed in
metres or feet, the coefficient of correlation does not change.

217
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

b) The sign of the coefficient of correlation is the same as the

covariance.
c) The square of the coefficient of correlation is equal to the
product of angular coefficients (slopes) of two regression
lines.
cov ( x, y )
In fact, r = . Squaring both sides gives
σ xσ y
2
2
 cov ( x, y ) 
r = 
 σ xσ y 
cov 2 ( x, y )
=
σ x2σ y2

cov ( x, y ) cov ( x, y )
= ×
σx2 2
σy

d) If the coefficient of correlation is known, it can be used to

find the angular coefficients of two regression lines.
We know that the angular coefficient of the regression line y
cov ( x, y ) cov ( x, y ) σ y
= ×
cov ( x, y ) σx
2
σ xσ x σy
on x is . From this, we have,
σ x2
cov ( x, y ) σ y
= ×
σ xσ y σx

σy
=r
σx

We know that the angular coefficient of the regression line x on

cov ( x, y ) cov ( x, y ) σ x
= ×
cov ( x, y ) σy 2
σ yσ y σx
y is . From this, we have,
σ 2
y
cov ( x, y ) σ x
= ×
σ xσ y σy

σx
=r
σy

218
 Bivariate Statistics

Thus, the angular coefficient of the regression line y on x is

σy
given by r and the angular coefficient of the regression line
σx
σ
y on x is given by r x .
σy
e) Cauchy Inequality: cov ( x, y ) ≤ σ x σ y
2 2 2

cov ( x, y )
In fact, r = ⇔ cov ( x, y ) = rσ xσ y .
σ xσ y
Squaring both sides gives cov ( x, y ) = r σ x σ y
2 2 2 2

Or cov 2 ( x, y ) ≤ σ x2σ y2
f) The coefficient of correlation takes value ranging between -1
and +1. That is, −1 ≤ r ≤ 1
In fact, from Cauchy Inequality, we have,
cov 2 ( x, y ) ≤ σ x2σ y2
2
cov 2 ( x, y )  cov ( x, y ) 
⇔ ≤1 ⇔  ≤1 ⇔ r2 ≤ 1
σ σ  σ xσ y 
2 2
x y

Taking square roots both sides,

⇔ r2 ≤ 1

⇔ r ≤ 1 since x2 = x

r ≤ 1 is equivalent to −1 ≤ r ≤ 1 .
Thus, −1 ≤ r ≤ 1
g) If the linear coefficient of correlation takes values closer to
−1, the correlation is strong and negative, and will become
stronger the closer r approaches −1.
h) If the linear coefficient of correlation takes values close to
1, the correlation is strong and positive, and will become
stronger the closer r approaches 1.
i) If the linear coefficient of correlation takes values close to 0,
the correlation is weak.

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

j) If r = 1 or r = −1, there is perfect correlation and the line on

the scatter plot is increasing or decreasing respectively.
k) If r = 0, there is no linear correlation.

Example 7.4
Considering Example 7.3, we have seen that
cov ( x, y ) = 5

42 = 23.36
= 7 , σ y = 3.89
2
σ=
2
x
6 6
Then the Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is
cov ( x, y ) 5 5
r= = , r = = 0.96
σ xσ y 7 3.89 27.23
Then there is a very strong positive linear relationship between
two variables.
We have also seen that the two regression lines are
5
Ly / x ≡ y = x − 0.3
7
Lx / y ≡ x= 1.3 y + 1
5
Their slopes are α = and β = 1.3
7
r 2 (=
0.96 ) 0.92 . On the other hand,
2
=
We see that
5
α .β = ×1.3 =0.92 .
7
Thus, r = α .β
2

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 Bivariate Statistics

Example 7.5
A test is made over 200 families on number of children x and
number of beds y per family. Results are collected in the table
below:
y
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
x
1 0 2 7 5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0
2 2 2 10 8 15 1 0 0 0 0 0
3 1 3 5 6 8 6 1 0 0 0 0
4 0 2 8 2 6 12 10 8 0 0 0
5 0 1 0 2 5 6 10 5 7 3 3
6 0 0 0 2 4 5 5 2 3 3 2
a) What is the average number for children and beds per a
family?
b) Find the regression line of y on x.
c) Can we confirm that there is a high linear correlation
between the number of children and number of beds per
family?

Solution
a) Average number of children per family:
1 k 1 k
=
=
x
= ∑ ii
f
n i 1=
x , y ∑ fi yi
ni1

y
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total
x
1 0 2 7 5 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 16
2 2 2 10 8 15 1 0 0 0 0 0 38
3 1 3 5 6 8 6 1 0 0 0 0 30
4 0 2 8 2 6 12 10 8 0 0 0 48
5 0 1 0 2 5 6 10 5 7 3 3 42
6 0 0 0 2 4 5 5 2 3 3 2 26
Total 3 10 30 25 40 30 26 15 10 6 5 200

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

1
=x ( 3 × 0 + 10 ×1 + 30 × 2 + 25 × 3 + 40 × 4 + 30 × 5 + 26 × 6 + 15 × 7 + 10 × 8 + 6 × 9 + 5 ×10 )
200
900
= = 4.5
200

Or there are about 5 children per family.

Average number of beds per family:
1
=y (16 ×1 + 38 × 2 + 30 × 3 + 48 × 4 + 42 × 5 + 26 × 6 )
200
740
= = 3.7
200
Or there are about 4 beds per family.
b) The equation of regression line of y on x is given by
equation
cov ( x, y )
y− y
=
σ x2
(
x−x )
where y = 3.7 and x = 4.5
2
1 k 2
=σ ∑ xi fi − x
n i =1
2
x ()
1  3 × 0 + 10 ×1 + 30 × 2 + 25 × 3 + 40 × 4 + 30 × 5 
2 2 2 2 2 2

( )
2
 
 − 4.5
200  +26 × 62 + 15 × 7 2 + 10 × 82 + 6 × 92 + 5 ×102 
5042
= − 20.25
200
= 4.96
1 k
cov ( x, y ) ∑ fi xi yi − x y
=
n i =1
 2 + 14 + 8 + 4 + 40 + 180 + 10 + 9 + 30 + 54 + 56 + 90 + 18 + 8 
1  
=  +64 + 24 + 96 + 240 + 224 + 5 + 30 + 100 + 150 + 300 + 175  − 4.5 × 3.7
200  
 +280 + 135 + 150 + 36 + 96 + 150 + 84 + 144 + 162 + 120 
3751
= − 16.65
200
= 18.7555 − 16.65
= 2.105

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 Bivariate Statistics

The required equation of regression of y on x is

2.105
3.7
y −= ( x − 4.5)
4.96
Or

=y 0.4 x + 1.8
cov ( x, y )
c) Coefficient of correlation is given by
σ xσ y
1 k
( )
2
=σ y2 ∑
n i =1
fi yi2 − y

1
(16 + 38 × 4 + 48 ×16 + 42 × 25 + 26 × 36 ) − ( 3.7 )
2
=
200
= 15.96 − 13.69
= 2.27

Therefore, the coefficient of correlation is

2.105
=r ≈ 0.63
4.96 2.27
There is a high linear correlation.

Notice
Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation
A Spearman coefficient of rank correlation or Spearman’s rho
is a measure of statistical dependence between two variables. It
assesses how well the relationship between two variables can
be described using a monotonic function.
The Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation is denoted and
k
6∑ di2
defined by ρ = 1 − i =1

n ( n − 1)
2

Where, d refers to the difference of ranks between paired items

in two series and n is the number of observations.
It is much easier to calculate the Spearman’s coefficient of
rank correlation than to calculate the Pearson’s coefficient of
correlation as there is far less working involved. However, in
general, the Pearson’s coefficient of correlation is a more accurate
measure of correlation.

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Method of ranking
Ranking can be done in ascending or descending order.

Example 7.6
Suppose that we have the marks, x, of seven students in this order:
12, 18, 10, 13, 15, 16, 9
We assign the rank 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7 such that the smallest value of x
will be ranked 1.
That is
x 12 18 10 13 15 16 9
Rank ( x ) 3 7 2 4 5 6 1
If we have two or more equal values, we proceed as follows:
Consider the following series:
x 66 65 66 67 66 64 68 68
To assign the rank to this series, we do the following:
x = 64 will take rank 1, since it is the smallest value of x.
x = 65 will be ranked 2.
x = 66 appears 3 times, since the previous value was ranked 2 here
66 would be ranked 3, another 66 would be ranked 4 and another
5 but since there are three 66’s, we need to find the average of
those ranks which is 3 + 4 + 5 = 4 so that each 66 will be ranked 4.
3
x = 67 will be ranked 6 since we are on the 6th position.
x = 68 appears 2 times, since the previous value was ranked 6
here 68 would be ranked 7, and another 66 would be ranked 8 but
since there are two 68’s, we need to find the average of those ranks
7+8
which is = 7.5 so that each 68 will be ranked 7.5.
2

224
 Bivariate Statistics

Thus, we have the following:

x 66 65 66 67 66 64 68 68
Rank ( x ) 4 2 4 6 4 1 7.5 7.5

Example 7.7
Compute the Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation for the
data given in Example 7.3.
x y Rank ( x ) Rank ( y ) Rank ( x ) − Rank ( y ) =
d d2

3 2 1 1 0 0
5 3 2 2 0 0
6 4 3 3 0 0
8 6 4 5 -1 1
9 5 5 4 1 2
11 8 6 6 0 0
6

∑di =1
i
2
=3

Then the Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation is

6
6∑ di2
ρ = 1− i =1

n ( n 2 − 1)

6×3
= 1−
6 ( 36 − 1)
18
= 1−
210
= 0.91

Example 7.8
Calculate the Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation for the
series:
x 12 8 16 12 7 10 12 16 12 9
y 6 5 7 7 4 6 8 13 10 10

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

x y Rank ( x ) Rank ( y ) Rank ( x ) − Rank ( y ) =

dd 2

12 6 6.5 3.5 3 9
8 5 2 2 0 0
16 7 9.5 5.5 4 16
12 7 6.5 5.5 1 1
7 4 1 1 0 0
10 6 4 3.5 0.5 0.25
12 8 6.5 7 0.5 0.25
16 13 9.5 10 0.5 0.25
12 10 6.5 8.5 2 4
9 10 3 8.5 5.5 30.25
10

∑d
i =1
i
2
= 61

Then
6 × 61
ρ = 1−
10 (100 − 1)

366
⇔ ρ =1 −
990
990 − 366
⇔ρ=
990
Or
ρ = 0.63

Application activity 7.3

1. Calculate the coefficient of correlation of the following
distribution:
x 1 8 7 12 11 13 11 20
y 3 4 6 10 11 12 14 21

226
 Bivariate Statistics

2. The scores of 12 students in their mathematics and

physics classes are:
Mathematics 2 3 4 4 5 6 6 7 7 8 10 10
Physics 1 3 2 4 4 4 6 4 6 7 9 10
Find the coefficient of correlation distribution and
interpret it.
3. The values of the two variables x and y are distributed
according to the following table:
x
0 2 4
y
1 2 1 3
2 1 4 2
3 2 5 0
Calculate the coefficient of correlation.

7.4. Applications
Activity 7.4

Discuss how statistics, especially bivariate statistics, can be

used in our daily life.

Bivariate statistics can help in prediction of a value for one variable

if we know the value of the other.

Example 7.9
One measure of personal fitness is the time taken for an individual’s
pulse rate to return to normal after strenuous exercise, the greater
the fitness, the shorter the time. Following a short program of
strenuous exercise, Norman recorded his pulse rates P at time t
minutes after he had stopped exercising.
Norman’s results are given in the table below;

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

t 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

P 125 113 102 94 81 83 71
Estimate Norman’s pulse rate 2.5 minutes after stopping the
exercise programme.

Solution
t P t2 P2 tP
0.5 125 0.25 15625 62.5
1 113 1 12769 113
1.5 102 2.25 10404 153
2 94 4 8836 188
3 81 9 6561 243
4 83 16 6889 332
5 71 25 5041 355
7 7 7 7 7

∑ ti = 17 ∑ Pi = 669 ∑t
i =1
i
2
= 57.5 ∑ Pi 2 = 66125 ∑ t P = 1446.5
i i
i =1 i =1 i =1 i =1

We need the line P= at + b

Use the formula
 7 7

∑ i
= P a ∑ ti + bn
= i 1 =i 1
 7 7 7
=
=
∑ ti Pi a ∑ ti2 + b∑ ti
 i 1 =i 1 =i 1

We have
669
= 17 a + 7b

1446.5
= 57.5a + 17b

Solving, we have
a = −11

b = 122.3
−11t + 122.3
Then, P =

228
 Bivariate Statistics

So,
Norman’s pulse rate 2.5 minutes after stopping the exercise
−11( 2.5 ) + 122.3 or 94.8 .
program is estimated to be P =

Example 7.10
A student found the following data for life expectancy, X years,
and the Gross Domestic Production per head in Y dollars, in six
countries in South Asia in 1988.
Country X Y
Afghanistan 42 143
Bangladesh 50 179
Bhutan 47 197
India 58 335
Pakistan 57 384
Sri Lanka 73 423
= n 6,
= ∑ x 327,=
∑ y 1661,=
∑ x 2 18415, =
∑ y 2 529909, =
∑ xy 96412 
a) It is required to estimate the value of X for Nepal, where the
value of Y is 450.
i) Find the equation for a suitable line of regression.
Simplify your answer as far as possible, giving the
constants correct to three significant figures
ii) Use your equation to obtain the required estimate
b) Use your equation to estimate the value of x for North Korea,
where the value of Y was 858. Comment on your answer.

Solution
a) i) Neither variable has been controlled in the given data and
since you are required to estimate the life expectancy, X
years, when the GDP per head, Y dollars is 160 dollars, it is
sensible to use the regression line of X on Y
The regression line of X on Y has equation

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

S xy
c + dy, where c =
x= x − d y and d =
S yy

=x
∑
=
x 327
and
= y
∑
1661
=
y
n 6 n 6
1 1 327 1661
sxy = ∑ xy − x y = × 96412 − × =981.25
n 6 6 6
2
1 2 1  1661 
s yy = ∑ y 2 − y = × 529909 −   =11681.47...
n 6  6 
sxy 981.25
d =
= = 0.08400...
s yy 11681.47
or

∑ xy −
S xy =
∑ x∑ y =
96412 −
327 ×1661
= 5887.5
n 6
(∑ y)
2
16612
S yy =∑ y −
2
=529909 − =70088.83
n 6
S xy 5887.5
d =
= = 0.08400...
S yy 70088.83
Then calculate c= x − d y
327 1661
= − 0.08400 ×
6 6
= 31.24
Equation of the regression line of x on y is=x 31.2 + 0.0840 y
ii) When
y = 160, x = 31.2 + 0.0840 × 160 = 45

The estimated value of the life expectancy in Nepal is 45

years
b) From the equation , when y = 858
x = 31.2 + 0.0840 × 858 = 103

This would give the life expectancy of 103 year in North Korea,
which is clearly not sensible. The value of x is a long way outside
the data , and should not be used to estimate a value of x

230
 Bivariate Statistics

Unit Summary
1. The covariance of variables x and y is a measure of
how these two variables change together. It is defined as
1 k
cov ( x, y )
= ∑ fi xi yi − x y
n i =1
cov ( x, y )
2. The regression line y on x is Ly / x ≡=
y− y
σ x2
( x − x) .
cov ( x, y )
3. The regression line x on y is Lx / y ≡=
x−x
σ y2
( y − y)
4. The coefficient of correlation between two variables x and
y is given by
cov ( x, y ) .
r=
σ xσ y
5. The Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation is given by
k
6∑ di2
ρ = 1− i =1

n ( n − 1)
2

Where, d refers to the difference of ranks between paired items

in two series.

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

End of Unit Assessment

1. For each set of data, find:
a) equation of the regression line of y on x.
b) equation of the regression line of x on y.
Data set 1
x 3 7 9 11 14 14 15 21 22 23 26
y 5 12 5 12 10 17 23 16 10 10 25
Data set 2
x 1 5 5 5 6 7.5 7.5 7.5 10 11 12.5 14 14.5
y 85 82 85 89 78 66 77 81 70 74 65 69 63

2. The following is a summary of the results of given two variables:

k k k k k

∑ fi xi 500,
= =
=i 1 =i 1 =i 1
∑ fi yi 300,
= ∑ fi xi2 27818,
= ∑ fi xi yi 16837,
=i 1
= ∑ fi yi2 10462
=i 1

Find the equation of regression line of y on x.

Estimate the value of y for x = 60 .
3. Compute the coefficient of correlation for the following series:
x 80 45 55 56 58 60 65 68 70 75 85
y 81 56 50 48 60 62 64 65 70 74 90
4. The following results were obtained from lineups in Mathematics
and Physics examinations:

Mathematics ( x ) Physics ( y )
Mean 475 39.5
Standard deviation 16.8 10.8

r = 0.95
Find both equations of the regression lines. Also estimate the value of
y for x = 30 .

232
 Bivariate Statistics

5. The following results were obtained from records of age (x) and
systolic blood pressure (y) of a group of 10 men:

( x) ( y)
Mean 53 142
Variance 130 165
k

∑ f ( x − x )( y − y ) =
i =1
i i 1220
i

Find both equations of the regression lines. Also estimate the blood
pressure of a man whose age is 45.
6. For a given set of data:
k k k k k k

∑ fi xi 15,=
=
=i 1 =i 1 =i 1 =i 1
∑ fi yi 43,=
∑ fi xi2 55,=
∑ fi xi yi 145,=
∑ fi yi2 397,
=i 1
= ∑ fi 5
=i 1

Find the equations of the regression lines y on x, and x on y.

7. For a set of 20 pairs of observations of the variables x and y, it
k k
=
is known that ∑ fi xi 250,
=i 1 =i 1
= ∑ fi yi 140 , and that the regression
line of y on x passes through (15,10 ) .
Find the equation of that regression line and use it to estimate y when
x = 10 .
8. The gradient of the regression line x on y is -0.2 and the line

passes through ( 0,3) . If the equation of the line is x= c + dy , find

the value of c and d and sketch the line on a diagram.
9. The heights h, in cm, and weights w, in kg, of 10 people are
measured. It is found that
k k k k k

∑ fi hi 1710,
=
=i 1 =i 1 =i 1
= ∑ fi wi 760,
= ∑ fi hi2 293162,
= ∑ fi hi wi 130628,
=i 1
= ∑ fi wi2 59390
=i 1

a) Calculate the coefficient of correlation between the value

of h and w.
b) What is the equation of the regression line of w on h.
10. The regression equations are 7 x − 16 y + 9 =0 and 5 y − 4 x − 3 =0.
Find x , y and r .

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 Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

11. The regression equations are 7 x − 16 y + 9 =0 and 5 y − 4 x − 3 =0.

Find x , y and r .
12. If two regression coefficients are 0.8 and 0.2, what would be the
value of coefficient of correlation?
13. For a given set of data:
k k k k k k

∑ fi xi 680,
=
=i 1 =i 1 =i 1
= ∑ fi yi 996,
= ∑ fi xi2 20154,=
=i 1
∑ fi xi yi 24844,
=i 1
= ∑ fi yi2 34670,
=i 1
= ∑ fi 30
Find the coefficient of correlation.
14. For a set of data, the equations of the regression lines are
=y 0.648 x + 2.64 and
= x 0.917 y − 1.91
Find the coefficient of correlation.
15. For a set of data, the equations of the regression lines are
−0.219 x + 20.8 and
y=
−0.785 y + 16.2
x=
Find the coefficient of correlation.
16. For a set of data, the equations of the regression lines are
= =
y 1.3x + 0.4 and x 0.7 y − 0.1
Find;
a) the coefficient of correlation.
b) x and y .
17. In a partially destroyed laboratory record of an analysis of
correlation data, the following results only are legible: Variance
of x is 9
Equations of regression lines: 8 x − 10 y + 66 =
0 and 40 x − 18 y − 214 =
0
What were:
a) the mean values of x and y
b) the standard deviation of y, and
c) the coefficient of correlation between x and y.
18. The following equations of regression lines and variance are
obtained from a correlation table:
20 x − 9 y − 107 =0,
4 x − 5 y + 33 =0,
variance of x is 9.

234
 Bivariate Statistics

Find;
a) the mean value of x and y.
b) the standard deviation of y.
19. The table below shows the marks awarded to six students in a
competition:
Student A B C D E F
Judge 1 6.8 7.3 8.1 9.8 7.1 9.2
Judge 2 7.8 9.4 7.9 9.6 8.9 6.9
Calculate a coefficient of rank correlation.
20. At the end of a season, a league of eight hockey clubs produced
the following table showing the position of each club in the league
and the average attendances (in hundreds) at home matches:
Club Position Average attendance
A 1 27
B 2 29
C 3 9
D 4 16
E 5 24
F 6 15
G 7 12
H 8 22
a) Calculate the Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation
between position in the league and average attendance.
b) Comment on your results
21. A company is to replace its fleet of cars. Eight possible models
are considered and the transport manager is asked to rank them,
from 1 to 8, in order of preference. A saleswoman is asked to use
each type of car for a week and grade them according to their
suitability for the job (A-very suitable to E-unsuitable).
The price is also recorded:
Model Transport manager’s Saleswoman’s Price
ranking grade (£10s)
S 5 B 611
T 1 B+ 811
U 7 D- 591
V 2 C 792
W 8 B+ 520
X 6 D 573

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Y 4 C+ 683
Z 3 A- 716
a) Calculate the Spearman’s coefficient of rank correlation
between:
(i) price and transport manager’s rankings,
(ii) price and saleswoman’s grades.
b) Based on the result of a, state, giving a reason, whether it
would be necessary to use all three different methods of
assessing the cars.
c) A new employee is asked to collect further data and to do
some calculations. He produces the following results:
The coefficient of correlation between:
(i) price and boot capacity is 1.2;
(ii) maximum speed and fuel consumption in miles per
gallons is -0.7;
(iii) price and engine capacity is -0.9.
For each of his results, say giving a reason, whether you
think it is reasonable.
d) Suggest two sets of circumstances where Spearman’s
coefficient of rank correlation would be preferred to
the Pearson’s coefficient of correlation as a measure of
association.
22. The scores obtained by a group of students in tests that measure
verbal ability (x) and abstract reasoning (y) are represented in the
following table:
x
y 20 30 40 50

(25-35) 6 4 0 0
(35-45) 3 6 1 0
(45-55) 0 2 5 3
(55-65) 0 1 2 7
a) Is there a correlation between the two variables?
b) According to the data, if one of these students obtained
a score of 70 points in abstract reasoning, what would be
the estimated score in verbal ability?

236
 Bivariate Statistics

23. To test the effect of a new drug twelve patients were examined
before the drug was administered and given an initial score (I)
depending on the severity of various symptoms. After taking the
drug they were examined again and given a final score (F). A
decrease in score represented an improvement. The scores for
the twelve patients are given in the table below:
Score
Patients Initial (I) Final (F)
1 61 49
2 23 12
3 8 3
4 14 4
5 42 28
6 34 27
7 32 20
8 31 20
9 41 34
10 25 15
11 20 16
12 50 40
Calculate the equation of the line of regression of F on I

a) On the average what improvement would you expect for a

patient whose initial score was 30?
b) On the average what improvement would you expect for a
patient whose initial score was 30?

237
Unit Conditional
Probability and
8 Bayes Theorem
Introductory activity
A box contains 3 red pens and 4 blue pens. One pen is taken
from the box and is not replaced. Another pen is taken from the
box. Let A be the event “the first pen is red” and B be the event
“the second pen is blue.”
Is the occurrence of event B affected by the occurrence of event
A? Explain.
Give more other examples of real life problems involving
probability.

Some academic fields based on the probability theory are statistics,

communication theory, computer performance evaluation, signal
and image processing, game theory...
In medical decision-making, clinical estimate of probability
strongly affects the physician’s belief as to whether or not a patient
has a disease, and this belief, in turn, determines actions: to rule
out, to treat, or to do more tests, doctors may use conditional
probability to calculate the probability that a particular patient
has a disease, given the presence of a particular set of symptoms....
Some applications of the probability theory are character
recognition, speech recognition, opinion survey, missile control
and seismic analysis, etc.
In addition, the game of chance formed the foundations of
probability theory

238
 Conditional Probability and Bayes Theorem

Objectives
By the end of this unit, a student will be able to:
ᇢ use tree diagram to find probability of events.
ᇢ find probability of independent events.
ᇢ find probability of one event given that the other
event has occurred.
ᇢ use and apply Bayes theorem.

8.1. Independent events

Activity 8.1
A bag contains books of two different subjects. One book is
selected from the bag and is replaced. A book is also selected
in the bag. Is the occurrence of the event for the second
selection affected by the event for the first selection? Explain.

If probability of event B is not affected by the occurrence

of event A, events A and B are said to be independent and
P ( A ∩ B=
) P ( A) × P ( B )
This rule is the simplest form of the multiplication law of
probability.

Example 8.1
A die is thrown twice. Find the probability of obtaining a 4 on the
first throw and an odd number on the second throw.

Solution
Let A be the event: “a 4 is obtained on the first throw”, then
1
P ( A ) = . That is A = {4} .
6
B be the event: “an odd number is obtained on the second throw”.
That is B = {1,3,5} .
Since the result on the second throw is not affected by the result
on the first throw, A and B are independent events.

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

There are 3 odd numbers, then

3 1
P ( B )==
6 2
Therefore,
P ( A ∩ B) =
P ( A) P ( B )
1 1
= ×
6 2
1
=
12

Example 8.2
A factory runs two machines. The first machine operates for 80%
of the time while the second machine operates for 60% of the time
and at least one machine operates for 92% of the time. Do these
two machines operate independently?

Solution

Let the first machine be M 1 and the second machine

be M 2 , then P ( M
= 1) = 0.8 , P ( M
80% = 2) 60%
= 0.6 and

P ( M 1 ∪ M 2 ) = 92% = 0.92
Now,
P ( M 1 ∪ M 2 )= P ( M 1 ) + P ( M 2 ) − P ( M 1 ∩ M 2 )

P ( M 1 P∩( M 12 )=
∩ MP2()=M 1 P
) +( MP 1( )M+2P) −( MP 2( )M−1P∪( M 12 )∪ M 2 )
= 0.8 += 0.6
0.8−+0.92
0.6 − 0.92
= 0.48= 0.48
= 0.8
=× 0.6 0.8 × 0.6
P ( M1P
== ) ×( M
P (1 M
) ×2P) ( M 2 )
Thus, the two machines operate independently.

Example 8.3
A coin is weighted so that heads is three times as likely to appear

240
 Conditional Probability and Bayes Theorem

as tails. Find P ( H ) and P (T ) .

Solution

Let P (T ) = p1 , then P ( H ) = 3 p1 .
But P ( H ) + P (T ) =
1
1
Therefore p1 + 3 p1 =1 ⇔ 4 p1 =⇒
1 p1 =
4
3 1
Thus, P ( H ) = and P (T ) = .
4 4

Application activity 8.1

1. A dresser drawer contains one pair of socks with each of
the following colors: blue, brown, red, white and black.
Each pair is folded together in a matching set.
You reach into the sock drawer and choose a pair of socks
without looking. You replace this pair and then choose
another pair of socks. What is the probability that you
will choose the red pair of socks both times?
2. A coin is tossed and a single 6-sided die is rolled. Find
the probability of landing on the head side of the coin and
rolling a 3 on the die.

8.2. Conditional probability

Activity 8.2
A bag contains books of two different subjects. One book is
selected from the bag and is not replaced. Another book is
selected in the bag. Is the occurrence of the event for the second
selection affected by the event for the first selection? Explain.

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

When the outcome or occurrence of the first event affects the

outcome or occurrence of the second event in such a way that
the probability sample space is changed, the events are said to be
dependent.

The probability of an event B given that event A has occurred

is called the conditional probability of B given A and is written

P ( B | A) .

In this case, P ( B | A ) is the probability that B occurs considering A

as the sample space, and since the subset of A in which B occurs
is A ∩ B , then
P ( B ∩ A) .
P ( B | A) =
P ( A)
From this result, we have general statement of the multiplication
law: P ( A ∩ B =
) P ( A) × P ( B | A) .
This shows us that the probability that two events will both
occur is the product of the probability that one will occur and
the conditional probability that the other will occur given that the
first has occurred. We can also write P ( A ∩ B =
) P ( B)× P ( A | B) .
Since A and B are interchangeable.
If A and B are independent, then the probability of B is not
affected by the occurrence of A and so P ( B | A ) = P ( B ) giving
P ( A ∩ B=
) P ( A) × P ( B )
Example 8.4
A die is tossed. Find the probability that the number obtained is a
4 given that the number is greater than 2.

Solution
Let A be the event: “the number is a 4”, then A = {4} .
B be the event: “the number is greater than 2”, then B = {3, 4,5, 6}

242
 Conditional Probability and Bayes Theorem

4 2
and P ( B =
) =
6 3
1
But A ∩ B ={4} and P ( A ∩ B ) =
6
Therefore,
P ( A ∩ B)
P ( A | B) =
P ( B)

1
1 3
P ( A | B )= ×
P ( A | B) = 6 6 2
2
1
3 =
4

Example 8.5
At a middle school, 18% of all students play football and basketball,
and 32% of all students play football. What is the probability that
a student who plays football also plays basketball?

Solution
Let A be a set of students who play football and B a set of students
who play basketball; then the set of students who play both games
is A ∩ B . We have P =( A) 32%
= 0.32 , P ( A ∩ B )= 18%= 0.18 . We
need the probability of B known that A has occurred.
Therefore,
P ( A ∩ B)
P ( B | A) =
P ( A)
0.18
=
0.32
= 0.5625
= 56%

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Notice: contingency table

Contingency table (or Two-Way table) provides a different way
of calculating probabilities. The table helps in determining
conditional probabilities quite easily. The table displays
sample values in relation to two different variables that may be
dependent or contingent on one another.
Below, the contingency table shows the favorite leisure activities
for 50 adults, 20 men and 30 women. Because entries in the
table are frequency counts, the table is a frequency table.
Dance Sports TV Total
Men 2 10 8 20
Women 16 6 8 30
Total 18 16 16 50
Entries in the total row and total column are called marginal
frequencies or the marginal distribution. Entries in the body of
the table are called joint frequencies.

Example 8.6
Suppose a study of speeding violations and drivers who use car
phones produced the following fictional data:
Speeding violation No speeding viola- Total
in the last year tion in the last
year
Car phone user 25 280 305
Not a car phone
user
45 405 450
Total 70 685 755
Calculate the following probabilities using the table:
a) P(person is a car phone user).
b) P(person had no violation in the last year).
c) P(person had no violation in the last year AND was a car
phone user).

244
 Conditional Probability and Bayes Theorem

d) P(person is a car phone user OR person had no violation

in the last year).
e) P(person is a car phone user GIVEN person had a violation
in the last year).
f) P(person had no violation last year GIVEN person was not
a car phone user).

Solution
number of car phone users 305
a) P(person
= is a car phone user) =
total number in study 755

number that had no violation 685

b) P(person had =
no violation in the last year) =
total number in study 755

280
c) P(person had no violation in the last year AND was a car phone user) =
755

d) P(person is a car phone user OR person had no violation in the last year)
 305 685  280 710
= + − =
 755 755  755 755

e) The sample space is reduced to the number of persons who

had a violation. Then,
25
P(person is a car phone user GIVEN person had a violation in the last year) =
70

f) The sample space is reduced to the number of persons who

were not car phone users. Then, 405
P(person had no violation last year GIVEN person was not a car phone user) =
450

245
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Application activity 8.2

1. A coin is tossed twice in succession. Let A be the event
that the first toss is heads and let B be the event that the
second toss is heads. Find P ( B | A )
2. Calculate the probability of a 6 being rolled by a die if it is
already known that the result is even.
3. A jar contains black and white marbles. Two marbles are
chosen without replacement. The probability of selecting
a black marble and then a white marble is 0.34, and the
probability of selecting a black marble on the first draw is
0.47. What is the probability of selecting a white marble
on the second draw, given that the first marble drawn was
black?

8.3. Bayes theorem and its applications

Activity 8.3
Suppose that entire output of a factory is produced on three
machines. Let B1 denote the event that a randomly chosen item
was made by machine 1, B2 denote the event that a randomly
chosen item was made by machine 2 and B3 denote the event
that a randomly chosen item was made by machine 3. Let A
denote the event that a randomly chosen item is defective.
1. Use conditional probability formula and give the relation
that should be used to find the probability P(A) that the
chosen item is defective given that it is made by machine
1 or machine 2 or machine 3.
2. If we need the probability that the chosen item is produced
by machine 1 given that it is found to be defective, i.e
P ( B1 | A ) , give the formula for this conditional probability.
Recall that P ( Bi ∩ A ) can be written as P ( A | Bi ) P ( Bi ) .
Do the same if the item is produced by machine 2 and
by machine 3. Give the general formula if the item is
produced by machine i (i from 1 to 3)

246
 Conditional Probability and Bayes Theorem

From activity 8.3

Let B1 , B2 , B3 ,..., Bn be incompatible and exhaustive events and let A

be an arbitrary event.
We have:
P ( Bi ∩ A ) P ( A | Bi ) P ( Bi )
P ( Bi | A )
= =
P ( A) n

∑ P( A| B ) P(B )
i =1
i i

This formula is called Bayes’ formula.

Remark
We also have (Bayes’ rule)
P ( A | B) P ( B)
P ( B | A) =
P ( A)

Example 8.7
Suppose that machines M 1 , M 2 , and M 3 produce, respectively,
500, 1000, and 1500 parts per day, of which 5%, 6%, and 7% are
defective. A part produced by one of these machines is taken
at random, at the end of a given workday, and it is found to be
defective. What is the probability that it was produced by machine
M3 ?

Solution
Let Ai be the event “the part taken at random was produced by
machine M i ,” for i =1, 2, 3; and let D be “the part taken at random
is defective.”

247
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

Using Bayes’ formula, we see

P(D | A ) P( A )
P ( A3 | D )P=( A3 | D ) = 3 P ( D 3| A3 ) P ( A3 )
3
∑ P ( D | Ai )PP((DAi |)A ) P ( A )
3

i =1
∑
i =1
i i

1500
( 0.07 )  ( 0.07 )  1500 
=  3000   3000 
=1   1 
 1)  + ( 0.07  1) 1  1
( 0.05)  (0.05
+ ( 0.06
)   + ( 0.06 )   +2 (0.07 )  
6 6  3  3 2
105 105
= =
190 190
21 21
= =
38 38

Example 8.8
Two machines A and B produce 60% and 40% respectively of
total output of a factory. Of the parts produced by machine A,
3% are defective and of the parts produced by machine B, 5% are
defective. A part is selected at random from a day’s production
and found to be defective. What is the probability that it came
from machine A?

Solution
Let E be the event that the part came from machine A,
C be the event that the part came from machine B and
D be the event that the part is defective.
We require P ( E | D ) .
Now, P ( E ) × P ( D | E ) =0.6 × 0.03 =0.018 and
P ( D )= P ( E ∩ D ) + P ( C ∩ D )
= 0.018 + 0.4 × 0.05
= 0.038
0.018 9
Therefore, the required probability is =
0.038 19

248
 Conditional Probability and Bayes Theorem

Example 8.9
Consider the population of patients, seen in an emergency ward,
suffering from one of three diseases: acute appendicitis (AA),
acute pancreatitis (AP), or non-specified abdominal pain (NSAP).
The physician attending the patients is faced with the decision
of whether to operate immediately or to perform a clinical test
in an effort to distinguish between three diagnostic alternatives.
The clinical test is to see if the patient demonstrates rebound
tenderness /painfulness. It is elicited by pressing down slowly on
the patient’s abdomen and then suddenly releasing the pressure.
In the presence of peritoneal irritation, release is accompanied
by a brief episode of sharp pain which is localised to the site of
irritation. Studies indicate that 80% of patients with AA, 15%
of patients with AP and 20% of patients with NSAP manifest
rebound tenderness (Staniland el al., 1972). Further, suppose that
prevalence rates for these three conditions are: 30% for AA, 5%
for AP and 65% for NSAP. Let D1, D2 and D3 stand for three disease
states corresponding to AA, AP and NSAP, and let S represent
the event that the patient shows the sign of rebound tenderness /
painfulness. Thus, the following probabilities are determined:
P( S / D1 ) = 0.80 P( D1 ) = 0.30
P( S / D2 ) = 0.15 and P( D2 ) = 0.05
P( S / D3 ) = 0.20 P( D3 ) = 0.65
Now the likelihood for each diagnosis in the presence of rebound
tenderness is easily calculated Using the laws of addition and
multiplication of probabilities and the notion of conditional
probability or Bayes’ theorem. Thus, the posterior probabilities for
AA, AP and NSAP are:
P( S / D1 ) P( D1 )
P( D1 / S ) = 3
∑ P(S / Di ) P( Di )
i =1

=
( 0.80 )( 0.30 )
( 0.80 )( 0.30 ) + ( 0.15 )( 0.05 ) + ( 0.20 )( 0.65 ) 
0.2410
=
0.3775
= 0.64

P( D2 / S ) =
( 0.15)( 0.05)
( 0.80 )( 0.30 ) + ( 0.15 )( 0.05 ) + ( 0.20 )( 0.65 )  249
0.0075
=
0.3775
 =
( 0.80 )( 0.30 )
( 0.80 )( 0.30 ) + ( 0.15 )( 0.05 ) + ( 0.20 )( 0.65 ) 
0.2410 Learner’s Book Five
Subsidiary Mathematics
=
0.3775
= 0.64

P( D2 / S ) =
( 0.15)( 0.05)
( 0.80 )( 0.30 ) + ( 0.15 )( 0.05 ) + ( 0.20 )( 0.65 ) 
0.0075
=
0.3775
= 0.02

P( D3 / S ) =
( 0.20 )( 0.65)
( 0.80 )( 0.30 ) + ( 0.15 )( 0.05 ) + ( 0.20 )( 0.65 ) 
0.13
=
0.3775
= 0.34
Thus, the most likely diagnosis in the presence of rebound
tenderness/ painfulness is acute appendicitis. Since surgery
is generally not required for either pancreatitis or NSAP, but is
indicated for appendicitis, it is very useful to know the probability
that the patient showing rebound tenderness has appendicitis as
compared to the probability that s/he has one of the other two
conditions.

Application activity 8.3

1. The probabilities of the weather being fine, raining or
1 1 1
snowing are respectively , and . The probabilities
2 3 6
that a student arrives on time for school under each of these
3 2 3
conditions are , and respectively. What is the probability
4 5 10
that:
a) the student arrives at school on time on any given
day,
b) if the student is late, it was raining?
2. 20% of a company’s employees are engineers and 20%
are economists. 75% of the engineers and 50% of the
economists hold a managerial position, while only 20%
of non-engineers and non-economists have a similar
position. What is the probability that an employee selected
at random will be both an engineer and a manager?

250
 Conditional Probability and Bayes Theorem

3. The probability of having an accident in a factory that

triggers an alarm is 0.1. The probability of it sounding
after the event of an incident is 0.97 and the probability
of it sounding after no incident has occurred is 0.02. In
an event where the alarm has been triggered, what is the
probability that there has been no accident?

Unit Summary
1. A tree diagram is a means which can be used to show
the probabilities of certain outcomes occurring when two
or more trials take place in succession. The outcome is
written at the end of the branch and the fraction on the
branch gives the probability of the outcome occurring. For
each trial, the number of branches is equal to the number
of possible outcomes of that trial. In the diagram, there are
two possible outcomes, A and B, of each trial.
2. Events A and B are said to be independent if and only if
P ( A ∩ B=
) P ( A) × P ( B )
3. The probability of an event B given that event A has
occurred is called the conditional probability of B given
A and is written P ( B | A ) . In this case, P ( B | A ) is the
probability that B occurs considering A as the sample
space, and since the subset of A in which B occurs is
P ( B ∩ A)
A ∩ B , then P ( B | A ) = .
P ( A)
4. Let B1 , B2 , B3 ,..., Bn be incompatible and exhaustive events
and A an arbitrary event.
The Bayes’ formula says that
P ( Bi ∩ A ) P ( A | Bi ) P ( Bi )
P ( Bi | A )
= =
P ( A) n

∑ P( A| B ) P(B )
i =1
i i

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Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

End of Unit Assessment

1. The probability that it is Friday and that a student is
absent is 0.03. Since there are 5 school days in a week, the
probability that it is Friday is 0.2. What is the probability
that a student is absent given that today is Friday?
2. At Kennedy Middle School, the probability that a student
takes Technology and Spanish is 0.087. The probability that
a student takes Technology is 0.68. What is the probability
that a student takes Spanish given that the student is taking
Technology?
3. A car dealership is giving away a trip to Rome to one of
their 120 best customers. In this group, 65 are women,
80 are married and 45 married women. If the winner is
married, what is the probability that it is a woman?
4. A card is chosen at random from a deck of 52 cards. It is
then replaced and a second card is chosen. What is the
probability of choosing a jack and then an eight?
5. A jar contains 3 red, 5 green, 2 blue and 6 yellow marbles.
A marble is chosen at random from the jar. After replacing
it, a second marble is chosen. What is the probability of
choosing a green and then a yellow marble?
6. A school survey found that 9 out of 10 students like pizza.
If three students are chosen at random with replacement,
what is the probability that all three students like pizza?
7. A nationwide survey found that 72% of people in the
United States like pizza. If 3 people are selected at random,
what is the probability that all three like pizza?

252
 Conditional Probability and Bayes Theorem

8. A bag contains 2 red, 3 green and 2 blue balls. Two balls

are drawn at random. What is the probability that none of
the balls drawn is blue?
9. For married couples living in a certain suburb, the probability
that the husband will vote on a bond referendum is 0.21,
the probability that his wife will vote in the referendum is
0.28, and the probability that both the husband and wife
will vote is 0.15. What is the probability that:
a) at least one member of a married couple will vote?
b) a wife will vote, given that her husband will vote?
c) a husband will vote, given that his wife does not
vote?
10. In 1970, 11% of Americans completed four years of college,
43% of them were women. In 1990, 22% of Americans
completed four years of college; 53% of them were women.
(Time, Jan.19, 1996).
a) Given that a person completed four years of college
in 1970, what is the probability that the person was
a woman?
b) What is the probability that a woman would finish
four years of college in 1990?
c) What is the probability that in 1990 a man would
not finish college?
11. If the probability is 0.1 that a person will make a mistake
on his or her state income tax return, find the probability
that:
a) four totally unrelated persons each make a mistake
b) Mr. Jones and Ms. Clark both make a mistake and
Mr. Roberts and Ms. Williams do not make a mistake.

253
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

12. The probability that a patient recovers from a delicate

heart operation is 0.8. What is the probability that:
a) exactly 2 of the next 3 patients who have this
operation will survive?
b) all of the next 3 patients who have this operation
survive?
13. In a certain federal prison, it is known that 2/3 of the
inmates are under 25 years of age. It is also known that
3/5 of the inmates are male and that 5/8 of the inmates are
female or 25 years of age or older. What is the probability
that a prisoner selected at random from this prison is
female and at least 25 years old?
14. A certain federal agency employs three consulting firms
(A, B and C) with probabilities 0.4, 0.35, 0.25, respectively.
From past experience it is known that the probabilities
of cost overrun for the firms are 0.05, 0.03, and 0.15
respectively. Suppose a cost overrun is experienced by the
agency.
a) What is the probability that the consulting firm
involved is company C?
b) What is the probability that it is company A?
15. In a certain college, 5% of the men and 1% of the women
are taller than 180 cm. Also, 60% of the students are
women. If a student is selected at random and found to be
taller than 180 cm, what is the probability that this student
is a woman?

254
Subsidiary Mathematics Learner’s Book Five

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256