EC2024 -WIRELESS SENSOR

NETWORK DESIGN

UNIT II

MAC AND ROUTING

PROTOCOLS
1
CONTENTS

MAC protocols – fundamentals, low duty cycle protocols and wakeup

concepts, contention and Schedule-based protocols - SMAC,
BMAC,TRAMA, Routing protocols – Requirements, Classification -
SPIN, Directed Diffusion, COUGAR,ACQUIRE.
Books Referred:

❑ Holger Karl , Andreas willig, “Protocol and Architecture for Wireless

Sensor Networks”, John Wiley Publication, 2006.

❑ Anna Forster, “Introduction to Wireless Sensor Networks”, Wiley, 2017.

2
1. MAC protocols – fundamentals
Requirements and design constraints for wireless
MAC protocols
∙ Recall
∙ Transmissions are costly
∙ Receiving about as expensive as transmitting
∙ Idling can be cheaper but is still expensive

3
∙ Energy problems
∙ Collisions – wasted effort when two packets collide
∙ Overhearing – waste effort in receiving a packet destined for
another node
∙ Idle listening – sitting idly and trying to receive when nobody is
sending
∙ Protocol overhead

∙ Always nice: Low complexity solution

4
Introduction to MAC
Protocols
• The MAC protocol determines the points in time to transmit a data, control or
manage packet to another node (unicast) or to a set of nodes (multicast,
broadcast).

• Two important responsibilities are error control and flow control.

• Error control is used to ensure correctness of transmission and tak4 e

appropriate actions in case of transmission errors and flow control regulates
the rate of transmission.

5
• Theimportant performance requirements for MAC protocols are
throughput efficiency, stability, fairness, low access, low transmission delay
and low overhead.

• Theoverhead can result from per-packet overhead collisions, or

exchange of extra control packets. from

• Collisions can happen if MAC protocol allows two or more nodes to send
packets at the same time.

• Collisionscan result in theinability of thereceiver to decode a packet

correctly, causing the upper layers to perform a retransmission.
6
Hidden Terminal Scenario
• If two nodes are out of reach, they cannot hear each other. This gives rise
to the hidden-terminal problems.
• The hidden-terminal problem occurs for Carrier Sense Multiple Access
(CSMA) protocols, where a node senses the medium before starting to
transmit a packet.
• If the medium is found to be busy, the node defers its packet to avoid a
collision and a subsequent retransmission.
• Three nodes A, B, C arranged such that A and B are in mutual range, B and
C are in mutual range, but A and C cannot hear each other.
• Now A starts to transmit a packet to B and sometime later
node C also decides to start a packet transmission.
• A carrier-sensing operation by C shows an idle medium since C cannot hear
A’s signals.
• When C starts its packet, thesignals collide at B and both
packets are useless.
7
• Using simple CSMA in a hidden-terminal scenario thus leads to needless
collisions.

8
Exposed Terminal Scenario
B has a long packet to send to A, checks the air is clear and starts sending

C has a short packet to send to D, checks the air, ignores that it is busy
and starts sending anyway

C finishes sending, D sends an ACK back to C immediately

B is still sending its packet, so C never hears the ACK from D, as

B8 interferes with it

C decides to start sending again

B finishes, A sends an ACK back to B

C is still sending its packet (2nd time), so B never hears the ACK from A
• Using simple CSMA in an exposed terminal scenario thus leads to
needless waiting.
• Two solutions to the hidden-terminal and exposed- terminal problems are
busy-tone solutions and the RTS/CTS (Request To Send / Clear To
Send) handshake used in the IEEE 802.11 WLAN standard.
 Wireless medium access

Centralized
Distributed

Schedule- Contention-
based based Schedule- Contention-
based based

Fixed Demand
assignment assignment Fixed Demand
assignment assignment

11
Centralized medium
access
∙ Idea: Have a central station control when a node may access the medium
∙ Example: Polling, centralized computation of TDMA schedules
∙ Advantage: Simple, quite efficient (e.g., no collisions), burdens the
central station

∙ Not directly feasible for non-trivial wireless network sizes

∙ But: Can be quite useful when network is somehow divided into smaller
groups
∙ Clusters, in each cluster medium access can be controlled centrally
– compare Bluetooth piconets, for example

! Usually, distributed medium access is considered

12
Schedule- vs. contention-based
∙ Schedule-based MAC
MACs
∙ A schedule exists, regulating which participant may use which resource
at which time (TDMA component)

∙ Typical resource: frequency band in a given physical space (with a

given code, CDMA)

∙ Schedule can be fixed or computed on demand

∙ Usually: mixed – difference fixed/on demand is one of time scales

∙ Usually, collisions, overhearing, idle listening no issues

∙ Needed: time synchronization! 13
∙ Contention-based protocols

∙ Risk of colliding packets is deliberately taken

∙ Hope: coordination overhead can be saved, resulting in overall

improved efficiency

∙ Mechanisms to handle/reduce probability/impact of collisions required

∙ Usually, randomization used somehow

14
 Classes of MAC
1.Protocols
Fixed Assignment Protocols:
•The availableresources are divided between the nodessuch that
assignment is long term without the risk of collisions. resource

• Long term means that the assignment is for durations of minutes, hours, or
even longer.

• To account for changes in topology due to nodes dying or new 9nodes being
deployed, signaling mechanisms are needed in fixed assignment protocols to
rectify the assignment of resources to nodes.

•Typical protocols of this class are TDMA, FDMA, CDMA, and SDMA.
15
 2. Demand Assignment Protocols

•The allocation of resources to nodes is made on a short- term basis, typically

the duration of a data burst.

• This class of protocols can be further divided into centralized and

distributed protocols.

• In central control protocols, thenodes send outrequests fo1r0

bandwidth allocation to a central node that either accepts or rejects the
requests.

requesting
•In case node along withallocation,
of successful a description of the allocatedis transmitted back
a confirmation 16
3. Random Access Protocols

• Random accessprotocols incorporate a random element by exploiting

random packet arrival times, setting timers to random values and so on.

• Typical random accessprotocols arepure ALOHA or slotted ALOHA

protocol, developed at the University of Hawaii.

• In pure ALOHA protocol, a node willing for transmissiontransmit a

new packet it immediately.
11
• There is no coordination with other nodes and the protocol thus accepts the
risk of collisions at the receiver.

17
Main options to shut up senders

∙ Receiver informs potential interferers while a reception is on-going

By sending out a signal indicating just that
∙ Problem: Cannot use same channel on which actual reception
takes place
! Use separate channel for signaling
∙ Busy tone protocol
∙ Receiver informs potential interferers before a reception is on-going
Can use same channel
∙ Receiver itself needs to be informed, by sender, about
impending transmission
∙ Potential interferers need to be aware of such information, need to store
it 18
Receiver informs interferers before transmission – RTS/CTS
Handshake

∙ Sender B asks receiver C whether

C is able to receive a transmission
Request to Send (RTS)
∙ Receiver C agrees, sends out a
Clear to Send (CTS)
∙ Potential interferers overhear either
RTS or CTS and know about
impending transmission and for
how long it will last
∙ Store this information in a
Network Allocation Vector
∙ B sends, C acks
! MACA protocol (used e.g. in
19
IEEE 802.11)
∙ RTS/CTS ameliorate, but do not solve hidden/exposed terminal
problems
∙ Example problem cases:

20
MAC Problem: Idle listening
∙ Need to sense carrier for RTS or CTS packets

∙ In some form shared by many CSMA variants; but e.g. not by busy tones
∙ Simple sleeping will break the protocol
∙ Basic idea: Nodes that have data buffered for receivers send
traffic indicators at pre-arranged points in time
∙ Receivers need to wake up at these points, but can sleep otherwise

∙ Parameters to adjust in MAC

∙ Random delays – how long to wait between listen/transmission
attempts?
∙ Number of RTS/CTS/ACK re-trials? 21
2. Low duty cycle protocols and wakeup concepts
❖ Low duty cycle protocols avoid spending much time in theidle state
and reduce the communication activities of a sensor node to a minimum.

❖ In an ideal case, the sleep state is left only when a node is about to transmit
or receive packets. A concept for achieving this is the wakeup radio.

❖ In this approach, nodes spend most of their time in the sleep mode and
wake
up periodically to receive packets from other 22
• By choosing a small duty cycle, the transceiver is in sleep mode most of the
time, avoiding idle listening and conserving energy.

• By choosing a small duty cycle, the traffic directed from neighboring nodes to
a given node concentrates on a small listen period and in heavy load
situations significant competition can occur.

• Choosing a long sleep period leads to significant per- hop latency.

• Sleep phases should not be too short, otherwise the start-up costs outweigh the
benefits.

23
2.1 Sparse topology and energy management (STEM)

❖ Does not cover all aspects of a MAC protocol but provides a solution for the
idle listening problem.

❖ STEM targets networks that aredeployed to wait for and report on

the behaviour of a certain event.

❖ For example, when studying the paths of elephants in a habitat.

❖ From the perspective of a single sensor, most of the time there are no elephants
and the sensor has nothing to report.
❖ However, once an elephant appears, thesensor reports its readings
periodically. 24
❖ More abstractly, the network has a monitor state, where the nodes idle and do
nothing, and also a transfer state, where the nodes exhibit significant sensing
and communication activity.

❖ STEM tries to eliminate idle listening in the monitor state and to provide a
fast transition into the transfer state, if required.

❖ The term “topology” in STEMs name comes from the observation that as
nodes enter and leave the sleep mode network topology changes.

❖ An important requirement for such topology-management schemes is that the

network stays connected even if a subset of nodes is in the sleep mode.

❖ Two different channels are used, requiring two transceivers in each node: the
wakeup channel and the data 25
❖ The data channel is always in sleep mode, except when
transmitting or receiving data packets.

❖ On the wakeup channel the time is divided into fixed-length wakeup periods
of length T.

26
❖ A wakeup period is subdivided into a listen period of length TRx << T and a
sleep period, where the wakeup channel transceiver enters sleep mode, too.

❖ If a node enters thelisten period, it simply switches on its receiver for

the wakeup channel and waits for incoming signals.

❖ If nothing is received during time TRx, the node returns into sleep mode.

❖ There aretwo different variants for the transmitter to acquire the receiver’s
attention:

❖ In STEM-B, the transmitter issues so-called beacons on the wakeup channel

periodically and without prior carrier sensing.

❖ Such a beacon indicates the MAC addresses of transmitter and 27

❖ As soon as the receiver picks up the beacon, it sends an acknowledgment frame
back on the wakeup channel, switches on the transceiver for the data channel.

❖ In STEM-T, the transmitter sends out a simple busy tone on the control
channel for a time long enough to hit the receiver’s listen period.

❖ Since the busy tone carries no address information, all the transmitter’s
neighbors will sense the busy tone and switch on their data channel, without
sending an acknowledgment packet.

28
2.2 The mediation device
protocol
❖ The mediation device protocol is compatible with thepeer-to-peer
communication mode of the IEEE 802.15.4 low-rate WPAN standard.

❖ It allows each node in a WSN to go into sleep mode periodically

and to wake up only for short times to receive packets from neighbor nodes.

❖ Upon each periodic wakeup, a node transmits a short querybeacon,

indicating its node address

❖ If no packet is received during this window, the node goes to sleep mode.

❖ When a node wants to transmit a packet to a neighbor, it has to synchronize

with it. 29
❖ The dynamic synchronization approach achieves this synchronization
without requiring the transmitter to be awake permanently to detect the
destinations query beacon. To achieve this, a mediation device (MD) is used.

❖ The mediation device can receive the query beacons from all nodes in its
vicinity and learn their wakeup periods.

❖ Suppose that node A wants to transmit a packet to node B. Node A announces

this to the mediation device by sending periodically request to send (RTS)
packets, which the MD captures.

❖ Node A sends its RTS packets instead of its query beacons and thus they have
the same period.

❖ Again, there is a short answer after RTS packets, where A listens for
31
❖ After the MD has received A’s RTS packet, it waits for B’s next query beacon.

❖ The MD answers this with a query response packet, indicating A’s address and
a timing offset, which lets B know when to send the answering clear to send
(CTS) to A such that the CTS packet hits the short answer window after A’s
next RTS packet.

❖ Therefore, B has learned A’s period. After A has received the CTS packet, it
can send its data packet and wait for B’s immediate acknowledgment.

❖ After the transaction has finished, A restores its periodic wakeup cycle and
starts to emit query beacons again.

❖ Node B also restores its own periodic cycle and thus decouples
period.A’s
from 32
Advantages:

❑ It does not require any time synchronization between the nodes, only the
mediation device has to learn the periods of the nodes.

❑ The protocol is asymmetric in the sense that most of the energy burden is
shifted to the mediation device, which so far is assumed to be power
unconstrained.

Drawbacks:

❑ The nodes transmit their query beacons without checking for ongoing
transmissions and, thus, the beacons of different nodes may collide repeatedly
when nodes have the same period and their wakeup periods overlap.
33
Wakeup radio concepts
The ideal situation would be if a node were always in the receiving state when
a packet is transmitted to it, in the transmitting state when it transmits a packet,
and in the sleep state at all other times; the idle state should be avoided.

The wakeup radio concept strives to achieve this goal by a simple, “powerless”
receiver that can trigger a main receiver if necessary.

Drawbacks.

There is no real hardware yet for such an ultralow power wakeup

transceiver. The range of the wakeup radio and the data radio should be the 34
same.
 3.
❑S-Mac
The S-MAC (Sensor-MAC) protocol provides - idle listening, collisions, and
overhearing.
❑ S-MAC adopts a periodic wakeup scheme - each node alternates between a
fixed-length listen period and a fixed- length sleep period.
❑ However, the listen period of S-MAC can be used to receive and transmit
packets.
❑ S-MAC attempts to coordinate the schedules of neighboring nodes such that
their listen periods start at the same time. A node x’s listen period is
subdivided into three different phases:
– Wakeup period
– Listen period
– Sleep period
35
36
 First Phase - Synch Phase
❖ During this phase, node x accepts SYNCH packets from its neighbors.

❖ In these packets, theneighbors describe their own schedule and x

stores their schedule in a schedule table.

Second Phase - RTS Phase

❖ In the second phase (RTS phase), x listens for RTS packets from
neighboring nodes.

❖ In S-MAC, the RTS/CTS handshake is used to reduce collisions of data

packets due to hidden-terminal situations.
37
Third Phase - CTS Phase
• In the third phase (CTS phase), node x transmits a CTS packet if an RTS
packet was received in the previous phase. After this, the packet exchange
continues, extending into x’s nominal sleep time.

• In general, when competing for the medium, the use the

nodes handshake whereby a node maintains a NAV RTS/CTS
variable.
• TheNAV mechanism can be used to switch off the during ongoing
node
transmissions to avoid overhearing.

38
❖ The S-MAC protocol allows neighboring nodes to agree on the
same schedule and to create virtual clusters.

❖ The clustering structure refers solely to the exchange of schedules;

the transfer of data packets is not influenced by virtual clustering.

❖ S-MAC also adopts a message-passing approach.

❖ A series of fragments is transmitted with only one RTS/CTS

exchange between the transmitting node A and receiving node B.

❖ After each fragment, B has to answer with an acknowledgment packet.

❖ All thepackets (data, ack, RTS, CTS) have a duration field and
neighboring
a node C is required to set its NAV field 39
40
Key features of the S-MAC protocol include:

Low Duty Cycle: S-MAC introduces the concept of duty cycling, where sensor
nodes alternate between active and sleep modes. During the active period,
nodes can transmit and receive data. During the sleep period, nodes turn off their
radio to conserve energy.

Synchronization: To enable efficient duty cycling and avoid collisions during

the active period, S-MAC uses a synchronized sleep schedule. Nodes
periodically wake up to listen for control messages and synchronize their sleep
cycles with their neighbors. This synchronization reduces the chances of multiple
nodes waking up simultaneously and causing collisions.

41
 Neighbor Discovery: S-MAC employs periodic "beacon" messages to help
nodes discover their neighbors and establish a communication schedule.

Contention Window: To handle cases where multiple nodes wake up at the

same time, S-MAC employs a contention window. Nodes delay their
transmission by a random amount of time within the contention window to
avoid simultaneous transmissions that could lead to collisions.

Advantages S-MAC

❖ S-MAC effectively reduces energy consumption by allowing nodes to spend

most of their time in sleep mode, while ensuring they wake up periodically for
synchronization and data communication.
42
❖ It maintain good network connectivity and conserving energy, making it
suitable for applications where long network lifetime and energy efficiency are
critical, such as environmental monitoring, surveillance, and industrial
automation.

Disadvantages S-MAC

❖ Its effectiveness depends on factors like the network's traffic patterns, the
density of nodes, and the desired trade-off between energy efficiency and
latency.

43
 4. B-Mac (Berkeley
❖MAC)
B-MAC is a widely used WSN MAC protocol. It is a part TinyOS.
of
Key features of the B-MAC protocol include:

❑ Low Duty Cycle: Nodesalternatebetween activeand sleep modes

to conserve energy.

❑ Preamble Sampling: B-MAC uses a technique called "preamble sampling"

to reduce energy consumption during channel sensing.
✔ Instead of continuously listening to the channel, nodes periodically wake
up to sample the channel's preamble (the initial part of a transmission).
✔ If the preamble indicates an incoming transmission, the node stays awake
to receive the complete packet.
44
❑ Adaptive Listening: During times of high activity, nodes might
listen longer to avoid missing transmissions.
✔ During periods of low activity, they might reduce their listen
time to conserve energy.

❑ Low-Power Listening (LPL): B-MAC incorporates a form of low-power

listening to further reduce energy consumption.
✔ Nodes briefly wake up to listen for a "beacon" signal from a sending
node before committing to a longer listening phase.

❑ Receiver-Initiated Communication: The destination node indicates

its readiness to receive by sending a beacon.
✔ This approach reduces the probability of collisions and idle listening.
45
It uses Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance technique.

❖ Listen for a pre-determined amount of time for network activity.

❖ If the network is idle then send a packet.

❖ If activity is detected then wait for a random amount of time (called

backoff factor) before re-attempting transmission.

❖ Backoff counter only decremented when channel is clear

46
 Preamble
✔Length
Preamble must be at least as long as duty cycle for reliable data
reception

47
❖ If a node wants to send a message, it first preamble for thesleep
sends a period for all nodes to detect it.
❖ After the preamble, it sends the data packet.
❖ There are optional acknowledgments also.
❖ After the data packet exchange, the nodes go back to
sleep.
48
Advantages

It does not use RTS, CTS, ACK, or any other controlframe by default, but
they can be added.
It is one of the few specialized MAC protocols whose implementation was
tested in hardware.
No synchronization is required and the protocol performance can be
tuned by higher layers to meet the needs of various applications.

Disadvantages

The preamble creates large overhead.

One example presents 271 bytes of preamble to send 36 bytes of data.

49
 5. Traffic-adaptive medium access protocol
❖(TRAMA)
The Traffic-Adaptive Medium Access (TRAMA) protocol creates
schedules
allowing nodes to access a single channel in a collision-free manner.

❖ The schedules are constructed in a distributed manner and on an on-demand

basis.

❖ The protocol assumes that all nodes are time synchronized and divides time
into random access periods and scheduled-access periods.

❖ A random accessperiodfollowed by a scheduled-access periodis called a

cycle.
50
❖ The protocol itself consists of three different components:

❑ The neighborhood protocol,

❑ The schedule exchange protocol and
❑ The adaptive election algorithm

✔ The neighborhood protocol is executed solely in the random access

phase, which is subdivided into small time slots.

✔ A node picks randomly a number of time slots and transmits small

control packets in these without doing any carrier sensing.

✔ The schedule exchange protocol, a node transmits its current transmission

schedule (indicating in which time slots it transmits to which neighbor) and
also picks up its neighbors’ 51
✔ All nodes possess a global hash function h, and a node with identification
x computes for time slot occurring at t the following priority value p:

p = h(x ⊕ t)

where x ⊕ t is the concatenation of x’s node identification with the current time t.
52
✔ To compute the schedule, a node looks ahead for a certain number of time
slots, called its schedule interval (say:100 slots) and for each of these slots
computes its own priority and the priority of all its two-hop neighbors.

✔ The slots for which x has the highest priority value can be used by x to
transmit its packets. These are called winning slots.

✔ The adaptive election algorithm of TRAMA provides approaches for

resolving this situation and also for allowing nodes to reuse their neighbors’
unused winning slots.

53
54
Disadvantages

❖ The TRAMA protocol needs significant computation and memory in dense

sensor networks since the two-hop neighborhood of a node tends to be large
in this case.

❖ Therefore, TRAMA is a feasible solution only if the sensor nodes have

sufficient resources.

55
6. Routing Protocols
❖ Routing protocols in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) define the rules and
mechanisms that guide how data packets are transmitted from a source node
to a destination node through a network of interconnected sensor nodes.

❖ These protocols are crucial for achieving efficient and reliable data
communication while considering the resource constraints and dynamic
nature of sensor nodes.

❖ The single-hop communication is also called directcommunication

and
multihop communication is called indirect communication.
56
 ❖ In multi-hop communication the sensor nodes not only produce and deliver
their material but also serve as a path for other sensor nodes towards the
base station.

❖ The process of finding suitable path from source node to destination node
is called routing and this is the primary responsibility of the network layer.

6.1 Requirements
❖ Routing protocols in wireless sensor networks (WSNs) are designed to meet
specific requirements to ensure efficient and reliable data transmission in a
resource-constrained environment.

❖ The key requirements of routing protocols in WSNs include:

57
1. Energy Efficiency: WSN nodes have limited battery power, so routing
protocols must minimize energy consumption. Energy-efficient routing helps
extend the network's operational lifetime.

2. Scalability: WSNs can consist of hundreds or thousands of nodes. Routing

protocols should scale gracefully with network size without introducing
excessive overhead.

3. Adaptability to Node Failures: WSN nodes may fail due to battery depletion
or environmental factors. Protocols should be resilient to node failures
by dynamically rerouting traffic.

4. Low Overhead: Routing protocols should generate minimal control overhead

(routing messages, updates) to avoid wasting energy on control tasks.
58
5. Data Aggregation: Aggregating data from multiple nodes before transmission
helps reduce the amount of data traffic, conserving energy and bandwidth.

6. Reliability: Protocolsshould ensure reliable data delivery even in

the presence of node failures, link instabilities, or interference.

7. Latency: Depending on the application, routing protocols should provide low-

latency communication, especially for time-sensitive applications.

8. Load Balancing: Evenly distributing traffic among nodes helps prevent

hotspots, where some nodes are overwhelmed with data while others remain
idle.

9. Support for Different Traffic Types: Routing protocols may need to handle
traffic. QoS differentiation
various types of data may be
traffic, such as periodic, event-driven, or 59
10. Security: Protecting data confidentiality and preventing unauthorized access
is important, especially for sensitive applications.

11. Localization Support: If location information is available, routing protocols

may use it to improve routing decisions and optimize routing paths.

12. Adaptability to Dynamic Environments: WSNs are deployed in various

environments, which may introduce changes in network topology due to
mobility or external factors. Protocols should be able to adapt to these
changes.

13. Network Heterogeneity: WSNs may comprise nodes with different

capabilities, including energy levels, processing power, and communication
range. Protocols should be able to accommodate this heterogeneity.
 15.Minimal Control Packet Exchange: Minimizing thenumber of control
packets exchanged reduces contention and conserves energy.

16. Mobility Support:In some cases, sensornodes may be mobile.

Protocols should be able to handle mobility by updating routing paths
accordingly.

17. Reduced Memory Usage: Memory-constrained sensor nodes require routing

protocols that use memory efficiently for storing routing information.

18. Ease of Implementation: Simplicity in protocol design and ease

of implementation are crucial, especially in resource-constrained
environments.

quickly
19. to these to Network Dynamics: WSNs experience changes in network
Adaptability 61
 20. Application-Specific Optimization: Depending on the application (e.g.,
environmental monitoring, surveillance, healthcare), routing protocols may need
to be optimized for specific requirements, such as data accuracy or event
detection.
6.3 Classification
Routing protocols can be classified into different categories

1. Flat Routing Protocols:

❑ In flat routing protocols, all nodes aretreated equally without

any hierarchical structure.
❑ Nodescommunicate directly with each other without any
intermediary nodes.
❑ Examples: Direct Diffusion, GAF (Geographical Adaptive Fidelity), Rumor
62
Routing.
2. Hierarchical Routing Protocols:

❑ Hierarchical protocols organize nodes into groups or levels, usually clusters.

❑ Clusters have different roles, such as cluster heads (CHs) and member nodes.
❑ CHs collect and aggregate data from member nodes before forwarding to the
sink or base station.
❑ Examples: LEACH (Low-Energy Adaptive Clustering Hierarchy), SEP
(Stable Election Protocol), PEGASIS (Power-Efficient GAthering in Sensor
Information Systems).

3. Location-Based Routing Protocols:

❑ These protocols use geographic information (node locations) to make

routing decisions.
63
❑ Nodes closer in proximity are likely to be neighbors and part of the route.
❑ They aim to reduce the need for routing table maintenance.
❑ Examples: GPSR (Greedy Perimeter Stateless Routing), DV-CAST
(Distance Vector based CAST).

4. Data-Centric Routing Protocols:

❑ Data-centric protocols focus on efficient data collection and

aggregation from sensor nodes.
❑ They aim to minimizeenergy consumption by aggregating data
before transmission.
❑ Data is collected based on certain data attributes or criteria.
❑ Examples: SPIN (Sensor Protocols forInformation via
Negotiation), TAG (Tiny Aggregation).
64
5. Multipath Routing
Protocols:
❑ Multipath protocols establish multiple paths between source and
destination nodes.
❑ Aim to improve reliability, fault tolerance, and load balancing.
❑ In case of link failures, alternate paths can be used.
❑ Examples: SMR (Secure Multipath Routing),AMRIS (Adaptive
Multipath Routing in Sensor Networks).

6. QoS-Based Routing Protocols:

❑ These protocols prioritize Quality of Service (QoS) requirements for

data transmission.
❑ Consider factors like delay, reliability, and bandwidth.
❑ Ensure differentiated service levels for different data types 65
❑ Examples: CTP (Collection Tree Protocol), MMSPEED
(Multi-Frequency Media Access Control for Wireless Sensor Networks).

7. Geographic Routing Protocols:

❑ Geographic routing protocols use node coordinates for forwarding decisions.

❑ Employ techniques like greedy forwarding or perimeter routing.
❑ Attempt to find the next hop that gets the packet closer to the destination.
❑ Examples: GPSR, GEAR (Geographic and Energy Aware Routing).

8. Clustering Routing Protocols:

❑ It divide nodes into clusters with a cluster head (CH) for each
cluster.
❑ CHs aggregate data from member nodes and forward it to the sink.
❑ Aim to reduce energy consumption and improve scalability. 66
9. Cross-Layer Routing Protocols:

information between different protocol

❑ Cross-layer protocols exchange
layers.
❑ Optimize routing decisions based on information from physical, MAC, and
network layers.
❑ Enhance communication efficiency by exploiting cross-layer interactions.

67
7. SPIN (Sensor Protocol for Information via Negotiation)
❖ SPIN aims to improve the energy efficiency of communication in such
networks by minimizing unnecessary data transmission and reducing power
consumption.

❖ SPIN operates based on the concept of data negotiation between sensor

nodes, allowing them to share data only when necessary, thereby conserving
energy.

SPIN Concepts:

Data-Centric Communication: In SPIN, communication is triggered by data-

centric events rather than traditional routing tables. Nodes only communicate
when they have relevant data to share. 68
Data Advertisement: A sensor node advertises its data by broadcasting a short
message called an "advertisement." This advertisement contains a summary of
the data, including attributes like type, value, and timestamp.

Data Request: If a neighboring node finds the advertised data interesting, it

sends a "request" to the advertising node, asking for detailed information.

Data Transmission: The advertising node responds to the request by

transmitting the complete data to the requesting node.

SPIN Messages

SPIN nodes use three types of messages to communicate:

69
ADV - new data advertisement. When a SPIN node has data to
share, it can advertise this fact by transmitting an ADV message containing
meta-data.

REQ - request for data. A SPIN node sends an REQ message when it wishes to
receive some actual data.

DATA - data message. DATA messages contain actual sensor data with a meta-
data header.

Because ADV and REQ messages contain only meta- data, they are smaller, and
cheaper to send and receive, than their corresponding DATA messages

70
SPIN-1: A 3-Stage Handshake
Protocol
❖ It works in three stages (ADV-REQ-DATA), with each stage corresponding
to one of the messages described above.

❖ Upon receiving an ADV packet from node A, node B checks to see whether
it possesses all of the advertised data

(a) If not, node B sends an REQ message back to A, listing all of the data that it
would like to acquire

(b) When node A receives the REQ packet, it retrieves the requested data and
sends it back to node B as a DATA message

(c) Node B, in turn, sends ADV messages advertising the new data it received
from node A to all of its neighbors.
72
(d) It does not send an advertisement back to node A, because it knows that
node A already has the data.

❖ Thesenodes then send advertisements of thenew data to all of their

neighbors, and the protocol continues.
Advantages

SPIN solves the problem of Implosion, Overlap and thus achieve a lot of energy
efficiency.

1.Implosion

Node A starts by flooding the data to its two neighbours i.e B and C. These nodes
store the data received from A and send a copy of it to their neighbor D. The
protocol thus wastes energy and bandwidth by sending one extra copy of A to
2. Overlap

The sensor area of node A and node B are overlapping and the neighbour node
of A and B are same therefore node C receives 2 copies of Y and energy is
wasted.

74
 Disadvantages

1. The sending of data towards the sink node from the source node takes very
long time.

2. If a node has more computation power then it will consume more energy
as compared to other node in the network.

3. If a node is used many times then it will lose energy early then the other nodes
in the network.

4. If a node is sitting idle then its energy will be reduced without transmission of
data.

75
8. Directed Diffusion
❖ Directed Diffusion is a data-centric routing protocol designed for wireless
sensor networks (WSNs) that focuses on efficiently delivering sensor data to
designated sinks (base stations) while conserving energy.

❖ It was proposed as a way to address the challenges of energy efficiency,

scalability, and adaptability in WSNs.

❖ It is based on the idea of propagating data interests and using gradients to

guide data flow towards sinks (base stations).

76
Key Features

Data-Centric Communication: Directed Diffusion is centered around data, not

fixed routing paths. Nodes communicate based on the data's attributes and
interests rather than predefined routes.

Interest Propagation: When data is generated, it's associated with an interest

vector describing its attributes and requirements. This interest is propagated
through the network, guiding data transmission.

Gradient-Based Data Routing: Nodes maintain gradient tables containing

interests and associated gradients. Gradients represent the change rate of a
particular attribute. Nodes forward data towards the highest-gradient paths,
aligning with the interest direction.
77
Aggregation: Nodes can aggregate data from multiple sources before forwarding
it. Aggregation reduces redundant transmissions and conserves energy.

Adaptability: Directed Diffusion adapts to changing data patterns and network

conditions. Interest propagation and routing paths dynamically adjust based on
changing gradients and interests.

Feedback and Reinforcement: Nodes provide feedback on data quality and

routing reliability. This feedback helps sources adapt their strategies to improve
performance.

78
Phases of directed diffusion
❑ In the beginning of the interest dissemination phase, node 1 (the interested
sink) broadcasts a message to all nodes.
❑ Each node saves at most K neighbors (in this case, K = 2) from which it first
received the interest and re-broadcasts the message.
❑ At the end of this phase each node has a queue of neighbors, ordered by the
time of arrival of interest.

79
❑ At this point, the slow data delivery can begin, in which the source sends
data over all neighbors in its queue.

80
❑ Once the first packet arrives at the sink, the sink reinforces the link of
arrival and the reinforcement phase begins.
❑ Here, each reinforced node reinforces its own fastest link to the source.

81
❑ After the source is reinforced, the fast data delivery phase can begin.
❑ Note that the neighbor lists get shorter for the reinforced nodes and are empty
for non-reinforced nodes.
❑ This is done for optimization, as theinformation is notupdated later in
the routing process and becomes old fast.

82
Advantages

Energy Efficiency,
Reduced Network Overhead,
Data Aggregation etc.,

Disadvantages

Interest Specification,
Efficient sink placement is important to ensure proper data
collection,
Overhead in Interest Propagation

83
9. COUGAR
❖ COUGAR operates on the principle of data-centric query processing.
❖ Instead of transmitting raw data to a central server for processing, queries are
expressed in terms of desired data characteristics.
❖ Sensor nodes organize and index data based on attributes, enabling efficient
processing of queries without transferring unnecessary information.

Mechanisms

Data-Centric Storage:

❑ Sensor nodes store data in a data-centric manner, indexing data by attributes.

❑ Data is organized for efficient query processing without the need to scan all
sensor readings. 84
Query Language:

❑ COUGAR employs a querylanguagethat allows users to express

their
requirements in terms of data attributes.
❑ Users can specify conditions, ranges, and relationships for the desired data.

Query Dissemination and Routing:

❑ Queries aredisseminated through thenetwork, reaching nodes with

relevant data attributes.
❑ Query routing algorithms guide queries towards nodes possessing the requested
data.
85
Query Processing:

❑ Nodes receiving queries evaluate whether they possess relevant data.

❑ Data that satisfies query conditions is processed and aggregated as needed.
❑ Aggregated results are sent back along the query path.

Aggregation and Fusion:

❑ COUGAR supports aggregation and fusionof data to minimize

communication overhead.
❑ Multiple sensorreadings arecombined to generate more meaningful and
concise results.

86
Energy Efficiency and Optimization:

❑ COUGAR aims to minimize energy consumption by avoiding unnecessary

data transmission.
❑ Optimization techniques are employed to select the best nodes for
processing queries.

Example:

Suppose we have a long-running query Q to monitor the average

temperature of an office every t seconds.

The query Q notifies (i.e., Q generates an output record) an administrator if the

average temperature in the office is greater than a user-defined threshold.
87
As a first step in evaluating this query, the query optimizer will optimize
the query, taking the existing query workload into account by trying to
merge the new query with existing, similar queries.

Assuming that the query Q is the only query that is running in the network,
the query optimizer will generate a new query plan QP.

The query plan QP specifies how to determine the leader of this query, a
designated node where the computation of the average temperature will take
place.

The leader could be a fixed sensor with more remaining power and energy,
or a randomly selected node by some distributed leader election
algorithm. 88
Two computation plans are produced, one for the leader node, and a second
plan for the remaining nodes in the query region.
Figure 3 shows the query plan for a non-leader node that participates in the
query.

Non-leader nodes have a scan operator to read sensor values periodically and
to send them to the leader node.

In addition, their plan contains an aggregation operator to aggregate data

from other sensors.

Figure 4 shows the query plan for the leader node, which contains an AVG
operator to compute the average value over all sensor readings received in
the last round of the query, and a SELECT operator that checks if the result
is above the threshold.
90
Benefits and Applications:

❑ Energy Savings

❑ Reduced Communication Overhead

❑ Real-Time Responses: COUGAR supports

low-latency query processing, enabling
real- time responses to queries.

❑ Scalability

❑ Adaptability

91
10. ACQUIRE (Active Query Forwarding in Sensor
Networks)
❖ ACQUIRE is a routing protocol on optimizing query processing by actively
forwarding queries to relevant sensor nodes.

❖ ACQUIRE is specifically aimed at scenarios where query requirements

change frequently, and efficient query processing is essential to conserve
energy and prolong network lifetime.
Features

Dynamic Query Processing: ACQUIRE addresses the challenge of processing

dynamic and changing queries in WSNs. Instead of relying on predefined routes
or passive data collection, ACQUIRE actively forwards queries to sensor nodes
that can provide relevant data.
Query Propagation: Queries are propagated through the network to reach nodes
with relevant data. This proactive approach ensures that only necessary data is
collected and transmitted, reducing energy consumption.

Data-Centric Forwarding: Similar to other data-centric protocols, ACQUIRE

routes queries based on the attributes and interests of the data being queried,
promoting efficient data transmission and processing.

Query Relevance Evaluation: Each sensor node evaluates the relevance of a

query to the data it possesses. If a node determines that it has relevant data, it
actively responds to the query.

Aggregation and Fusion: ACQUIRE supports data aggregation and fusion

mechanisms to minimize communication overhead. Aggregating data from
multiple nodes can lead to more energy-efficient data transmission.
93
Adaptability: The protocol adapts to changing query patterns and network
conditions. As query requirements evolve, ACQUIRE dynamically adjusts its
query forwarding strategies
Illustration of traditional flooding-based
queries

(a) Flooding of interest query from querier (b) Response to query in system without
node (sink x) 94
aggregation
(c) Response to query in system with (d) Sample trajectory of active query (solid)
aggregation and response (dashed) in a basic ACQUIRE
(zero look-ahead).

95
Illustration of ACQUIRE with a one-hop look-ahead (d = 1).

❑ At each step of the active query propagation, the node carrying the active query
employs knowledge gained due to the triggered updates from all nodes within
d hops in order to partially resolve the query.
96
❑ As d becomes larger, the active query has to travel fewer steps on average,
but this also raises the update costs.

❑ When d becomes extremely large, ACQUIRE starts to resemble traditional

flooding-based querying.

Mechanism of query forwarding

Local update: If its current information is not up-to-date, x sends a request to all
sensors within d hops away.

Forward: After answering the query based on the information obtained, x then
forwards the remaining query to a node that is chosen randomly from those d hops
away.

97
Advantages:

Energy Efficiency
Real-Time Responses
Dynamic Adaptation

Limitations:

Overhead: While ACQUIRE reduces unnecessary data transmission, the

overhead of query propagation and forwarding may still be present.

Query Forwarding Decision: The effectiveness of ACQUIRE relies on accurate

and efficient mechanisms for determining which nodes possess relevant data for a
given query.
98