they developed in the period 1970–2000 and why they came into conflict

with each other and with the Western powers.

The events in these chapters overlap. The timeline below gives you an
overview of the main events you will be studying. It would be helpful if you
made your own copy and added your own notes to it as you study.
4 Who was to blame for the Cold
War?
FOCUS POINTS
• Why did the USA–USSR alliance begin to break down in 1945?
• How had the USSR gained control of eastern Europe by 1948?
• How did the USA react to Soviet expansionism?
• What were the consequences of the Berlin Blockade?
• Who was the more to blame for starting the Cold War: the USA
or the USSR?
It is not just cartoons that can have messages. Photos can too. This
photo shows American and Soviet soldiers shaking hands in April
1945. It was a staged photograph. The US commander General
Bradley knew the Soviet and US troops would meet on 25 April and
ordered the poster to be erected. US Army photographers set up
the scene.
1 What is the message of the photo?
2 How far do you trust it to show relations between the USA and
the USSR in 1945?
In May 1945 American troops entered Berlin from the west, as Russian
troops moved in from the east. They met and celebrated victory together. Yet
three years later these former allies were arguing over Berlin and war
between them seemed a real possibility.
What had gone wrong?
In this chapter you will consider:
• how the wartime ALLIANCE between the USA and the USSR broke down
• how the SOVIET UNION gained control over eastern Europe and how the
USA responded
• the consequences of the BERLIN BLOCKADE in 1948.
The key question you will be returning to at the end is who is most to blame
for this increasing tension (which became known as the ‘COLD WAR’).
• Was it the USSR and SSTALIN with his insistence on taking over and
controlling eastern Europe?
• Or was it the USA and President Truman with the TRUMAN DOCTRINE and
MARSHALL AID?
• Or should they share the blame? In the post-war chaos in Europe they both
saw it as their role to extend their influence, to proclaim the benefits of
their own political system and denounce the other side.
• Or was the Cold War inevitable – beyond the control of either country? Is
‘blame’ the wrong word to use?
Here are some of the factors that you will study in this chapter. At the end
you will be asked to become an expert in one of them so you could help
yourself by making notes about each one as you read the chapter.
Why did the USA–USSR alliance begin
to break down in 1945?
Allies against Hitler
The USA, USSR and Britain fought together as allies during the Second
World War. However, it was a strategic wartime alliance not a bond of
brotherhood. The USSR had been a communist country for more than 30
years. The majority of politicians and business leaders in Britain and the
USA hated and feared communist ideas (see the Factfile on page 85). In the
past they had helped the enemies of the communists. This made the USSR
wary of Britain and the USA. So in many ways the surprising thing is that
these old rivals managed a war-time alliance at all. But they did and by 1945
they had defeated Germany.
ACTIVITY
Create your own version of the central blue row of the timeline on
pages 80–81. You will be adding events and comments to it
throughout the chapter to help you in your final Focus Task.
Use the information on these two pages to mark any events or
developments that might affect relationships between the USA and
the Soviet Union.
SOURCE 1
 A British cartoon from 1941, with the caption
‘Love conquers all’. The figure in the centre of
the bench is Stalin and he is being charmed
by US President Roosevelt (on the left) and
British leader Winston Churchill. The small
figure is Hitler. Hitler is shown as Cupid,
whose arrows cause people to fall in love.
Source Analysis
Cartoons often criticise particular people or their actions. Sometimes
they praise. Sometimes they simply comment on a situation. Would
you say Source 1 is criticising, praising or commenting? Explain
what features of the cartoon helped you to decide.
SOURCE 2
For Americans, private property was sacred and formed the basis
for the rule of law, while for the Soviets private property was the
source of all evil and inequality, preventing the development of all
humanity to a bright and fair future. While in the West people were
taught that if you work harder you better yourself, in the East
people were taught that if they work harder, society gets richer and
they would share in that. Both systems advocated freedom and
democracy, but their understanding of these terms was totally
different. Both sides believed that government should be for the
benefit of the majority of the population. For the USA, this was
ensured by free choice through the ballot box. For Communists,
there was no need for free choice because the Communist party
understood the hopes and needs of the people even better than the
people themselves.
Historian Eleanor Hore of the University of
Essex, UK.
Rivals with differing world views
To understand how the alliance broke down we need to understand the
beliefs of the two sides.
There was a clash of ideologies between communist and CAPITALIST beliefs
as the Factfile (page 85) explains, but this was tied up with strong national
pride and a sense of identity as well (see Source 2).
• Most Americans believed passionately that their way of life was best and
they were justifiably proud of the leading role the USA took in defeating
NAZISM.
• At the same time most Soviet people were equally proud of their country’s
critical role in defeating Germany (which came at a devastating cost).
They too believed their way of life was superior.
Factfile
A clash of ideologies
The USA The USSR

The USA was The USSR was communist. All industry

capitalist. Business and was owned and run by the state.
property were privately
owned.
It was a DEMOCRACY. Its It was a one-party DICTATORSHIP.
government was Elections were held, but all candidates
chosen in free belonged to the Communist Party.
democratic elections.

It was the world’s It was an economic superpower

wealthiest country. But because its industry had grown rapidly
as in most capitalist in the 1920s and 1930s, but the general
countries, there were standard of living in the USSR was
extremes – some much lower than in the USA. Even so,
people were very unemployment was rare and extreme
wealthy while others poverty was rarer than in the USA.
were very poor.
For Americans, being For communists, the rights of individuals
free of control by the were seen as less important than the
government was more good of society as a whole. So
important than individuals’ lives were tightly controlled.
everyone being equal.

Most Americans firmly Most Soviet people believed that other

believed that other countries should be run in the
countries should be run communist way.
in the American way.
People in the USA COMMUNISM taught that the role of a
were alarmed by communist state was to encourage
communist theory, communist revolutions worldwide. In
which talked of practice, the USSR’s leaders tended to
spreading revolution. take practical decisions rather than be
led by this ideology.

Americans generally Many in the USSR saw the USA’s

saw their policies as actions as selfishly building its
‘doing the right thing’ economic empire and political influence.
rather than serving the
interests of the USA.
ACTIVITY
You need to know the information in the Factfile. Make your own
copies of the diagrams on the right and then use the Factfile to
make notes around them summarising the two systems.

Superpowers
The USA and the USSR had emerged from the war as the two world
‘SUPERPOWERS’. After the Second World War former world-leading powers
like Britain and France were effectively relegated to a second division. US
leaders felt there was a responsibility attached to being a superpower. In the
1930s, the USA had followed a policy of isolation – keeping out of European
and world affairs. The Americans might have disapproved of Soviet
communism, but they tried not to get involved. However, by the 1940s the US
attitude had changed. Roosevelt had set the Americans firmly against a policy
of isolation and this effectively meant opposing communism. There would be
no more appeasement of DICTATORS. From now on, every communist action
would meet an American reaction.
The Yalta Conference, February 1945
In February 1945 it was clear that Germany was losing the European war, so
the Allied leaders met at Yalta in the Ukraine to plan what would happen to
Europe after Germany’s defeat. The YALTA CONFERENCE went well. Despite
their differences, the BIG THREE – Stalin, Roosevelt and Churchill – agreed
on some important matters. These are summarised in the tables below.
It seemed that, although they could not all agree, they were still able to
negotiate and do business with one another.
Revision Tip
Make sure you can remember at least two examples of agreement
at Yalta and one (the main!) disagreement.
ACTIVITY
The photograph on page 1 of this book shows the Big Three at the
Yalta Conference. In 1945 radio was the main medium for news.
Imagine you were describing the scene in this photo for a radio
audience. Describe for the listeners:
• the obvious points (such as people you can see)
• the less obvious points (such as the mood of the scene)
• the agreements and disagreements the Big Three had come to.

Agreements at Yalta

Japan Germany
Stalin agreed to enter the They agreed that Germany would be
war against Japan once divided into four zones: American,
Germany had French, British and Soviet.
surrendered.
Elections United Nations
They agreed that as The Big Three all agreed to join the
countries were liberated new UNITED NATIONS organisation, which
from occupation by the would aim to keep peace after the war.
German army, they would
be allowed to hold free
elections to choose the
government they wanted.
War criminals Eastern Europe
As Allied soldiers The Soviet Union had suffered terribly
advanced through in the war. An estimated 20 million
Germany, they were Soviet people had died. Stalin was
revealing the horrors of therefore concerned about the future
the Nazi CONCENTRATION security of the USSR and specifically
CAMPS. The Big Three the risk of another invasion from
agreed to hunt down and Europe. The Big Three agreed that
punish war criminals who eastern Europe should be seen as a
were responsible for the ‘SOVIET SPHERE OF INFLUENCE’.
genocide.

Disagreements at Yalta
Poland
The only real disagreement was about Poland.
• Stalin wanted the border of the USSR to move westwards into
Poland. Stalin argued that Poland, in turn, could move its border
westwards into German territory.
• Churchill did not approve of Stalin’s plans for Poland, but he also
knew that there was not very much he could do about it because
Stalin’s RED ARMY was in total control of both Poland and eastern
Germany.
• Roosevelt was also unhappy about Stalin’s plan, but Churchill
persuaded Roosevelt to accept it, as long as the USSR agreed
not to interfere in Greece where the British were attempting to
prevent the communists taking over. Stalin accepted this.
SOURCE 3
We argued freely and frankly across the table. But at the end, on
every point, unanimous agreement was reached … We know, of
course, that it was Hitler’s hope and the German war lords’ hope
that we would not agree – that some slight crack might appear in
the solid wall of allied unity … But Hitler has failed. Never before
have the major allies been more closely united – not only in their
war aims but also in their peace aims.
 Extract from President Roosevelt’s report to
the US Congress on the Yalta Conference.
SOURCE 4
I want to drink to our alliance, that it should not lose its … intimacy,
its free expression of views … I know of no such close alliance of
three Great Powers as this … May it be strong and stable, may we
be as frank as possible.
Stalin, proposing a toast at a dinner at the
Yalta Conference, 1945.
Source Analysis
Behind the scenes at Yalta
The war against Hitler had united Roosevelt, Stalin and Churchill and
at the Yalta Conference they appeared to get on well. But what was
going on behind the scenes? Sources 5–9 will help you decide.
SOURCE 5
In the hallway [at Yalta] we stopped before a map of the world on
which the Soviet Union was coloured in red. Stalin waved his
hand over the Soviet Union and exclaimed, ‘They [Roosevelt and
Churchill] will never accept the idea that so great a space should
be red, never, never!’
Milovan Djilas writing about Yalta in 1948.
SOURCE 6
I have always worked for friendship with Russia but, like you, I
feel deep anxiety because of their misinterpretation of the Yalta
decisions, their attitude towards Poland, their overwhelming
influence in the Balkans excepting Greece, the difficulties they
make about Vienna, the combination of Russian power and the
territories under their control or occupied, coupled with the
Communist technique in so many other countries, and above all
their power to maintain very large Armies in the field for a long
time. What will be the position in a year or two?
Extract from a telegram sent by Prime
Minister Churchill to President Truman in
 May 1945.
SOURCE 7
Perhaps you think that just because we are the allies of the
English we have forgotten who they are and who Churchill is.
There’s nothing they like better than to trick their allies. During the
First World War they constantly tricked the Russians and the
French. And Churchill? Churchill is the kind of man who will pick
your pocket of a kopeck! [A kopeck is a low value Soviet coin.]
And Roosevelt? Roosevelt is not like that. He dips in his hand only
for bigger coins. But Churchill? He will do it for a kopeck.
Stalin speaking to a fellow communist,
Milovan Djilas, in 1945. Djilas was a
supporter of Stalin.
SOURCE 8
The Soviet Union has become a danger to the free world. A new
front must be created against her onward sweep. This front should
be as far east as possible. A settlement must be reached on all
major issues between West and East in Europe before the armies
of democracy melt.
Churchill writing to Roosevelt shortly after
the Yalta Conference. Churchill ordered his
army leader Montgomery to keep German
arms intact in case they had to be used
against the Russians.
SOURCE 9
Once, Churchill asked Stalin to send him the music of the new
Soviet Russian anthem so that it could be broadcast before the
summary of the news from the Soviet German front. Stalin sent
the words [as well] and expressed the hope that Churchill would
set about learning the new tune and whistling it to members of the
Conservative Party. While Stalin behaved with relative discretion
with Roosevelt, he continually teased Churchill throughout the war.
 Written by Soviet historian Sergei
Kudryashov after the war.
1 Draw a simple diagram like this and use Sources 5–9 to
summarise what each of the leaders thought of the other.
2 How do Sources 5–9 affect your impression of the Yalta
Conference?
3 How far do you trust these sources to tell you what the leaders
actually thought of each other?

The Potsdam Conference, July 1945

In May 1945, three months after the Yalta Conference, Allied troops reached
Berlin. Hitler committed suicide. Germany surrendered. The war in Europe
was won.
A second conference of the Allied leaders was arranged for July 1945 in the
Berlin suburb of Potsdam. However, in the five months since Yalta a number
of changes had taken place which would greatly affect relationships between
the leaders.
Changes since Yalta
1 Stalin’s armies were occupying most of eastern Europe
Soviet troops had liberated country after country in eastern Europe,
but instead of withdrawing his troops Stalin had left them there.
Refugees were fleeing out of these countries fearing a communist
take-over. Stalin had set up a communist government in Poland,
ignoring the wishes of the majority of Poles. He insisted that his
control of eastern Europe was a defensive measure against possible
future attacks.
2 America had a new president
On 12 April 1945, President Roosevelt died. He was replaced by his
vice-president, Harry Truman. Truman was a very different man from
Roosevelt. He was much more anticommunist than Roosevelt and
was very suspicious of Stalin. Truman and his advisers saw Soviet
actions in eastern Europe as preparations for a Soviet take-over of
the rest of Europe.
3 The Allies had tested an atomic bomb
On 16 July 1945 the Americans successfully tested an ATOMIC BOMB
at a desert site in the USA. At the start of the POTSDAM CONFERENCE,
Truman informed Stalin about it.

Think!
1 At Yalta, Churchill and Roosevelt had agreed with Stalin that
eastern Europe would be a Soviet ‘sphere of influence’. Do you
think Source 10 is what they had in mind?
2 Explain how each of the three changes since Yalta described in
the text might affect relationships at Potsdam.
3 What is your overall impression of Source 11:
a) a reasonable assessment of Stalin based on the facts
b) an overreaction to Stalin based on fear and prejudice against
the USSR?
Use extracts from the source to support your view.
SOURCE 10
This war is not as in the past; whoever occupies a territory also
imposes on it his own social system. Everyone imposes his own
system as far as his army has power to do so. It cannot be
otherwise.
Stalin speaking soon after the end of the
Second World War about the take-over of
 eastern Europe.
SOURCE 11
Unless Russia is faced with an iron fist and strong language
another war is in the making. Only one language do they
understand – ‘how many [army] divisions have you got?’ … I’m
tired of babying the Soviets.
President Truman, writing to his Secretary of
State in January 1946.
Stalin v. Truman
The Potsdam Conference finally got under way on 17 July 1945. Not
surprisingly, it did not go as smoothly as Yalta.
To change the situation further still, in July there was an election in Britain.
Winston Churchill was defeated, so half way through the conference he was
replaced by a new prime minister, Clement Attlee. In the absence of
Churchill, the conference was dominated by rivalry and suspicion between
Stalin and Truman. A number of issues arose on which neither side seemed
able to appreciate the other’s point of view (see table on page 89).
SOURCE 12
 An official publicity photograph of the leaders
of the Big Three at the Potsdam Conference.
The new British prime minister Clement Atlee
is on the left, new US president Harry Truman
is in the centre and Stalin is on the right.

Think!
Compare Source 12 with the photo of the Yalta Conference on
page 1 (which you analysed in the Activity on page 86).
1 How is this picture similar or different?
2 How accurately do you think this picture represents relations at
the Potsdam Conference?
Disagreements at Potsdam
Germany
Stalin wanted to cripple Germany completely to protect the USSR against
future threats. Truman did not want to repeat the mistake of the TREATY OF
VERSAILLES.
 Reparations
Twenty million Russians had died in the war and the Soviet Union had been
devastated. Stalin wanted compensation from Germany. Truman, however,
was once again determined not to repeat the mistakes at the end of the First
World War and resisted this demand.
Eastern Europe
At Yalta, Stalin had won agreement from the Allies that he could set up pro-
Soviet governments in eastern Europe. He said, ‘If the Slav [the majority of
east European] people are united, no one will dare move a finger against
them’. Truman became very unhappy about Russian intentions and soon
adopted a ‘get tough’ attitude towards Stalin.
FOCUS TASK 4.1
Why did the USA–USSR alliance begin to break down in 1945?
Under the following headings, make notes to summarise why the
Allies began to fall out in 1945:
• Personalities
• Actions by the USA
• Actions by the USSR
• Misunderstandings

Revision Tip
Your notes from the Focus Task will be useful for revision. Make
sure you can remember one example of each reason for the falling
out.

How did the USSR gain control of

eastern Europe by 1948?
The ‘iron curtain’
The Potsdam Conference ended without complete agreement on any of the
disagreements on the previous page. Over the next nine months, Stalin
achieved the domination of eastern Europe that he was seeking. By 1946
Poland, Hungary, Romania, Bulgaria and Albania all had communist
governments which owed their loyalty to Stalin. Churchill described the
border between Soviet-controlled countries and the West as an ‘IRON
CURTAIN’ (see Source 13). The name stuck.
SOURCE 13
A shadow has fallen upon the scenes so lately lighted by the Allied
victory. From Stettin on the Baltic to Trieste on the Adriatic, an iron
curtain has descended. Behind that line lie all the states of central
and eastern Europe. The Communist parties have been raised to
power far beyond their numbers and are seeking everywhere to
obtain totalitarian control. This is certainly not the liberated Europe
we fought to build. Nor is it one which allows permanent peace.
Winston Churchill speaking in the USA, in the
presence of President Truman, March 1946.
Letters and telegrams between Truman and
Churchill suggest that Truman was aware of
what Churchill planned to say and approved.
SOURCE 14
The following circumstances should not be forgotten. The Germans
made their invasion of the USSR through Finland, Poland and
Romania. The Germans were able to make their invasion through
these countries because, at the time, governments hostile to the
Soviet Union existed in these countries. What can there be
surprising about the fact that the Soviet Union, anxious for its future
safety, is trying to see to it that governments loyal in their attitude to
the Soviet Union should exist in these countries?
Stalin, replying to Churchill’s speech (Source
13).
SOURCE 15
 A British cartoon commenting on Churchill’s
‘iron curtain’ speech, in the Daily Mail, 6
March 1946.
SOURCE 16
 A Soviet cartoon. Churchill is shown with two
flags, the first proclaiming that ‘Anglo-Saxons
must rule the world’ and the other threatening
an ‘iron curtain’. Notice who is formed by his
shadow!
Source Analysis
1 How do Sources 13 and 14 differ in their interpretation of Stalin’s
actions?
2 Explain why they see things so differently.
3 How do Sources 15 and 16 differ in their interpretation of
Churchill?
4 Explain why there are differences.

Think!
Some historians say that Churchill is as much to blame for the post-
war distrust between the Soviet Union and the West as Roosevelt,
Truman or Stalin. What evidence is there on pages 86–90 to
support or challenge this view?
Stalin strengthens his grip
Figure 17 shows how Stalin extended Soviet power across eastern Europe.
With communist governments established throughout eastern Europe, Stalin
gradually tightened his control in each country. The SECRET POLICE
imprisoned anyone who opposed communist rule.
Cominform
In October 1947, Stalin set up the Communist Information Bureau, or
COMINFORM, to co-ordinate the work of the communist parties of eastern
Europe. Cominform regularly brought the leaders of each communist party to
Moscow to be briefed by Stalin and his ministers. This also allowed Stalin
to keep a close eye on them. He spotted independent-minded leaders and
replaced them with people who were completely loyal to him. The only
communist leader who escaped this close control was Tito in Yugoslavia. He
resented being controlled by Cominform and was expelled for his hostility in
1948.
FOCUS TASK 4.2
How did the USSR gain control of eastern Europe?
‘The only important factor in the communist take-over of eastern
Europe was armed force.’ How far do you agree with this
statement?
1 List events which support it.
2 List other methods the communists used.
3 Decide how far you agree with the statement on a scale of 1–5.
Explain your score carefully.

Revision Tip
Make sure you can remember two examples of methods that the
USSR and the communist parties used to take power in eastern
Europe.
FIGURE 17
 The communists in eastern Europe, 1945–48.

How did the USA react to Soviet

expansion?
The WESTERN POWERS were alarmed by Stalin’s take-over of eastern Europe.
Roosevelt, Churchill and their successors had accepted that Soviet security
needed friendly governments in eastern Europe. They had agreed that eastern
Europe would be a Soviet ‘sphere of influence’ and that Stalin would heavily
influence this region. However, they had not expected such complete
communist domination. They felt it should have been possible to have
governments in eastern Europe that were both democratic and friendly to the
USSR. Stalin saw his policy in eastern Europe as making himself secure, but
Truman could only see the spread of communism.
SOURCE 18
After all the efforts that have been made and the appeasement that
we followed to try and get a real friendly settlement, not only is the
Soviet government not prepared to co-operate with any non-
Communist government in eastern Europe, but it is actively
preparing to extend its hold over the remaining part of continental
Europe and, subsequently, over the Middle East and no doubt the
Far East as well. In other words, physical control of Europe and
Asia and eventual control of the whole world is what Stalin is
aiming at – no less a thing than that. The immensity of the aim
should not betray us into thinking that it cannot be achieved.
Extract from a report by the British Foreign
Secretary to the British Cabinet in March
1948. The title of the report was ‘The Threat
to Civilisation’.
SOURCE 19
 An American cartoon commenting on Stalin’s
take-over of eastern Europe. The bear
represents the USSR.
Source Analysis
1 Do Sources 18 and 19 have the same message?
2 Source 18 is a British source. Does it seem likely that similar
documents were being produced by the American Government?
Give reasons.
As you can see from Figure 17 on page 91, by 1948 Greece and
Czechoslovakia were the only eastern European countries not controlled by
communist governments. It seemed to the Americans that not only Greece and
Czechoslovakia but even Italy and France were vulnerable to communist
take-over. Events in two of these countries were to have a decisive effect on
America’s policy towards Europe.
Greece, 1947
When the Germans retreated from Greece in 1944, there were two rival
groups – the monarchists and the communists – who wanted to rule the
country. Both had been involved in resistance against the Nazis. The
communists wanted Greece to be a SOVIET REPUBLIC. The monarchists
wanted the return of the king of Greece. Churchill sent British troops to
Greece in 1945 supposedly to help restore order and supervise free
elections. In fact, the British supported the monarchists and the king was
returned to power.
In 1946, the USSR protested to the United Nations that British troops were a
threat to peace in Greece. The United Nations took no action and so the
communists tried to take control of Greece by force. A CIVIL WAR quickly
developed. The British could not afford the cost of such a war and announced
on 24 February 1947 that they were withdrawing their troops. Truman
stepped in. Paid for by the Americans, some British troops stayed in Greece.
They tried to prop up the king’s government. By 1950 the royalists were in
control of Greece, although they were a very weak government, always in
crisis.
The Truman Doctrine
American intervention in Greece marked a new era in the USA’s attitude to
world politics, which became known as ‘the Truman Doctrine’ (see Source
20).
Under the Truman Doctrine, the USA was prepared to send money, equipment
and advice to any country which was, in the American view, threatened by a
communist take-over. Truman accepted that eastern Europe was now
communist. His aim was to stop communism from spreading any further. This
policy became known as CONTAINMENT.
The Marshall Plan
Truman believed that communism succeeded when people faced poverty and
hardship. He sent the Secretary of State and former US Army general George
Marshall to assess the economic state of Europe. What he found was a ruined
economy (see Figure 21). The countries of Europe owed $11.5 billion to the
USA. There were extreme shortages of all goods. Most countries were still
rationing bread. There was such a coal shortage in the hard winter of 1947
that in Britain all electricity was turned off for a period each day. Churchill
had described Europe as ‘a rubble heap, a breeding ground of hate’.
SOURCE 20
I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support
free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed
minorities or by outside pressures … The free peoples of the world
look to us for support in maintaining those freedoms.
If we falter in our leadership, we may endanger the peace of the
world.
President Truman speaking on 12 March
1947, explaining his decision to help Greece.
FIGURE 21

Marshall suggested that about $17 billion would be needed to rebuild

Europe’s prosperity. ‘Our policy’, he said, ‘is directed against hunger,
poverty, desperation and chaos.’
In December 1947, Truman put his plan to Congress. For a short time, the
American Congress refused to grant this money. Many Americans were
becoming concerned by Truman’s involvement in foreign affairs. Besides,
$17 billion was a lot of money!
Czechoslovakia, 1948
Americans’ attitude changed when the communists took over the government
of Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia had been ruled by a coalition
government which, although it included communists, had been trying to
pursue policies independent of Moscow. The communists came down hard in
March 1948. Anti-Soviet leaders were purged. One pro-American minister,
Jan Masaryk, was found dead below his open window. The communists said
he had jumped. The Americans suspected he’d been pushed. Immediately,
Congress accepted the MARSHALL PLAN and made $17 billion available over
a period of four years.
 Think!
Explain in just 120 characters how events in
a) Greece
b) Czechoslovakia
affected American policy in Europe.

Marshall Aid
On the one hand, Marshall Aid was an extremely generous act by the
American people. On the other hand, it was also motivated by American self-
interest.
• The USA wanted to create new markets for American goods. The
Americans remembered the disastrous effects of the DEPRESSION of the
1930s and Truman wanted to do all he could to prevent another worldwide
slump.
• Many in the US Government argued that Aid should only be given to states
which embraced democracy and free markets – in other words, a
government and economy the USA would approve of. They wanted an
‘Open Door’ to these countries as the policy was called, with no trade
TARIFFS or other restrictions to stop US companies.
Stalin viewed Marshall Aid with suspicion. After expressing some initial
interest, he refused to have anything more to do with it. He also forbade any
of the eastern European states to apply for Marshall Aid. Stalin’s view was
that the anticommunist aims behind Marshall Aid would weaken his hold on
eastern Europe. He also felt that the USA was trying to dominate as many
states as possible by making them dependent on dollars.
Think!
1 Draw a diagram to summarise the aims of Marshall Aid. Put
political aims on one side and economic aims on the other. Draw
arrows and labels to show how the two are connected.
2 Which of the problems in post-war Europe shown in Figure 21
do you think would be the most urgent for Marshall Aid to
tackle? Explain your choice.
SOURCE 22
 An American cartoon, 1949.
SOURCE 23
 A Soviet cartoon commenting on Marshall
Aid. Marshall’s rope spells out the words
‘Marshall Plan’ and the lifebelt magnet is
labelled ‘Aid to Europe’.
Source Analysis
1 Do Sources 22 and 23 support or criticise Marshall Aid?
2 Do you think the sources give a fair impression of Marshall Aid?
Explain your answer.
 FOCUS TASK 4.3
How did the USA react to Soviet expansion?
1 Work in pairs to write two accounts of US policy in Europe. One
of you should write from the point of view of the Americans; the
other should write from the point of view of the Soviets. The
sources and text on pages 92–94 will help you.
You should include reference to:
a) US actions in the Greek Civil War in 1947
b) the Truman Doctrine
c) Soviet action in Czechoslovakia in 1948
d) the Marshall Plan and Marshall Aid.
As you consider each event, try to use it to make one side look
reasonable or the other side unreasonable – or both!
2 Was the distrust between the USA and the USSR a problem of
action (what each side is actually doing) or interpretation (how
things are seen)?

Revision Tip
Stalin and Truman saw Marshall Aid differently. Try to sum up each
view in a sentence.

The Berlin Blockade: causes and

consequences
By 1948 the distrust between the USA and the USSR was alarming. The two
sides actually increased their stocks of weapons. A propaganda war
developed. Each side took every opportunity to denounce the policies or the
plans of the other. Truman and Stalin were anxious to show each other and
their own people that they would not be pushed around. Despite all the
threatening talk, the two sides had never actually fired on one another. But in
1948 it looked like they might. The clash came over Germany.
The problem of Germany
After the war, Germany was divided into four zones (see Figure 24). At first
the US plan, known as the Morgenthau Plan, was to remove all German
industry and make it an agricultural country so it could never again wage a
modern war. However, as Truman grew more concerned about the USSR, he
decided that a strong Germany might be a useful ally. It was also clear that if
German industries were not allowed to recover then millions of Germans
would simply starve. In 1946, Britain, France and the USA combined their
zones. This region became known as West Germany in 1949.
FIGURE 24

The four zones of Germany in 1948.

SOURCE 25
 A Soviet cartoon from 1947. It shows (from
left to right) the USA, Britain and France. The
three sticks tied together are labelled
‘American zone’, ‘British zone’ and ‘French
zone’. The building is labelled ‘Yalta and
Potsdam Agreements’.
Source Analysis
Explain what Source 25 is saying about the actions of the USA,
Britain and France in Germany in 1947.
Stalin blockades Berlin
Stalin felt he had to show Western leaders that he would fight back if they
encroached on the Soviet ‘sphere of influence’. Although Berlin was also
divided into four zones, the city itself lay deep in the Soviet zone and was
linked to the western areas by roads, railways and canals. In June 1948,
Stalin blocked these supply lines, stopping the Western Powers reaching their
zones of Berlin. If the USA tried to ram the roadblocks or railway blocks, it
could be seen as an act of war. Stalin expected Truman to announce a
humiliating withdrawal from Berlin, which would give the Soviets control of
Berlin and a propaganda victory.
The Berlin airlift
The Americans believed that the situation in West Berlin was an important
test case. If they gave in to Stalin on this issue and withdrew, the western
zones of Germany might be next to fall to the communist USSR. Truman
ordered that aircraft should fly supplies into Berlin. This was known as the
BERLIN AIRLIFT. As the first planes took off from their bases in West
Germany, everyone feared that the Soviets might shoot them down – an
undeniable act of war. People waited anxiously as the planes flew over
Soviet territory, but no shots were fired. For the next ten months, West Berlin
received all the supplies it needed in this way – everything from food and
clothing to building materials and oil. Stalin eventually lifted the BLOCKADE
in May 1949.
SOURCE 26
We refused to be forced out of the city of Berlin. We demonstrated
to the people of Europe that we would act and act resolutely, when
their freedom was threatened. Politically it brought the people of
Western Europe closer to us. The Berlin blockade was a move to
test our ability and our will to resist.
President Truman, speaking in 1949.
Source Analysis
Explain why Source 26 is a useful source to historians investigating
US policy on Berlin.
Consequences of the Berlin Blockade
The end of the Berlin Blockade did not end Cold War tensions. But it had
several important consequences for Cold War relationships.
• A powerful symbol: Berlin became a powerful symbol of Cold War
rivalry. From the US point of view, it was an oasis of democratic freedom
in the middle of communist repression; from the Soviet point of view, it
was a cancer growing in the workers’ paradise of East Germany.
• Cold War flashpoint: Berlin was also a Cold War flashpoint. It was one
of the few places where US and Soviet troops faced each other directly
 (and on a daily basis), and it would be vulnerable if the Soviets chose to
act. Later in the Cold War, Berlin would become even more significant.
• Cold War patterns of thinking and acting: Despite the mistrust shown by
the superpowers, the crisis in Berlin suggested that there would not be a
direct war between them. There would be other types of conflict. Each
side would never trust the other and would never accept that the other had
a valid case or was acting responsibly or morally and would use
propaganda to criticise the other side. They would fight ‘proxy wars’ –
helping any state, group or individual opposed to the other side, no matter
what that state, group or individual was like. There were also more formal
alliances (see below).
NATO and the Warsaw Pact
During the blockade, war between the USSR and the USA seemed a real
possibility. At the height of the crisis, the Western Powers met in Washington
DC and signed an agreement to work together. The new organisation, formed
in April 1949, was known as NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization).
Source 27 shows the main terms of the NATO charter. Although the USSR
was critical of NATO, Stalin took no further action until 1955, when the
NATO powers allowed West Germany to join the organisation. In response,
the USSR and the main communist states in eastern Europe formed an
alliance known as the WARSAW PACT. Its members promised to defend each
other if any one of them was attacked.
SOURCE 27
Article 3: To achieve the aims of this Treaty, the Parties will keep
up their individual and collective capacity to resist armed attack.
Article 5: The Parties agree that an armed attack against one or
more of them in Europe or North America shall be considered an
attack against them all.
Extracts from the NATO Charter.
FIGURE 28
 NATO and the Soviet satellites of eastern
Europe. With the establishment of NATO,
Europe was once again home to two hostile
armed camps, just as it had been in 1914.
Source Analysis
What evidence is there in Source 27 and Figure 28 to indicate that
NATO was a purely defensive alliance?
FOCUS TASK 4.4
What were the consequences of the Berlin Blockade?
Here are some consequences of the Berlin Blockade.
• The Soviet Union and the West both claimed a victory.
• The Western Allies set up a military alliance called NATO.
• Many Westerners left Berlin for good.
• The airlift showed the West’s commitment to Berlin.
• The airlift kept Berlin working.
• Berlin became a symbol of Cold War tension.
• It ended the four-power administration of Germany and Berlin
and split Germany into two blocs. Germany remained a divided
country for 40 years.
• There was no fighting – the dispute ended peacefully.
• It heightened fear of the Soviet Union in the West.
• The airlift improved relations between Germans and the Allies
(who had so recently been at war).
Write each consequence on a card. Then:
a) divide the cards into short-term and long-term consequences
b) choose two which you think are the most significant
consequences and explain your choice.

Revision Tip
For the topic of the Berlin Blockade, aim to be able to explain (with
examples):
• how the Allies started to rebuild Germany
• one reason this alarmed Stalin
• two important consequences of the blockade.
FOCUS TASK 4.5
Who was more to blame for the Cold War?
This is a highly controversial question which is still being debated
today (as you can see from Interpretations A and B)!

Interpretation A: US historian Lynne Viola, writing in 2002.

The orthodox view of the Cold War greatly simplified the study of
history for American audiences. There were enemies (them) and
us and our friends. There were truth tellers (American historians)
and there were liars (Soviet falsifiers). Best of all, there were no
sources because no American historian could use a Soviet
archive so it was very hard to challenge the view with evidence.
As a consequence – and often because many American historians
were either former politicians or wanted to become politicians – a
great American success story unfolded as Americans and
democracy were made to look very good indeed by their actions
towards an unreasonable enemy.
Interpretation B: British historian Joseph Smith, summarising
the Soviet view, 2001.
Soviet writers agreed on the importance of the Truman Doctrine in
contributing to the conflict between East and West. In their
opinion, American imperialism was the cause of the Cold War.
After the Truman Doctrine was enunciated, Soviet news agencies
criticised it as part of a calculated strategy to expand the capitalist
system throughout Europe. The Marshall Plan was similarly
condemned as an American plot to encircle the Soviet Union with
hostile capitalist states. In addition, the United States was accused
of endangering Soviet security by creating NATO and proceeding
to remilitarise West Germany.
Work in small groups. Five people per group would be ideal.
You are going to investigate who was to blame for the Cold War.
The possible verdicts you might reach are:
A The USA was most to blame.
B The USSR was most to blame.
C Both sides were equally to blame.
D No one was to blame. The Cold War was inevitable.
This is our suggested way of working.
1 Start by discussing the verdicts together. Is one more popular
than another in your group? You will probably find it helpful to
consider Interpretations A and B as well.
2 a) Each member of the group should research how one of the
following factors helped to lead to the Cold War:
– the situation before the Second World War (pages 84–
85)
– the personal relationships between the various leaders
(pages 84–91)
– the conflicting beliefs of the superpowers (pages 84–85)
– the war damage suffered by the USSR (pages 86 and
90)
– Stalin’s take-over of eastern Europe (pages 90–91)
– Marshall Aid for Europe (pages 93–94)
– the Berlin Blockade (pages 95–96).
You can start with the page numbers given. You can
introduce your own research from other books or the internet
if you wish.
b) Present your evidence to your group and explain which, if
any, of the verdicts A–D your evidence most supports.
3 As a group, discuss which of the verdicts now seems most
sensible.
4 Write a balanced essay on who was to blame, explaining why
each verdict is a possibility but reaching your own conclusion
about which is best. The verdicts A–D give you a possible
structure for your essay. Write a paragraph on each verdict,
selecting relevant evidence for your group discussion. A final
paragraph can explain your overall conclusion.

Revision Tip
It is useful to think about big questions like ‘who was most to
blame…’ but it is also useful to think about the role of specific
factors so turn your research for question 2 of Focus Task 4.5 into
revision cards and share them with your fellow students.
Keywords
Make sure you know these terms, people or events and are able to
use them or describe them confidently.
• Atomic bomb
• Alliance
• Appeasement
• Berlin airlift
• Berlin Blockade
• Capitalism
• Cominform
• Communism
• Democracy
• Dictatorship
• Iron curtain
• Isolationism
• Marshall Aid
• Marshall Plan
• NATO
• Potsdam Conference
• Soviet sphere of influence
• Soviet Union
• Superpower
• Truman Doctrine
• West/The Western Powers
• Yalta Conference
Chapter Summary
The beginnings of the Cold War
1 The USSR was a communist country with a ONE-PARTY STATE; the
USA was a capitalist democracy. They had very different ideas
about how a country should be run and had been enemies
throughout the 1930s. However, because they had a shared
enemy (Hitler) they were allies during the Second World War.
2 When it was clear that Germany was going to be defeated their
leaders met together at Yalta (in the USSR) to plan what would
happen after the war. The US and Soviet leaders, Roosevelt
and Stalin, appeared to get on well, although behind the scenes
there were tensions and disagreements.
3 They agreed that after the war Germany (and its capital Berlin)
would be divided into four sectors run by Britain, the USA,
France and the USSR, and that eastern Europe would be a
Soviet ‘sphere of influence’.
4 After the war ended the countries met again at Potsdam in
Germany but by this time much had changed: Roosevelt had
been replaced as president by Truman; Stalin’s troops were
occupying most of eastern Europe; and the Americans had
dropped an atomic bomb.
5 Relations between the USA and USSR quickly deteriorated and
a Cold War started (a Cold War is the threat of war and deep
mistrust but no outright fighting).
6 All the countries of eastern Europe elected or had forced on
them a communist government that was allied to the USSR. The
division between communist east and capitalist west became
known as the iron curtain.
7 The USA wanted to stop communism spreading – the Truman
Doctrine said that America would help any country that was
resisting outside pressure (by which Truman meant
communism). This marked a decisive end to US isolationism.
8 The USA offered financial help (Marshall Aid) to countries in
western Europe to rebuild.
 9 The USSR saw Marshall Aid and the Truman Doctrine as a
threat to the USSR, which might lead to an attack on the USSR
itself.
10 Berlin became the first focus of Cold War tension when it was
blockaded by Stalin to prevent supplies getting into the
US/British/French sectors. The Western allies responded with
the Berlin airlift.
EXAM-STYLE QUESTIONS
1 (a) What was agreed by the Allied leaders at the Yalta
Conference? [4]
(b) Why had relationships between the USA and the USSR
changed by the time of the Potsdam Conference? [6]
(c) ‘The Cold War was caused by the Soviet take-over of
eastern Europe.’ How far do you agree with this statement?
Explain your answer. [10]
2 Study Source 3 on page 86 and Source 7 on page 87. Why are
these sources so different? Explain your answer using the
sources and your knowledge. [7]
3 Study Source 15 on page 90. What is the message of the
cartoonist? Explain your answer. [7]
4 Explain why Source 26 (on page 96) is useful to historians
studying the origins of the Cold War. [8]
See pages 172–190 and 346–357 for advice on the different types
of questions you might face.
5 How effectively did the USA
contain the spread of
communism?
FOCUS POINTS
This key question will be explored through case studies of the
following:
• the Korean War, 1950–53
• the Cuban Missile Crisis of 1962
• US involvement in the Vietnam War