Definition of GIS (Geographic Information System)

 A Geographic Information System (GIS) is a computer-based system

used for capturing, storing, managing, analyzing, and displaying
geographic data (Chang, 2010).
 GIS stands for Geographic/Geospatial Information Systems. It helps
answer "what is where when?", integrating location-based data with time.
GIS helps represent real-world features using geographic (geospatial) data,
which includes:
 Location (coordinates on a map)
 Attributes (characteristics of a place)
 Spatial relationships (how locations interact with each other)
Geospatial data, also called geographically referenced data, describes both the
location and features of natural and human-made objects like rivers, roads,
buildings, land use, and vegetation.
The powerful data processing capabilities of GIS make it useful for
researchers, environmental managers, and urban planners. GIS can be
understood from three perspectives:
1. Toolbox-Based GIS
o Provides a set of tools to collect, store, retrieve, transform, and
display spatial data.
2. Database-Based GIS
o Uses a database where most data is spatially indexed and can be
used to answer questions about locations.
3. Organization-Based GIS
o A system with automated tools for professionals to store,
manipulate, and display geospatial data (Burrough & McDonnell,
1998).

Related GIS Terminologies

 Data Exploration – The process of collecting and analyzing geographic data
related to human activities and natural events.
 Dynamic Segmentation – A method for converting linear data (like roads
and rivers) into geographic features on a map.
 GIS (Geographic Information System) – A computer-based system for
processing geographic data.

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  Georelational Data Model – A data model that stores spatial and
attribute data separately but links them together.
 Geospatial Data – Data that describes geographic features on Earth's
surface.
 Object-Based Data Model – A model that stores both spatial and
attribute data in a single system.
 Raster Data Model – A model that represents spatial features using a grid
of cells (useful for maps and satellite images).
 Relational Database – A collection of tables linked by keys, used to
manage GIS data.
 Topology – Defines the spatial relationships between features (e.g., which
roads connect to each other).
 Vector Data Model – Represents real-world features using points, lines,
and polygons (e.g., a map of cities, roads, and land areas).

Components of GIS
A Geographic Information System (GIS) consists of hardware, software,
data, personnel, and procedures used for storing, analyzing, and mapping
geospatial data. It allows different spatial datasets to be integrated, analyzed, and
visualized in a common coordinate system (e.g., latitude and longitude).
GIS databases also maintain topology, which defines spatial relationships between
features (e.g., roads connecting or land parcels sharing a boundary).
GIS consists of the following main components:

1. Computer Hardware Module

GIS hardware includes all the physical devices required to run GIS software and
process geographic data. Key components include:
 Central Processing Unit (CPU) – The core of GIS processing, managing
data input, storage, and analysis.
 Storage Devices – Hard drives, CD-ROMs, DVDs, digital tapes, USBs,
and cloud storage for storing geospatial data.
 Input Devices – Digitizers, scanners, and GPS receivers for converting
paper maps and field data into digital format.
 Output Devices – Monitors, printers, and plotters for displaying and
printing maps.
Client-Server Architecture

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Modern GIS runs on networked systems, where:
 Servers store GIS data and applications.
 Clients (personal computers or workstations) access the server for data
processing.
 This setup allows multiple users to access GIS resources simultaneously.

2. Computer Software Module

GIS software is essential for data entry, storage, processing, analysis, and
visualization. The software includes:
 Graphical User Interface (GUI) – Menus, command lines, scripts, and
graphical icons for easy interaction.
 Extensions & Add-ons – Additional tools that expand GIS functionality.
Evolution of GIS Software Models:
1. Georelational Model (Before 1990s)
o Stored graphical (map) data and attribute (descriptive) data
separately.
o Connected them via a database management system (DBMS).

2. Object-Relational Model (Since 1990s)

o Stores both spatial and attribute data in a single database,
improving efficiency.
GIS Software Development Trends:
 Initially, GIS software was proprietary (turnkey systems), where users had
limited control over modifications.
 Later, customizable GIS allowed users to modify and extend GIS functions
using scripting languages.
 Today, there is a shift towards open-source GIS (e.g., GRASS, ILWIS),
which is cost-effective and supports multiple platforms (Windows, Linux,
etc.).

5.4 Components of GIS

GIS is a computer system used for storage, retrieval, mapping, and analysis
of geospatial data. It includes both hardware and software, as well as data and
people who operate the system.
 Geographic Information Technologies
 Global Positioning Systems (GPS)

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 o A network of satellites providing precise location (from 100 meters to
sub-centimeter accuracy).
o Uses latitude/longitude coordinates.

 Remote Sensing (RS)

o Captures Earth’s surface information using satellites or aircraft.

o Produces digital ortho images (map-accurate digital photos).

 Geographic Information Systems (GIS)

o Software that manages spatial data through input, storage, analysis,
and display.
o GPS & RS provide input data for GIS, which then stores and
manipulates this data.

5.4.1 Computer Hardware Module

GIS hardware consists of:
 Computers & Operating Systems – Typically personal computers
(Windows-based), but can range from portable PCs to supercomputers.
 Storage Devices – Hard drives, CDs, DVDs, and magnetic tapes store GIS
data.
 Input Devices – Digitizers, scanners, keyboards, and GPS receivers
are used to input data.
 Output Devices – Monitors, printers, and plotters are used to display or
print GIS maps and analysis.
 Networking – GIS often operates in client-server environments where a
server stores data and software, and clients access it.

5.4.2 Computer Software Module

GIS software is used for:
 Data entry, storage, processing, analysis, and visualization.
 User Interfaces – Menus, command lines, scripts, and graphical icons.
 Data Models:
o Georelational Model (Old) – Stored spatial and non-spatial data
separately.

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 o Object-Relational Model (Modern) – Stores both spatial and
descriptive data in a single database.
 Programming & Customization – Early GIS software was proprietary, but
now open-source GIS software (e.g., GRASS, ILWIS) is available, allowing
customization using languages like VBA, Visual C++, and .NET.

5.4.3 Data
GIS relies on various types of geospatial data, categorized as:
1. Data Input – Collected using:
o Topographic maps, aerial photographs, satellite images, and
field surveys.
o Input devices like scanners, digitizers, keyboards, and mouse.

2. Data Storage & Management – Handled using GIS database systems.

3. Data Analysis & Transformation – Errors are corrected, and data is
prepared for analysis.
4. Data Output – Presented as maps, tables, and figures using monitors,
printers, and storage devices.

5.4.4 People (Users of GIS)

GIS users are categorized into:
1. Viewers – Browse geographic data for reference.
2. General Users – Use GIS for business, planning, and decision-making (e.g.,
engineers, planners, managers).
3. GIS Specialists – Develop GIS software and provide technical support (e.g.,
database administrators, programmers, system analysts).

5.4.5 Methods
GIS success depends on proper planning and implementation:
 Organizational Structure – Effective models, rules, and best practices
ensure optimal use.
 Skill Requirements – Users must be trained to analyze, interpret, and
manage GIS data.
 Decision-Making – GIS supports strategic decisions by providing accurate
spatial data

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Geospatial Data
Geospatial data represents locations and spatial features on Earth using:
 Geographic Coordinate System (GCS) – Uses latitude and longitude.
 Projected Coordinate System (PCS) – Uses an X, Y coordinate system.
Types of Geospatial Data
1. Vector Data Model – Represents features using:
o Points (e.g., locations of wells)

o Lines (e.g., roads, rivers)

o Polygons (e.g., lakes, cities)

2. Raster Data Model – Uses a grid/cell structure:

o Points → Single cells

o Lines → Series of nearby cells

o Polygons → Group of adjacent cells

ii) Data Acquisition

Data acquisition is crucial for GIS projects and involves collecting geospatial
information from various sources:
 Public domain data – Available from government agencies and websites.
 Metadata – Provides details about the dataset (e.g., source, accuracy,
format).
 Digitization – Creating GIS data from:
o Satellite images

o Topographic maps

o Paper maps

o GPS and field surveys

o Text files with X, Y coordinates

GIS data acquisition involves both existing data and newly collected data.

iii) Attribute Data Management

 GIS stores and organizes attribute data (descriptive information) using
Database Management Systems (DBMS).

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  Example: In an urban GIS, each city block (polygon) has multiple attributes
(e.g., population, land use, crime rate).
 Database Models Used in GIS:
1. Tabular – Simple tables.
2. Hierarchical – Data arranged in a tree-like structure.
3. Network – Complex relationships between datasets.
4. Relational (RDBMS) – Stores data in linked tables (most common).
5. Object-Oriented – Treats spatial data as objects with properties and
behaviors.

iv) Data Display (Mapmaking)

Maps are the primary way GIS data is presented.
 Informal Mapmaking – Quick visualization of spatial data.
 Professional Mapmaking – Requires knowledge of:
o Map symbols, colors, typography

o Layout and visual hierarchy for clarity.

A well-designed map helps convey geographic information effectively.

v) Data Exploration
Data exploration involves visualizing, manipulating, querying, and retrieving
data using:
 Graphs
 Tables
 Maps
Types of Data Exploration
1. Map-Based Exploration
o Data Classification – Grouping data into categories.

o Data Aggregation – Summarizing multiple data points.

o Map Comparison – Analyzing different maps side by side.

2. Feature-Based Exploration
o Spatial Queries – Find features based on location.

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 o Attribute Queries – Find features based on properties.

o Combined Queries – Uses both spatial and attribute data.

vi) Data Analysis

GIS provides basic and advanced tools for analyzing spatial data.
Vector Data Analysis
 Overlay Analysis – Combines multiple layers (e.g., land use + flood zones).
 Buffering – Creates zones around features (e.g., a 500m buffer around a
river).
Raster Data Analysis
 Local Operations – Process individual cells.
 Neighborhood Operations – Analyze surrounding cells.
 Zonal Operations – Analyze groups of cells within zones.
 Global Operations – Perform analysis on the entire dataset.

5.7 Recent Trends in GIS

The growth of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) is closely tied to
advancements in the computer industry. Recent developments have led to
significant improvements in GIS-related hardware and software, making GIS more
efficient, cost-effective, and user-friendly.
Key Trends in GIS Development:
1. Enhanced Hardware Capabilities
o Modern GIS hardware is more efficient, affordable, and compact.

o User interfaces have evolved from text-based commands to user-

friendly Graphical User Interfaces (GUI).
2. Improved Connectivity & Data Sharing
o Earlier, GIS could not communicate with other computer systems.

o Advancements in computer networking now allow GIS to connect

globally, enabling seamless sharing of spatial and non-spatial data.
o The Internet plays a crucial role in GIS data sharing and dissemination.

3. Interoperability & Standardization

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 o The Open Geospatial Consortium (OGC) was established in 1994 to
promote interoperability in GIS.
o Collaboration between government organizations, private agencies,
and educational institutions has led to standardized spatial data
exchange.
4. Web-based & Cloud GIS
o Modern GIS applications are increasingly web-based.

o GIS cloud computing allows users to perform spatial analysis online

without relying on high-end local hardware.

5.8 Applications of GIS

GIS is a powerful tool because most of the information we use has a spatial
component. It is widely applied across various industries and scientific fields.
Key Applications of GIS:
1. Recognizing Problems
o GIS helps visualize and analyze spatial issues.

o Example: Mapping environmental concerns to develop policies and

solutions.
2. Visualizing & Monitoring Change
o GIS tracks changes over time to assess impacts and solutions.

o Example: Analyzing human activities affecting ecosystems and

planning for sustainability.
3. Situation Awareness & Emergency Response
o GIS provides real-time insights into global events.

o Example: Tracking the spread of COVID-19 to implement containment

measures.
4. Establishing Priorities
o GIS helps set priorities based on spatial analysis.

o Example: Farmers use GIS to study soil properties and optimize crop
selection for better yield.
5. Forecasting Future Events
o GIS is used for predictive analysis and disaster management.

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 o Example: Mapping coastal areas at risk of sea-level rise to prepare for
flooding.
6. Understanding Trends
o GIS allows visualization of trends not easily noticeable in raw data.

o Example: Tracking bird migration patterns using GIS maps.

5.9 Organizational Aspects of GIS

GIS operates within an institutional framework and requires proper
organizational support for effective implementation. The key elements necessary
for GIS include:
 Hardware & Software – Essential tools for GIS operations.
 Data Availability – Access to accurate spatial data.
 Infrastructure – Facilities for storing, processing, and analyzing data.
 Trained Manpower – Skilled professionals to manage GIS.
 Protocols & Guidelines – Standards to ensure efficient GIS implementation.
GIS helps in decision-making by analyzing spatial data to measure distances,
identify locations, and combine various types of information. To successfully
integrate GIS, organizations must address specific organizational issues.

Organizational Issues in GIS Implementation

1. Create Awareness
 Employees must understand GIS applications and how it differs from other
technologies.
 Basic GIS knowledge improves operations and decision-making.
 Management must be aware of GIS benefits before implementation.
2. Need Analysis Survey
 Before implementing GIS, organizations must conduct a need analysis.
 The survey helps justify GIS implementation by evaluating:
o Current system performance.

o GIS efficiency compared to existing methods.

o Data, processes, and expected outcomes.

3. Define System Requirements

 After assessing needs, the organization must design a system with:

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a) Technical Requirements
 Database Design – Define how spatial and attribute data will be stored.
 Software Selection – Choose suitable GIS software.
 Hardware Specifications – Identify computing and networking needs.
b) Institutional Requirements
 Organizations may need to reassign or recruit new employees.
 Training is essential for long-term GIS success.
 Management must support GIS as a shared resource across departments.
4. Implementation Phase
 Before full deployment, GIS should go through:
1. Pilot Phase – Test GIS on a small scale.
2. Design Adjustment – Make improvements based on pilot results.
3. Full Implementation – Deploy GIS across the organization.
During implementation, organizations should:
✔ Ensure system security and data protection.
✔ Provide employee training before deployment.
✔ Develop user-friendly tools for GIS applications.
✔ Maintain quality control throughout the process.
5. Education, Management & Maintenance
a) Education
 Employees should receive formal training in GIS.
 Training can be on-site, vendor-led, or self-paced learning.
b) Management
 GIS management should ensure smooth operations and data
accessibility.
 Data sharing must be transparent to avoid conflicts.
c) Maintenance
 Regular database backups and hardware/software updates are
essential.
 Maintenance should be scheduled during off-hours to avoid disruptions.
d) Organizational Considerations
For successful GIS implementation, organizations should:

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  Plan for costs (software, data, infrastructure).
 Ensure efficient database design and development.
 Consider long-term operational costs and sustainability.

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