Efficacy of Geophysical Techniques for Groundwater Exploration

in the Volta Basin, Northern Region of Ghana*

1
A. Ewusi, 1J. Seidu and 1E. Ansah
1
University of Mine and Technology, P. O. Box 237, Tarkwa

Ewusi, A., Seidu, J. and Ansah, E. (2020), “Efficacy of Geophysical Techniques for Groundwater Exploration in
the Volta Basin, Northern Region of Ghana”, Ghana Mining Journal, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 10 - 19.

Abstract
Groundwater, traditionally extracted from hand-dug wells and boreholes is the main drinking water source in the Northern
Region of Ghana. Many boreholes have been constructed in the region to increase accessibility to potable water mainly as
part of rural water supply projects where borehole siting has to be relatively cheaper. These projects have resulted in low
success rates of borehole drilling because of the application of inefficient and simple geophysical techniques supposed to be
cheaper. Field surveys were conducted with the Electrical Resistivity Imaging (ERI) technique, Electrokinetic System (EKS)
sounding technique and Radon (222Rn) technique with the objectives of determining the best geophysical methods for
borehole siting and its efficiency in the Volta Basin (VB) in the Northern Region of Ghana. The surveys were conducted at
stations of existing dry and positive boreholes. Results show that the three geophysical techniques are efficient to identify
groundwater accumulation zones. The ERI, EKS and 222Rn are efficient to identify discontinuities, calculate hydraulic
conductivity of discontinuities and identify areas of water circulation respectively. It is recommended that the ERI be used to
obtain discontinuities and weak zones for drilling on rural water supply projects in the VB. The EKS and 222Rn should be
conducted to evaluate these features when high yield boreholes are required.

Keywords: Geophysical Techniques, Volta Basin, Borehole Drilling, Success Rates

1 Introduction is then conducted to compare site potentials. This

type of investigation is usually well adapted to the
context of rural water supply projects which have
The development of available groundwater
tight budgetary allocations and so borehole siting
resources is a significant aspect of the provision of
should be rapid and low-cost. However, the very
potable water in urban and rural settings. For years,
low success rates obtained with these methods in
various geophysical techniques have been
the Volta Basin in the Northern Region of Ghana
employed in the search for groundwater. In recent
requires that advanced geophysical methods are
times however, technological advancements have
employed to increase the success rates of borehole
brought about the use of state of the art geophysical
drilling thereby reducing project implementation
techniques in groundwater exploration in complex
cost. The objective of this research therefore is to
terrains (Al-Garni, 2009). Groundwater, extracted
test the efficacy of the Electrical Resistivity
from dug-outs, hand-dug wells and boreholes are
Imaging (ERI), Electrokinetic System (EKS) and
the main drinking water sources for rural
Radon techniques in the Volta basin in the
populations in the Northern Region of Ghana.
Northern Region of Ghana.
Consequently, to increase access to this resource a
number of hand dug wells and boreholes have been
constructed in the region mainly as part of rural 1.1 The Study Area
water supply projects. However, most of these rural
water supply projects have encountered difficulties The Northern Region is one of the administrative
in boreholes siting. Most of the boreholes drilled Regions of Ghana. The Region is rural, sparsely
are either dry or yields are less than 0.7 m3/h, usual populated with underdeveloped infrastructure and
minimum yield for a hand-pump installation services and has been identified as a critical water
(Ewusi et al., 2009). Dapaah-Siakwan and Gyau- deficit area. Groundwater is not only feasible but
Boakye (2000) reported an overall success rate of also the most economic source of potable water due
56% in the Volta Basin even though success rates to the dispersed nature of the communities (Gyau-
are predominantly low in certain specific Boakye and Dapaah-Siakwan, 1999: Ewusi et al.,
environments. 2009). Annual rainfall ranges between 1016 mm
and 1600 mm with evapotranspiration averaging
These low success rates were obtained using the around 890 mm (Kwei, 1997). The climatic
common geophysical methods for rural water parameters of rainfall and potential
supply projects including the 4-electrode electrical evapotranspiration as well as the plant–soil
resistivity survey (ERS) and Electromagnetic (EM) complex and general slope are the major factors
profiles to identify a discontinuity in the terrain, that influence groundwater recharge in the area.
assuming that this discontinuity is representing a Because of the very high temperatures in the
fractured zone. Vertical Electrical Sounding (VES) region, rainfall is usually evaporated back into the

*Manuscript received March 25, 2020

Revised version accepted June 24, 2020 11 GMJ Vol. 20, No.1, June, 2020
https://doi.org/10.4314/gm.v20i1.2
atmosphere with little water percolating for loose zones in the arenaceous members (Chegbeleh
groundwater recharge (Ewusi, 2006). Acheampong et al., 2009). Regional hydrogeological studies
(1988) observed that the Northern Region have shown that fractures or joints in the area are
experiences long periods of dryness and the wet erratic and even absent in some places. In isolated
periods are only four months (July–November, cases, the fractures are non-productive.
except August) of the year. The inhabitants of the
Northern Region of Ghana are mostly subsistence The area exhibits three classes of hydrogeological
and peasant farmers, who grow crops such as units, related to the geological settings:
maize, yam, peanuts and millet. Drainage in the (i) Very high groundwater potential areas; The
area is enhanced by the Black and White Volta and Basal Sandstone, showing excellent
the Oti Rivers (Akudago et al., 2009). prospects for groundwater.
(ii) Medium groundwater potential areas; The
1.2 Geology and Hydrogeology Oti-Pendjari Supergroup, showing
moderate prospects for groundwater.
The Volta Basin (VB) has been stratigraphically (iii) Very low groundwater potential areas; The
divided into three (Fig. 1): Obosum Formation, showing poor
prospects for groundwater.
(i) Obosum Formation; consisting of dirty-
yellow, fine-grained, thinly bedded, These characteristics suggest that groundwater
micaceous feldspathic quartz sandstones with potential in the Volta Basin is diverse and requires
subordinate argillite intercalations and thorough geophysical investigations to achieve
whitish-yellow, massive fine to medium- high drilling success rates (Chegbeleh et al., 2009).
grained, cross-bedded arkosic and quartzose
sandstone. This formation occurs as scattered
outcrops in the central part of the Basin with
2 Resources and Methods Used
an average thickness of 400 m (Darko, 2015).
2.1 ERI Technique
(ii) Oti-Pendjari Supergroup; this group generally
rests with angular unconformity on the Basal The Electrical Resistivity Method is a versatile, fast
Sandstone and in some places rest directly on and cost effective technique for mapping
the basement. It is 1.5 km to 4 km thick and subsurface anomaly. Current is introduced into the
forms the most extensive sedimentary ground and the resulting potential differences are
sequence in Ghana (Affaton, 2008). It measured. A geometric factor is used to convert the
consists of argillaceous sandstone, arkose, readings obtained into ground resistivity. A lund
siltstones, interbedded mudstone, sandy shale, imagine system consisting of SAS ABEM
and conglomerates. The beds are generally Terrameter and ES464 switch box was used for
gently dipping and very well consolidated data collection (Dahlin, 1996). The Lund system
rendering them inherently impermeable consists of a multielectrode arrangement for high
except at some few locations where resolution 2D and 3D resistivity surveys and is
weathering and fracturing induce secondary used for defining geological structures (Anon.,
permeability (Dapaah-Siakwan and Gyau- 2007; Ewusi et al., 2009). Both horizontal and
Boakye, 2000). They are mainly fine and vertical variations in resistivity of the rocks are
immature sediments deposited in a marine acquired with the instrument. Data is recorded
environment (Saunders, 1970). automatically along the profile at the electrode
(iii) Basal Sandstone; this is mainly a quartz stations and processed by the inversion software
sandstone formation about 75 m thick RES2DINV (Loke, 2004; Ewusi, 2009) which
occurring at the northern and western optimises the data to reduce the difference between
peripheries of the Volta Basin. The Basal the calculated and measured apparent resistivity
Sandstone is dominated by massive cross- values to a given root mean square (RMS) error by
bedded feldspathic sandstones. It is flat-lying adjusting the resistivity of the model blocks.
and intensely folded towards the Togo belt. A
radiometric age of 993 ± 62 Ma gives the
approximate beginning of the sedimentation
for the lower part of the Volta Basin (Affaton,
2008). The deposition for the Basal
Sandstone formation is likely to have been a
shallow marine environment.

Generally, the Volta Basin has a very poor

groundwater potential although some water
supplies come from fractures in the argillaceous or

12 GMJ Vol. 20, No.1, June, 2020

Fig. 1 Simplified Geological Map of the Study Area showing Locations of Geophysical Data Collection

2.2 EKS Survey Technique table is deep or if the surface material is

unconsolidated making electro seismic signals
The interpretation of surface data from “sounding more difficult to detect. The buffalo gun is
mode” gives information about the permeability recommended for all deep electro seismic
changes beneath the sounding location. The surveying operations because it offers the most
Groundflow (GF) 2500 was employed for the EKS practical way of ensuring that the outgoing sound
data collection. The technique relies on the pulse is not attenuated by loose dry surface
collection, processing and interpretation of electro vegetation, soil or sand. With the hammer and
seismic survey data using the GF 2500 system. The plate seismic source which was applied in this
set is mounted in a vehicle for power, protection research each sounding location is prepared by the
and transportation and consist of an electronic removal of the top layer so that the plate could be
module and a computer, an antenna array and a set firm in the ground. Three data sets are recorded
seismic source. The equipment has standard PC at each site location. Usually the second readings
controls and can be powered by mains power using are used for processing because it is the reading
the switch converter, internal lithium ion battery or where the plate is adequately embedded in the
directly from the cigarette lighter switch in a ground. Processing of field data is carried out by
vehicle. A track pad is usually used instead of a using parameters that have been chosen using all
mouse to ease field operations because operations available hydrogeological information. These
with a mouse would make operations cumbersome include source strength, depth to water table, and
in the field. Two seismic sources including the velocity of the various layers of rocks in the
hammer and plate and buffalo gun for a higher underneath the site. The velocity of the major rocks
energy seismic source can be used. Data is in the area is very important because it is used in
recorded from both dipoles inserted at both sides of the calculation of the potential yield of the site and
the source. A two-fold data stacking is achieved by so it requires detailed attention during data
averaging the two processed channels in each data processing.
file. The data is collected at various stations and
analysed to selected depths. Four electrodes are 2.3 Radon Technique
arranged in a straight line with two on either side of
the source plate in the hammer and plate technique. Rn and CO2 have been used as tracer in
The trigger is attached to the flat plane of the hydrogeological studies especially for water well
hammer and the other side of the hammer is used siting. Initially used in granitic and metamorphic
for the impact (Anon., 2004). The hammer and contexts, prospecting 222Rn anomaly is now also
plate is quick and easy to use but is generally a used in sedimentary terrains as the presence of
weaker source and higher frequency component of radon is related to that of his parents (Uranium 238
the source energy will be lost in the soil if the water and 234, Thorium 282 and Radium 225) which are

13 GMJ Vol. 20, No.1, June, 2020

present in practically all the rocks. The radon In the ERI profile at Kpandai a low resistivity zone
concentrations measured in the field, resulting from less than 200 Ω-m is observed at station 200 m. In
a single diffusion migration, depend on the the Oti beds which is predominantly underlain by
intensity of the root source, the emissivity (ratio of the basal sandstones the lower resistivity structures
the quantities of radon emitted to the quantities of are interpreted as representing zones of potential
radon released in the porosity) the source and groundwater occurrence. A well located at the
terrain and the radioactive decay of radon. Thus, in station 230 m intercepted a fractured sandstone at a
very low-emitting soils like undisturbed clay, radon depth between 15 m and 35 m which accounted for
diffusion remains limited to a few centimeters. The the total yield of 420 l/min from the borehole. The
presence of fracture increases radon concentration station 200 m has similar resistive layers and are
(Anon., 2004). The method consists of measuring expected to give similar results. A high resistive
the radon of the medium and identifying the areas zone was observed at the beginning of the profile
of strongest radon activity. However, the quality of from a depth of 20-50 m.
the results and their interpretation is delicate, as
many artifacts can alter the results: poor control of In the profile at Yapei three distinct resistive layers
sampling techniques, variations in atmospheric are identified: more than 100 Ω-m, between 80 and
or/and meteorological conditions, radon parasite 100 Ω-m, and a low resistive layer less than 60 Ω-
anomalies (uranium concentration) (Anon., 2004). m are intercepted at depths (0-20) m. EKS surveys
were carried out to obtain yield of some selected
In this study detection of α by an instantaneous borehole stations in the VB to compare with yields
measurement (as opposed to integration obtained after these sites have been drilled. 12 sites
measurements where detectors are left on site for 2 were surveyed. Figs 5-7 illustrate representative
to 4 weeks) were applied. The samples are taken by selected EKS signals for high yields, medium
means of a probe rod which is pushed into the yields and dry borehole signals in the area.
ground to a depth of 0.60 to 0.70 m. The air is then
pumped with a hand pump and fed into a sample Fig. 5 show EKS survey results on a successful
bottle. A sweep of the vial is performed to properly borehole at station Nanton (F160). Two evenly
rinse the entire biopsy device. Approximately 4 matched and a strong signal were obtained at
litres of air is pumped for a 125 ml sample volume. depths 10 m to 30 m. The yield calculated from the
The sealed vial is then stored until analysis is done. EKS was 160 l/m. This zone however produced a
The sample vial is actually an α detector consisting yield of 170 l/m at a depth of 17 m from the
of an inert glass vial coated with silver-activated records on the borehole. A second aquifer zone at
zinc-sulphide. This product has the property of depths of 45 m to 65 m from the EKS results did
absorbing the kinetic energy of particles α and not contribute to the total yield of the borehole. The
transforming it into light energy. It is that amount shallow depth yield obtained at a depth of 17 m
of light that is measured and is proportional to the contributed to the total yield of the borehole.
amount of radon. A radioactive decay correction is
applied when calculating the radon content. It is EKS sounding results on a successful borehole at
very low in our case, since the storage time is very Kpandai (C220) is shown in Fig. 6. The sounding
short usually a few hours. Results are expressed in produced two matched signals on both channels
pCi/litre or Bq/litre (1 Bq = 27 pCi). with high amplitude of hydraulic conductivity at
the lower depth to a depth of about 30 m below
3 Results and Discussion ground level. The amplitude is very high at the
depth range of 15 m to 30 m. The deeper depth
Figs 2-4 show some results of ERI measurements signal produced no significant amplitude
in the VB. This technique is usually efficient when indicating an absence of a probable aquifer.
the drilling target is a vertical discontinuity. Fig. 2 Because of the low static water level (SWL) in the
shows a distinctively layered resistivity rocks with area, hydraulic conductivity was not calculated
a low resistivity layer less than 20 Ω-m at the depth above a shallow depth of 6 m. Records on the
range 10 m to 30 m which reduces from 0 m to 400 borehole indicate a yield of 1800 l/m at depths of
m along the profile at Nanton profile F. Two 15 m to 30 m as represented by high amplitude on
boreholes were drilled on this profile. A borehole the EKS signal. However, the EKS calculated a
drilled at station 310 m beneath a vertical electrical yield of 84 l/m for the borehole at that depth
discontinuity intercepted a sandstone layer with horizon. The major aquifer zone which contributed
resistivity of about 300 Ω-m which accounted for to the yield of the borehole was at a depth 24 m to
the total yield of 1200 l/min of the borehole. A 48 m from the results of actual drilling. This depth
second well at F 160 produced a yield of 420 l/m zone however did not show any significant yield
with aquifer zones ranging from 23 to 50 m. from the EKS model results.

14 GMJ Vol. 20, No.1, June, 2020

Fig. 2 Results of ERI Measurements on Profile F at Nanton

Fig. 3 Results of ERI Measurements on Profile C at Kpandai

Fig. 4 Results of ERI Measurements at Yapei

Fig. 5 EKS Sounding at F 160 (Nanton)

15 GMJ Vol. 20, No.1, June, 2020

Fig. 6 EKS sounding at C 220 (Kpandai)

Fig. 7 shows EKS sounding data at station Yapei Naton (F160) and Kpandai (C220) which were both
station C80. Very weak EKS signals were obtained medium depth aquifer between 23 m to 50 m.
at this station. As observed on the hydraulic
conductivity curve, only a small extrapolated Figs 8 and 9 show some results of Radon
aquifer zone was observed at the depth range of 12 measurements in the VB which were carried out on
m to 30 m. The hydraulic conductivity was very dry and successful borehole sites. At Kadia,
low with a calculated yield of 6 l/m which is prospecting 222Rn anomaly confirms that the dry
considered as a dry well. The drilling at the borehole is very close to the target (Fig. 8) and also
station had a yield of 9 l/m at aquifer depths 15 m confirms the location of the positive borehole. The
to 18 m and the EKS results calculated a yield of positive borehole has a radon concentration of > 20
18 l/m. pCi/litre. At Kuntumprukpe, Fig. 8b, a positive
well has a concentration of 14 pCi/litre.
The borehole yields and aquifer zones have also
been summarised in Table 1. It is observed that in In Fig. 9a at Gbanga and it confirms the negative
potentiality of the drilled zone. In Tolon, the
situations where the aquifer zones are less than 40
survey confirms the existence of a permeable zone
m the yield obtained from drilling and calculated
50 m east of borehole BH1, as identified with the
EKS were very comparable. This is observed in 2D profile (Fig. 9b). In Tolon, it shows that the
Tolon (B195), Tolon A270 and marginal yields at high productive borehole is drilled in an anomaly
Yarpei. It is also seen that the extreme results of the zone, but not as close as possible to the center of
both EKS and actual drilling results occurred at the anomaly.

Fig. 7 EKS Sounding at C 80 (Yapei)

16 GMJ Vol. 20, No.1, June, 2020

Table 1 Borehole and EKS Yields

Borehole Location Drilling Yield (l/m) EKS Yield (l/m) Aquifer zones (m) Final Depth (m)
Pong Tamale (E155) 15 12 20-25 180
Pong Tamale (F40) 2 3 15-20 120
Diare (C195) 58 96 27-42 120
Nanton (F160) 400 180 23-50 60
Tolon (A270) 38 24 15-24 96
Tolon (B195) 27 24 22-27 57
Nyankpala (C380) 5 2 14-18 90
Yapei (E395) 12 18 15-20 120
Buipe (E125) 12 18 15-25 105
Yapei (C80) 9 18 15-18 90
Glubi Quarters (A265) 40 246 62-74 75
Kpandai (C200) 420 84 24-48 60

a b

Fig. 8 Radon Results at (a) Kadia and (b) Kuntumprukpe

a b

Fig. 9 Radon Results at (a) Gbanga and (b) Tolon

17 GMJ Vol. 20, No.1, June, 2020

4 Conclusions Abstract Volume, Geological Survey of
Denmark and Greenland, Copenhagen, pp. 13-
The results from this study demonstrate the 17.
efficiency of such investigations. It shows that the Akudago, J. A., Chegbeleh, L. P., Nishigaki, M.,
negative boreholes were never drilled beneath an Nanedo, N. A., Ewusi, A. and Kankam-Yeboah,
electrical anomaly. Such negative sites would have K. (2009). "Borehole Drying: A Review of the
never been selected for drilling using these Situation in the Voltaian Hydrogeological
techniques. System in Ghana", Journal of Water Resource
and Protection, Vol.1, No.3, pp. 153-163.
The methods tested are efficient to identify Al-Garni, M. A. (2009), “Geophysical
fractures, their extension in depth and to evaluate investigations for groundwater in a complex
their hydraulic conductivity. They clearly show that subsurface terrain, Wadi Fatima, KSA: A case
the hydrogeological target for drilling can be both history”, Jordan Journal of Civil Engineering,
vertical and horizontal discontinuities: Vol. 3, No. 2, pp. 118-136.
(i) The research shows no example of positive Anon, 2007, ABEM Instruction Manual for SAS
borehole drilled beneath large vertical 1000/4000 Terameter, ABEM Instrument ABS-
discontinuities, because this type of target 17266 Sundbyberg, Sweden, 135 pp
cannot be sited with precision using the old Anon. (2000), International Development Agency
and common methods which had been used (IDA) funded 80 borehole drilling program,
to site boreholes in the area. Unpublished Technical Report, Unihydro
Limited 150pp.
(ii) The research also show that the low Anon. (2004), “EKS pilot study in the northern
resistive formations can be positive or region of Ghana” Unpublished Technical
negative depending on the rocks in the area Report, Unihydro Limited, Ghana, 80 pp.
(in term of borehole productivity) and the Chegbeleh, L. P., Akudago, J. A., Nishigaki, M.
ERI alone cannot differentiate this but EKS and Edusei, S. N. K. (2009), “Electromagnetic
can be used to calculate the hydraulic Geophysical Survey for Groundwater
conductivity. Exploration in the Voltaian of Northern Ghana”,
Journey of Environmental Hydrology, Vol. 17,
(iii) The research demonstrated the sensitivity No. 9, 16pp.
of the radon technique for locating fault or Dahlin, T., 1996. “2D resistivity surveying for
fracture systems when masked by environmental and engineering applications”
unconsolidated cover (weathered First Break, Vol. 14, pp. 275–284.
sandstone). The study also showed that at Dapaah-Siakwan, S. and Gyau-Boakye, P. (2000),
least about 200 samples are necessary in a “Hydrogeologic Framework and Borehole
survey for the selection of a potential Yields in Ghana”, Hydrogeology Journal, Vol.
borehole-drilling site. 8, No. 4, pp. 405-416.
Darko, E. (2015), “Hydrogeological
It can be concluded from these results that the ERI Characterisation of the White Volta River Basin
can be used to demarcate fractures and weak zones of Ghana”, Unpublished MPhil Thesis,
for groundwater accumulation, EKS is effective in University of Ghana, Ghana, 99 pp.
demarcating aquifer zones between 5 m to 25 m. Ewusi, A, Kuma, J. S. Y., Hans J., Voigt, H. J.
This is quite good because the VB is dominated by (2009), “Utility of the 2-D Multi-Electrode
very shallow aquifers and also when there is no Resistivity Imaging Technique in Groundwater
EKS signal and the calculated yield is less than 10 Exploration in the Voltaian Sedimentary Basin,
l/m then there is the possibility of a marginal or dry Northern Ghana”, Natural Resources Research,
borehole underneath the station. Also, the yield Vol. 18, No. 4, pp. 267-275.
obtained from the EKS surveys was not accurate Ewusi, A. (2006), “Groundwater exploration and
and this could be attributed to using a general management using geophysics in the Northern
velocity value for in-putting parameters into the Region of Ghana”, Unpublished PhD Thesis:
software. Brandenburg Technical University, Chair of
Environmental Geology, Germany, 171pp.
References Kwei, C. A. (1997), “Evaluation of groundwater
potential in the Northern Region of Ghana”,
Canadian International Development Agency
Acheampong, P. K. (1988), “Water balance (CIDA) Accra, Ghana, pp. 69.
analysis for Ghana, Geography, Vol. 73, No. 2, Loke, M. H. (2004), Tutorial: 2-D and 3-D
pp. 125–131. electrical imaging surveys, Published Notes,
Affaton, P. (2008), “Lithostratigraphy of the Volta 136 pp.
Basin and Related Structural Units”, The Volta
Basin, Ghana, Workshop and Excursion,

18 GMJ Vol. 20, No.1, June, 2020

Saunders, R.S. (1970), “Early Paleozoic Orogeny
in Ghana: Foreland Stratigraphy and Structure”,
Geological Society of America, Vol. 81(1), pp.
233-240.

Authors
A. Ewusi is an Associate Professor of
Hydrogeology at the University of Mines
and Technology, Tarkwa, Ghana. He
holds a PhD in Hydrogeophysics and an
MSc in Environmental Resources
Management (Hydrogeology) from the
Brandenburg University of Technology,
Germany. He obtained a BSc (Hons)
Geological Engineering from the Kwame Nkrumah University
of Science and Technology (KNUST), Kumasi, Ghana. His
research interests are in Groundwater management and
Geophysics.

J. Seidu is a Lecturer at the University of

Mines and Technology (UMaT), Tarkwa.
He has an MPhil and BSc (Hons) in
Geological Engineering from UMaT. His
research interests are in Groundwater
Studies, Geophysics and Water Resources
Management.

E. Ansah is a Demonstrator at the

Petroleum Engineering Department. at the
University of Mines and Technology
(UMaT), Tarkwa. He is currently pursuing
an MPhil in Petroleum Engineering at
UMaT. His research interests are in
Reservoir Characterisation, Exploration
Geophysics, Water Resources Management
and Petroleum Geology.

19 GMJ Vol. 20, No.1, June, 2020