Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Unit 2
AC Circuits
Topics:
1. Generation of AC Signal
2. Alternating quantities:
a. Instantaneous, RMS and Average values
b. Form Factor and Crest factor
3. Analysis of AC Circuits:
a. Resistive circuit
b. Inductive circuit
c. Capacitive circuit
d. Series R-L circuit
e. Series R-C circuit
f. Series R-L-C circuit
4. Resonant circuit
a. Series resonant circuit
b. Parallel resonant circuit
5. Numericals on all of the above topics.

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Unit 2
A.C.FUNDAMENTALS

2.1 : Generation of Alternating Voltage and Current:-

Alternating voltage may be generated by rotating a coil in a magnetic field as shown in fig. 1(a) or 1(b).
Consider a rectangular coil having N turns and rotating in a uniform magnetic field with an angular velocity
of ω rad/sec in anticlockwise direction as shown in fig. 2. In time t second, this coil rotates through an angle
θ = wt. Maximum flux Φm links the coil when its plane co-insides with the x-axis. In deflected position the
plane of coil is Φ = Φm cos(wt). Hence, flux total linkages of the coil at any time are NΦ = N Φ m cos(wt).

Equations of the Alternating voltage and current:-

According to faraday’s Laws of electromagnetic induction the emf induced in the coil is given by the rate of
change of flux linkage of the coil. Hence the value of the induced emf is
d d
e ( N ) Volts  ( m cos wt ) Volts
dt dt

So e   Nm w( sin wt) Volts

e  wNm sin  Volts ----------(1)

When the coil has turned through 90o i.e. when θ = 90o then sin θ =1, hence e has maximum value say E m.
Then from equation (1) we get

Em =ω N Bm A Volts --- (2).

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Where Bm = maximum flux density in wb/m2.

A = area of the coil in m2, f = frequency in rev./sec.
Substitute this value of Em in equations (1), we get
e = Em sin θ = Em sinwt --- (3)

Similarly the equations of induced current is I = I m sinwt------------------------ (4)

Provided the load is resistive, w = 2πf.
2
e = Em sin 2πft = Em sin( )t
T
2
& I = Im sin 2πft = Im sin ( )t
T
where T = time period of a.c. voltage or current.
The value of the voltage generated depends, in each case, upon the number of turns in the coil, strength of
the field and the speed at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.

2.2 Parameters of a AC signal:

a. Cycle: -
The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one set of positive and negative values is called its
time period T.

For example a 50 Hz A.C. has a time period of ( 1 ) second.

50
b. Frequency ( f ): -
The number cycles / second is called the frequency of the A.C. quantity.
f = PN 120 where N = revolutions in rpm and P = number of poles.
For example an alternator having 20 poles and running at 300 rpm will generate A.C. voltage and current
20  300
whose frequency is f = = 50 Hz & f = 1 .
120 T
c. Instantaneous amplitude v(t): The value of the alternating quantity at a particular instant of time is
known as instantaneous value,

d. Peak Apmlitude (Vm): - The maximum value positive or negative of an alternating quantity is known as
its amplitude.

e. Phase (ϴ): - By phase of an A.C. current is meant the fraction of time period of that A.C current which
has elapsed since the current last passed through the zero position of reference.

For example: the phase of current at point A (T/4 sec) , where T is time period in terms of angle it is
=
2𝜋 𝑇
ϴ=ωt= radians (fig. No. 3).
𝑇 4 2

Similarly, the phase of the rotating coil at the instant shown in fig. (4) (a) is θ = wt which is called its phase
angle.
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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

2.3 CONCEPT OF LEADING AND LAGGING AC QUATITIES

Consider three similar single turn coils displaced from each other by angles α and β rotating in a uniform
magnetic field with the same angular velocity fig. 5(a).

In this case the values of induced emf’s in the three coils are the same but there is one important difference,
The emf’s in three phase coils do not reach their maximum or zero value simultaneously but one after
another.The three sinusoidal wave are shown in fig. 5(b). It is seen that curve B and C are displaced from
curve A by angles β and (α + β) respectively.

Hence it means that phase difference between A and B is β and between B and C is α, but between A and C
is (α + β). The statement however, does not give indication as to which emf reaches its maximum value
first.This deficiency is supplied by using the terms ‘lag’ and ‘lead’.

A leading A.C. quantity is one which reaches its maximum or zero value later than taken the other quantity.
For example in fig.5(b) B lags behind A by β & C lags behind A by (α + β) because they reach their
maximum value later . The three equations for the instantaneous induced emf’s are

eA = Em sinwt ------- reference signal

eB = Em sin (wt – β)—lagging signal
eC = Em sin [wt - (α + β) ]
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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

In fig. (6), quantity B leads A by angle Φ hence their equations are

eA = Em sinwt ------- reference
eB = Em sin (wt + Φ)---leading signal

2.4 VALUES OF ALTERNATING VOLTAGE AND CURRENT

The value of alternating voltage and current keeps on changing from instant to instant. Hence the magnitude
of the alternating quantity is expressed in following ways:
a. Peak value
b. Average value
c. Rms or effective value

a. PEAK VALUE:
Peak value is the maximum value of the alternating quantity represented by Vm.

b. AVERAGE VALUE :

The average value Iav of an A.C. current is expressed by that steady current which transfers across any
circuit. It is the arithmetic average of all the values of alternating quantities over one cycle.

MID ORDINATE METHOD:-

i1  i2  i3  .......  in
From fig. (7) Iav = = Area under curve /base
n

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

ANALYTICAL METHOD:-
A standard equation of a sinusoidal A.C. current is

I = Im sinθ
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒
Average value = 𝑏𝑎𝑠𝑒 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑎𝑙𝑓 𝑐𝑦𝑐𝑙𝑒

id id
T
Iav = 0 (T  0) =  (  0)
0

1
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 𝜋
∫ 𝑖(𝜃)𝑑𝜃 i=𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜃

=
Im
 sin d =
Im
 cos  0 =
2 Im
 0
 

2𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
𝜋

Therefore Iav = 0.637Im

Similarly Vav = 0.637Vm

c. ROOT MEAN SQUARE (RMS) Value:-

RMS value is also known as the effective value of the ac quantity. It is the criterion to measure the
effectiveness of an alternating current (or voltage). The RMS value of an A.C. current is given by that steady
(D.C.) current which when following through a given circuit for a given time does the same work (produces
the same heat) as produced by the A.C. current when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.
MID ORINATED METHOD: -

In fig no.(7) are shown the positive half cycles for both symmetrical sinusoidal and non- sinusoidal
alternating current.
Divide time base ‘t’ into n equal interval be respectively I 1, I2, I3 …….. In, then.
I2 = I12+ I22+ I32 …….. In2
n
I= I12+I22+I32………In2
n

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Similarly, the RMS value of alternating voltage is given by

V= V12+V22+V32………Vn2 =

n
Analytical Method:-
The standard form of a sinusoidal alternating current is I = I m sinwt = Im sinθ

i 2 d
T

Irms= 
0
T
The mean of the square of the instantaneous value of current over one complete cycle is
i 2 d
T
I2 = 0 (T  0) let T= 2п, the square root is

2 2
i d
I = 0
2
i =Im sinθ

Hence the rms value of alternating current is

2
 Im 2  sin 2d
 i d
2
0

I =
0
(as wave is symmetrical ) = 2

1  cos 2
Now cos2θ = 1- 2sin2 θ because sin2 θ =
2
2
Im 2  (1  cos 2 )d 2
Im  sin 2 
  2 
0
Irms = =
4 4 0

Im 2 Im
Irms =  2 = = 0.707 Im
4 2
𝐼𝑚
𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 =
√2
Hence we find for a symmetrical sine wave
Irms =0.707 Im
It should be noted that the average heating effect produced during one cycle is
2
 Im 
2
Im R
P = Irms2R =  R=
 2 2
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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Form Factor:-
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
It is defined as the ratio 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝐴𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑎𝑣𝑔

0.707 𝐼𝑚
For the sine wave 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = = 1.11
0.637 𝐼𝑚

Crest or Peak or Amplitude factor:-

𝑀𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑚
It is defined as the ratio 𝑃𝑒𝑎𝑘 𝐹𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 = =
𝑅𝑀𝑆 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

Im
For the sine wave Ka = = 2 = 1.41414
Im
2
Note: For sine wave: Form factor = 1.11 , Peak factor = 1.414

2.5 PHASOR / VECTOR REPRESENTATION OF AC QUANTITY:

An sinusoidal ac signal is represented by 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
Another method to represent the sine wave is vector representation of the sine wave.
In vector representation, the alternating voltage/current is represented by a vector rotating counter clockwise
with the same frequency as that of a.c. quantity.
For example:
In fig. 9(a), OP is such a vector which represents 𝑒(𝑡) = 𝐸𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡.
The maximum value of the ac voltage is OP & its angle with X-axis gives its phase.
The projection of OP on y-axis at any instant gives the instantaneous value of ac voltage thereby
reproducing the ac voltage.
OM = OP sinωt
e = OP sinωt = Em sinωt

Fig 9

The line OP represents an ac voltage or current if it satisfies the following conditions.

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

(1) Its length should be equal to the peak or maximum of the sine wave a.c. current to a suitable scale.
(2) It should be in be in horizontal position at the same instant as the ac quantity is zero and
it is increasing.
(3) Its angular velocity should be such that it completes one revolution in the same time as taken by the ac
quantity to complete one cycle.
2.6 PHASOR / VECTOR DIAGRAMS OF SINE WAVES OF SAME FREQUENCIES:

Two or more sine waves of same frequency can be shown on the same vector diagram, because the various
vector r/epresenting different waves all rotate counter-clockwise at the same frequency & maintain a fixed
position relative to each other.
Example: e and i are two waveforms with same frequency are shown i(t) =Im sinωt and e=
Emsin(ωt+α) and hence can be shown on the same phasor diagram as shown in fig. 10 a. Also note that
phasor e leads the phasor i by a phase angle α.
2.7 MATHEMATICAL REPRESENTATION OF PHASORS:
The phasor can be represented mathematically in two ways:
(a) Rectangular form
(b) Polar form

(a) Rectangular form:

Fig. 11
The vector I is resolved into horizontal and vertical components and expressed in complex form
as 𝐼 ̅ = 𝑎 ± 𝑗𝑏
Rectangular form of representation is used for addition and subtraction of multiple ac quantities.
(b) Polar form:

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

𝐼 ̅ = |𝐼 |∠ ± 𝜃
|𝐼 | = √𝑎2 + 𝑏2
𝑏
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1
𝑎

Numericals

I. Maximum value, Frequency, Time period, Instantaneous value, Value at a given time,
1. An alternating voltage is represented by v(t) = 141.4sin 377t.
Find (i) maximum value (ii) frequency (iii) time period (iv) instantaneous value of voltage at t = 3
msec.
Ans: (i) 141.4V (ii) 60Hz (iii) 16.67ms (iv) 127.94V

2. An alternating current takes 3.375 msec to reach 15A for the first time after becoming
instantaneously zero. The frequency of current is 40 Hz. Find the maximum value of alternating
current.
Ans: 20 A

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

3. An alternating voltage of time period 0.02sec has maximum value of 12V. Write the equation for its
instantaneous value. Calculate the instantaneous value of the voltage after 0.002sec, where reference
is taken from the instant of zero voltage and is becoming positive. Also calculate the time required
for the voltage to reach 4V for the first time.

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

4. An alternating current of frequency 60Hz has a maximum of 120A. Write down the equation for its
instantaneous value. Find (i) the instantaneous value after 1/360 from the instant current is zero and
is becoming positive (ii) the time taken to reach 96 A for the first time.
Ans: (i) 103.3A (ii) 0.00245 sec

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

II. RMS, Average , Peak factor, Form factor

1. Find the following parameters of the given voltage v(t) = 200 sin 314 t.
(i) Frequency (ii) Form factor (iii) crest factor
Ans: (i) 50 Hz (ii) Form factor = 1.11 (iii) Crest factor = 1.41

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

2. A non sinusoidal volatage is having form factor as 1.2 and peak factor as 1.5. If the average value of
the voltage is 10V. Calculate (i) rms value (ii) maximum value
Ans: Vrms = 12V Vm = 18V

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

3. An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50 c/s has an rms value of 20A.
Write down the equation for the instantaneous value and find this value at (i) 0.0025 sec (ii) 0.0125
sec after passing through zero and increasing positively (iii) at what time measured from zero will
the value of the instantaneous current be 14.14A ?

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Addition of Vectors
1.

2.

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

3.

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

ANALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS:
The resistance , inductance and capacitance are the basic elements of any electrical network. In order to
analyse any electrical circuit, it is necessary to understand the following three cases:
a. AC through pure resistor circuit
b. AC through pure inductive circuit
c. AC through pure capacitive circuit
2.8 A.C. ANALYSIS OF A RESISTIVE CIRCUIT:

The circuit diagram for resistive circuit with ac source v(t) = V m sinωt is shown in fig. 12(a) where R=
resistance.
The alternating voltage causes an alternating current i(t) to flow through the circuit given as:
𝑣(𝑡)
𝑖 (𝑡 ) =
𝑅
𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝑖 (𝑡 ) =
𝑅
𝑉𝑚
𝑖 (𝑡 ) = sin 𝜔𝑡
𝑅
𝑉𝑚
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 , where 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑅

i(t) is the instantaneous value

Im is the maximum value of the ac current.
The waveform for i(t) and v(t) is as shown below:

Instantaneous power of resistive circuit:

Power consumed by the circuit at any instant is given as the product of the voltage and current at that
instant.
Instantaneous power is given as:

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

𝑝(𝑡) = 𝑣 (𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)

Where, 𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡, 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛2 𝜔𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃 (𝑡 ) = (1 − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡)
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃 (𝑡 ) = − 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡
2 2
The instantaneous power consists of two components
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
a. Power consist of dc component and
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡
b. a fluctuating part of frequency
2

Fig. 13 Plot of instantaneous power

Average power consumed by a resistive circuit:

The instantaneous power consumed by the resistive circuit is
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃 (𝑡 ) =
− 𝑐𝑜𝑠2𝜔𝑡
2 2
The average power over one complete cycle is given as
2𝜋
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔= 1 ∫ 𝑃(𝑡) 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0

Substituting P(t) and solving the integration,

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 =
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = . = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠
√2 √2

Vrms = rms value of the applied voltage v(t)

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Irms = rms value of the circuit current i(t)

Phasor diagram:
The applied voltage and resultant circuit current for a purely resistive circuit are given by equation:
𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡
𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝑤𝑡
The waveform of i(t) and v(t) is given below:

The phasor diagram is shown below:

I V

It is clear from the equation that the applied voltage and resultant current are in phase with each other.
1. Power factor of purely resistive circuit = 1
2. There is no phase difference between the voltage and current hence phase difference between 𝑉̅ and 𝐼 ̅
is φ = 0.
3. Power factor of the circuit is : PF=cos Φ
4. Power consumed is given as :
𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 1 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

2.9 A.C . ANALYSIS OF A PURELY INDUCTIVE CIRCUIT

Consider a circuit with an ac source applied to a pure inductor of value L Henrys.

Fig. 14 : Purely inductive circuit

The applied ac voltage is given as 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡

As a result of the applied voltage , an alternating current i(t) flows through the circuit.
This alternating current sets up a alternating magnetic field around the inductance.
The changing flux links the coil and an emf is induced in it.
This emf is called as self induced emf ( e=L di/dt).
The self induced emf is also called as back emf.
The back emf at every step opposes the rise or fall of current through the coil.
As there is no ohmic voltage drop, the applied voltage has to overcome this self-induced emf only. So at any
instant the self induced emf is equal and opposite to the applied voltage

di
v (t) = L
dt
Vm
L 
Therefore, i = sin wtdt

Since, applied voltage v (t) = Vmsinωt

Vm Vm
So i =  cos wt  =  cos wt [ constant = 0]
wL wL
𝑉𝑚 𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝜋
So 𝑖 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 ) = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
𝜔𝐿 𝑋𝐿

Series RL circuit:
Applied voltage: v (t) = Vmsinωt
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
Resultant current in a series RL circuit is 𝑖 = sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
𝑋𝐿

𝜋
The value of i(t) is maximum when sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 ) = 1
𝑉𝑚
Maximum current: 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑋𝐿
𝑉𝑚
Substituting 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑋𝐿
, we get
𝜋
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
2
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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Therefore for a purely inductive circuit the applied voltage and the resultant current are given as :

𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − )
2
𝑉𝑚
Where, 𝐼𝑚 = is the maximum / peak current
𝑋𝐿

Phasor diagram:
The applied voltage and resultant current for a purely inductive circuit is given as:
Applied voltage: 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡
𝜋
Resultant current : 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
From the above equations, it is seen that the for a purely inductive circuit current lags behind the voltage
by π/2.

.
Fig. 15: Waveforms of v(t) and i(t)
Phasor diagram (RL circuit):
Applied voltage: 𝑉̅ = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠0𝑜
𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑉𝑚
Resultant current : 𝐼 ̅ = 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 ∠−90𝑜 , where 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 = , 𝑋𝐿 = 𝜔𝐿 and 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 = (for sinusoidal ac
𝑋𝐿 √2
source).

𝑉̅

𝐼̅
𝑉̅
Clearly, The current lags behind the applied voltage by quarter cycle (90o).
Average power consumed by an inductive circuit:

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Instantaneous power
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑣(𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)

𝜋
Where, 𝑣(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 2 )
𝜋
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 − 2 )

= −𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃 (𝑡 ) = − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 -----Instantaneous power
2

Average power consumed by pure inductive circuit over one cycle is given as:
1 2𝜋
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑃(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0
1 2𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ − 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0
Average power consumed by a purely inductive circuit is 0.
That is demand of power from the supply for a complete cycle is zero.
During the positive half cycle the applied voltage, power is positive and flows from source to inductor and
build up the magnetic field around inductor. That is energy supplied by source is stored in form of magnetic
field of inductor.
During the negative half cycle power is negative and power flows from inductor to source, that is as current
falls the magnetic field collapses and returns the stored energy back to source.
Hence the resultant power over one complete cycle of applied voltage = 0.
That is pure inductor consumes no power.
Reactive power: When power is positive, energy is put into the circuit to build the magnetic field around the
inductor. When power is negative, magnetic energy is returned to the supply.
Since power supplied is equal to the power returned, net power consumed is zero. The power circulates in
the circuit and is called REACTIVE POWER.
Power factor of purely inductive circuit = 0
Power factor: PF=cos Φ
where φ is the phase difference between the applied voltage and the resultant current.
Φ=90o
PF=cos 90o = 0
Power consumed is given as : 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 0 = 0
Power consumed by an inductive circuit =0.

23
 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

2.10 AC ANALYSIS OF PURE CAPACITOR

Fig. 16: Pure Capacitor circuit

Consider the circuit with an alternating voltage source connected to capacitor C Farad shown in Fig. 16 .
The applied voltage is given as 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡.
As a result of the applied voltage, an alternating current i(t) will flow through the circuit.
When an alternating voltage is applied to the plates of a capacitor, the capacitor is charged first in one
direction and then in the opposite direction.
Charge on capacitor, q = C. v(t)
v = p.d. developed between plates at any instant,
q = charge on plate at that instant,
The current i(t) flowing through the capacitive circuit is given by the rate of change of charge per unit time
i.e.
𝑑𝑞 𝑑 𝐶. 𝑣(𝑡) 𝑑 (𝐶. 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
𝑖 (𝑡 ) = = =
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝐶𝑑𝑣
𝑖 (𝑡 ) =
𝑑𝑡
𝐶 𝑑 (𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡)
𝑖 (𝑡 ) =
𝑑𝑡
𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + )
2
𝑉𝑚 𝜋 1
𝑖 (𝑡 ) = sin (𝜔𝑡 + ), Where 𝑋𝑐 =
𝑋𝑐 2 𝜔𝐶
𝜋 𝑉𝑚
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2 ), where 𝐼𝑚 = 𝑋𝑐

𝑋𝑐 is known as capacitive reactance and is in ohms if C is in Farad and ω is in radians/sec.

Series RC circuit:
Applied voltage: v (t) = Vmsinωt
𝑉𝑚 𝜋
Resultant current in a series RC circuit is 𝑖 = sin(𝜔𝑡 + )
𝑋𝑐 2
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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Hence the current in a pure capacitor leads its voltage by a quarter cycle ( π/2) as shown in fig. (17).

Fig. 18: Waveform of voltage and current for pure capacitor circuit
Power:-
Instantaneous power 𝑃 (𝑡) = 𝑣 (𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)
𝜋
Where, 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2 )
𝜋
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡 + 2 )

= 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 cos 𝜔𝑡
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃 (𝑡 ) = 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡----------instantaneous power
2

Average power consumed by pure inductive circuit over one cycle is given as:
1 2𝜋
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑃(𝑡)𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0
1 2𝜋 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = ∫ 𝑠𝑖𝑛2𝜔𝑡 𝑑𝑡
2𝜋 0 2
𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔 = 0
Therefore, the average power consumed by a capacitor = 0
When voltage rises across the plates of a capacitor, energy is supplied by the source and is stored in the
capacitor in the form of electrostatic field energy. As the voltage falls , the electrostatic field collapses and
returns the stored energy to the source.
Since the power supplied during positive half of ac voltage is equal to the power returned during the
negative half cycle of the ac voltage, the net power consumed by the pure capacitive circuit is zero.

Phasor diagram:
Applied voltage: 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
Resultant current: 𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2 )
For purely capacitive circuit current leads the applied voltage by 90 degrees.

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

𝐼̅

𝑉̅

Power factor of purely capacitive circuit = 0

Applied voltage: 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡
𝜋
Resultant current: 𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 2 )
The phase difference between the applied voltage and resultant current is φ=90 o.
Power factor for pure capacitive circuit : PF =cos Φ
PF = cos (90o) = 0
Power consumed is given as : 𝑃𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 . 0 = 0
Power consumed by a capacitive circuit =0.

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Numerical on AC analysis of pure R, pure L and pure C circuit

1. A 50 Hz alternating voltage of 150 V is applied independently to (i) resistance of 10 Ω (ii)
inductance of 0.2 H and (iii) capacitance of 50μF. Find the expression for the instantaneous current
in each case.

27
Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

28
 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

2.11 SERIES RL AC CIRCUITS

Fig. 19: Circuit diagram of series RL circuit

Consider a series circuit of a pure resistor R and a pure inductive coil L are shown in fig. 19,
Let V = rms value of the applied voltage,
I = rms value of the resultant current,
Z = Impedance of the circuit

Phasor diagram:
The applied ac voltage V results in flow of ac current I through the circuit which creates a voltage drop
across resistor R and inductor L
VR = I.R ---- where the voltage drop across R is in phase with current I
VL = I.XL -----where voltage drop across coil L leads the current I by 90 0

The phasor diagram of series RL circuit is shown in fig 20 with current I as the reference. The voltage V R is
in phase with I and VL leads the current I by 90o.

Fig. 20: Phasor diagram for series RL circuit

Voltage Triangle:
From the circuit diagram it is seen that the applied voltage 𝑉̅ is vector sum of ̅̅̅
𝑉𝑅 and 𝑉̅𝐿
Applied voltage :
𝑉̅ = ̅̅̅
𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉̅𝐿 = |𝑉 |∠𝜑

𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅 + 𝐼 ̅ 𝑋𝐿 = 𝐼 (̅ 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ) = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑍̅

|𝑉 | = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝐿2
𝑉𝐿
𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅
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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Resultant current:
𝑉̅ 𝑉∠0𝑜 𝑉
𝐼̅ = = = ∠ − 𝜑𝑜
𝑍̅ |𝑍| ∠𝜑 |𝑍 |

𝑉
𝐼 ̅ = |𝐼 | ∠ − 𝜑, where |𝐼 | = |𝑍|
and

𝑉𝐿 𝑋𝐿
, 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝐿 𝑅

Hence if the applied voltage is 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

In other words, current I lags behind the applied voltage V by an angle Ф.
𝑉𝑚
Then current equation is 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑚 = |𝑍|

Fig. 21: Waveform of applied voltage and resultant current

Fig. 22: Phasor diagram of applied voltage and resultant current

Impedance Triangle:

Fig. 23: Impedance triangle of series RL circuit

Circuit Impedance:
𝑍̅ = 𝑅 + 𝑗𝑋𝐿 = (|𝑍|∠𝜑 ) Ω

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

𝑋𝐿
|𝑍| = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝐿2 Ω , 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅

Power: -
Instantaneous power consumed by series RL circuit is given as
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑣 (𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)
Where, 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 . 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 − cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑))
𝑃 (𝑡 ) =
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(2𝜔𝑡 − 𝜑)
𝑃 (𝑡 ) = −
2 2
This power consists of two parts :
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
(1) Real power : A constant part 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(2𝜔𝑡−𝜑)
(2) A pulsating component: which has a frequency twice that of the
2
voltage and current. It does not contribute to actual power, since its average value over a complete cycle is
zero.
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
Average power consumed : =𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔= = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
2

The average power consumed by the current is given by the product of V and that component of the
current I which is in phase with V. So
Pavg = Vrms.Irms.cosФ.

The term cosФ is called the power factor (p.f.) of the circuit.
True Power W= Vrms.Irms cosФ (Watts)
It should be noted that power consumed is due to ohmic resistance only because pure reactance does not
consume any active power.

Power Factor :
Power factor = PF = cos φ
From phasor diagram : PF = cosФ= R/Z,
Therefore, average power consumed by the series RL circuit is
Pavg = Vrms.Irms.cosФ = Vrms.Irms .(R/Z)
= (V/Z). (I.R)
P = I2R where, I = V/Z

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Power triangle (Active, Reactive and Apparent Power ):-

Fig.24: Power triangle for series RL circuit

The series R-L circuit draw a current of I when an alternating voltage of rms value V is applied to it.
For series RL circuit the resultant current lags behind the applied voltage by Ф.
The applied power VI is consumed by the resistor and inductor.
The powers drawn by the circuit are as under:
1). Apparent power (S):- It is given by the product of rms values of applied voltage and circuit and circuit
current.

S = Vrms.Irms = (Irms.Z). Irms = Irms 2.Z volt-amperes (VA).

2). Active power (P or W): - It is the power, which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance.

P = Irms 2R = Vrms Irms cosФ watts.

3). Reactive Power (Q): - It is the power developed in the inductive reactance of the circuit.
Q = Irms. Irms.XL = Irms 2Z.sinФ = Irms.( Irms.Z).sinФ
= Vrms. Irms sinФ volt-ampere reactive (VAR)

These three powers are shown in the power triangle of fig. 24.,
from where it can be seen that S2 = P2 + Q2 or S = (P2 + R2)1/2

32
 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Numericals of RL circuit
1.

Solution:

2.

Solution:

3.

Solution:

33
 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

4.

Solution:

34
 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

5.

Solution:

35
Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

36
 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

2.12 A.C. analysis of RC circuit

Fig. 25. Series connected RC circuit

The circuit diagram of a series connected resistor R (Ω) and capacitor C (Farad) is shown in Fig. 25.
Let V = rms value of the applied voltage,
I = rms value of the resultant current,
Z = Impedance of the circuit

Phasor diagram:
The applied voltage V results in flow of current I through the circuit which creates a voltage drop across
resistor R and capacitor C
VR = I.R ---- where the voltage drop across R is in phase with current I
Vc = I.Xc -----where voltage drop across capacitor C lags the current I by 90 0
The phasor diagram of series RC circuit is shown in fig 26 with current I as the reference. The voltage V R is
in phase with I and Vc lags the current I by 90o.

Voltage Triangle:
From the circuit diagram it is seen that the applied voltage 𝑉̅ is vector sum of ̅̅̅ ̅𝑐
𝑉𝑅 and 𝑉
Applied voltage :
𝑉̅ = ̅̅̅
𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉 ̅𝑐 = |𝑉 |∠𝜑
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅 + 𝐼 ̅ 𝑋𝑐 = 𝐼 (̅ 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝐿 ) = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑍̅
|𝑉 | = √𝑉𝑅2 + 𝑉𝑐2
𝑉𝑣
𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅
Resultant current:
𝑉̅ 𝑉∠0𝑜 𝑉
𝐼̅ = = = ∠+𝜑
𝑍 ̅ |𝑍 | ∠ − 𝜑 |𝑍 |

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

𝑉
𝐼 ̅ = |𝐼 | ∠ + 𝜑, where |𝐼 | = |𝑍|
and

𝑉𝑐 𝑋𝑐
𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅 𝑅

Hence if the applied voltage is 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡

In other words, current I leads the applied voltage V by an angle Ф.
𝑉𝑚
Then current equation is 𝑖(𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑), 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝐼𝑚 = |𝑍|

Impedance Triangle:

Circuit Impedance:
𝑍̅ = 𝑅 − 𝑗𝑋𝑐 = (|𝑍|∠ − 𝜑 ) Ω

𝑋𝑐
|𝑍| = √𝑅2 + 𝑋𝑐2 Ω , 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅
Power: -
Instantaneous power consumed by series RL circuit is given as
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑣 (𝑡). 𝑖(𝑡)
Where, 𝑣 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 and 𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑃(𝑡) = 𝑉𝑚 sin 𝜔𝑡 . 𝐼𝑚 sin(𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 (𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 − cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑))
𝑃 (𝑡 ) =
2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑 𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(2𝜔𝑡 + 𝜑)
𝑃 (𝑡 ) = −
2 2
This power consists of two parts :
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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
(1) Real power : A constant part 2
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚 cos(2𝜔𝑡+𝜑)
(2) A pulsating component: which has a frequency twice that of the
2
voltage and current. It does not contribute to actual power, since its average value over a complete cycle is
zero.
𝑉𝑚 𝐼𝑚𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
Average power consumed : =𝑃𝑎𝑣𝑔= = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜑
2

The average power consumed by the current is given by the product of V and that component of the
current I which is in phase with V. So
Pavg = Vrms.Irms.cosФ.

The term cosФ is called the power factor (p.f.) of the circuit.
True Power W= Vrms.Irms cosФ (Watts)
It should be noted that power consumed is due to ohmic resistance only because pure reactance does not
consume any active power.

Power Factor :
Power factor = PF = cos φ
From phasor diagram : PF = cosФ= VR / V = R/Z.
Therefore, average power consumed by the series RC circuit is
Pavg = Vrms.Irms.cosФ = Vrms.Irms .(R/Z)
= (V/Z). (I.R)
P = I2R where, I = V/Z
Active, Reactive and Apparent Power:-
Power triangle:

Fig.26: Power triangle for series RC circuit

The series R-C circuit draw a current of I when an alternating voltage of rms value V is applied to it.
For series RC circuit the resultant current lags behind the applied voltage by Ф.

The powers drawn by the circuit are as under:

1). Apparent power (S):- It is given by the product of rms values of applied voltage and circuit and circuit
current.
39
 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

S = Vrms.Irms = (Irms.Z). Irms = Irms 2.Z volt-amperes (VA).

2). Active power (P or W): - It is the power, which is actually dissipated in the circuit resistance.
P = Irms 2R = Vrms Irms cosФ watts.

3). Reactive Power (Q): - It is the power developed in the capacitive reactance of the circuit.
Q = Irms. Irms.XL = Irms 2Z.sinФ = Irms.( Irms.Z).sinФ
= Vrms. Irms sinФ volt-ampere reactive (VAR)

These three powers are shown in the power triangle of fig. 24.,
from where it can be seen that S2 = P2 + Q2 or S = (P2 + R2)1/2

Numericals of RC circuit
Q.1)
The voltage applied to a circuit is e = 100 sin(wt+30) and current flowing in the circuit is
i = 15sin(wt+60). Determine the impedence, resistance, reactance, power and power factor.

Q.2)
A series circuit consumes 2000W at 0.5 leading power factor, when connected to 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply.
Calculate i) kVA ii) kVAR iii) Current

40
 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Solution:

Q.3)

41
 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Q.4)

2.13 SERIES RLC CIRCUIT

Fig. 27 Series RLC circuit

42
 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Consider the circuit consisting of resistor R (Ω), inductor L (H) and capacitor C (F) conneced in series to a
ac source.
Let V = rms value of the applied voltage,
I = rms value of the resultant current,
Z = Impedance of the circuit

Let VR = IR = voltage drop across R- in phase with I

VL = IXL = voltage drop across L – leading I by 900
VC = IXC = voltage drop across C – lagging I by 900
1
Where, 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 and 𝑋𝑐 = .
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

From the circuit diagram it is seen that : 𝑉̅ = ̅̅̅

𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉̅𝐿 + 𝑉̅𝑐
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ ( 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑗𝑋𝑐 ) = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑍̅
Where, 𝑍̅ = 𝑅 + 𝑗 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑗𝑋𝑐
𝑍̅ = |𝑍| ∠𝜑

As frequency varies the value of XL and Xc varies resulting in the following cases:
Case (i) XL > Xc
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅 + 𝑗𝐼̅ (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 ) = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅 + 𝑗𝐼̅ 𝑋 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑋 = 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐
|𝑍| = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )2 and 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅

Voltage triangle:

𝑉̅ = ̅̅̅
𝑉𝑅 + 𝑉̅𝐿 + 𝑉̅𝑐
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅 + 𝑗𝐼 (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )
𝑉̅ = 𝑉̅𝑅 + 𝑗 (𝑉̅𝐿 − 𝑉
̅𝑐 )
𝑉̅ = |𝑉 | ∠𝜑
𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶
|𝑉 | = √𝑉𝑅2 + (𝑉𝐿 − 𝑉𝑐 )2 and ∠𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛 −1 ( )
𝑉𝑅

If , v(t) = Vm Sin wt ; i(t)= Im Sin (wt - ф)

i.e I lags V by angle ф

43
 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

For series RLC circuit with XL > Xc , the circuit is inductive circuit and the resultant current lags the applied
𝑉𝐿 −𝑉𝐶 𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐
voltage by an angle 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑉𝑅 𝑅

Impedance triangle:
𝑍̅ = |𝑍| ∠𝜑
𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐
|𝑍| = √𝑅2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝑐 )2 and 𝜑 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( )
𝑅

Phase angle Ф is given by

tanФ = (XL – XC) / R = X / R
Power factor cosФ = R / Z
R R
cos   
R 2  X L  X C  R X2
2 2

Power consumed = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Case(ii): XL = Xc
When XL = Xc
Also VL = Vc (or) IXL = IXc

So VL and Vc cancel each other and the resultant is zero. So V = VR in such a case, the circuit is purely
resistive in nature.
𝑉̅ = 𝐼 ̅ 𝑅
Circuit is purely resistive and hence applied voltage and resultant current are in phase.

Power factor cosФ = R / Z=R/R=1

Power consumed = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠

Case(iii): XL < Xc
When XL < Xc
Also VL < Vc (or) IXL < IXc

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Hence the resultant of VL and Vc will directed towards Vc i.e current is said to be capacitive in nature Form
voltage triangle:

Power factor cosФ = R / Z

R R
cos   
R2  X C  X L  R2  X 2
2

Power consumed = 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝐼𝑟𝑚𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑠∅

Impedance:
In general, for RLC series circuit impedance is given by,
Z=R+jX
X = XL – Xc = Total reactance of the circuit

If XL > Xc ; X is positive & circuit is Inductive

If XL < Xc ; X is negative & circuit is Capacitive
If XL = Xc ; X =0 & circuit is purely Resistive
tan ф = [(XL - Xc )∕R]
cos ф = [R∕Z]
Z = √ (R2 + (XL - Xc ) 2)

Power and power triangle:

The average power consumed by circuit is,

Pavg = (Average power consumed by R) + (Average power consumed by L) + (Average power

consumed by C)

Average power consumed by inductor and capacitor = 0.

Pavg = Power taken by R = I2R = I(IR) = VI

V = V Cos ф
P = VI Cos ф
Thus, for any condition, XL > Xc or XL < Xc General power can be expressed as
P = Voltage x Current component in phase with voltage

Power triangle:
S = Apparent power = I2Z = VI
P = Real or True power = VI Cos ф = Active power
Q = Reactive power = VI Sin ф
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Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Q.2)

Q.3) A R-L-C series circuit has a current which lags the applied voltage by 450 . The voltage across the
inductance has maximum value equal to twice the maximum value of voltage across the capacitor. Voltage
across the inductance is 300 sin(1000t) and R = 20Ω. Find the value of inductance and capacitance.

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Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Q.4)

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Q.5)

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

2.14 SERIES RLC RESONANT CIRCUIT

Resonance: Ability of the circuit to select a particular frequency.

Application: Radio receiver to select a particular frequency transmitted by the station and to eliminate the
frequency received from other stations.
Theory:
Consider the series RLC circuit shown in figure:

Net reactance of the circuit : X= (XL – XC) ohm

Impedance of the circuit : Z = (R2 + (XL – XC)2) ½ = (R2 + X2) ½

1
Where, 𝑋𝐿 = 2𝜋𝑓𝐿 Ω and 𝑋𝑐 = Ω
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

The inductive reactance XL is directly proportional to frequency and the capacitive reactance X C is inversely
proportional to frequency. Therefore by changing the supply frequency XL and XC are frequency dependent.

If for some frequency of the applied voltage XL =XC (in magnitude), then X= 0 & Z = R. At this frequency
the impedance is minimum and the current 𝐼 = 𝑉⁄𝑍 is maximum. This frequency is known as resonant
frequency.

Effects at resonant frequency:

1. Net reactance XL – XC = 0
2. Net impedance is minimum Z=R ohm
3. The current in the circuit is maximum 𝐼 = 𝑉⁄𝑍 = 𝑉⁄𝑅
4. Since current is maximum , power absorbed by the circuit will also be maximum
5. VL =I.XL and VC = I.XC and the two voltage drops are equal in magnitude but opposite in phase. Hence,
they cancel out each other. The two reactance’s taken together act as short circuit since no voltage
develops across them. The applied voltage V drops entirely across R so that V = VR as shown in figure
below.
6. Power factor at resonance =1.
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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Resonant frequency:
The frequency at which net reactance is zero given from the relation
XL – XC = 0 or XL = XC or ωL = 1/ωC
1
𝜔2 =
𝐿𝐶
1
(2𝜋𝑓𝑜 )2 =
𝐿𝐶
1
𝑓𝑜 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
Variation of impedance z with frequency:
a. At resonant frequency : Supply frequency f = fo , the circuit is at resonance and resistive, Z = R.
b. At low frequencies : Supply frequency f > fo , XL > XC, the circuit is inductive and Z = R + j X.
c. At high frequencies: Supply frequency f < fo , XL < XC, the circuit is 52apacitive and Z = R – j X
Resonance curve (series RLC circuit):
The curve between current versus frequency is known as resonance curve.
It has low value on both sides of resonant frequency (for f > fo and f < fo, , I = V/Z , where 𝑍 = √𝑅2 + 𝑋 2
and Z is large). At resonant frequency f = fo current is maximum (I0 = V / R) as shown by the peaked curve.
Hence, maximum power is dissipated under resonant conditions.
The shape of the resonance curve depends on the value of resistor R.
For circuits with low values of R the resonance curve is sharply peaked and such a circuit is said to be
sharply resonant or highly selective.
On the other hand, circuits with high value of R have flat resonance curve and are said to have poor
selectivity.

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Bandwidth of a series RLC resonant circuit:-

Bandwidth of a circuit is given by the range of frequencies which lie between two points on either side of
the resonant frequencies fo where current falls to 1/ 2 of its maximum value at resonance.
Narrower the bandwidth, higher the selectivity of the circuit. A
As shown in figure the bandwidth is given by Δf = (f2 – f1) Hz or Δω = (ω2 –ω1) rad/sec.
This range of frequencies (bandwidth), current is equal to or greater than I 0 / 2 where I0 = V/R ---
maximum current at resonance.
𝑅 𝑅
For series resonant circuit bandwidth is given as 𝐵𝑊 = (𝐻𝑧) = 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2𝜋𝐿 𝐿

Bandwidth = R / L (rad/sec)
f1 and f2 are the frequencies at which the current is exactly = I0 / 2 .
These frequencies f1 and f2 are called as the upper and the lower cutoff frequencies respectively.
𝐵𝑊
𝑓2 = 𝑓𝑟 +
2
𝐵𝑊
𝑓1 = 𝑓𝑟 −
2
Half Power Frequencies :
Power at resonance frequency = Io2R
Note : at resonance current through series RLC circuit is maximum (Io)
Half power frequencies are the frequencies at which the power is ½ of the power at resonance.
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑜𝑛𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼𝑜2 𝑅
𝑃𝑓1, 𝑓2 = =
2 2

Value of ω1 and ω2 :
V
Im = at resonance.
R

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

I = V/Z = V at any frequency

1
 2 1 2 2

 R  ( wL  wc ) 

Io 1 V
At half power points A & B: I= = *
2 2 R
1 V
So * = V
2 R
 2 1 2
1
2

 R  ( wL  wc ) 

Or R =  ( wL  1 ) = X
wC
It shows that of half power points, net reactance is equal to the resistance.
1
Since resistance equals reactance, p.f. of the circuit at these points is = = 0.707, though leading at point
2
A and lagging at point B.

Hence R2 = ( wL  1 )2
wC

R R2 1
So, ω =    =     2  w0
2
2
2L 4L LC

R 1
Where   & ωo =
2L LC
2 1 2
Since R 2 is much less than , neglecting R
4L LC 4L2

R 1 R
So ω=  =  ωo ,
2L LC 2L
Since only positive values of ω0 are considered

It is obvious that fo is the centre frequency between f1 & f2 also w1 = wo - w &

2

ω 2 = ωo + w . As stated above, bandwidth is measure of circuits selectivity, Narrower the band width,
2
higher the selectivity, & vice versa.

R 1
Half power frequencies: ω1,2 = 
2L LC

R
ω1,2 =  ωo
2L
ωo is the resonant frequency.

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Q-Factor of series circuit:

In the case of series R-L-C circuit it is defined as equal to the voltage magnification in the circuit at
resonance.
V
At resonance I0 = = Imax,
R
Since XL = Xc
VL = Vc = I0 XL = I0 XC
Supply voltage V = IR
VL I0 X L X L 0 L X C 1
So Voltage magnification = = =   
V I0R R R R  0 CR
0 L 2f 0 L
   tan 
So Q –factor R R

Where Q is power factor of the coil

1 1 L
Since, f0  1
Or 2f 0 
so Q =
2 LC LC R C
In fact, Q of series circuit may be written as :
Q= ω0
Band width
0 0  0 L L 1 L
=    
 R R R LC R C
L

1 𝐿
𝑄= √
𝑅 𝐶
Voltage Magnification Factor (Q):
Voltage across the capacitor at resonance
I0 V L
Vo = IoXC =  V Q
0C R C
Similarly : Voltage across the inductor at resonance is:
1 L
VL = IoωoL =V Q
R C
Therefor at resonance : VL = Vc = V. Q , where Q is the voltage magnification factor / quality factor.

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Numericals on Series RLC Resonance Circuit

Q.1)

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Q.2)

Q.3)

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Q.4)

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

Q.5)

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 Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

THREE PHASE AC CIRCUITS

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Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

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Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

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Chapter 2: AC Fundamentals

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