CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO

COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY
Cognitive Psychology Defined
●​ Cognitive psychology is the study of how people perceive, learn, remember, and think
about information.
●​ Unlike behaviorism, which focused on observable behavior, cognitive psychology
examines internal mental processes.
●​ It explores how information is acquired, processed, and stored, using methods from
psychology, artificial intelligence, neuroscience, and linguistics.
●​ Key topics in cognitive psychology include:
○​ Perception – How we interpret sensory information.
○​ Memory – How information is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
○​ Attention – How we focus on certain stimuli while ignoring others.
○​ Problem-Solving & Decision-Making – How we analyze and resolve problems.
○​ Language Processing – How we comprehend and produce language.

Philosophical Origins of Psychology: Rationalism versus

Empiricism
A. Rationalism

●​ Plato (428–348 BCE):

○​ Believed knowledge is innate and discovered through reasoning.
○​ Suggested that our senses are unreliable, and true knowledge comes from
abstract reasoning.
●​ René Descartes (1596–1650):
○​ Supported rationalism, stating that thought itself proves existence (Cogito, ergo
sum – "I think, therefore I am").
○​ Argued that the mind and body are separate (dualism).

B. Empiricism

●​ Aristotle (384–322 BCE):

○​ Proposed that knowledge comes from experience and sensory perception.
○​ Argued that the mind starts as a blank slate (tabula rasa).

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 ●​ John Locke (1632–1704):
○​ Expanded on empiricism, stating that all knowledge is learned through
observation and experience.
●​ David Hume (1711–1776):
○​ Suggested that humans develop knowledge based on patterns and
associations.

C. Kant’s Synthesis

●​ Immanuel Kant (1724–1804):

○​ Proposed that the mind actively organizes sensory experiences into
meaningful patterns.
○​ Combined rationalism and empiricism by suggesting that knowledge is shaped by
both innate structures and experiences.

Psychological Origins of Cognitive Psychology

A. Early Dialectics in the Psychology of Cognition

●​ Psychology evolved through dialectics, where new ideas emerged as responses to the
limitations of previous approaches.

B. Understanding the Structure of the Mind: Structuralism

●​ Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920):

○​ Considered the "father of experimental psychology".
○​ Established the first psychology lab (1879, Leipzig, Germany).
○​ Used introspection to analyze mental experiences.
●​ Edward Titchener (1867–1927):
○​ Developed structuralism, aiming to break down mental processes into their
simplest components.
○​ Identified three basic elements of consciousness: sensations, images, and
feelings.
○​ Criticism: Highly subjective and unscientific.

C. Understanding the Processes of the Mind: Functionalism

●​ William James (1842–1910):

○​ Introduced functionalism, emphasizing how mental processes help organisms
adapt.
○​ Focused on why and how the mind works, rather than its structure.
○​ His work led to pragmatism, influencing applied psychology.

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D. An Integrative Synthesis: Associationism

●​ Hermann Ebbinghaus (1850–1909):

○​ Studied memory and forgetting, developing the forgetting curve.
●​ Edward Thorndike (1874–1949):
○​ Developed the Law of Effect – behaviors followed by rewards are reinforced.

From Associationism to Behaviorism

A. Proponents of Behaviorism

●​ John Watson (1878–1958):

○​ Rejected introspection, advocating for psychology to focus on observable
behaviors.
●​ B.F. Skinner (1904–1990):
○​ Introduced operant conditioning, emphasizing reinforcement and punishment.

B. Criticisms of Behaviorism

●​ Failed to explain complex cognitive functions like language acquisition.

●​ Ignored the role of mental representations in learning.

C. Behaviorists Daring to Peek into the Black Box

●​ Edward Tolman (1886–1959):

○​ Introduced cognitive maps, demonstrating that learning involves internal mental
structures.

The Whole Is More Than the Sum of Its Parts: Gestalt

Psychology
●​ Gestalt psychology focused on how we perceive patterns and wholes, rather than
individual components.
●​ Key principles:
○​ Figure-ground – Separating objects from their background.
○​ Proximity – Grouping objects based on closeness.
○​ Similarity – Grouping similar-looking objects.
○​ Closure – Filling in missing parts of an image.
○​ Continuity – Preferring smooth, continuous lines over broken ones.

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Emergence of Cognitive Psychology
●​ The Cognitive Revolution (1950s–60s) led to a renewed focus on mental processes.
●​ Influenced by:
○​ Noam Chomsky’s critique of behaviorism.
○​ Advances in artificial intelligence (AI).
○​ Neuroscientific discoveries.
●​ Ulric Neisser (1928–2012): Published Cognitive Psychology (1967), which defined the
field.

Early Role of Cognitive Neuroscience

●​ Cognitive neuroscience emerged to study the biological basis of cognition.
●​ Uses brain imaging (fMRI, PET scans) to observe cognitive functions.

Add a Dash of Technology: Engineering, Computation,

and Applied Cognitive Psychology
●​ Human factors engineering: Designing systems that work efficiently with human
cognitive abilities.
●​ Artificial intelligence: Developing computer models to simulate human thought.

Research Methods in Cognitive Psychology

A. Goals of Research

●​ Understand how cognitive processes function in different situations.

B. Distinctive Research Methods

1.​ Experiments on Human Behavior – Controlled studies testing cognitive theories.

2.​ Neuroscientific Research – Brain imaging and lesion studies.
3.​ Self-Reports, Case Studies, and Naturalistic Observation – Real-world cognition
analysis.

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 4.​ Computer Simulations & AI – Using technology to model cognition.

Fundamental Ideas in Cognitive Psychology

●​ Empirical data and theories complement each other.
●​ Cognition is generally adaptive but prone to biases.
●​ Cognitive processes interact with each other and with emotions.
●​ Multiple scientific methods are necessary to study cognition.
●​ Basic and applied research are interconnected.

Key Themes in Cognitive Psychology

●​ Nature vs. Nurture – Biological vs. environmental influences.
●​ Rationalism vs. Empiricism – Role of logic vs. experience.
●​ Biological vs. Behavioral Methods – Studying cognition via brain activity vs. behavior.

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Chapter 2: Cognitive Neuroscience
Cognition in the Brain: The Anatomy and Mechanisms of the Brain

●​ The nervous system is the foundation of perception, adaptation, and interaction with the
environment.
●​ The brain is the control center, managing thought processes through the cerebral
cortex, which is responsible for cognition.
●​ Localization of function is a core concept, referring to specific brain areas governing
distinct cognitive abilities.

Gross Anatomy of the Brain: Forebrain, Midbrain, and Hindbrain

●​ Forebrain, Midbrain, and Hindbrain are the three primary regions of the brain.
●​ These structures develop sequentially, with the forebrain forming later in fetal
development but becoming the most complex.

The Forebrain

●​ The forebrain is at the top/front and includes:

○​ Cerebral cortex: Critical for thought, memory, and reasoning.
○​ Basal ganglia: Essential for motor function; linked to disorders like Parkinson’s
disease.
○​ Limbic system: Includes structures like the hippocampus (memory) and
amygdala (emotion).
○​ Thalamus: Acts as a sensory relay station.
○​ Hypothalamus: Regulates hunger, thirst, and body temperature.

The Midbrain

●​ Located beneath the forebrain, coordinating sensory and motor functions.

●​ Houses the reticular activating system, which regulates consciousness and alertness.

The Hindbrain

●​ Controls vital involuntary functions.

●​ Includes:
○​ Medulla oblongata: Regulates heart rate and breathing.
○​ Pons: Connects brain regions and assists in motor control.
○​ Cerebellum: Coordinates movement and balance.

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Cerebral Cortex and Localization of Function

●​ The cerebral cortex (outer layer of the forebrain) is responsible for thinking, planning,
and perception.
●​ It is divided into sulci (small grooves), fissures (large grooves), and gyri (bulges
between grooves) to increase surface area.

Hemispheric Specialization

●​ Left hemisphere: Primarily responsible for language, logic, and analytical processing.
●​ Right hemisphere: Specializes in visuospatial processing and holistic thinking.
●​ The corpus callosum connects the hemispheres, allowing communication.
●​ Studies of split-brain patients show that severing the corpus callosum results in distinct
cognitive processing in each hemisphere.

Lobes of the Cerebral Hemispheres

1.​ Frontal Lobe:​

○​ Responsible for decision-making, problem-solving, and voluntary movement.

○​ Includes Broca’s area (speech production).
2.​ Parietal Lobe:​

○​ Processes touch, temperature, and spatial awareness.

○​ Contains the primary somatosensory cortex.
3.​ Temporal Lobe:​

○​ Handles auditory processing and language comprehension.

○​ Wernicke’s area is crucial for understanding language.
4.​ Occipital Lobe:​

○​ Processes visual information.

○​ Includes the primary visual cortex, which interprets images.

Neuronal Structure and Function

●​ Neurons are the brain’s communication units, transmitting electrical signals.

●​ Key components:
○​ Soma (cell body) contains the nucleus.

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 ○​ Dendrites receive signals from other neurons.
○​ Axons transmit signals away.
○​ Myelin sheath increases signal speed (loss of myelin leads to diseases like
multiple sclerosis).
○​ Synapses are junctions where neurotransmitters facilitate communication.

Viewing the Structures and Functions of the Brain

Postmortem Studies

●​ Lesion studies analyze brain damage after death to correlate with cognitive deficits
(e.g., Phineas Gage case).

Studying Live Nonhuman Animals

●​ Involves lesioning, stimulation, and neuroimaging to understand brain function.

Studying Live Humans

●​ Techniques include neuroimaging (e.g., MRI, PET scans) and electrophysiological

recordings.

Brain Imaging Techniques

Electrical Recordings

●​ Electroencephalograms (EEGs) measure brain waves to study cognition.

●​ Event-related potentials (ERPs) track brain activity in response to stimuli.

Static Imaging Techniques

●​ CT scans provide structural images of the brain.

●​ MRI scans offer high-resolution anatomical images.

Metabolic Imaging

●​ PET scans measure brain metabolism by tracking glucose uptake.

●​ fMRI scans detect blood oxygen levels to study active brain regions.

Brain Disorders

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Stroke

●​ Occurs when blood flow to the brain is blocked, leading to cognitive impairments.

Brain Tumors

●​ Uncontrolled cell growth in the brain, affecting cognition and motor control.

Head Injuries

●​ Traumatic brain injuries (TBIs) can cause memory loss, impaired reasoning, and
personality changes.

Key Themes

●​ The brain is highly specialized but interconnected.

●​ Cognitive neuroscience helps identify how brain structures support different mental
functions.
●​ Technological advancements allow real-time study of brain activity.

Summary

●​ The brain’s structure and function determine cognition.

●​ Forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain play distinct roles in perception and motor control.
●​ Neurons form networks essential for thought, learning, and memory.
●​ Brain imaging advances our understanding of neural mechanisms.
●​ Brain disorders provide insights into normal and abnormal cognition.

Thinking About Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions

1.​ How have historical perspectives on brain function evolved?

2.​ What are the major brain structures and their functions?
3.​ Why is understanding localization of function important?
4.​ How does brain evolution explain the organization of forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain?
5.​ How can research on neurotransmitters lead to Alzheimer’s treatments?
6.​ Why do some scientific discoveries go unnoticed?
7.​ How can lesions in different lobes be identified?
8.​ How can brain imaging be used to study cognitive processes?

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Chapter 3: Visual Perception
From Sensation to Perception

●​ Sensation refers to the process by which sensory receptors receive external stimuli,
while perception is the interpretation of these stimuli.
●​ Example: Seeing an object and recognizing it as a chair instead of just light patterns on
the retina.
●​ Distal object: The actual object in the environment.
●​ Informational medium: Light, sound waves, or chemical molecules carrying
information.
●​ Proximal stimulation: When sensory receptors pick up the signal.
●​ Perceptual object: The interpreted, meaningful perception.

Some Basic Concepts of Perception

●​ Perception is not passive; the brain actively constructs meaning from sensory input.
●​ Size constancy: Objects appear the same size despite changes in retinal image size.
●​ Shape constancy: Objects maintain perceived shape despite changes in viewing angle.
●​ Perception depends on context; the same stimulus can be interpreted differently
based on surrounding cues.

Seeing Things That Aren’t There, or Are They?

●​ Optical illusions reveal how perception relies on prior knowledge and expectations.
●​ Example: The Ebbinghaus Illusion, where a circle appears larger or smaller depending
on surrounding circles.
●​ Gestalt principles explain how we perceive complete forms rather than isolated
features.

How Does Our Visual System Work?

●​ The eye captures light and transmits it to the retina, where photoreceptors (rods and
cones) process the information.
●​ Rods: Sensitive to low light but do not detect color.
●​ Cones: Responsible for color vision and sharpness.
●​ The optic nerve carries visual signals to the brain, where they are processed in the
primary visual cortex.

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Pathways to Perceive the "What" and the "Where"

●​ The ventral (what) pathway in the temporal lobe identifies objects.

●​ The dorsal (where) pathway in the parietal lobe processes spatial location and
movement.
●​ Example: Damage to the ventral stream can cause visual agnosia, making object
recognition difficult.

Approaches to Perception: How Do We Make Sense of What We See?

●​ Perception theories are divided into bottom-up and top-down approaches.

Bottom-Up Theories

●​ Direct Perception (Gibson): Perception is entirely based on environmental stimuli,

requiring no cognitive processing.
●​ Template Theories: The brain stores templates for objects and matches input to them.
●​ Feature-Matching Theories: The brain detects specific features (e.g., edges, corners)
to identify objects.
●​ Recognition-by-Components Theory: Objects are recognized based on simple 3D
shapes called geons.

Top-Down Theories

●​ Perception is influenced by expectations, prior knowledge, and context.

●​ Example: Seeing a blurry word and still recognizing it due to familiarity.

How Do Bottom-Up and Top-Down Theories Go Together?

●​ Modern perception models integrate both processes.

●​ Example: Recognizing an unfamiliar object (bottom-up) and interpreting its purpose
based on context (top-down).

Perception of Objects and Forms

●​ Viewer-Centered vs. Object-Centered Perception:

○​ Viewer-centered: Perception depends on viewpoint.
○​ Object-centered: Objects are perceived independently of viewpoint.
●​ Gestalt Laws:
○​ Proximity: Close objects are grouped together.

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 ○​ Similarity: Similar-looking objects form a pattern.
○​ Closure: The brain fills in missing parts of an image.

Recognizing Patterns and Faces

●​ Two Pattern Recognition Systems:

○​ Feature Analysis System: Recognizes individual parts.
○​ Configurational System: Processes overall shape (e.g., faces).
●​ Face recognition:
○​ The fusiform gyrus specializes in facial recognition.
○​ Infants show early preference for face-like stimuli.

The Environment Helps You See

●​ Perceptual constancies allow stable perception despite changing stimuli.

●​ Size constancy: An object appears the same size despite distance changes.
●​ Shape constancy: Objects maintain perceived shape even when rotated.

Depth Perception

●​ The brain uses depth cues to perceive 3D space from a 2D retinal image.

Depth Cues

●​ Monocular cues (one eye):

○​ Texture gradients: Distant textures appear finer.
○​ Linear perspective: Parallel lines converge in the distance.
○​ Motion parallax: Near objects move faster than far objects.
●​ Binocular cues (both eyes):
○​ Binocular disparity: Differences in images between eyes signal depth.
○​ Binocular convergence: Eyes turn inward for nearby objects.

The Neuroscience of Depth Perception

●​ The visual cortex integrates depth cues.

●​ Binocular neurons in the occipital lobe process disparity.

Deficits in Perception

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 ●​ Agnosias and Ataxias:
○​ Visual Agnosia: Inability to recognize objects despite normal vision.
○​ Optic Ataxia: Difficulty using vision to guide movements.
●​ Difficulties Perceiving the "What":
○​ Damage to the ventral stream affects object recognition.
●​ Difficulties in Knowing the "How":
○​ Damage to the dorsal stream affects spatial awareness.

Are Perceptual Processes Independent of Each Other?

●​ Perception integrates multiple systems but can be selectively impaired.

●​ Example: Prosopagnosia (face blindness) affects face recognition but not object
recognition.

Anomalies in Color Perception

●​ Color blindness results from missing or defective cone cells.

●​ Cerebral achromatopsia: Brain damage causing an inability to perceive color.

Why Does It Matter? Perception in Practice

●​ Understanding perception helps in designing user-friendly interfaces, diagnosing

vision disorders, and improving AI vision systems.

Key Themes

●​ Perception is an active process combining bottom-up sensory input and top-down

interpretation.
●​ Depth perception relies on monocular and binocular cues.
●​ The brain has specialized regions for pattern recognition and facial perception.

Summary

●​ The brain constructs perception by integrating sensory input, context, and

experience.

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 ●​ Gestalt principles help organize visual scenes.
●​ Perceptual constancies maintain stable perception despite changing stimuli.
●​ Depth cues allow perception of three-dimensional space.

Thinking About Thinking: Analytical, Creative, and Practical Questions

1.​ How do different perception theories explain object recognition?

2.​ What is the role of experience in perception?
3.​ How does perception impact daily activities, such as driving or sports?

Key Terms

●​ Gestalt Laws, Depth Cues, Agnosia, Binocular Disparity, Top-Down Processing,

Fusiform Gyrus, Feature-Matching Theories.

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