SINGLE PHASE A.

C CIRCUIT

Single phase EMF generation:

Alternating voltage may be generated

1) By rotating a coil in a magnetic field

2) By rotating a magnetic field within a stationary coil

The value of voltage generated depends upon

1) No. of turns in the coil 2) field strength 3) speed

Equation of alternating voltage and current

N= No. of turns in a coil

Φm= Maximum flux when coil coincides with X-axis

ω= angular speed (rad/sec) = 2πf

At θ=ωt, Φ= flux component ⊥ to the plane =Φm cos ωt

According to the Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction,

dφ d
e= -N = -N φ m C o sω t = ω N φ m S inω t............(1 )
dt dt

Now, e is maximum value of Em , when Sinθ = Sin 90° = 1.

i.e Em = ωNΦm ………………………………………...(2)

From Eqn (1) & (2), e = Em Sin ωt volt

Now, current (i) at any time in the coil is proportional to the induced emf (e) in the
coil. Hence, i = Im Sin ωt amp

A.C terms:

• Cycle:- A complete set of positive and negative values of an alternating

quantity is known as cycle.

• Time period: The time taken by an alternating quantity to complete one

cycle is called time T.
• Frequency: It is the number of cycles that occur in one second. f = 1/T
f = PN/120 where, P= No. of poles, N= Speed in rpm
• Waveform: A curve which shows the variation of voltage and current w.r.t
time or rotation.
 • Phase & Phase difference:

e A = E m A S in ω t
In phase: e = E S in ω t
B mB

Out of phase: i) B leads A

e A = E m S in ω t
Phase difference Φ. e = E
B m B S in (ω t+ α )

ii) A leads B or B lags A

e A = E m S inω t
e B = E m S in(ω t- α )
Root mean Square (RMS) or effective or virtual value of A.C:-

i12 +i 2 2 +.....+i n 2
I rms = =Square root of the mean of square of the instantaneous currents
n

• It is the square root of the average values of square of the alternating

quantity over a time period.
1 T 2
I rm s = ∫ i (ω t)d ( ω t )
T 0

Average Value (or mean value):

• It is the arithmetic sum of all the instantaneous values divided by the number
of values used to obtain the sum
i 1 + i 2 + .....+ i n
I av =
n
1 T
I av =
T 0
∫ i ( ω t )d ( ω t )

Form factor (Kf):- is the ratio of rms value to average value of an alternating
quantity. (Kf = Irms/Iav)

Peak factor (Ka) or crest factor:- is the ratio of peak (or maximum) value to the
rms value of alternating quantity (Ka = Imax/ Irms)
Example: An alternating current varying sinusoidally with a frequency of 50 Hz
has an RMS value of 20 A. Write down the equation for the instantaneous value
and find this value a) 0.0025 sec b) 0.0125 sec after passing through a positive
maximum value. At what time, measured from a positive maximum value, will the
instantaneous current be 14.14 A?

Im =20 2 = 2 8 .2 A
Ans:
ω = 2 π × 5 0 = 1 0 0 π ra d /s

The equation of the sinusoidal current wave with reference to point O as zero time
point is

i= 28.2 sin 100πt Ampere

Since time values are given from point A where voltage has positive and maximum
value, the equation may itself be referred to point A. In this case, equation becomes

i= 28.2 cos 100πt

i) When t= 0.0025 second

i = 28.2 cos 100π X 0.0025 ………….angle in radian
= 28.2 cos 100 X 180 X 0.0025 ………….angle in degrees
= 28.2 cos 45° = 20 A ……………………point B

ii) When t = 0.0125 sec

I =28.2 cos 100 X 180 X 0.0125
= 28.2 cos 225° = 28.2 X (-1/√2)
= -20 A …………………………point C
iii) Here i = 14.14 A
14.14 = 28.2 COS 100 X 180 t
Cos 100 X 180 t = ½
Or, 100 X 180 t = cos-1(1/2) = 60°, t=1/300 sec …………..point D

Phasor & Phasor diagram:

Phasor: Alternating quantities are vector (i.e having both magnitude and
direction). Their instantaneous values are continuously changing so that they
are represented by a rotating vector (or phasor). A phasor is a vector rotating at
a constant angular velocity
Phasor diagram: is one in which different alternating quantities of the same
frequency are represented by phasors with their correct phase relationship

Points to remember:
1. The angle between two phasors is the phase difference
2. Reference phasor is drawn horizontally
3. Phasors are drawn to represent rms values
4. Phasors are assumed to rotate in anticlockwise direction
5. Phasor diagram represents a “still position” of the phasors in one particular
point
A.C through pure ohmic resistance only

v vm
v = iR or i = = sinωt ( in phase )
R R
A.C through pure inductance only

di
v= L = V m sin ω t
dt
Vm
i=
L
∫ sin ω t
V
i= - m co sω t
ωL
 π
i= I m sin  ω t-  (cu rren t lag s b y 9 0 • )
 2
ω L = 2 π fL = X L = in d u ctive reactan ce(in Ω )
 A.C through pure Capacitance only

dv d
i= C =C ( V m S in ω t )
dt dt
= ω C Vm co sω t
 π  V  π 
= ω C V m s i n  ω t+  = m s in  ω t+ 
 2  1  2 
ωC
 π 
= I m s i n  ω t+  (c u rr e n t le a d s b y 9 0 ° )
 2 
1 1
=X C = = c a p a c itiv e re a c ta n c e ( in Ω )
ωC 2 π fC

‘j’ operator: j is a operator which rotates a vector by 90° in anticlockwise

direction

j 2 = -1 ;j= -1

Note: ‘i’ is used for current hence ‘j’ is used to avoid confusion

Mathematical representation of vectors:

→
1. Rectangular or Cartesian form :- V = a ± j b
→
2. Polar form : V = V ∠± θ
→
3. Trignometrical form : V = V ( cos θ ± j sin θ )
→
± jθ
4. Exponential form : V = V e
 Note: rectangular form is best suited for addition and subtraction & polar
form is best suited for multiplication and division

IMPEDANCE:
In quantitative terms, it is the complex ratio of the voltage to the
current in an alternating current (AC) circuit. Impedance extends the concept of
resistance to AC circuits, and possesses both magnitude and phase, unlike
resistance, which has only magnitude. When a circuit is driven with direct current
(DC), there is no distinction between impedance and resistance; the latter can be
thought of as impedance with zero phase angle.

Where X=Total reactance of

of the network (Both inductive and capacitive)
R=Resistance of the network in ohm.
ߠ= Phasor angle in degree/Radian.
Note:
I. If ߠ =0 degree then the load is purelyResistive.
II. If ߠ=-90
90 degree then the load is purely inductive.(lagging)
III. If ߠ=90 degree then the load is purely capacitive.(leading)

Z=R+jX
Where Z=impedance of the electrical network in ohm.
 R=Resistance of the network in ohm.
X=Reactance of the electrical network in ohm.
Admittance:
In electrical engineering, admittance is a measure of how easily a
circuit or device will allow a current to flow. It is defined as the inverse of
impedance. The SI unit of admittance is the siemens (symbol S).
Admittance is defined as:

Y = 1/Z
Where

Y is the admittance, measured in siemens

Z is the impedance, measured in ohms

The synonymous unit mho, and the symbol ℧ (an upside-down uppercase omega
Ω), are also in common use.

Resistance is a measure of the opposition of a circuit to the flow of a steady

current, while impedance takes into account not only the resistance but also
dynamic effects (known as reactance). Likewise, admittance is not only a measure
of the ease with which a steady current can flow, but also the dynamic effects of
the material's susceptance to polarization:

Y=G+jB
Where
Y is the admittance, measured in siemens.
G is the conductance, measured in siemens.
B is the susceptance, measured in siemens.
AC Equivalent Circuits:

1. Impedances in series add together to give the equivalent impedance while the
admittance in parallel add together to give the equivalent admittance.
2. Impedances in parallel gives equivalent impedance by reciprocating the
reciprocal sum of the impedances and to obtain the equivalent admittance in series
same procedure has to be followed.
Instantaneous and Average Power

The most general expressions for the voltage and current delivered to an arbitrary
load are as follows:

v(t) = V cos(ωt − θV )

i(t) = I cos(ωt − θI )
Since the instantaneous power dissipated by a circuit element is given by the
product of the instantaneous voltage and current, it is possible to obtain a general
expression for the power dissipated by an AC circuit element:

p(t) = v(t)i(t)= V I cos(ωt) cos(ωt − θ )

It can be further simplified with the aid of trigonometric identities to yield

p(t) = V I/2cos(θ ) +V I/2 cos(2ωt − θ )

where θ is the difference in phase between voltage and current

The average power corresponding to the voltage and current signal can be obtained
by integrating the instantaneous power over one cycle of the sinusoidal signal. Let
T = 2π/ω represent one cycle of the sinusoidal signals. Then the average power,
Pav, is given by the integral of the instantaneous power,

p(t), over one cycle:

since the second integral is equal to zero and cos(θ ) is a constant.

In phasor notation, the current and voltage are given by

impedance of the circuit elementdefined by the phasor voltage and currentto be

The expression for the average power using phasor notation

Power Factor

The phase angle of the load impedance plays a very important role in the
absorption of power by load impedance. The average power dissipated by an AC
load is dependent on the cosine of the angle of the impedance. To recognize the
importance of this factor in AC power computations, the term cos(θ ) is referred to
as the power factor (pf). Note that the power factor is equal to 0 for a purely
inductive or capacitive load and equal to 1 for a purely resistive load; in every
other case,0<pf<1.If the load has an inductive reactance, then θ is positive and the
current lags (or follows) the voltage. Thus, when θ and Q are positive, the
corresponding power factor is termed lagging. Conversely, a capacitive load will
have a negative Q, and hence a negative θ. This corresponds to a leading power
factor, meaning that the load current leads the load voltage.A power factor close to
unity signifies an efficient transfer of energy from the AC source to the load, while
a small power factor corresponds to inefficient use of energy .Two equivalent
expressions for the power factor are given in the following:

Complex Power

The expression for the instantaneous power may be further expanded to provide
further insight into AC power. Using trigonometric identities, we obtain the

following expressions:

Recalling the geometric interpretation of the impedance Z

|Z| cos θ = R and |Z|sin θ = X

are the resistive and reactive components of the load impedance, respectively. On
the basis of this fact, it becomes possible to write the instantaneous power as:

Since Pav corresponds to the power absorbed by the load resistance, it is also
called the real power, measured in units of watts (W). On the other hand, Q takes
the name of reactive power, since it is associated with the load reactance. The units
of Q are volt-amperes reactive, or VAR. Note that Q represents an exchange of
energy between the source and the reactive part of the load; thus, no net power is
gained or lost in the process, since the average reactive power is zero. In general, it
is desirable to minimize the reactive power in a load.

The computation of AC power is greatly simplified by defining a fictitious but very

useful quantity called the complex power, S:

where the asterisk denotes the complex conjugate You may easily verify that this
definition leads to the convenient expression

The complex power S may be interpreted graphically as a vector in the complex S

plane
The magnitude of S, |S|, is measured in units of volt-amperes (VA) and is called
apparent power, because this is the quantity one would compute by measuring the
rms load voltage and currents without regard for the phase angle of the load.The
complex power may also be expressed by the product of the square of the rms
current through the load and the complex load impedance:

or, equivalently, by the ratio of the square of the rms voltage across the load to the
complex conjugate of the load impedance:
 Active, Reactive and Apparent Power

Fig. Power Triangle

S2 =P 2 +Q 2

S = P + jQ
• Apparent power, S: is the product of rms values of the applied voltage and
circuit current. It is also known as wattless (idle) component
S=VI=IZx I=I2Z volt-amp
• Active power or true power, P: is the power which actually dissipated in
the circuit resistance. It is also known as wattful component of power.
P=I2R=I2ZcosΦ=VI cosΦ watt
• Reactive power, Q:- is the power developed in the reactance of the circuit.
Q=I2X=I2ZsinΦ=VIsinΦ VAR

Example: In a particular R-L series circuit a voltage of 10 V at 50 Hz

produces a current of 700 Ma while the same voltage at 75 Hz produces 500
mA. What are the values of R and L in the circuit.
Ans. i)
R 2 + (2π× 50L ) =
2
Z= R 2 + 9 8 6 9 6 L2

V = IZ o r 1 0 = 7 0 0 × 1 0 -3 (R 2
+ 9 8 6 9 6 L2 )
(R 2
)
+ 9 8 6 9 6 L 2 = 1 0 /7 0 0 × 1 0 -3 = 1 0 0 /7
o r R 2 + 9 8 6 9 6 L 2 = 1 0 0 0 0 /4 9 ..............(i)
 ii) In the second case

Z= R 2 + (2 π × 7 5 L )
2
= (
R 2 + 2 2 2 0 6 6 L2 )
1 0 = 5 0 0 × 1 0 -3 (R 2
+ 2 2 2 0 6 6 L2 )
(R 2
)
+ 2 2 2 0 6 6 L2 = 2 0
2
R + 2 2 2 0 6 6 L 2 = 4 0 0 ................( i i )
s u b tra c tin g e q (i) fro m e q (ii), w e g e t
2 2 2 0 6 6 L 2 -9 8 6 9 6 L 2 = 4 0 0 -( 1 0 0 0 0 / 4 9 )
1 2 3 3 7 0 L2 = 1 9 6
L = 0 .0 3 9 8 H = 4 0 m H
S u b s t i t u t i n g t h i s v a lu e o f L i n e q ( i i ) ,w e g e t
2
R + 2 2 2 0 6 6 ( 0 .3 9 8 ) 2 = 4 0 0
R = 6 .9 Ω

Introduction to resonance in series & parallel circuit

Resonance:

Definition: An AC circuit is said to be in resonance when the circuit current is in

phase with the applied voltage. So, the power factor of the circuit becomes unity at
resonance and the impedance of the circuit consists of only resistance.

Series Resonance: In R-L-C series circuit, both XL and XC are frequency

dependent. If we vary the supply frequency then the values of XL and XC varies. At
a certain frequency called resonant frequency (fr), XL becomes equal to XC and
series resonance occurs.

At series resonance, XL =XC

2πfrL=1/2πfrC

fr= 1/2π√LC

Impedance of RLC series circuit is given by:

Z= R 2 + ( X L -X C )
2
(Since,X L =X C )

Z= R 2
Z=R
R R
cosφ= = =1
Z R

Properties of series resonance:-

In series resonance,

• The circuit impedance Z is minimum and equal to the circuit resistance R.

• The circuit current I= V/Z = V/R and the current is maximum
• The power dissipated is maximum, P=V2/R
• Resonant frequency is fr = 1/2π√LC
• Voltage across inductor is equal and opposite to the voltage across capacitor
• Since power factor is 1, so zero phase difference. Circuit behaves as a purely
resistive circuit.
Example: A series RLC circuit having a resistance of 50Ω, an inductance of
500 mH and a capacitance of 400 µF, is energized from a 50 Hz, 230 V, AC
supply. Find a) resonant frequency of the circuit b) peak current drawn by the
circuit at 50 Hz and c) peak current drawn by the circuit at resonant frequency

Ans.

1 1
a)f 0 = = =11.25 H z
-3 -6
2π LC 2π 500×10 ×400×10
b) R =50Ω
X L =ωL=2π×50×500×10 -3 =157Ω
1 1
XC = = =7.9Ω
ωC 2π×50×400×10 -6
X =X L -X C =157-7.9=149.1Ω
Z= R 2 +X 2 = 50 2 +149.12 =157.26Ω
Peak supply voltage,Vm = 2 Vrm s = 2 (230)=325.26 V
Vm 325.26
H ence peak curr ent at 50H z I m = = =2.068
Z 157.26
c)At resonance, Z 0 =R =50Ω
Vm 325.26
So,peak current during resonance, I m o = = =6.5025A
R 50
Parallel resonance:

Points to remember:
• Net susceptance is zero, i.e 1/XC =XL/Z2

XL x XC =Z2

Or L/C =Z2

• The admittance equals conductance

• Reactive or wattless component of line current is zero
• Dynamic impedance = L/CR Ω
 • Line current at resonance is minimum and V/L/CR but is in phase
with the applied voltage
• Power factor of the circuit is unity

THREE PHASE AC CIRCUIT

Three phase EMF Generation:-

If the 3-coil windings W1, W2 and W3 arranged at 120° apart from each other on
the same axis are rotated, then the emf induced in each of them will have a phase
difference of 120°. In other words if the emf (or current) in one winding (w1) has a
phase of 0°, then the second winding (w2) has a phase of 120° and the third (w3)
has a phase of 240°.
Star (Y) connection:-
Phasor diagram:-

Here, ER, EY, EB are phase voltages and VRY, VYB, VBR are line voltages
VRY = ER2 + EY 2 + 2ER EY cos60

= ER2 + ER2 + 2ER ER cos60

= 3 ER
Hence,

• Line voltage =√3 x phase voltage

• Line current = phase current
• Line voltages are also 120° apart
• Line voltage are 30° ahead of respective phase voltages
• The angle between line voltage and line current is (30°+Φ)

Power: Total power = 3 x phase power

=3 x Vph x I ph x cosΦ
=√3 VL IL cosΦ
Φ is the angle between phase voltage and current

Example: A balanced star connected load of (8+j6)Ω per phase is connected

to a balanced 3-phase 400 V supply. Find the line current, power factor,
power and total volt-amperes.

Ans.
Z ph = 8 2 + 6 2 = 10 Ω
400
V ph = = 231 V
3
Vph 231
I ph = = =23.1 A
Z ph 10
(i) I L =I ph =23.1 A
R ph 8
(ii)p.f=cosΦ = = =0.8(lag)
Z ph 10
(iii)Power P= 3 VL I L cosΦ
= 3×400×23.1×0.8
=12,800 W [Also,P=3I ph 2 R ph =3(23.1) 2 ×8=12,800 W ]
(iv)T otal volt-amperes,
S= 3 VL I L = 3×400×23.1=16,000 V A
Delta-connection:
 Fig. Phasor Diagram
I L =I R -I B
I L = I R 2 +I B 2 +2I R I B cos60 o = I R 2 +I R 2 +2I R I R cos60 o = 3I R

Hence,
• Line current =√3 phase current
• Line voltage = phase voltage
• Line currents are also 120° apart
• Line currents are 30° behind the respective phase currents
• Angle between line current and line voltage is 30°+Φ

Power: Total power = 3 x phase power

= 3 x Vph Iph cosΦ

= 3 x VL x IL/√3 x cosΦ

= √3 VL IL cosΦ

Note: For both star and delta system: