FLUID MECHANICS I

Introduction and Basic concepts

2024
 Introduction and Basic concepts

Mechanics – Physical science that deals with both stationary and moving bodies
under the action of forces.

Mechanics

Solid Fluid
Mechanics Mechanics

When mechanics When mechanics

applies to solid applies to gas or
phase liquid phase 2
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Fluid Mechanics

Fluid Statics Fluid Dynamics

Study of fluids at rest Study of fluids in motion

Fluid Mechanics – This is a science that deals with the behavior of fluids at
rest or in motion, and their interaction with solids or other fluids at the
boundaries.
What is (a) fluid? (b) boundary?
3
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Fluid Mechanics is also divided into several categories:

1) Hydrodynamics –The study of motion of fluids that are practically

incompressible i.e density changes insignificant (such as liquids, especially
water, and gases at low speed).

Hydraulics – A subcategory of hydrodynamics that deals with liquid flows in

pipes and open channels.

2) Gas dynamics – Deals with flow that undergo significant density changes,
such as flow of gases through nozzles at high speeds.

3) Aerodynamics – Deals with the flow of gases (especially air) over bodies
such as aircraft, rockets, and automobiles at high or low speeds. 4
 Some of Applications Areas of Fluid Mechanics

Aircraft and spacecraft

Piping of water/oil

Human body

Wind turbines
Cooling of electronic
5
components
 Introduction and Basic concepts
FLUIDS

• Liquids and gases are fluids. They lack the ability to offer permanent resistance
to a deforming force.

• Fluids flow under the action of deforming forces, deforming continuously as

the force is applied.

• A fluid is unable to retain an unsupported shape; it flows under its own weight
and takes the shape of any solid body with which it comes into contact with.

6
 Introduction and Basic concepts
FLUIDS

• A fluid is a substance which deforms continuous under the action of shearing

forces, however small they may be.

• Deformation is caused by shearing forces i.e forces such as F in Figure below

acting tangentially to the surfaces to which they are applied causing the space
ABCD to deform to AB’C’D.

Deformation caused by shearing forces Normal force and shear stress at the
7
surface of a fluid element
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow
• When two fluid layers move relative to each other, a friction force develops
between them whereby the slower layer tries to slow down the faster layer.

• This internal resistance to flow is quantified by a fluid property called

viscosity which is a measure of internal stickness of the fluid.

• Flows in which frictional effects are significant are called viscous flows.

• However, in flows of practical interest, there are regions away from the
wall/solid boundary in which the viscous forces are negligibly small. These
regions are called inviscid flow regions.

8
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Viscous versus Inviscid Regions of Flow

Regions of viscous and inviscid flow over

a plate 9
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Internal versus External Flow

• Internal flows are those in which the flow is bounded by solid boundaries
e.g. the flow in a pipe or a duct.

• External flow is the flow of an unbounded fluid over a surface such as a

plate, a wire, or a pipe.

• Open-channel flow – The flow of liquids in a duct if the duct is partially

filled with the liquid and there is a free surface.

Internal flow External flow 10

 Introduction and Basic concepts
Compressible versus Incompressible Flow

• Incompressible flow – Flow said to be incompressible is the density

remains nearly constant throughout.

• Compressible flow – Flow is said to be compressible if the density varies

by more than about 5 percent.

• For systems involving high speed flows such as rockets and spacecrafts,
the flow speed is expressed in terms of Mach number defined as

Ma = V/c = Speed of the flow/Speed of sound.

• If the Mach number is less than about 0.3, the flow is incompressible.
11
Otherwise, the flow is referred to us compressible.
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Laminar versus Turbulent Flow

• Laminar flow – This is highly ordered motion

characterized by smooth layers of fluid.

• Flow of high viscosity fluids such as oils at low

velocities are typically laminar.

• Turbulent flow – Highly disordered flow (chaotic)

typically at high velocities. Fluids of low-viscosity such
as air at high speeds are turbulent.

• Transitional flow – A flow that alternates between Laminar, transitional,

turbulent and laminar. and turbulent flows.
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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Steady, unsteady, uniform, and non-uniform flow

• Steady flow – No change of flow properties with time at a point.

• Unsteady flow – Flow properties at a point change with time.

• Uniform flow – No change of flow properties with location.

• Non-uniform flow – Flow properties change with location.

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 Introduction and Basic concepts
THE NO-SLIP CONDITION

• Experimental observations indicate that a fluid in motion comes to a complete

stop at the surface and assumes a zero velocity relative to the surface.

• The phenomenon whereby the fluid in contact with the solid boundary “sticks”
to the surface due to viscous effects is called no-slip condition.

• The flow region adjacent to the wall/solid boundary in which the viscous
effects are significant is called the boundary layer.

• Flow separation – The condition whereby the boundary layer detaches/separates

from the surface when a fluid is forced to flow over curved surface, such as the
back of a cylinder at sufficiently high velocity.
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 Introduction and Basic concepts
The No-Slip Condition

Flow separation over a curved

surface
Fluid flowing over a
stationary surface 15
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Density

• The density of a fluid is defined as its mass per unit

volume.

• Designated by the Greek symbol ρ.

• The SI units for density is kg/m3

• The reciprocal of density is the specific volume, v, Density of water as a function of

defined as: temperature

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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Specific Weight

• The specific weight of a fluid is defined as its weight

per unit volume.

• Designated by the Greek symbol γ.

• Related to density through the equation:

• Where is the local acceleration of gravity.

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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Specific Gravity

• The specific gravity of a fluid is the ratio of the density of the fluid to the
density of water at some specified temperature.

• Usually the specified temperature is taken as 4 ºC at a density of 1000

kg/m3.

• Designated as SG

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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Ideal Gas Law

• The ideal gas law is represented by the equation

• Where P is the absolute pressure, ρ is the density, T the absolute

temperature, and R is a gas constant.

• The above equation is also referred as the equation of state or the perfect
gas law. 19
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Viscosity

• This is a fluid property that represents the internal resistance of a

fluid to motion (resistance to flow).

Example
• Fluids resist to being forced to flow through pipes, so pumps are
added to drive the flow through the pipe. For the same flow rate, a
fluid with high viscosity (e.g, molasses) will require more power
from a pump than a fluid with low viscosity (e.g, water).

• The force a flowing fluid exerts on a body in the flow direction is

called drag force whose magnitude depends on viscosity. 20
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Viscosity

A fluid moving relative to a body exerts a

drag force, partly because of friction
caused by viscosity
21
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
• Consider a fluid placed between two plates.

• The lower plate is fixed while a force P is applied to the upper plate
to move it continuously at a velocity U.

• During a differential time interval δt, the upper plate will move
through a differential distance δa.

• Vertical line AB will be displaced through the small angle δβ to the

Behavior of a fluid placed
new position A’B’ between two parallel plates

• The fluid in contact with the upper plate moves with a velocity U
while the fluid in contact with the lower place moves with zero
velocity. 22
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
• The fluid between the two plates moves with velocity u =
u(y) that would be found to vary linearly, u = Uy/b.

• A velocity gradient du/dy is developed in the fluid between

the plates.

• For the case considered, the velocity gradient is a constant,

i.e, du/dy = U/b. Behavior of a fluid placed
between two parallel plates
• The condition that the fluid “sticks” to the solid boundaries
is referred to as the no-slip condition.
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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
• In the differential time δt, the imaginary vertical line AB in
the fluid will rotate through an angle, δβ, so that

• The differential distance is given as δa = Uδt, hence

Behavior of a fluid placed

between two parallel plates
• The rate of shearing strain, is defined as

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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Viscosity
• The rate of shearing strain can be expressed as

• The shearing stress is proportional to the rate of shearing,

thus

Or Behavior of a fluid placed

between two parallel plates

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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Viscosity

• The constant of proportionality is called absolute viscosity,

dynamic viscosity or simply viscosity represented by the
symbol µ

Behavior of a fluid placed

• The shear force acting on a Newtonian fluid layer (or, by between two parallel plates
Newton’s third law, the force acting on the plate) is

Shear force F = τA = µAdu/dy 26

 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Viscosity

• Kinematic viscosity, ν, (nu) – Property that combines the

viscous and mass characteristics of a fluid

ν = µ/ρ

• Newtonian fluids – Fluids in which the rate of shearing is

linearly proportional to the shearing strain.

• Non-Newtonian fluids – Fluids in which the shearing stress

is not proportional to the shearing strain.
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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Viscosity

The velocity profile

• Viscous effects cause the velocity of a flowing

Velocity profile over a flat plate
fluid to vary with the distance y as shown in the
left.

• Variation of velocity with distance is called the

velocity profile.

Velocity profile between two

parallel plates 28
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
QUESTION

The velocity distribution for the flow of a Newtonian fluid

between two wide, parallel plates in the diagram on the left is
given by the equation

Where V is the mean velocity. The fluid has a viscosity µ of

1.14 × 10-3 N. s/m2. Also, V = 1 m/s and h = 4 cm.
Determine: (a) the shearing stress acting at the bottom wall,
and (b) the shearing stress acting on a plane parallel to the
walls and passing through the centerline (midplane).

29
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
QUESTION

Consider the Poiseuille flow with a velocity profile in the

pipe given by

Where r is radial position from the centerline, Vo is the

velocity at the center of the pipe, and ro is the pipe radius.
Find the shear stress at the center of the pipe, at the wall, and
where r = 1 cm. The fluid is water (25 ºC), the pipe diameter
is 2 cm, and Vo = 2 m/s.

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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
QUESTION

Take
properties of
water at 15 ºC

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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
QUESTION

An infinite plate is moved over a second plate on a layer of

fluid as shown on the left. For a small gap width, d, we
assume a linear distribution in the liquid. The liquid viscosity
is 1.002 × 10-3 N. s/m2 and its specific gravity is 0.88.
Determine:
a) The kinematic viscosity of the liquid, in m2/s.
b) The shear stress on the upper plate.
c) The shear stress on the lower plate.
d) The direction of each shear stress calculated in parts (b)
and (c).

32
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Compressibility of Fluids

• When pressure is applied on fluids (more so gases), a

reduction in volume occurs.
• A property used to characterize compressibility of a fluid
is called the Bulk modulus, Ev, defined as

• Where dp is differential pressure and is the

differential volume.

• In terms of density, the bulk modulus is expressed as

33
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Vapor Pressure
• Liquids such as water or gasoline evaporate when placed in a container open to
the atmosphere.

• Evaporation occurs when the liquid molecules have sufficient momentum to

overcome the intermolecular cohesive forces and escape to the atmosphere.

• If the container is closed with a small air space left above the surface, and the
space evacuated to form a vacuum, a pressure is developed in the space as a
result of the vapor that is formed by the escaping molecules.

• At equilibrium condition, i.e., number of molecules leaving the surface equals Boiling occurs when the
number entering, the vapor is said to be saturated and the pressure that the absolute pressure on the
fluid reaches the vapor
vapor exerts on the liquid surface is called vapor pressure.
pressure
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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Vapor Pressure

• Is the pressure at which the liquid phase and the vapor phase of a material are
in thermal equilibrium.

• Vapor pressure is also called saturation pressure, and the corresponding

temperature is called saturation temperature.

Boiling occurs when the

absolute pressure on the
fluid reaches the vapor
pressure
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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Cavitation

• Under certain conditions, areas of low pressure occur locally in a flowing fluid.

• If the pressure in such areas falls below the vapor pressure, local boiling occurs
and a cloud of vapor bubbles form a phenomenon called cavitation.

• Cavitation causes serious problems since the flow of liquid can sweep this
cloud of bubbles on to the area of higher pressure where the bubbles collapse
suddenly.

• When this occurs in areas in contact with a solid surface, serious damage can
occur due to the large force the liquid hits the surface.

• Cavitation affects the performance of pumps, turbines, and propellers. The 36

impact of collapsing bubbles can cause local erosion of metal surfaces.
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Surface Tension

• At the interface between a liquid and a gas, or between

two immiscible liquids, a force develops on the liquid
surface that makes it behave like a “skin” or “stretched”
membrane.

• The physical mechanism is based on cohesive force.

• Molecules at the interior of a liquid are attracted equally in

all directions.

• Molecules at the surface are pulled toward the center

because they have no liquid molecules above them.
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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Surface Tension

• The pull on surface molecules draws the surface inward

and causes the liquid to seek the minimum surface area.
Reason for a drop of water drawing into a spherical shape.

• Temperature decreases surface tension since thermal

expansion reduces the cohesive forces.

• Also, impurities and contaminants reduce the surface

tension.

38
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Surface Tension

• Consider the free-body diagram of a drop of fluid on the left

• The force developed around the edge due to surface tension is

2πRσ. Where σ is the Greek symbol for surface tension.
Forces acting on one-half of
• At equilibrium, the force due to surface tension is balanced by a liquid drop
pressure difference Δp between the internal pressure pi and the
external pressure pe acting on the circular surface area πR2.

or

39
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Properties of Fluids
Capillary

• This is a phenomena associated with surface tension which is the

rise/fall of a liquid in a capillary tube.

• In capillary, we have a liquid – gas – solid interface.

• In the Figure on the right, the height h is governed by the value of the
surface tension, σ, the tube radius, R, the specific weigh of the fluid, γ,
and the angle of contact θ.

• At equilibrium,
Forces acting on one-half of
a liquid drop
Weight of the Force due to
liquid surface tension 40
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Dimensions, Dimension Homogeneity, and Units
• A dimension is a category of measurement e.g. length, time, temperature,
power, volume, viscosity, etc.

• A unit is a standard for measurement so that the size or magnitude can be

characterized e.g. meters, second, cubic meters, liters, etc.

• Primary Dimensions include: Length, L, Time, T, mass, M

41
 Introduction and Basic concepts
Dimensions, Dimension Homogeneity, and Units
• Secondary Dimensions: Dimensions that are expressed using primary
dimensions, e.g. force, power, work, pressure, etc.

• For example, the secondary dimension “force” is expressed in primary

dimensions using F = ma.

• Dimension homogeneous – All theoretically derived equations are dimension

homogeneous i.e. dimensions on the left of the equation must be the same as
those on the right of the equation.
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 Introduction and Basic concepts
Dimensions, Dimension Homogeneity, and Units

Adopted on the Eleventh General

Conference on Weights and British Gravitational System
Measures

43
 Fluid Statics

• In fluid statics, attention is given to fluids that are either at rest or moving in
such a manner that there is no relative motion between adjacent particles (no
shearing stresses in the fluid).

• Principal concern is to calculate pressure and its variation within throughout a

fluid and the effect of pressure on submerged surfaces.

Pressure at a Point

• Pressure is defined as the normal force per unit area at a given point acting on
a given plane within the fluid mass of interest.

• How does the pressure at a point varies with the orientation of the plane
passing through a point? 44
 Fluid Statics

Pressure at a Point

• Consider a free body diagram shown on

the right obtained by removing a small
triangular wedge of fluid mass from some
arbitrary location within the fluid mass.

• No shearing stresses. Therefore, only

forces acting on the wedge are due to
pressure and the weight.

• To simplify the analysis, the fluid element

has an accelerated motion i.e. moves as a
rigid body. No shearing stresses 45
 Fluid Statics

Pressure at a Point

• For simplicity, consider the forces in the y

and z directions only.

• From Newton’s second law, F = ma, the

forces in the y and z directions are:

• From geometry, δy = δs cos θ, δz = δs sin θ 46

 Fluid Statics

Pressure at a Point

• From geometry, δy = δs cos θ, δz = δs sin θ.

• The equations reduces to:

47
 Fluid Statics

Pressure at a Point

• Since we are interested in what is happening at a point, taking the

limit as δx, δy, δz approach zero, it follows: py = ps pz = ps or ps =
py = pz

• The above result is called Pascal’s law. It states: the pressure at a

point in a fluid at rest, or in motion, is independent of direction as
long as there are no shearing stresses. 48
 Fluid Statics

Basic Equation for Pressure Field

• Question: How does pressure in which
there are no shearing stresses vary from
point to point?

• Consider a small rectangular element of

fluid removed from some arbitrary position
within the mass of fluid of interest shown z
on the right.

• Two types of forces act on the element: y

surface forces (because of pressure) and
x 49
body forces (due to weight of the element).
 Fluid Statics

Basic Equation for Pressure Field

• Let pressure at the center of the element be
p, average pressure at various faces can be
expressed in terms of p and its derivatives
(Taylor series expansion).

• The resultant forces in the x, y, and z are:

50
 Fluid Statics

Basic Equation for Pressure Field

• The resultant forces in the x, y, and z are:

51
 Fluid Statics

Basic Equation for Pressure Field

• The resultant forces in vector form can be
expressed as:

Pressure gradient
52
 Fluid Statics

Basic Equation for Pressure Field

where

The resultant surface force per unit volume can be

expressed as:

The weight of the element (acting in the z direction) is:

53
 Fluid Statics

Basic Equation for Pressure Field

Applying Newton’s law to the fluid element

54
 Fluid Statics

Basic Equation for Pressure Field

(General equation of motion for a fluid in which

there are no shearing stresses)

Pressure Variation for a Fluid at Rest

For a fluid at rest, a = 0, then

In component form:
55
 Fluid Statics
Pressure Variation for a Fluid at Rest

In component form:

The above expression shows that pressure does not depend on x

and y but only on z.

Since p depends only on z, we can express in ordinary differential

equation as:
Fundamental equation for fluids at
rest and can be used to determine
how pressure changes with elevation
56
 Fluid Statics
Incompressible Fluid

• A fluid with negligible density changes is called an incompressible fluid.

γ = ρg
• Variation in gravitational acceleration is usually negligible in most
engineering applications.

• Moreover, for liquids, the assumption of constant specific weight is good

since changes in density are negligible.
57
 Fluid Statics
Incompressible Fluid

• Moreover, for liquids, the assumption of constant specific weight is good

since changes in density are negligible.

• Integrating the above equation:

58
 Fluid Statics
Incompressible Fluid

• Where p1 and p2 are the pressures at

elevations z1 and z2, respectively.

• The above equation can be rewritten in

compact form as:

h = z2 – z 1
The pressure distribution that depends on vertical elevation is called 59
hydrostatic distribution.
 Fluid Statics
Incompressible Fluid

• Where p1 and p2 are the pressures at

elevations z1 and z2, respectively.

• The above equation can be rewritten in

compact form as:

h = z2 – z 1
The pressure distribution that depends on vertical elevation is called 60
hydrostatic distribution.
 Fluid Statics
Incompressible Fluid

(Pressure head)

• Often, a free surface is associated with liquids,

and it is convenient to use this surface as a
reference plane. The reference pressure p0 would
correspond to the pressure acting on the free
surface (frequently the atm pressure). Letting p2 =
p0, then
Fluid pressure in containers of
arbitrary shape
61
 Fluid Statics
Compressible Fluid
• Gases are usually compressible. Reason: Changes
in pressure and temperature can significantly vary
the density of the gas.

• Gases normally have low specific weights

compared to liquids.

• Hence, the pressure gradients of gases in the

vertical direction are small.

• If the vertical elevations are correspondingly

small, we can neglect the effect of elevation
changes on pressure. 62
 Fluid Statics
Compressible Fluid
• In situations whereby the variations in height are
large, consideration is given to the variation in
specific weight.

• For an ideal gas, the density is given by:

• Hence, the pressure gradient can be expressed as:

63
 Fluid Statics
Compressible Fluid

• Separating the variables:

• For an isothermal process (constant

temperature process):

64
 Fluid Statics
Measurement of Pressure

• The pressure at a point within the fluid can be expressed as either an absolute
pressure or gage pressure.

• Absolute pressure – Measured relative to a perfect vacuum (absolute zero

pressure). Absolute pressure is always positive.

• Gage pressure – Measured relative to local atmospheric pressure.

• Gage pressure of zero corresponds to the local atmospheric pressure.

• Gage pressure can be +ve (above atm pressure) or –ve (below atm pressure).
65
• Negative gage pressure is also called suction or vacuum pressure.
 Fluid Statics
Manometry

• Manometers are pressure measuring devices that employ liquid

columns in vertical or inclined tubes.

• Common types: piezometer tube, the U-tube manometer, and

the inclined-tube manometer.

Piezometer Tube

• Consists of a vertical tube, open at the top and attached to the

container in which the pressure is desired. Piezometer Tube

• Fundamental equation describing manometer’s use:

66
 Fluid Statics
Piezometer Tube

• Application of the above equation to the piezometer tube shows

that the pressure pA is given by the relationship:

• The tube is open at the top and the pressure p0 is equal to zero
(using gage pressure).

• Disadvantages of piezometer tube: only suitable if the pressure

in the container is greater than atm pressure, measures small Piezometer Tube

pressures, the fluid in the container in which the pressure is to

be measured must be a liquid rather than a gas.
67
 Fluid Statics
U-tube manometer

• Has a U shape.

• The fluid in the manometer is called gage fluid.

• The pressure equation can be expressed as:

• Major advantage of U-tube manometer: gage fluid can be U-tube manometer

different from the fluid in the container in which the

pressure is to be determined.
68
 Fluid Statics
U-tube manometer

• If A does contain a gas, the distribution of the gas

column, γ1h1, is almost always negligible and thus the
above equation can be expressed as:
U-tube manometer
pA = γ2h2

• U-tube manometer is also widely used to measure the

difference in pressure between two containers or two
points in a given system.

Differential U-tube
manometer
69
 Fluid Statics
Inclined-Tube Manometer

• For measuring small pressure changes.

• One leg of the manometer is inclined at an angle θ, and the differential

reading l2 measured along the inclined tube.

70
 Fluid Statics
Inclined-Tube Manometer

• If pipes A and B contain gases, then

71
Fluid Statics

72
Fluid Statics

73
 Fluid Statics
Example

• The volume flow rate, Q, through a pipe can be

measured by means of a flow nozzle located in
the pipe as shown. Determine the equation for pA
– pB in terms of the specific weight of the
flowing fluid, γ1, the specific fluid of the flowing
fluid, γ2, and the various heights indicated. For
γ1 = 9.80 kN/m3, γ2 = 15.6 kN/m3, h1 = 1.0 m,
and h2 = 0.5 m, what is the pressure drop, pA –
pB?

74
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces
• Fluid statics is used to determine the forces
acting on floating or submerged bodies, and
forces developed by devices like hydraulic
presses and car jacks.

• The determination of these forces is important in

the design of storage tanks, ships, dams, and
other hydraulic structures.

• On a plane surface, the hydraulic forces form a Hoover Dam

system of parallel forces, and often we need to
determine the magnitude of the force and its
point of application called the center of pressure.

75
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces
• In most cases, the other side of the plate is open
to the atmosphere (such as the dry side of a gate
in a dam), and thus atmospheric pressure acts on
both sides of the plate, yielding a zero resultant.

• In such cases, it is convenient to subtract

atmospheric pressure and work with gage
pressures only.

• Also, pressure varies linearly with depth if the

fluid is incompressible (density changes are Patm not
Patm considered
insignificant). considered

76
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces
• For a horizontal surface, such as the bottom of a
liquid filled tank, the magnitude of the resultant
force is FR = pA.

• For the tank shown on the right, the pressure at

the bottom of the tank is given as, p = γh.
(a) Pressure on tank bottom
• For Fig. (a), since the pressure is constant and
uniformly distributed over the bottom, the
resultant force acts through the centroid of the
area.

• For Fig. (b), pressure on the ends of the tank is

not uniformly distributed. How do we determine
the resultant force in such situations? (b) Pressure on tank ends 77
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces

Notation for hydrostatic force on an inclined plane surface 78

of arbitrary shape.
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces
• Consider an inclined plane surface
submerged in a liquid.

• Let the plane in which the surface

lies intersect the free surface at O
and make an angle of θ with the free
surface.

• x-y coordinate defined in such a

manner that O is the origin and y = 0
directed along the surface.

• The area can have an arbitrary shape

as shown.
79
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces
• At any given depth, h, the force acting on the
differential area dA is dF = γhdA.

• The magnitude of the resultant force can be

found by summing these differential areas over
the entire surface;

Where h = y sin θ. For constant γ and θ,

• The integral is the first moment of area. 80

 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces
• The first moment of area can be expressed as

Where yc is the y coordinate of the centroid area A

measured along the x axis which passes through
O. Hence,

or

Hence we can say, the magnitude of the resultant

force acting on a plane surface of a completely
submerged plate in a homogeneous (constant
density) fluid is equal to the product of the
pressure (γhc) at the centroid of the surface and
the area A of the surface. 81
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces
Where does the line of action of the resultant force
FR act?

• Two parallel force systems are equivalent if

they have the same magnitude and the same
moment about any point.

• The line of action of the resultant hydrostatic

force, in general does not pass through the
centroid of the surface – it lies underneath
where the pressure is higher.

• The point of intersection of the line of action

of the resultant force and the surface is the
center of pressure. 82
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces
• The y coordinate, yR, of the resultant force can
be determined by summation of moments
around the x axis. That is, the moment of the
resultant force must be equal to the moment of
the distributed force,

• Since

83
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces
• The integral on the numerator is the second
moment of inertia (moment of inertia), Ix, about
the x axis.

• We can write

• Making use of the parallel axis theorem to

express Ix as

Where Ixc is the second moment of area with

respect to an axis passing through the centroid and
parallel to the x axis. 84
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces

• The x coordinate, xR, for the resultant force can be determined in a

similar manner by summing the moments about the y axis. Thus,

And, therefore

• By using the parallel axis theorem,

Ixyc is the product of inertia with respect to an orthogonal coordinate system

passing through the centroid of the area formed by a translation of the x-y
coordinate system. 85
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces

• Centroidal coordinates and moments of some common geometries

86
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces

• Centroidal coordinates and moments of some common geometries

87
Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces

Pressure prism

88
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces
Pressure prism
• Consider the pressure distribution along a vertical
wall of a tank of constant width b, containing a
liquid of specific gravity γ. (a)

• Pressure at the upper surface is equal to zero

whereas at the base the pressure is equal to γh.

• Apparent from the diagram that average pressure

occurs at a depth of h/2, and the resulting force
acting on the rectangular area A = bh is (b)

Pressure prism 89
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces
Pressure prism
• The 3-D representation of the pressure prism is
shown in Fig. (b).
(a)
• The base of the “volume” in pressure area space is
the plane surface of interest, and its altitude at each
point is the pressure.

• This volume is called the pressure prism, and the

magnitude of the resulting force acting on the
rectangular surface is equal to the volume of the (b)
pressure prism.

Pressure prism 90
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces
Pressure prism

• The centroid is located along the vertical axis of (a)

symmetry of the surface and at a distance of h/3
above the base.

(b)

Pressure prism 91
 Hydrostatic Force on a Plane Surfaces
Pressure prism

• On the right is the graphical representation of

hydrostatic forces for plane rectangular surfaces (a)
that do not extend to the fluid surface.

• The resultant pressure is obtained by decomposing

the pressure prism into two parts, ABDE and BCD,

• Location of FR can be determined by summing (b)

moments about some convenient axis, such as one
passing through A

Pressure prism 92
 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surfaces

• Many surfaces of interest such as dams,, pipes,

and tanks are curved.
(a)
• Consider a curved portion of a swimming pool.

• Wish to find the resultant fluid force acting on

section BC (has a unit length perpendicular to
the plane of the paper).

93
 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surfaces

• Figure on the left shows the free-body diagram

of the volume of interest.

• Magnitude and location of forces F1 and F2 can

be determined from the relationships for planar
surfaces.

• The weight, W, is simply the specific weight of

the fluid times the enclosed volume and acts
through the center of gravity (COG) of the
mass of fluid contained within the volume.

• The forces FH and FV represent the components

of the force that the tank exerts on the fluid. 94
 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surfaces

• The horizontal component FH must be equal in

magnitude and collinear with F2 at equilibrium.

• Similarly, at equilibrium, the vertical

component FV must be equal in magnitude and
collinear with the resultant of vertical forces F1
and W.

• Hence,

95
 Hydrostatic Force on a Curved Surfaces

• Hence,

• The magnitude of the resultant forces is

96
 Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability

• A stationary body completely submerged in a fluid , or floating so that it

is partially submerged, the resultant force acting on the body is called
buoyant force.

• Buoyant force is the force that tends to lift a body immersed in a liquid.

• Buoyant force is caused by an increase of pressure with depth in a fluid.

• The pressure forces acting below the body are larger than those acting
from above.

• The buoyant force is denoted by FB.

97
 Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability

• Consider a plate of thickness h submerged in a liquid

of density ρf parallel to the free surface.

• The area of the top (and also the bottom) surface of

the plate if A and the distance to the free surface is s.

• The gage pressures at the top and bottom of the

surfaces are ρf gs and ρf g(s + h), respectively.

• The hydrostatic force Ftop = ρf gsA acts downward

on top of the surface, and the larger force Fbottom = ρf
g(s +h)A acts upward on the bottom of the surface
plate.
98
Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability

99
 Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability
Pressure prism

• Archimedes’ principle states that the buoyant force acting on a body of uniform
density immersed in a fluid is equal to the weight of the fluid displaced by the
body, and it acts upward through the centroid of the displaced volume.

• The point through which the buoyant force acts is called the center of buoyancy.

• For floating bodies, the weight of the entire body must be equal to the buoyant
force, which is the weight whose volume is equal to the volume of the submerged
portion of the floating body.

100
 Buoyancy, Floatation and Stability

• A solid body dropped into a fluid will sink,

float, or remain at rest at any point in the
fluid, depending on its average density
relative to the density of the fluid.

101
 Stability of immersed bodies
• The topic of stability is important in the design of ships and
submarines.

• A body is in stable equilibrium if, when displaced, it returns

to its equilibrium position. In case (a), any small disturbance
generates a restoring force that returns it to its initial
position.

• In case (b), a body is neutrally stable because if someone

moves the ball to the right or left, it will stay put in the new
position.

• A body is in unstable equilibrium if, when displaced, it

moves to a new equilibrium position. In case (c), any small
disturbance causes the ball to roll off the hill. It does not 102
return to its initial position.
 Stability of immersed bodies
• For immersed or floating body in static equilibrium, the weight and the
buoyant force acting on the body balance each other, and such bodies
are inherently stable in the vertical direction.

• If an immersed neutrally buoyant body is raised or lowered to a

different depth in an incompressible fluid, the body will remain in
equilibrium at that location.

• If a floating body is raised or lowered somewhat by a vertical force, the

body will return to its original position as soon as the external effect is
removed.

• Thus, a floating body possesses vertical stability, while an immersed

neutrally buoyant body is neutrally stable since it does not return to its
original position after a disturbance. 103
 Stability of immersed and floating bodies
• The rotational stability of an immersed body depends on the
relative locations of the center of gravity G of the body and
the center of buoyancy B, which is the centroid of the
displaced volume.

• An immersed body is stable if the body is bottom-heavy and

thus point G is directly below point B. A rotational
disturbance of the body in such cases produces a restoring
moment to return the body to its stable position.

• An immersed body whose center of gravity G is directly

above point B is unstable, and the disturbance will cause the
body to turn upside down.

• A body for which G and B coincide is neutrally stable. Case 104

for bodies of constant density throughout.
 Stability of floating bodies
• If the floating body is bottom-heavy and thus
the center of gravity G is directly below the
center of buoyancy B, the body is always
stable.

• However, unlike immersed bodies, a floating

body may still be table when G is directly
above B.

• This is because the centroid of the displaced

volume shifts to the side to a point B’ during a
rotational disturbance while the center of
gravity G of the body remains unchanged.

105
 Stability of floating bodies
• If point B’ is sufficiently far, these two forces
create a restoring moment and return the body
to its original position.

• A measure of stability for floating bodies is the

metacentric height GM, which is the distance
between the center of gravity G and the
metacenter M-the intersection point of the lines
of action of the buoyant force through the body
before and after rotation.

• A floating body is stable if point M is above

point G, and thus GM is positive, and unstable if
point M is below point G, and thus GM is
negative. 106
 Stability of floating bodies
• Figure (a) on the right shows a body floating
in equilibrium.

The weight W = mg acts through the center of

gravity G and the upthrust R acts through the
center of buoyance B of the displaced fluid in
the same straight line as W.

• When the body is displaced through an angle

θ, W continues to act through G; the volume
of the liquid remains unchanged since R =
W, but the shape of this volume changes and
its center of gravity, which is the center of
buoyancy, moves relative to the body from B
to B1. 107
Stability of floating bodies

108
 Stability of floating bodies
• If M lies above G, a righting moment W ×
GM × θ is produced, equilibrium is stable
and GM is regarded as positive.

• If M lies below G, an overturning moment W

× GM × θ is produced, equilibrium is
unstable and GM is regarded as negative.

• If M coincides with G, the body is in neutral

equilibrium.

109
 Determination of the Metacentric Height
• The metacentric height of a vessel can be determined if the
angle of tilt θ caused by a load P a known distance x
across the deck is measured.

Overturning moment due to movement of load P = Px

• If GM is the metacentric height and W = mg is the total

weight of the vessel including P,

Righting moment = W × GM × θ

• For equilibrium in the titled position, the righting moment

must equal the overturning moment

W × GM × θ =Px 110
 Determination of the Metacentric Height

W × GM × θ =Px

• The metacentric height is given as,

GM = Px/Wθ

111
 Determination of the Position of the Metacentre
Relative to the Centre of Buoyancy
• For a vessel of known shape and displacement, the
position of the center of buoyancy B is
comparatively easily found and the position of the
metacenter M relative to B can be calculated.

112
 Determination of the Position of the Metacentre
Relative to the Centre of Buoyancy
• Consider the Figure on the right.

• AC is the original waterline plane and B the center of

buoyancy in the equilibrium position.

• When the vessel is tilted through a small angle θ, the

centre of buoyancy will move to B’ as a result of the
alteration in the shape of the displaced fluid. A’C’ is
the waterline plane in the displaced position.

• For small tilt,

113
 Determination of the Position of the Metacentre
Relative to the Centre of Buoyancy
• The movement of the center of buoyancy, which is
the center of gravity of the displaced fluid, from B to
B’ is the result of the removal of a volume of fluid
corresponding to the wedge AOA’ and the addition of
a wedge COC’.

• The total weight of fluid displaced remains

unchanged, since it is equal to the weight of the
vessel; therefore,

• If a is a small area in the waterline plane at a

distance x from the axis of rotation OO, it will
generate a small volume, shown shaded, when the
114
vessel is tilted
 Determination of the Position of the Metacentre
Relative to the Centre of Buoyancy
• If a is a small area in the waterline plane at a
distance x from the axis of rotation OO, it will
generate a small volume, shown shaded, when the
vessel is tilted.

• Summing all such volumes and multiplying by the

specific weight pg of the liquid,

115
 Determination of the Position of the Metacentre
Relative to the Centre of Buoyancy
• Summing all such volumes and multiplying by the
specific weight pg of the liquid,

• Similarly,

• Since there is no change in displacement, combining

the above two equations,

116
Determination of the Position of the Metacentre
Relative to the Centre of Buoyancy

117
Determination of the Position of the Metacentre
Relative to the Centre of Buoyancy

118
 Determination of the Position of the Metacentre
Relative to the Centre of Buoyancy
• Where V = volume of liquid displaced. Equating
above equations,

• The distance BM is known as the metacentric radius.

119
 EXAMPLE
• A cylindrical buoy 1.8 m in diameter, 1.2
m high and weighing 10 kN floats in salt
water of density 1025 kg/m3. Its centre of
gravity is 0.45 m from the bottom. If a
load of 2 kN is placed on the top, find the
maximum height of the centre of gravity
of this load above the bottom if the buoy
is to remain in stable equilibrium.

SOLUTION

• Let G be the centre of gravity of the buoy,

G1 the centre of gravity of the load at a
height Z1 above the bottom, and G’ the
combined centre of gravity of the load and 120
the buoy at a height Z’ above the bottom.
 EXAMPLE
• When the load is in position, let V be the volume of salt water displaced and
Z the depth of immersion of the buoy.

• For equilibrium, the buoyancy force must equal the combined weight of the
buoy and the load (W + W1); therefore,

• Depth of immersion,

121
EXAMPLE

122
 EXAMPLE
• The value of Z1 corresponding to this value of Z’ is found by taking moments
about O:

• The maximum height of load above the bottom,

123
ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation

124
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
The Bernoulli Equation
• In practice, there are no inviscid fluids since all fluids have viscosity.

• This approximation cannot be valid for an entire flow field of interest.

• For many situations, the viscous effects are relatively small and viscosity
can be neglected.

• Care must be exercised when applying the Bernoulli Equation since it is

an approximation that applies to inviscid regions of flow.

125
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
The Bernoulli Equation
• In general, frictional effects are always important
very close to solid walls (boundary layers) and
directly downstream of bodies (wakes).

• Typically, Bernoulli approximation is useful in flow

regions outside of boundary layers and wakes, where
the fluid motion is governed by the combined effects
of pressure and gravity forces.

(Net force on particle) + (net gravity force on particle)

= (particle mass) + (particle acceleration)
126
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
• The motion of a particle and the path it follows
are described by the velocity vector as a
function of time and space coordinates and the
initial position of the particle.

• For a steady flow, all particles that pass

through the same point follow the same path
(which is the streamline), and the velocity
vectors remain tangent to the path at every
point.

127
ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation

128
ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation

129
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
• In 2-D flow, the acceleration can be decomposed into
two components:
(a) streamwise acceleration, as, along the streamline
(b) Normal acceleration, an, in the direction normal to
the streamline, given as an = V2/R. R is the radius of
curvature.

• an = 0 for particles moving along a straight path since

radius of curvature is infinity and thus no change in
direction.

130
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Acceleration of a Fluid Particle
• Take the velocity V of a fluid particle to be a function
of s and t.

and

• In the steady flow, and thus V = V(s), and

acceleration in the streamwise direction becomes:

131
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

• Consider the motion of a fluid particle in

a flow field in steady flow

• Apply Newton’s second law in the

s-direction on a particle moving along a
stream line

132
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

• In regions of flow where net frictional forces

are negligible, there is no pump or turbine, and
there is no heat transfer along the streamline,
the significant forces acting in the s-direction
are the pressure (acting on both sides) and the
component of the weight in the s-direction. The
above expression becomes

133
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

• Where θ is the angle between the normal of the

streamline and the vertical z-axis at that point.
• With m = ρ dA ds is the mass, W = mg = ρg dA
ds is the weight of the fluid particle, and sin θ =
dz/ds, the above equation can be written as

134
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

135
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

• Integrating,

• In an incompressible flow, the first term

becomes an exact differential, and integration
gives

136
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

• This is the famous Bernoulli equation, which is commonly

used in fluid mechanics for steady, incompressible flow
along a streamline in inviscid flow regions.

• The Bernoulli equation can also be written between any two

points on the streamline as

137
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Derivation of the Bernoulli Equation

• The Bernoulli equation can be viewed as an

expression of mechanical energy balance
and can be stated as follows:

The sum of the kinetic, potential, and flow

energies of a fluid particle is constant along a
streamline during steady flow when
compressibility and frictional effects are
negligible.
138
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures

• The Bernoulli equation states that the sum of the flow, kinetic, and potential
energies of a fluid particle along a streamline is constant.

• The kinetic and potential energies of the fluid can be converted to flow
energy (and vice versa) during flow, causing the pressure to change.

• Each term in the above equation has pressure units, and thus represents
some kind of pressure:
139
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures

• P is the static pressure (it does not incorporate any dynamic effects); it
represents the actual thermodynamic pressure of the fluid. This is the same
as the pressure used in thermodynamics and property tables

• ΡV2/2 is the dynamic pressure; it represents the pressure rise when the fluid
in motion is brought to a stop isentropically.

• ρgz is the hydrostatic pressure term, which is not pressure in a real sense
since its value depends on the reference level selected; accounts for the
140
elevation effects.
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures

• The sum of the static, dynamic, and hydrostatic pressures is called total
pressure.

• Hence, the Bernoulli equation states that the total pressure along a
streamline is constant.

• Stagnation pressure is the sum of the static and dynamic pressures

expressed as

141
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures

• The stagnation pressure represents the

pressure at a point where the fluid is
brought to a complete stop isentropically.

• When static and stagnation pressures are

measured at a specified location, the fluid
velocity at that location is calculated from

142
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures

• A static pressure tap is simply a small hole drilled into a wall such that the
plane of the hole is parallel to the flow direction.

• A Pitot tube is a small tube with its open end aligned into the flow so as to
sense the full impact pressure of the flowing fluid. It measures the
stagnation pressure.

• In situations in which the static and stagnation pressure of a flowing liquid

are greater than atmospheric pressure, a vertical transparent tube called a
piezometer tube (or simply piezometer ) can be attached to the pressure tap
and to the Pitot tube.
143
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Static, Dynamic, and Stagnation Pressures

• The liquid rises in the piezometer tube to a

column height that is proportional to the
pressure being measured.

• Sometimes it is convenient to integrate static

pressure holes on a Pitot probe. The result is a
Pitot-static probe. Pitot-static probe

• A Pitot-static probe connected to a pressure

transducer or a manometer measures the
dynamic pressure (and thus infers the
144
velocity) directly.
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation

• Steady flow: The first limitation of the Bernoulli equation is that it is

applicable to steady flow.

• Negligible viscus effects

• No shaft work: Bernoulli equation not applicable in a flow section that

involves a pump, turbine, fan, or any other machine or impeller since such
devices disrupt the streamlines and carry out energy interactions with the fluid
particles

• Incompressible flow: Bernoulli equation applicable where the density changes

145
are insignificant.
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Limitations on the Use of the Bernoulli Equation

• Negligible heat transfer: Bernoulli equation not applicable for flow sections
that involve significant temperature change such as heating or cooling
sections

• Flow along a streamline:

146
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Examples of Use of the Bernoulli Equation

• The Bernoulli Equation between any two points, (1) and (2) on a
streamline in steady, inviscid, incompressible flow is expressed as

• If five of the six variables are known, the remaining can be determined.

147
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Free Jets
• Deals with flow of a liquid from a
large reservoir.

• Consider a reservoir on the left right

where a jet of liquid of diameter d
flows from the nozzle with velocity V.

• Application of Bernoulli Equation

between points (1) and (2) on the Vertical flow from a tank
streamline gives

148
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Free Jets

Taken z1 = h, z2 = 0, the reservoir is large

(V ≈ 0) and open to the atmosphere (p1 = 0
gage), and the fluid leaves as a “free jet”
(p2 = 0). Thus, we obtain

Vertical flow from a tank

• Applying Bernoulli Equation between
points (1) and (5), the velocity
increases to
149
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Free Jets

• For a horizontal nozzle, the velocity of fluid at

centerline, V2, will be slightly less than that at the
bottom, V3, due to differences in elevation.

• If d is much less than h, we can use the centerline Horizontal flow from a tank
velocity as a reasonable “average velocity”.

150
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Free Jets

• If the exit is not smooth, well-contoured nozzle, but

rather a flat plate, the diameter of the jet, dj, will be
less than the diameter of the hole, dh.

• The phenomenon, called vena contracta effect, is as a

result of the inability of the fluid to turn the sharp 90°
corner.

• Since the streamlines at the exit are curved, the Vena contracta effect for
pressure across them in not constant. sharp-edged orifice

151
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Free Jets
• The highest pressure occurs along the centerline at
(2) and the lowest pressure, p1 = p3 = 0, at the edge of
the jet.

• Hence, the assumption of uniform velocity with

straight streamlines and constant pressure is not valid
at the exit plane.

• It is valid however at the plane of the vena contracta,

section a - a. Vena contracta effect for
sharp-edged orifice
• Uniform velocity distribution assumption valid if dj is
152
much less than h.
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Free Jets
• Vena contracta is a function of the geometry of the outlet. Figures below
show some typical values of experimentally obtained contraction coefficient,
Cc = Aj/Ah

153
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Confined Flows

• In many cases, the fluid is physically constrained within a

device such as flow through nozzles and pipes of variable
diameter.

• The fluid velocity in such devices changes because the flow

area is different from one section to another.

• In such situations, the concept of conservation of mass

(continuity equation) along with the Bernoulli equation are
154
used.
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Confined Flows

• Consider a fluid flowing through a fixed volume that has one

inlet and one outlet. For steady flow, the rate at which the
fluid flows into the volume must be equal the rate at which it
flows out of the volume.

• If the inlet is designated as (1) and the outlet as (2), it follows

that
where

• The conservation of mass requires

155
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Confined Flows

• If the density remains constant, then ρ1 = ρ2 , and the above

becomes continuity equation for incompressible flow

N/B: In general, an increase in velocity is accompanied by a

decrease in pressure. For example, the velocity of the air flowing
over the top surface of an airplane wing is, on the average, faster
than that flowing under the bottom surface. Thus, the net pressure
force is greater on the bottom than on the top – the wing generates a
156
lift.
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Flowrate Measurement

• Many types of devices using principles involved in

the Bernoulli equation have been developed to
measure fluid velocities and flowrates.

• Flowmeters are devices to measure flowrates.

• We shall consider “ideal” flowmeters i.e. those

devoid of viscous, compressibility, and other
“real-world” effects.

157
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Flowrate Measurement
• An effective way to measure the flowrate through a
pipe is to place some type of restriction within the
pipe and to measure the pressure difference
between the low-velocity, high-pressure upstream
section (1) and the high-velocity, low pressure
downstream section (2).

• Three commonly used types of flowmeters: the

orifice meter, the nozzle meter, and the venturi
meter.
• The operation of each is based on the same
physical principles: an increase in velocity causes a
158
decrease in pressure.
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Flowrate Measurement
• Assuming that the flow is horizontal (z1 = z2), steady,
inviscid, and incompressible between points (1) and
(2). The Bernoulli equation becomes

• Assuming that the velocity profiles are uniform at

sections (1) and (2), the continuity equation can be
written as

where A2 is the small flow area at section (2).

Combination of these two equations results in the
following theoretical flowrate
159
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Flowrate Measurement
• To measure flowrates in open channels such as
flumes and irrigation ditches, sluice gate and
sharp-crested weir are employed.

• For the sluice gate on the right, the flowrate, Q, is

a function of the water depth upstream, z1, the
width of the gate, b, and the gate opening, a.

• Application of Bernoulli equation and continuity

equation between points (1) and (2) can provide a
good approximation of the flowrate obtained.
160
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Flowrate Measurement
• Applying the Bernoulli equation between points on
the surfaces at (1) and (2) gives

• If the gate is the same width as the channel so that

A1 = bz1 and A2 = bz2, the continuity equation gives

• With the fact that p1 = p2 = 0, these equations can

be rearranged to give the flowrate as

161
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Flowrate Measurement
• In the limit of z1 much greater than z2, the result
simplifies to

• The fluid cannot turn a sharp 90° corner, and as

such, a vena contracta results with a contraction
coefficient, Cc = z2/a, less than 1.

162
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Flowrate Measurement
• Another device for measuring flow in an open
channel is a weir. A typical rectangular,
sharp-crested weir is shown on the right.

• The flowrate of liquid over the top of the weir

plate is dependent on the weir height, Pw, the
width of the channel, b, and the head, H, of the
water above the top of the weir.

• Between points (1) and (2) the pressure and

gravitational fields cause the fluid to accelerate
from velocity V1 to velocity V2.
163
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Flowrate Measurement
• At point (1), the pressure is p1 = γh, while at (2)
the pressure is essentially atmospheric, p2 = 0.

• Across the curved streamlines directly above

the top of the weir plate (section a - a), the
pressure changes from atmospheric on the top
surface to some maximum value within the
fluid stream and then to atmospheric pressure
again at the bottom surface.

• Such a pressure distribution, combined with the

streamline curvature and gravity, produces a
164
rather nonuniform velocity profile.
ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation

165
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of small orifices discharging to the
atmosphere
• An orifice is an opening, usually circular, in the
side or base of a tank or reservoir, through
which fluid is discharged in the form of a jet,
usually into the atmosphere.

• The volume rate of flow discharged through an

orifice will depend upon the head of the fluid
above the level of the orifice and it can,
therefore, be used as a means of flow
measurement.
166
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of small orifices discharging to the
atmosphere
• The term ‘small orifice’ is applied to an orifice
which has a diameter, or vertical dimension,
which is small compared with the head
producing flow, so it can be assumed that this
head does not vary appreciably from point to
point across the orifice.

• For an orifice shown on the right, applying

Bernoulli equation between A and B;

167
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of small orifices discharging to the
atmosphere
• For an orifice shown on the right, applying
Bernoulli equation between A and B;

• The above expression for the exit velocity is the

Torricelli’s theorem, that the velocity of the
issuing jet is proportional to the square root of
168
the head producing flow.
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of small orifices discharging to the atmosphere

• For an orifice shown on the right, applying Bernoulli equation between A and
B;

• Theoretically, if A is the cross-sectional area of the orifice,

• In practice, the actual discharge is considerably less than the theoretical

discharge. Therefore, the above expression is modified by introducing a
coefficient of discharge Cd, so that
169
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of small orifices discharging to the atmosphere

• There are two reasons for the difference between the theoretical and actual
discharges. First, due to loss of energy between A and B, the velocity of the jet
is reduced;

Where Cv is a coefficient of velocity, which has to be determined experimentally

and is of the order 0.97.

170
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of small orifices discharging to the
atmosphere

• Second, as shown in the Figure on the right, the

paths of the particles of the fluid converge on
the orifice, and the area of the issuing jet at B is
less that the area of the orifice A at C.

• In the plane of the orifice, the particles have a

component of velocity towards the centre and
the pressure at C is greater than the atmospheric
pressure.
171
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of small orifices discharging to the
atmosphere

• It is only at B, a small distance outside the

orifice, that the paths of the particles have
become parallel. The section through B is called
the vena contracta.

Where Cc is the coefficient of contraction, which

can be determined experimentally and will depend
on the profile of the orifice. For a sharp-edged
orifice as shown in the Figure, the value is of the
172
order 0.64.
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of small orifices discharging to the
atmosphere

• The relation between the two coefficients is;

• The coefficient of discharge can be expressed as

173
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of small orifices discharging to the
atmosphere

• The coefficient of discharge can be expressed as

• The actual area at the vena contracta can be

determined from

174
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of small orifices discharging to the
atmosphere

• The actual velocity at the vena contracta can be

determined from

175
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of large orifices discharging to
the atmosphere

• Since the velocity of flow will be

much greater at the bottom than at
the top of the opening, consider a
small strip across the opening;

176
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of large orifices discharging to the atmosphere

• For the whole opening, integrating from h = H1 to h = H2,

177
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of large orifices discharging to the atmosphere

EXAMPLE: If the top of the opening is 0.4 m below the water level and the
opening is 0.7 m wide and 1.5 m in height, calculate the theoretical
discharge, assuming that the bottom of the opening is above the downstream
water level. What would be the percentage error if the opening were treated
as a small orifice?

178
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
Theory of large orifices discharging to the atmosphere

EXAMPLE: If the top of the opening is 0.4 m below the water level and the
opening is 0.7 m wide and 1.5 m in height, calculate the theoretical
discharge, assuming that the bottom of the opening is above the downstream
water level. What would be the percentage error if the opening were treated
as a small orifice?

For a small orifice,

179
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
• The Bernoulli equation is an energy
equation representing the partitioning of
energy for inviscid, incompressible, steady
flow.

• The sum of the energies of the fluid remains

constant as the fluid flows from one section
to another.

• A useful interpretation of the Bernoulli

equation can be obtained through the
concepts of the hydraulic grade Line (HGL)
180
and the energy line (EL).
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
• For steady, incompressible flow, the total
energy remains constant along a steamline.

• The Bernoulli equation in terms of head is

in the following form

• The sum of the pressure head, the velocity

head, and the elevation head is constant
along the streamline. This constant is called
the total head, H.
181
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line

• The energy line represents the total energy

available in the fluid.

• The elevation of the energy line can be

obtained by measuring the stagnation
pressure with a Pitot tube.

• The stagnation point at the end of the Pitot

tube provides a measure of the total head of
the flow.
182
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
• The static pressure tap connected to the
piezometer tube measures the sum of the
pressure head and the elevation head, p/γ + z.
This sum is often called the piezometric
head.

• The locus provided by a series of piezometer

taps is called the Hydraulic Grade Line.

• Under the assumptions of the Bernoulli

equation, the energy line is horizontal.
183
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
• If the velocity changes along the streamline, the
hydraulic grade line will not be horizontal.

• Figure on the right shows the energy line and

the hydraulic grade line for flow from a large
tank.

• The HGL lies a distance V2/2g, below the

energy line.

• A change in fluid velocity due to a change in

the pipe diameter results in a change in the
184
elevation of HGL.
 ELEMENTARY FLUID DYNAMICS – The
Bernoulli Equation
The Energy Line and the Hydraulic Grade Line
• Distance from the pipe to the HGL indicates the
pressure within the pipe.

• If pipe lies below the HGL, pressure within the

pipe is positive i.e. above atmospheric pressure.

• If pipe lies above the HGL, pressure within the

pipe is negative i.e. below atmospheric
pressure.

185
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Learning Objectives
After completing this chapter, the learner should be able to:

• Discuss the differences between the Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions

on fluid motion

• Identify various flow characteristics based on the velocity field

• Determine the streamline pattern and acceleration field given a velocity

field

• Discuss the differences between a system and a control volume

• Apply the Reynolds transport theorem and the material derivative

186
 FLUID KINEMATICS
• Kinematics – study of the various aspects of fluid motion without being
concerned with the actual forces and moments that produce the motion.

• The study of the forces that produce the motion is referred as dynamics.

187
 FLUID KINEMATICS
The velocity field

• Fluids flow: There is a net motion of molecules from one point in space to
another point in space as a function of time.

• A typical portion of fluid contains so many molecules that it becomes

unrealistic to account for the motion of individual molecules.

• Hence, the continuum hypothesis is employed and fluids considered to be

made up of fluid particles that interact with each other and with their
surroundings.

• Each particle contains numerous molecules. Hence, the flow of a fluid is

described in terms of fluid particles rather than individual molecules
(continuum hypothesis). 188
 FLUID KINEMATICS
The velocity field
• The motion of the fluid can be described in terms of the velocity and
acceleration of the fluid particles.

• The infinitesimal particles of a fluid are tightly packed together (continuum

assumption). Hence, at a given instant in time, a description of any fluid
property (such as density, pressure, velocity, and acceleration) may be
given as a function of the fluid’s location.

• The representation of the fluid parameters as functions of the spatial

coordinates is termed a field representation of the flow.

• However, the specific field representation may be different at different

times, hence, to describe a flow field, we must determine various
parameters as functions of space and time. 189
 FLUID KINEMATICS
The velocity field

Particle location in terms of its position vector

190
 FLUID KINEMATICS

Eulerian and Lagrangian Flow Descriptions

(1) Eulerian description - the fluid motion is given by completely prescribing

the fluid properties (pressure, density, velocity, etc.) as functions of space and
time.

• In the Eulerian description of fluid flow, a finite volume called a flow

domain or control volume is defined, through which fluid flows in and out.

• We define field variables, functions of space and time within the control
volume.

191
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Eulerian Description

For example, the pressure field is a scalar field variable; for general unsteady
3-D fluid flow in Cartesian coordinates,

Pressure field: P = P(x, y, z, t)

We define the velocity field as a vector field variable in a similar fashion,

Velocity field: V = V(x, y, z, t)

We define the acceleration field also a vector field variable as,

Acceleration field: a = a(x, y, z, t)

192
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Eulerian Description

• The velocity field is expanded in Cartesian coordinates (x

,y, z) and (i, j, k) as
V = (u, v, w) = u(x, y, z, t)i + v(x, y, z, t)j + w(x, y,
z, t)k

Lagrangian Description

• This involves following individual fluid particles as they Eulerian and Lagrangian
move about and determining how the fluid properties descriptions of temperature
of a flowing fluid.
associated with these particles change as a function of
time. That is, the fluid particles are “tagged” or identified,
and their properties determined as they move.
193
FLUID KINEMATICS

Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions

of temperature of a flowing fluid.

194
 FLUID KINEMATICS
One-, Two-, and Three-Dimensional Flows

• Generally, a fluid flow is a rather complex three-dimensional,

time-dependent phenomenon i.e. V = V(x, y, z, t) = ui +vj + wk.

• In many situations one of the velocity components may be small relative

to the two other components. In situations of this kind it may be
reasonable to neglect the smaller component and assume
two-dimensional flow. V = V(x, y) = ui +vj

• Sometimes, it is possible to simplify the flow analysis by assuming two

of the velocity components are negligible, leaving the velocity field to be
approximated as a one-dimensional flow. V = V(x) = ui
195
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Flow Patterns

Streamline:
• A streamline is a line that is everywhere tangent to the velocity field.

• For steady flows, the streamlines are fixed lines in space while for
unsteady flows, the streamlines may change shape with time.

• Streamlines are useful indicators of the instantaneous direction of fluid

motion throughout the flow field. For instance, regions of recirculating
flow and separation of fluid flow off a solid wall are easily identified by
the streamline pattern.

196
FLUID KINEMATICS

197
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Flow Patterns
Streamline:

• Hence the equation of a streamline

is:

• For a two-dimensional flow, the

equation of the streamline is

198
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Flow Patterns
Streamline:

QUESTION: Consider a two-dimensional flow field given by

Determine the streamline for this flow.

SOLUTION

The velocity components u and v are given as

It follows that streamlines are given by solution of the equation

199
FLUID KINEMATICS

200
FLUID KINEMATICS

201
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Flow Patterns

Streamtube:
• A streamtube consists of a bundle of
streamlines.

• Since streamlines are everywhere

parallel to the local velocity, fluid
cannot cross a streamline by definition.

• By extension, fluid within a streamtube

must remain there and cannot cross the
boundary of the streamtube.
202
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Flow Patterns

Streamtube:

• In an incompressible flow field, a streamtube (a) decreases in diameter as the

flow accelerates or converges and (b) increases in diameter as the flow
decelerates or diverges.
203
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Flow Patterns

Pathlines:
• A pathline is the actual path travelled by an individual particle over some time
period.

204
• A pathline is formed by following the actual path of a fluid particle.
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Flow Patterns

Pathlines:
• A pathline is a lagrangian concept in that we simply follow the path of an
individual fluid particle as it moves around in the flow field.

• If the velocity field is steady, individual fluid particles follow streamlines.

Thus, for steady flow, pathlines are identical to streamlines.

Streaklines:
• A streakline is the locus of fluid particles that have passed sequentially through
a prescribed point in the flow.

• Most common flow pattern generated in a physical experiment.

205
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Flow Patterns

Streaklines:
• If you insert a small tube into a flow
and introduce a continuous stream of
tracer fluid (dye in a water flow or
smoke in an airflow), the observed
pattern is a streakline.

• Figure on the right shows a tracer being

injected into a freestream flow
containing an object, such as a wing.

206
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Flow Patterns

Streaklines:
• The circles represent individual injected
tracer fluid particles, released at a
uniform time interval.

• As the particles are forced out of the

way by the object, they accelerate
around the shoulder of the object, as
indicated by the increased distance
between individual tracer particles in
that region.
207
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Flow Patterns

Streaklines:
• The streakline is formed by connecting
all the circles into a smooth curve.

• If the flow is steady, streamlines,

pathlines, and streaklines are identical.

208
 FLUID KINEMATICS
The acceleration Field

• The motion of the fluid can be described either by Lagragian description or

Eulerian description.

• In either case, to apply Newton’s second law (F = ma), the particle’s

acceleration must be described in an appropriate fashion.

• In Lagrangian approach, the fluid acceleration is done in a similar manner

to solid body dynamics, i.e., a = a(t).

• For the Eulerian description, the acceleration field is expressed as a

function of position and time.
209
• The acceleration of a particle is the rate change of its velocity.
 FLUID KINEMATICS
The acceleration Field

The Material Derivative:

Velocity and position

of particle A at time t.

210
 FLUID KINEMATICS
The acceleration Field

The Material Derivative:

• Consider a fluid particle moving along its pathline.

• The particle’s velocity, denoted VA for particle A, is a function of location and

time. I.e.,

• Where xA = xA(t), yA = yA(t), and zA = zA(t) define the location of the moving
particle.

• By definition, the acceleration of a particle is the time rate of change of its

velocity. Since the velocity may be a function of both position and time, its value
211
may change because of the change in time as well as the particle’s position
FLUID KINEMATICS

212
 FLUID KINEMATICS
The acceleration Field

The Material Derivative:

• Since the above is valid for any particle, we can drop the reference for particle A
and obtain the acceleration field from the velocity field as

213
FLUID KINEMATICS

214
FLUID KINEMATICS

215
FLUID KINEMATICS

216
 FLUID KINEMATICS
The acceleration Field

The Material Derivative:

Convective/advective Effects
• The portion of the material derivative represented by the spatial derivatives.

• It represents the fact that a flow property associated with a fluid particle may vary
because of the motion of the particle from one point in space where the parameter
has one value to another point in space where the parameter has different value.

• The portion of the convective acceleration is shown by

217
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Material Derivative

The Material Derivative of pressure:

218
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Control Volume and System Representations

• In thermodynamics and solid mechanics we often talk of a system (also called a

closed system).

• A system is a collection of matter of fixed identity (always the same atoms or fluid
particles), which may move, flow, and interact with its surroundings.

• No mass crosses the boundary of a system.

• In fluid mechanics, it is more common to work with a control volume (also called
an open system).

• A control volume is a volume in space (a geometric identity, independent of mass)

219
through which fluid may flow.
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Control Volume and System Representations

• A control volume allows mass to flow across its boundaries, which are called the
control surface.

• A control volume may move and deform during a process, but many real-world
applications involve fixed, non-deformable control volumes.

220
 FLUID KINEMATICS
The Reynolds Transport Theorem

• The Reynolds transport theorem provides a relationship between the time rates of
change of an extensive property for a system and for a control volume.

221
FLUID KINEMATICS

222
 FLUID KINEMATICS
The Reynolds Transport Theorem

• The amount of an extensive property that a system possesses at a given instant,

Bsys, can be determined by adding up the amount associated with each fluid particle
in the system.

• For an infinitesimal fluid particles of size and mass , this summation

takes the form of an integration over all the particles in the system and can be
written as

• In the above expression,

223
 FLUID KINEMATICS
The Reynolds Transport Theorem

• The time rate of change of the extensive property, Bsys, is then expressed as

• To formulate the laws into a control volume approach, we must obtain an

expression for the time rate of change of an extensive property within the control
volume, Bcv, not within the system.

224
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

Control volume and

system for flow through
a variable area pipe 225
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem
• A simple version of the RTT relating system concepts to control volume concepts
can be obtained easily for 1-D flow through a fixed control volume such as the
variable area duct.

• Consider the control volume to be that stationary volume within the duct between
sections (1) and (2).

• The system that we consider is that fluid occupying the control volume at some
initial time t.

• A short time later, at time t + δt, the system has slightly moved to the right.

226
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem
• The fluid particles that coincided with section (2) of the control surface at time t
have moved a distance to the right, where V2 is the velocity of the
fluid as it passes section (2).

• Similarly, the fluid initially at section (1) has moved a

distance where V1 is the fluid velocity at section (1).

• Let the outflow from the control volume from time t to t + δt be denoted as volume
II, and the inflow as volume I, and the control volume itself be denoted as CV.

• Thus, the system at time t consists of the fluid in section CV, that is, “SYS = CV”
at time t.
227
FLUID KINEMATICS

228
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem
• Thus, the change in the amount of B in the system, Bsys, in the time interval δt
divided by the time interval is given by

• At the initial time t, we have Bsys(t) = Bcv(t), the above expression can be rewritten
as

229
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

• In the limit δt →0, the LHS of the above equation is equal to the time rate of
change of B for the system and is denoted as DBsys/Dt. The material derivative
D()/D(t) denotes the Lagrangian character of this term.

• In the limit δt →0, the first term on the RHS is seen to be the time rate of change
of the amount of B within the control volume

230
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

• The third term on the right represents the rate at which the extensive parameter B
flows from the control volume across the control surface.

• During the time interval from t = 0 to t = δt, the volume of fluid that flows across
section (2) is given by . Thus, the amount of B within region
II, the outflow region, is its amount per unit volume, ρb, time the volume

Where b2 and ρ2 are the constant values of b and ρ across section (2).
231
FLUID KINEMATICS

232
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

• The relationship between the time rate of change of B for the system and control
volume is given by

or

• Above is the version of the RTT valid under the restrictive assumptions associated
with fixed control volume with one inlet and one outlet and having uniform
properties (density, velocity, and the parameter b) across the inlet and outlet with
the velocity normal to sections (1) and (2).
233
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

Control volume and system for flow

through an arbitrary, fixed control
volume. 234
 FLUID KINEMATICS

Outflow across a typical

portion of the control surface 235
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

Outflow across a typical portion of the control surface

236
FLUID KINEMATICS

237
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

• By integrating over the entire outflow portion of the control surface, CSout, we
obtain

• The quantity V cos θ is the component of the velocity normal to the area element
δA.

• From the definition of the dot product, this can be written as

238
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

• Hence, an alternate form of the outflow rate is

239
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

Inflow across a typical portion of the control surface

240
FLUID KINEMATICS

241
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem
• Therefore, the net flux (flowrate) of parameter B across the entire control surface is

Where the integration is over the entire control surface.

242
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

Possible velocity configurations on portions of the control surface: (a) inflow, (b) no
flow across the surface, (c) outflow 243
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

• The RTT equation becomes

• By using

• Above is the general form of the RTT for a fixed, nondeforming control volume.
244
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

• The purpose of the RTT is to provide a link between control volume ideas and
system ideas.

• The LHS is the time rate of change of an arbitrary extensive parameter (e.g., mass,
momentum, energy, or angular momentum, etc.,) of a system.

• Since the system is moving and the control volume is stationary, the time rate of
change of the amount of B within the control volume is not necessarily equal to
that of the system.
245
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

• The time derivative of the integral ρb throughout the control volume is the time
rate of change of B within the control volume at a given time.

• The last term represents the net flowrate of the parameter B across the entire
control surface.

• The first term involving the time derivative of the control volume integral
represents unsteady effects associated with the fact that values of the parameter
within the control volume may change with time.
246
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

• The term involving the control surface integral represents the convective effects
associated with the flow of the system across the fixed control surface.

• The sum of the two terms gives the rate of change of the parameter B of the
system. This corresponds to the material derivative in which the sum of the
unsteady effect and the convective effect gives the rate of change of a parameter
for a fluid particle.

• Both the material derivative and the RTT equations represent ways of transfer from
247
the Lagrangian viewpoint to the Lagrangian viewpoint.
 FLUID KINEMATICS
Derivation of the Reynolds Transport Theorem

• For steady flow, ∂()/∂t = 0, the above equation becomes

248
FLUID KINEMATICS

249
FLUID KINEMATICS

250
FLUID KINEMATICS

251
FLUID KINEMATICS

252
FLUID KINEMATICS

253
 FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS
• To solve many practical problems in fluid mechanics, the behavior of the contents
of a finite region in space (a finite control volume) need to be understood.

• The bases of finite control volume analysis are some fundamental laws of physics,
namely, conservation of mass, Newton’s second law of motion, and the first and
second law of thermodynamics.

• Good judgement is required in defining the finite region in space, the control
volume, used in solving a problem. What exactly to leave out of and what to leave
in the control volume are important considerations.

254
FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS

255
 FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS
Conservation of Mass - The Continuity Equation
Derivation of the Continuity Equation
• Consider a system and a fixed, non-deforming CV that are coincident at an instant
of time

System and CV at three different instances of time. (a) System and CV at time t – δt.
(b) System and CV at time t, coincident condition. (c) System and CV at time t + δt.
256
 FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS
Conservation of Mass - The Continuity Equation
Derivation of the Continuity Equation
• Employing the RTT with B = mass and b = 1 allows us to state that

Or

Time rate of change of the mass of the coincident system = time rate of change of the
mass of the contents of the coincident CV + net rate of flow of mass through the CV

• The first term on the RHS of the above expression is the time rate of change of the
contents of the CV while the second term represents net rate of mass flow through
the control surface.
257
 FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS
Conservation of Mass - The Continuity Equation
Derivation of the Continuity Equation

• For steady flow, all field properties remain constant with time and the rate of
change of the mass of the contents of the CV is zero

• The integrand, , in the mass flowrate integral represents the product of the
component of velocity, V, perpendicular to the small portion of control surface and
the differential area, dA.
258
 FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS
Conservation of Mass - The Continuity Equation
Derivation of the Continuity Equation
• The sign of the dot product is “+” for flow out of the CV and “-” for flow
into the CV.

259
FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS

260
FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS

261
 FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS
Conservation of Mass - The Continuity Equation
Derivation of the Continuity Equation

Where ρ is the fluid density, Q, is the volume flowrate, and V is the component of
fluid velocity perpendicular to area A.

• The above expression involves the use of average values of fluid density, ρ, and
fluid velocity, V.

• For incompressible flow, the density is uniformly distributed over area A.

• For compressible flows, we will normally consider a uniformly distributed fluid

density at each section of flow and allow density changes to occur only from
262
section to section.
 FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS
Conservation of Mass - The Continuity Equation
Derivation of the Continuity Equation
• The mass flow rate is given as

• If the velocity, V, is considered uniformly distributed (one dimensional flow) over

the section area, A, then

• If the velocity, V, is considered uniformly distributed (one dimensional flow) over

the section area, A, then

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FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS

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FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS

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FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS

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FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS

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Conservation of Mass - The Continuity Equation
Moving, Nondeforming Control Volume
• It is sometimes necessary to use a nondeforming CV attached to a moving
reference frame. Examples include CV containing a gas turbine engine on an
aircraft in flight, the exhaust stack of a ship at sea, and the gasoline tank of an
automobile passing by.

• When a moving CV is used, the fluid velocity relative to the moving CV (relative
velocity) is an important flow field variable.

• The relative velocity, W, is the fluid velocity seen by an observer moving with the
CV.

• The CV velocity, Vcv, is the velocity of the CV as seen from a fixed coordinate
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system.
FINITE CONTROL VOLUME ANALYSIS

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Newton’s Second Law – The Linear Momentum Equation

Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation

• Newton’s second law of motion is:
Time rate of change of the linear momentum of the system = sum of external forces
acting on the system.

• Momentum is the product of mass and velocity. The momentum of a small particle
of mass is .

• Thus, the momentum of the entire system is and Newton’s law becomes

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Newton’s Second Law – The Linear Momentum Equation
Derivation of the Linear Momentum Equation

Or,
Time rate of change of the linear momentum of the system = time rate of change of
the linear momentum of the contents of the control volume + net rate of flow of linear
momentum through the control surface.

• For a CV that is fixed and nondeforming, then,

272
• The above expression is the linear momentum equation.
 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Learning Obectives
After completing this chapter, the learner should be able to:
• Determine various kinematic elements of the flow given the velocity field.

• Explain the conditions necessary for a velocity field to satisfy the continuity
equation.

• Apply the concepts of stream function and velocity potential.

• Characterize simple potential flow fields.

• Analyze certain types of flows using the Navier-Stokes equations.

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• Differential analysis approach involves an infinitesimal CV and the governing
equations are differential equations.

Fluid Element Kinematics

• Concern is on the mathematical description of the motion of fluid elements moving

in a flow field.

• Fluid element motion consist of translation, linear deformation, rotation, and

angular deformation

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• Fluid element motion consist of translation, linear deformation, rotation, and
angular deformation

Types of motion and deformation for a fluid element

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Linear Motion and Deformation
• Consider a fluid element that undergoes a translation as shown below

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW

Linear deformation of a fluid element 281

DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW

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Angular Motion and Deformation
• Let’s consider the motion in the x –y plane

Angular motion and deformation of a fluid element

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Angular Motion and Deformation
• The velocity variation causes rotation and angular deformation.

• In a short time interval δt the line segments OA and OB will rotate through angles
δα and δβ to the new positions OA‘ and OB‘ as shown in Figure above.

• The angular velocity of line OA, wOA, is

• For small angles

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Angular Motion and Deformation
• For small angles

so that

• Note that if ∂v/∂x is positive, wOA will be counterclockwise. Similarly, the angular
velocity of the line OB is

and

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Angular Motion and Deformation
Example: For a certain two-dimensional flow field the velocity is given by the
equation . Is this flow irrotational?

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Differential form of Continuity Equation

• Take the small, stationary cubical element shown above as our control volume.

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Differential form of Continuity Equation
• At the center of the element the fluid density is 𝜌, and the velocity has
components u, v, w.

• The volume integral can be expressed as

• The rate of mass flow through the surfaces of the element can be obtained by
considering the flow in each of the coordinate directions separately.

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Differential form of Continuity Equation
• The continuity equation is one of the fundamental equations of fluid mechanics. In
vector notation,

• For steady flow of compressible fluids

or

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Differential form of Continuity Equation
• For incompressible fluids

or

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Differential form of Continuity Equation

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Alternate forms of the Continuity Equation

Recognizing the material derivative and dividing by 𝜌,

we can write the continuity equation in alternate
form,

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
• Many problems in fluid mechanics are more conveniently solved in cylindrical
coordinates (r, θ, z) rather than in Cartesian coordinate

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
• The coordinate r is the radial distance from the z axis, θ is the angle measured from
a line parallel to the x axis (with counterclockwise taken as positive), and z is the
coordinate along the z axis.

• The velocity components are the radial velocity, vr, tangential velocity, vθ, and the
axial velocity, vz.

• The velocity at some arbitrary point can be expressed as

where er, eθ,and ez are the unit vectors in r, θ, and z directions, respectively.

• The differential form of the continuity equation in cylindrical coordinates is

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Continuity Equation in Cylindrical Coordinates
• Above equation can be developed by following similar procedure as illustrated for
Cartesian Coordinates. For steady, compressible flow

• For incompressible flow

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The Stream Function

• Let dq represent the volume rate of flow (per unit width perpendicular to the x-y
plane) passing between the two streamlines.

• Flow never crosses streamlines, since by definition the velocity is tangent to the
streamline.

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The Stream Function

• From conservation of mass we know that the inflow, dq, crossing the arbitrary
surface AC of the above Figure must equal the net outflow through surfaces AB
and BC.
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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
The Stream Function

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Conservation of Linear Momentum
• To develop the differential momentum equations we start with the linear
momentum equation

where F is the resultant force acting on a fluid mass, P is the linear momentum
defined as

and the operator D()/Dt is the material derivative. The force can be expressed using
RTT as

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Description of Forces Acting on the Differential Element
• Surface forces act on the element as a result of its interaction with its surroundings.

• At any arbitrary location within a fluid mass, the force acting on a small area, δA,
that lies in an arbitrary surface, can be represented by δFs.

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Description of Forces Acting on the Differential Element

• In general, δFs will be inclined with respect to the surface. The force δFs can be
resolved into three components, δFn, δF1, and δF2, where δFn is normal to the area,
δA, and δF1 and δF2 are parallel to the area and orthogonal to each other.
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Description of Forces Acting on the Differential Element
• The normal stress, σn, is defined as

and the shearing stress is defined as

and

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Description of Forces Acting on the Differential Element
• On the plane ABCD of Figure on the right, parallel to y-z
plane, the normal stress in denoted σxx and the shearing
stresses are denoted as τxy and τxz.

• To easily identify the particular stress component we use a

double subscript notation.

• The first subscript indicates the direction of the normal to

the plane on which the stress acts, and the second subscript
indicates the direction of the stress.

• Normal stresses have repeated subscripts, whereas the

subscripts for the shearing stresses are always different.
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Description of Forces Acting on the Differential Element

Surface forces in the x direction acting on a fluid element

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Description of Forces Acting on the Differential Element
• Consider a small cubical element of fluid shown above. The surface forces acting on
the fluid element are expressed in terms of the stresses acting on the faces of the
element.

• It is expected that the stresses acting will vary from point to point within the flow
field.

• Through the Taylor series expansion, the stresses are expressed on the various faces in
terms of the corresponding stresses at the center of the element and the gradients in
the coordinate directions.

• The forces in the x direction are;

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Equations of Motion
• The equations of motion in component form are;

where δm = 𝜌δxδyδz. The above expressions can be written as

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In the above expressions, the element volume δxδyδz cancels out.
DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Euler’s Equations of Motion
• For an inviscid flow in which all the shearing stresses are zero, and the normal
stresses are replaced by –p, the general equations of motion reduce to

• These equations are commonly referred to as Euler’s equations of motion, named in

honor of Leonhard Euler (1707 - 1783), a famous Swiss mathematician who
pioneered the work on the relationship between pressure and flow.

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Euler’s Equations of Motion
• In vector notation Euler’s equations can be expressed as

• Euler’s equations are nonlinear partial differential equations for which we do not have
a general method of solving.

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The Bernoulli Equation
• In the previous chapter, we developed Bernoulli equation by a direct application of
Newton’s second law to a fluid particle moving along a streamline. In this section, we
will develop the Bernoulli equation from the Euler’s equations.

• For steady flow, Euler’s equation in vector form becomes

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The Bernoulli Equation

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
The Bernoulli Equation

• We intend to integrate the above differential equation along some arbitrary streamline
and select the coordinate system with the z axis vertical so that, the acceleration of
gravity can be expressed as

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
The Bernoulli Equation

where g is the magnitude of the acceleration of given vector. Similarly it will be

convenient to use the vector identity (refer to Engineering Calculus)

• Euler equation can now be written in the form

• Above equation can be rearranged to yield

• Take the dot product of each term with a differential length ds along a streamline

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The Bernoulli Equation

• Since ds has a direction along the streamline, the vectors ds and V are parallel.
However, the vector is perpendicular to V, hence it follows

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The Bernoulli Equation

where the change in p, V, and z is along the streamline. Integrating the above equation

which indicates that the sum of the three terms on the left side of the equation must
remain constant along a given streamline. The above equation is valid for both
compressible and incompressible inviscid flows, however for compressible fluids the
variation in 𝜌 and p must be specified before the first term can be evaluated.

• For inviscid, incompressible fluids (commonly called ideal fluids), the equation can
be written as

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• Above equation is the Bernoulli equation.
 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
The Bernoulli Equation
• It is convenient to write the above expression between two points (1) and (2) along a
streamline and to express the equation in the “head” form by dividing each term by g
so that

• The Bernoulli equation is restricted to the following:

I. Inviscid flow
II. Steady flow
III. Incompressible flow
IV. Flow along a streamline

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Irrotational Flow
• For example, the rotation about the z axis to be zero, it follows that

and, therefore,

Similarly for rotation about the x and y axis to be zero, then

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Irrotational Flow
• A general flow field would not satisfy the above three equation. However, a uniform
flow field does.

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Uniform flow field in the x direction
 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Irrotational Flow
• In the Figure above, since u = U (a constant), v = 0, and w = 0, all the above equations
are satsfied.

• Hence, a uniform flow field (in which there are no velocity gradients) is certainly an
example of an irrotational flow.

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Irrotational Flow

Various regions of flow around bodies

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Irrotational Flow

Various regions of flow through channels

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The Bernoulli Equation for Irrotational Flow

• Integration of the above equation yields

where for irrotational flow the constant is the same throughout the flow field. Thus, for
incompressible, irrotational flow the Bernoulli equation can be written between any two
points in the flow field as

• The above equation is not restricted to application along a streamline. However, the
above equation is restricted to: inviscid flow, incompressible flow, steady flow,
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irrotational flow.
 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
The Velocity Potential
• In irrotational flow, the velocity components can be expressed in terms of a scalar
function Փ(x, y, z, t) as

where Փ is called the velocity potential.

• In vector form, the above can be expressed as

so that for an irrotational flow the velocity is expressible as the gradient of a scalar
function Փ.

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The Velocity Potential

• The above differential equation arises in many different areas of engineering and
physics and is called Laplace’s equation. Thus, inviscid, incompressible, irrotational
flow are governed by the Laplace equation. This type of flow is commonly called a
potential flow.

• Potential flows are irrotational flows. That is, the vorticity is zero thoughout.

• If vorticity is present (e.g., boundary layer, wake), then the flow cannot be described
by the Laplace equation.

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The Velocity Potential

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The Navier-Stokes Equations
• The above equations are commonly called the Navier-Stokes equations, named in
honor of the French mathematician L. M. H. Navier (1785 - 1836) and the English
mathematician Sir G. G. Stokes (1819 - 1903), who were responsible for their
formulation.

• The above three Navier-Stokes equations when combined with the conservation of
mass equation, provide a complete mathematical description of the flow of
incompressible Newtonian fluids.

• We have four equations and four unknowns (u, v, w, and p), and hence the problem is
“well-poised” in mathematical terms.

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The Navier-Stokes Equations
• Unfortunately, due to the general complexity of the Navier-Stokes equations (they are
nonlinear, second order, partial differential equations), they are not amenable to exact
mathematical solutions except in a few instances.

• However, in those few instances in which solutions have been obtained and compared
with experimental results, the results have been in close agreement.

• Hence, the Navier-Stokes equations are considered to be the governing differential

equations of motion for incompressible Newtonian fluids.

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The Navier-Stokes Equations in cylindrical polar coordinates
(r direction)

(θ direction)

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
The Navier-Stokes Equations in cylindrical polar coordinates
(z direction)

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Some Simple Solutions for Laminar, Viscous, Incompressible Fluids
• A principal difficulty in solving the Navier-Stokes equations is a result of their
nonlinearity arising from the convective acceleration terms.

• There are no general analytical schemes for solving nonlinear partial differential
equations, and each problem must be considered individually.

• The NS equations apply to both laminar and turbulent flow, but for turbulent flow
each velocity component fluctuates randomly with respect to time and this added
complication makes an analytical solution intractable.

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Steady, Laminar Flow Between Fixed Parallel Plates

The viscous flow between parallel plates: (a) coordinate system and notation used in the analysis; (b)
parabolic velocity distribution for flow between parallel fixed plates.
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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Steady, Laminar Flow Between Fixed Parallel Plates

• The above equation can be integrated to yield

• Also, can be rewritten as

and can be integrated to give

Integrated again to yield

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Steady, Laminar Flow Between Fixed Parallel Plates

• The two constants c1 and c2 must be determined from the boundary conditions. For
example, if the two plates are fixed, then u = 0 and (because of the no-slip
condition for viscous fluids). To satisfy this condition c1 = 0 and

• Thus, the velocity distribution becomes

• The above equation shows that the velocity profile between the two fixed plates is
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parabolic.
DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Steady, Laminar Flow Between Fixed Parallel Plates

• Hence, the equation can be expressed as

• The flow is proportional to the pressure gradient, inversely proportional to the

viscosity, and strongly dependent (⁓h3) on the gap width. In terms of the mean
velocity, V, where V = q/2h, then

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Couette Flow
• Another simple parallel-plate flow can be obtained by fixing one plate and letting the
other plate move with a constant velocity, U.

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Couette Flow
• The Navier-Stokes equations reduce to the same form as those in the preceding
section, and the solution for the pressure and velocity distribution are the same as for
infinite horizontal, parallel plates considered.

• The boundary conditions for the velocity are different from the preceding section. For
this case we locate the origin of the coordinate system at the bottom plate and
designate the distance between the two plates as b.

• The constants c1 and c2 can be determined from the no-slip condition, u = 0 at y = 0

and u = U at y = b.
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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Couette Flow
• It follows

Or , in dimensionless form

• The actual velocity profile will depend on the dimensionless parameter

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Couette Flow

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Steady, Axial, Laminar Flow in an Annulus

• Consider axial flow in the annular space between two fixed, concentric cylinders.
Differential equations in the preceding section for flow in a tube also apply in this
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situation.
DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW

Please show!!

Please show!!

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 DIFFERENTIAL ANALYSIS OF FLUID FLOW
Other aspects of Differential Analysis
In vector notation, the NS equations and the continuity equation are expression as

NS equation

Continuity equation

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 THANK YOU

FOR YOUR ATTENTION

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