Abraham Maslow

Abraham Harold Maslow (/ˈmæzloʊ/; April 1, 1908 – June 8,

Abraham Maslow
1970) was an American psychologist who created Maslow's
hierarchy of needs, a theory of psychological health
predicated on fulfilling innate human needs in priority,
culminating in self-actualization.[1] Maslow was a psychology
professor at Brandeis University, Brooklyn College, New
School for Social Research, and Columbia University. He
stressed the importance of focusing on the positive qualities
in people, as opposed to treating them as a "bag of
symptoms".[2] A Review of General Psychology survey,
published in 2002, ranked Maslow as the tenth most cited
psychologist of the 20th century.[3]

Biography

Youth Born Abraham Harold

Maslow
Born in 1908 and raised in Brooklyn, New York, Maslow was April 1, 1908
the oldest of seven children. His parents were first-
Brooklyn, New York,
generation Jewish immigrants from Kiev, then part of the
U.S.
Russian Empire (now Kyiv, Ukraine), who fled from Czarist
persecution in the early 20th century.[4][5] They had decided Died June 8, 1970
to live in New York City and in a multiethnic, working-class (aged 62)
neighborhood.[6] His parents were poor and not Menlo Park,
intellectually focused, but they valued education. He had California, U.S.
various encounters with antisemitic gangs who would chase
Alma mater City College of New
and throw rocks at him.[7] Maslow and other young people
with his background were struggling to overcome such acts York
of racism and ethnic prejudice in the attempt to establish an Cornell University
idealistic world based on widespread education and University of
economic justice.[8] Wisconsin
Known for Maslow's hierarchy of
The tension outside his home was also felt within it, as he
rarely got along with his mother, and eventually developed a needs
strong revulsion towards her. He is quoted as saying, "What I Spouse Bertha Goodman
had reacted to was not only her physical appearance, but Maslow
also her values and world view, her stinginess, her total (m. 1928)​
selfishness, her lack of love for anyone else in the world— Children 2
even her own husband and children—her narcissism, her
Scientific career
Negro prejudice, her exploitation of everyone, her Fields Psychology
assumption that anyone was wrong who disagreed with her,
Institutions Cornell University
her lack of friends, her sloppiness and dirtiness...". He also
grew up with few friends other than his cousin Will, and as a Brooklyn College
result "...[He] grew up in libraries and among books."[9] It Brandeis University
was here that he developed his love for reading and learning.
Columbia University
He went to Boys High School, one of the top high schools in
Brooklyn, where his best friend was his cousin Will Doctoral Harry Harlow
Maslow.[10][11] Here, he served as the officer to many advisor
academic clubs, and became editor of the Latin Magazine. He
Influences Alfred Adler
also edited Principia, the school's Physics paper, for a
year.[12] He developed other strengths as well:

As a young boy, Maslow believed physical strength to be the single most defining
characteristic of a true male; hence, he exercised often and took up weight lifting in
hopes of being transformed into a more muscular, tough-looking guy, however, he
was unable to achieve this due to his humble-looking and chaste figure as well as
his studiousness.[13]

College and university

Maslow attended the City College of New York after high school. In 1926 he began taking legal
studies classes at night in addition to his undergraduate course load. He hated it and almost
immediately dropped out. In 1927 he transferred to Cornell, but he left after just one semester
due to poor grades and high costs.[14] He later graduated from City College and went to
graduate school at the University of Wisconsin to study psychology. In 1928, he married his
first cousin Bertha, who was still in high school at the time. The pair had met in Brooklyn
years earlier.[15]

Maslow's psychology training at UW was decidedly experimental-behaviorist.[16] At Wisconsin

he pursued a line of research which included investigating primate dominance behavior and
sexuality. Maslow's early experience with behaviorism would leave him with a strong
positivist mindset.[17] Upon the recommendation of Professor Hulsey Cason, Maslow wrote his
master's thesis on "learning, retention, and reproduction of verbal material".[18] Maslow
regarded the research as embarrassingly trivial, but he completed his thesis the summer of
1931 and was awarded his master's degree in psychology. He was so ashamed of the thesis that
he removed it from the psychology library and tore out its catalog listing.[19] However,
Professor Cason admired the research enough to urge Maslow to submit it for publication.
Maslow's thesis was published as two articles in 1934.

Academic career

Maslow continued his research at Columbia University on similar themes. There he found
another mentor in Alfred Adler, one of Sigmund Freud's early colleagues. From 1937 to 1951,
Maslow was on the faculty of Brooklyn College. His family life and his experiences influenced
his psychological ideas. After World War II, Maslow began to question the way psychologists
had come to their conclusions, and although he did not completely disagree, he had his own
ideas on how to understand the human mind.[20] He called his new discipline humanistic
psychology. Maslow was already a 33-year-old father and had two children when the United
States entered World War II in 1941. He was thus ineligible for the military. However, the
horrors of war inspired a vision of peace in him leading to his groundbreaking psychological
studies of self-actualizing. The studies began under the supervision of two mentors,
anthropologist Ruth Benedict and Gestalt psychologist Max Wertheimer, whom he admired
both professionally and personally. They accomplished a lot in both realms. Being such
"wonderful human beings" as well, they inspired Maslow to take notes about them and their
behavior. This would be the basis of his lifelong research and thinking about mental health
and human potential.[21]

Maslow extended the subject, borrowing ideas from other psychologists and adding new ones,
such as the concepts of a hierarchy of needs, metaneeds, metamotivation, self-actualizing
persons, and peak experiences. He was a professor at Brandeis University from 1951 to 1969.
He became a resident fellow of the Laughlin Institute in California. In 1967, Maslow had a
serious heart attack and knew his time was limited. He considered himself to be a
psychological pioneer. He gave future psychologists a push by bringing to light different paths
to ponder.[22] He built the framework that later allowed other psychologists to conduct more
comprehensive studies. Maslow believed that leadership should be non-intervening.
Consistent with this approach, he rejected a nomination in 1963 to be the president of the
Association for Humanistic Psychology because he felt that the organization should develop an
intellectual movement without a leader.[23]

Death

While jogging, Maslow had a severe heart attack and died on June 8, 1970, at the age of 62 in
Menlo Park, California.[24][25] He is buried at Mount Auburn Cemetery.

Maslow's contributions

Humanistic psychology

Most psychologists before him had been concerned with the abnormal and the ill. He urged
people to acknowledge their basic needs before addressing higher needs and ultimately self-
actualization. He wanted to know what constituted positive mental health. Humanistic
psychology gave rise to several different therapies, all guided by the idea that people possess
the inner resources for growth and healing and that the point of therapy is to help remove
obstacles to individuals' achieving them. The most famous of these was client-centered
therapy developed by Carl Rogers.

The basic principles behind humanistic psychology are simple:

1. Someone's present functioning is their most significant aspect. As a result, humanists emphasize
the here and now instead of examining the past or attempting to predict the future.
2. To be mentally healthy, individuals must take personal responsibility for their actions, regardless
of whether the actions are positive or negative.
3. Each person, simply by being, is inherently worthy. While any given action may be negative, these
actions do not cancel out the value of a person.
 4. The ultimate goal of living is to attain personal growth and understanding. Only through constant
self-improvement and self-understanding can an individual ever be truly happy.[26]

Humanistic psychology theory suits people who see the positive side of humanity and believe
in free will. This theory clearly contrasts with Freud's theory of biological determinism.
Another significant strength is that humanistic psychology theory is compatible with other
schools of thought. Maslow's Hierarchy is also applicable to other topics, such as finance,
economics, or even in history or criminology. Humanist psychology, also coined positive
psychology, is criticized for its lack of empirical validation and therefore its lack of usefulness
in treating specific problems. It may also fail to help or diagnose people who have severe
mental disorders.[26] Humanistic psychologists believe that every person has a strong desire to
realize their full potential, to reach a level of "self-actualization". The main point of that new
movement, that reached its peak in 1960s, was to emphasize the positive potential of human
beings.[27] Maslow positioned his work as a vital complement to that of Freud:

It is as if Freud supplied us the sick half of psychology and we must now fill it out
with the healthy half.[28]

However, Maslow was highly critical of Freud, since humanistic psychologists did not
recognize spirituality as a navigation for our behaviors.[29]

To prove that humans are not blindly reacting to situations, but trying to accomplish
something greater, Maslow studied mentally healthy individuals instead of people with
serious psychological issues. He focused on self-actualizing people. Self-actualizing people
indicate a coherent personality syndrome and represent optimal psychological health and
functioning.[30]

This informed his theory that a person enjoys "peak experiences", high points in life when the
individual is in harmony with himself and his surroundings. In Maslow's view, self-actualized
people can have many peak experiences throughout a day while others have those
experiences less frequently.[31] He believed that psychedelic drugs like LSD and Psilocybin can
produce peak experiences in the right people under the right circumstances.[32]

Peak and plateau experiences

Beyond the routine of needs fulfillment, Maslow envisioned moments of extraordinary

experience, known as Peak experiences, which are profound moments of love, understanding,
happiness, or rapture, during which a person feels more whole, alive, self-sufficient and yet a
part of the world, more aware of truth, justice, harmony, goodness, and so on. Self-actualizing
people are more likely to have peak experiences. In other words, these "peak experiences" or
states of flow are the reflections of the realization of one's human potential and represent the
height of personality development.[33]

In later writings, Maslow moved to a more inclusive model that allowed for, in addition to
intense peak experiences, longer-lasting periods of serene Being-cognition that he termed
plateau experiences.[34][35] He borrowed this term from the Indian scientist and yoga
practitioner, U. A. Asrani, with whom he corresponded.[36] Maslow stated that the shift from
the peak to the plateau experience is related to the natural aging process, in which an
individual has a shift in life values about what is actually important in one's life and what is
not important. In spite of the personal significance with the plateau experience, Maslow was
not able to conduct a comprehensive study of this phenomenon due to health problems that
developed toward the end of his life.[35]

B-values

In studying accounts of peak experiences, Maslow identified a manner of thought he called

"Being-cognition" (or "B-cognition"), which is holistic and accepting, as opposed to the
evaluative "Deficiency-cognition" (or "D-cognition"), and values he called "Being-values".[37] He
listed the B-values as:

Truth: honesty; reality; simplicity; richness; oughtness; beauty; pure, clean and unadulterated;
completeness; essentiality
Goodness: rightness; desirability; oughtness; justice; benevolence; honesty
Beauty: rightness; form; aliveness; simplicity; richness; wholeness; perfection; completion;
uniqueness; honesty
Wholeness: unity; integration; tendency to one-ness; interconnectedness; simplicity; organization;
structure; dichotomy-transcendence; order
Aliveness: process; non-deadness; spontaneity; self-regulation; full-functioning
Uniqueness: idiosyncrasy; individuality; non-comparability; novelty
Perfection: necessity; just-right-ness; just-so-ness; inevitability; suitability; justice; completeness;
"oughtness"
Completion: ending; finality; justice; "it's finished"; fulfillment; finis and telos; destiny; fate
Justice: fairness; orderliness; lawfulness; "oughtness"
Simplicity: honesty; essentiality; abstract, essential, skeletal structure
Richness: differentiation, complexity; intricacy
Effortlessness: ease; lack of strain, striving or difficulty; grace; perfect, beautiful functioning
Playfulness: fun; joy; amusement; gaiety; humor; exuberance; effortlessness
Self-sufficiency: autonomy; independence; not-needing-other-than-itself-in-order-to-be-itself; self-
determining; environment-transcendence; separateness; living by its own laws

Hierarchy of Needs

Maslow described human needs as ordered in a prepotent hierarchy—a pressing need would
need to be mostly satisfied before someone would give their attention to the next highest need.
None of his published works included a visual representation of the hierarchy. The pyramidal
diagram illustrating the Maslow needs hierarchy may have been created by a psychology
textbook publisher as an illustrative device. This now iconic pyramid frequently depicts the
spectrum of human needs, both physical and psychological, as accompaniment to articles
describing Maslow's needs theory and may give the impression that the Hierarchy of Needs is
a fixed and rigid sequence of progression. Yet, starting with the first publication of his theory
in 1943, Maslow described human needs as being relatively fluid—with many needs being
present in a person simultaneously.[39]

The hierarchy of human needs model suggests that human needs will only be fulfilled one
level at a time.[40]
According to Maslow's theory,
when a human being ascends
the levels of the hierarchy
having fulfilled the needs in
the hierarchy, one may
eventually achieve self-
actualization. Late in life,
Maslow came to conclude that
self-actualization was not an
automatic outcome of
satisfying the other human
needs.[41][42]

Human needs as identified by

Maslow:

At the bottom of the hierarchy

are the "Basic needs or
Physiological needs" of a
human being: food, water, An interpretation of Maslow's hierarchy of needs, represented as a pyramid,
sleep, sex, homeostasis, and with the more basic needs at the bottom[38]
excretion.
The next level is "Safety
Needs: Security, Order, and Stability". These two steps are important to the physical survival of the
person. Once individuals have basic nutrition, shelter and safety, they attempt to accomplish
more.
The third level of need is "Love and Belonging", which are psychological needs; when individuals
have taken care of themselves physically, they are ready to share themselves with others, such as
with family and friends.
The fourth level is achieved when individuals feel comfortable with what they have accomplished.
This is the "Esteem" level, the need to be competent and recognized, such as through status and
level of success.
Then there is the "Cognitive" level, where individuals intellectually stimulate themselves and
explore.
After that is the "Aesthetic" level, which is the need for harmony, order and beauty.[43]
At the top of the pyramid, "Need for Self-actualization" occurs when individuals reach a state of
harmony and understanding because they are engaged in achieving their full potential.[44] Once a
person has reached the self-actualization state they focus on themselves and try to build their
own image. They may look at this in terms of feelings such as self-confidence or by
accomplishing a set goal.[4]

The first four levels are known as Deficit needs or D-needs. This means that if you do not have
enough of one of those four needs, you will have the feeling that you need to get it. But when
you do get them, then you feel content. These needs alone are not motivating.[4]

Maslow wrote that there are certain conditions that must be fulfilled in order for the basic
needs to be satisfied. For example, freedom of speech, freedom to express oneself, and
freedom to seek new information[45] are a few of the prerequisites. Any blockages of these
freedoms could prevent the satisfaction of the basic needs.

[46]
Maslow's Hierarchy is used in higher education for advising students and student retention[46]
as well as a key concept in student development.[47] Maslow's Hierarchy has been subject to
internet memes over the past few years, specifically looking at the modern integration of
technology in our lives and humorously suggesting that Wi-Fi was among the most basic of
human needs.

Self-actualization

Maslow defined Self-actualization as achieving the fullest use of one's talents and interests—
the need "to become everything that one is capable of becoming."[48] As implied by its name,
self-actualization is highly individualistic and reflects Maslow's premise that the self is
"sovereign and inviolable" and entitled to "his or her own tastes, opinions, values, etc."[49]
Indeed, some have characterized self-actualization as "healthy narcissism."[50]

Qualities of self-actualizing people

Maslow realized that the self-actualizing individuals he studied had similar personality traits.
Maslow selected individuals based on his subjective view of them as self-actualized people.
Some of the people he studied included Thomas Jefferson, Abraham Lincoln, and Eleanor
Roosevelt.[51] In his daily journal (1961–63) Maslow wrote: "Eupsychia club, heroes that I write
for, my judges, the ones I want to please: Jefferson, Spinoza, Socrates, Aristotle, James,
Bergson, Norman Thomas, Upton Sinclair (both heroes of my youth)."[52] All were "reality
centered," able to differentiate what was fraudulent from what was genuine. They were also
"problem centered," meaning that they treated life's difficulties as problems that demanded
solutions. These individuals also were comfortable being alone and had healthy personal
relationships. They had only a few close friends and family rather than a large number of
shallow relationships.[53]

Self-actualizing people tend to focus on problems outside themselves; have a clear sense of
what is true and what is false; are spontaneous and creative; and are not bound too strictly by
social conventions.

Maslow noticed that self-actualized individuals had a better insight of reality, deeply accepted
themselves, others and the world, and also had faced many problems and were known to be
impulsive people. These self-actualized individuals were very independent and private when
it came to their environment and culture, especially their very own individual development
on "potentialities and inner resources".[54]

According to Maslow, self-actualizing people share the following qualities:

Truth: honest, reality, beauty, pure, clean and unadulterated completeness

Goodness: rightness, desirability, uprightness, benevolence, honesty
Beauty: rightness, form, aliveness, simplicity, richness, wholeness, perfection, completion,
Wholeness: unity, integration, tendency to oneness, interconnectedness, simplicity, organization,
structure, order, not dissociated, synergy
Dichotomy-transcendence: acceptance, resolution, integration, polarities, opposites,
contradictions
Aliveness: process, not-deadness, spontaneity, self-regulation, full-functioning
Uniqueness: idiosyncrasy, individuality, non comparability, novelty
 Perfection: nothing superfluous, nothing lacking, everything in its right place, just-rightness,
suitability, justice
Necessity: inevitability: it must be just that way, not changed in any slightest way
Completion: ending, justice, fulfillment
Justice: fairness, suitability, disinterestedness, non partiality,
Order: lawfulness, rightness, perfectly arranged
Simplicity: abstract, essential skeletal, bluntness
Richness: differentiation, complexity, intricacy, totality
Effortlessness: ease; lack of strain, striving, or difficulty
Playfulness: fun, joy, amusement
Self-sufficiency: autonomy, independence, self-determining.[55]

Maslow based his theory partially on his own assumptions about human potential and
partially on his case studies of historical figures whom he believed to be self-actualized,
including Albert Einstein and Henry David Thoreau.[56] Consequently, Maslow argued, the way
in which essential needs are fulfilled is just as important as the needs themselves. Together,
these define the human experience. To the extent a person finds cooperative social fulfillment,
he establishes meaningful relationships with other people and the larger world. In other
words, he establishes meaningful connections to an external reality—an essential component
of self-actualization. In contrast, to the extent that vital needs find selfish and competitive
fulfillment, a person acquires hostile emotions and limited external relationships—his
awareness remains internal and limited.

Metamotivation

Maslow used the term metamotivation to describe self-actualized people who are driven by
innate forces beyond their basic needs, so that they may explore and reach their full human
potential.[57] Maslow's theory of motivation gave insight on individuals having the ability to be
motivated by a calling, mission or life purpose. It is noted that metamotivation may also be
connected to what Maslow called B-(being) creativity, which is a creativity that comes from
being motivated by a higher stage of growth. Another type of creativity that was described by
Maslow is known as D-(deficiency) creativity, which suggests that creativity results from an
individual's need to fill a gap that is left by an unsatisfied primary need or the need for
assurance and acceptance.[58]

Methodology

Maslow based his study on the writings of other psychologists, Albert Einstein, and people he
knew who [he felt] clearly met the standard of self-actualization.[59]

Maslow used Einstein's writings and accomplishments to exemplify the characteristics of the
self-actualized person. Ruth Benedict and Max Wertheimer work was also very influential to
Maslow's models of self-actualization.[60] In this case, from a quantitative-sciences perspective
there are numerous problems with this particular approach, which has caused much criticism.
First, it could be argued that biographical analysis as a method is extremely subjective as it is
based entirely on the opinion of the researcher. Personal opinion is always prone to bias,
which reduces the validity of any data obtained. Therefore, Maslow's operational definition of
Self-actualization must not be uncritically accepted as quantitative fact.[61]
Transpersonal psychology

During the 1960s Maslow founded with Stanislav Grof, Viktor Frankl, James Fadiman, Anthony
Sutich, Miles Vich and Michael Murphy, the school of transpersonal psychology. Maslow had
concluded that humanistic psychology was incapable of explaining all aspects of human
experience. He identified various mystical, ecstatic, or spiritual states known as "peak
experiences" as experiences beyond self-actualization. Maslow called these experiences "a
fourth force in psychology", which he named transpersonal psychology. Transpersonal
psychology was concerned with the "empirical, scientific study of, and responsible
implementation of the finding relevant to, becoming, mystical, ecstatic, and spiritual states"
(Olson & Hergenhahn, 2011).[62]

In 1962 Maslow published a collection of papers on this theme,[63] which developed into his
1968 book Toward a Psychology of Being.[62][64] In this book Maslow stresses the importance of
transpersonal psychology to human beings, writing: "without the transpersonal, we get sick,
violent, and nihilistic, or else hopeless and apathetic" (Olson & Hergenhahn, 2011).[62] Human
beings, he came to believe, need something bigger than themselves that they are connected to
in a naturalistic sense, but not in a religious sense: Maslow himself was an atheist[65] and
found it difficult to accept religious experience as valid unless placed in a positivistic
framework.[66] In fact, Maslow's position on God and religion was quite complex. While he
rejected organized religion and its beliefs, he wrote extensively on the human being's need for
the sacred and spoke of God in more philosophical terms, as beauty, truth and goodness, or as
a force or a principle.[67][68]

Awareness of transpersonal psychology became widespread within psychology, and the

Journal of Transpersonal Psychology was founded in 1969, a year after Abraham Maslow
became the president of the American Psychological Association. In the United States,
transpersonal psychology encouraged recognition for non-western psychologies, philosophies,
and religions, and promoted understanding of "higher states of consciousness", for instance
through intense meditation.[69] Transpersonal psychology has been applied in many areas,
including transpersonal business studies.

Positive psychology

Maslow called his work positive psychology.[70] Since 1968 his work has influenced the
development of Positive Psychotherapy, a transcultural, humanistic based psychodynamic
psychotherapy method used in mental health and psychosomatic treatment founded by
Nossrat Peseschkian.[71] Since 1999 Maslow's work enjoyed a revival of interest and influence
among leaders of the positive psychology movement such as Martin Seligman. This movement
focuses only on a higher human nature.[72][73] Positive psychology spends its research looking
at the positive side of things and how they go right rather than the pessimistic side.[74]

Psychology of science

In 1966, Maslow published a pioneering work in the psychology of science, The Psychology of
Science: A Reconnaissance, the first book ever actually titled 'psychology of science'. In this
book Maslow proposed a model of 'characterologically relative' science, which he
characterized as an ardent opposition to the historically, philosophically, sociologically and
psychologically naıve positivistic reluctance to see science relative to time, place, and local
culture.[75]
Maslow acknowledged that the book was greatly inspired by Thomas Kuhn's The Structure of
Scientific Revolutions (1962), and it offers a psychological reading of Kuhn's famous distinction
between "normal" and "revolutionary" science in the context of his own distinction between
"safety" and "growth" science, put forward as part of a larger program for the psychology of
science, outlined already in his 1954 magnum opus Motivation and Personality. Not only that
Maslow offered a psychological reading of Kuhn's categories of "normal" and "revolutionary"
science as an aftermath of Kuhn's Structure, but he also offered a strikingly similar
dichotomous structure of science 16 years before the first edition of Structure, in his nowadays
little known 1946 paper "Means-Centering Versus Problem-Centering in Science" published in
the journal Philosophy of Science.[76][77]

Maslow's hammer

Abraham Maslow is also known for Maslow's hammer, popularly phrased as "if all you have is
a hammer, everything looks like a nail" from his book The Psychology of Science, published in
1966.[78]

Criticism
Maslow's ideas have been criticized for their lack of scientific rigor. He was criticized as too
soft scientifically by American empiricists.[66] In 2006, author and former philosophy
professor Christina Hoff Sommers and practicing psychiatrist Sally Satel asserted that, due to
lack of empirical support, Maslow's ideas have fallen out of fashion and are "no longer taken
seriously in the world of academic psychology."[79] Positive psychology spends much of its
research looking for how things go right rather than the more pessimistic view point, how
things go wrong.[80]

The Hierarchy of Needs has furthermore been accused of having a cultural bias—mainly
reflecting Western values and ideologies. From the perspective of many cultural psychologists,
this concept is considered relative to each culture and society and cannot be universally
applied.[81] However, according to the University of Illinois researchers Ed Diener and Louis
Tay,[82] who put Maslow's ideas to the test with data collected from 60,865 participants in 123
countries around the world over the period of five years (2005-2010), Maslow was essentially
right in that there are universal human needs regardless of cultural differences, although the
authors claim to have found certain departures from the order of their fulfillment Maslow
described. In particular, while they found—clearly in accordance with Maslow—that people
tend to achieve basic and safety needs before other needs, as well as that other "higher needs"
tend to be fulfilled in a certain order, the order in which they are fulfilled apparently does not
strongly influence their subjective well-being (SWB). As put by the authors of the study,
humans thus

can derive 'happiness' from simultaneously working on a number of needs

regardless of the fulfillment of other needs. This might be why people in
impoverished nations, with only modest control over whether their basic needs are
fulfilled, can nevertheless find a measure of well-being through social relationships
and other psychological needs over which they have more control.

— Diener & Tay (2011), p. 364

Maslow, however, would not be surprised by these findings, since he clearly and repeatedly
emphasized that the need hierarchy is not a rigid fixed order as it is often presented:

We have spoken so far as if this hierarchy were a fixed order, but actually it is not
nearly so rigid as we may have implied. It is true that most of the people with whom
we have worked have seemed to have these basic needs in about the order that has
been indicated. However, there have been a number of exceptions.

— Maslow, 'Motivation and Personality' (1970), p. 51

Maslow also regarded that the relationship between different human needs and behavior,
being in fact often motivated simultaneously by multiple needs, is not a one-to-one
correspondence, i.e., that "these needs must be understood not to be exclusive or single
determiners of certain kinds of behavior".[83]

Maslow's concept of self-actualizing people was united with Piaget's developmental theory to
the process of initiation in 1993.[84] Maslow's theory of self-actualization has been met with
significant resistance. The theory itself is crucial to the humanistic branch of psychology and
yet it is widely misunderstood. The concept behind self-actualization is widely misunderstood
and subject to frequent scrutiny.[85]

Maslow was criticized for noting too many exceptions to his theory. As he acknowledged these
exceptions, he did not do much to account for them. Shortly prior to his death, one problem he
tried to resolve was that there are people who have satisfied their deficiency needs but still do
not become self-actualized. He never resolved this inconsistency within his theory.[86]

Bias

Social psychologist David Myers has pointed out Maslow's selection bias, rooted in the choice
to study individuals who lived out his own values. If he had studied other historical heroes,
such as Napoleon, Alexander the Great, and John D. Rockefeller, his descriptions of self-
actualization might have been significantly different.[51]

Legacy
Later in life, Maslow was concerned with questions such as, "Why don't more people self-
actualize if their basic needs are met? How can we humanistically understand the problem of
evil?"[70]

In the spring of 1961, Maslow and Tony Sutich founded the Journal of Humanistic Psychology,
with Miles Vich as editor until 1971.[87] The journal printed its first issue in early 1961 and
continues to publish academic papers.[87]

Maslow attended the Association for Humanistic Psychology's founding meeting in 1963 where
he declined nomination as its president, arguing that the new organization should develop an
intellectual movement without a leader which resulted in useful strategy during the field's
early years.[87]

In 1967, Maslow was named Humanist of the Year by the American Humanist Association.[88]
Writings
Maslow, A. H. (July 1943). "A theory of human motivation". Psychological Review. 50 (4): 370–396.
doi:10.1037/h0054346 (https://doi.org/10.1037%2Fh0054346). S2CID 53326433 (https://api.sem
anticscholar.org/CorpusID:53326433).
Motivation and Personality (1st edition: 1954, 2nd edition: 1970, 3rd edition 1987)
Religions, Values, and Peak Experiences, Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 1964.
Eupsychian Management, 1965; republished as Maslow on Management, 1998
The Psychology of Science: A Reconnaissance, New York: Harper & Row, 1966; Chapel Hill: Maurice
Bassett, 2002.
Toward a Psychology of Being, (1st edition, 1962; 2nd edition, 1968; 3rd edition, 1999)
The Farther Reaches of Human Nature, 1971
Future Visions: The Unpublished Papers of Abraham Maslow by E. L. Hoffman (editor) 1996
Personality and Growth: A Humanistic Psychologist in the Classroom, Anna Maria, FL: Maurice
Bassett, 2019.

See also
Clayton Alderfer
Psychology portal
Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
Frederick Herzberg
Human Potential Movement
Law of the instrument
Manfred Max-Neef
Rollo May
Organismic theory
Organizational behavior
Positive Disintegration
Post-materialism
Reverence
Self-esteem
Victor Vroom
Erich Fromm
Humanistic psychology

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Berger, Kathleen Stassen (1983). The Developing Person through the Life Span.
Goble, F. (1970). The Third Force: The Psychology of Abraham Maslow. Richmond, CA: Maurice
Bassett Publishing.
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Psychology. 48 (4): 448–451. doi:10.1177/0022167808320535 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F00221
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Fall 2008 vol. 48 no. 4 443-444, New York: McGraw-Hill
Sommers, Christina Hoff; Satel, Sally (2006). One Nation Under Therapy: How the Helping Culture is
Eroding Self-reliance. MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-312-30444-7.

Further reading
Cooke, B; Mills, A; Kelley, E (2005). "Situating Maslow in Cold War America". Group and
Organization Management. 30 (2): 129–152. doi:10.1177/1059601104273062 (https://doi.org/10.
1177%2F1059601104273062). S2CID 146365008 (https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1463
65008).
DeCarvalho, Roy Jose (1991) The Founders of Humanistic Psychology. Praeger Publishers
Grogan, Jessica (2012) Encountering America: Humanistic Psychology, Sixties Culture, and the
Shaping of the Modern Self. Harper Perennial
Hoffman, Edward (1999) The Right to Be Human. McGraw-Hill ISBN 0-07-134267-2
Wahba, M.A.; Bridwell, L. G. (1976). "Maslow Reconsidered: A Review of Research on the Need
Hierarchy Theory". Organizational Behavior and Human Performance. 15 (2): 212–240.
doi:10.1016/0030-5073(76)90038-6 (https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0030-5073%2876%2990038-6).
Wilson, Colin (1972) New Pathways in Psychology: Maslow and the post-Freudian revolution.
London: Victor Gollancz ISBN 0-575-01355-9

External links
Comprehensive bibliography of Maslow's works (https://web.archive.org/web/20051203221954/h
ttp://www.maslow.org/sub/m_bib.htm)
 "Maslow's Vision of Human Nature" (https://web.archive.org/web/20071022173753/http://faculty.
vassar.edu/lowry/maslow1.html) adapted from the Editor's Introduction to Toward a Psychology of
Being (3rd ed.)
Excerpts from Toward a Psychology of Being, 2nd ed. (http://www.panarchy.org/maslow/being.195
5.html)
Works by or about Abraham Maslow (https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%
22Maslow%2C%20Abraham%20Harold%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Maslow%2C%20Abraham%
20H%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Maslow%2C%20A%2E%20H%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3
A%22Abraham%20Harold%20Maslow%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Abraham%20H%2E%20Masl
ow%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22A%2E%20H%2E%20Maslow%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Mas
low%2C%20Abraham%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Abraham%20Maslow%22%20OR%20creator%
3A%22Abraham%20Harold%20Maslow%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Abraham%20H%2E%20Mas
low%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22A%2E%20H%2E%20Maslow%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22A%2
E%20Harold%20Maslow%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Maslow%2C%20Abraham%20Harold%22%
20OR%20creator%3A%22Maslow%2C%20Abraham%20H%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Masl
ow%2C%20A%2E%20H%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Maslow%2C%20A%2E%20Harold%22%
20OR%20creator%3A%22Abraham%20Maslow%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Maslow%2C%20Abr
aham%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Abraham%20Harold%20Maslow%22%20OR%20title%3A%22Abra
ham%20H%2E%20Maslow%22%20OR%20title%3A%22A%2E%20H%2E%20Maslow%22%20OR%20
title%3A%22Abraham%20Maslow%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Abraham%20Harold%20Masl
ow%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Abraham%20H%2E%20Maslow%22%20OR%20description%
3A%22A%2E%20H%2E%20Maslow%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Maslow%2C%20Abraham%
20Harold%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Maslow%2C%20Abraham%20H%2E%22%20OR%20de
scription%3A%22Abraham%20Maslow%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Maslow%2C%20Abraha
m%22%29%20OR%20%28%221908-1970%22%20AND%20Maslow%29%29%20AND%20%28-media
type:software%29) at Internet Archive
Works by Abraham Maslow (https://librivox.org/author/3653) at LibriVox (public domain
audiobooks)
Abraham Maslow Audio Collection (http://www.abrahammaslow.com/podcasts.html)
Being Abraham Maslow (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sfmo04EZP3o) on YouTube. Rare
documentary about Abraham Maslow in a conversation with Warren Bennis of the University of
Cincinnati from 1968.
Psychology History – Abraham Maslow, Compiled by Michelle Emrich (https://web.archive.org/we
b/20151220204237/http://www.muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/maslow.htm)

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abraham_Maslow&oldid=1188369674"