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 MEMBRANE
BIOREACTOR
PROCESSES
P R I NCI P LE S AND A P P L I C AT I O N S

Seong-Hoon Yoon
 MEMBRANE
BIOREACTOR
PROCESSES
P R I NCI P LE S AND A P P L I C AT I O N S
Advances in Water and Wastewater
Transport and Treatment
A SERIES

Series Editor
Amy J. Forsgren
Xylem, Sweden

Membrane Bioreactor Processes: Principles and Applications

Seong-Hoon Yoon
Wastewater Treatment: Occurrence and Fate of Polycyclic
Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs)
Amy J. Forsgren
Harmful Algae Blooms in Drinking Water: Removal of
Cyanobacterial Cells and Toxins
Harold W. Walker

ADDITIONAL VOLUMES IN PREPARATION

 MEMBRANE
BIOREACTOR
PROCESSES
P R I NCI P LE S AND A P P L I C AT I O N S

Seong-Hoon Yoon
CRC Press
Taylor & Francis Group
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300
Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742
© 2016 by Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, an Informa business

No claim to original U.S. Government works

Version Date: 20150521

International Standard Book Number-13: 978-1-4822-5584-3 (eBook - PDF)

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To my wife, Mihyun Choi
Contents
Preface............................................................................................................................................xvii
Author..............................................................................................................................................xix

Chapter 1 Principle of Membrane Filtration..................................................................................1

1.1 Classification of Filtration.................................................................................. 1
1.1.1 Surface Filtration and Depth Filtration................................................. 1
1.1.2 Crossflow Filtration and Dead-End Filtration.......................................1
1.2 Filtration Theory................................................................................................ 3
1.2.1 Concentration Polarization.................................................................... 3
1.2.2 Resistance in Series Model................................................................... 5
1.2.3 Cake Layer Compaction........................................................................6
1.2.3.1 Mechanism.............................................................................6
1.2.3.2 Structure of Cake Layer......................................................... 7
1.2.3.3 Model Equation..................................................................... 8
1.2.3.4 Self-Acceleration of Cake Layer Compaction under
Constant Flux Mode..............................................................9
1.2.4 Dynamic Membrane..............................................................................9
1.2.5 Particle Back-Transport....................................................................... 12
1.2.5.1 Overview.............................................................................. 12
1.2.5.2 Brownian Diffusion............................................................. 13
1.2.5.3 Shear-Induced Diffusion...................................................... 13
1.2.5.4 Inertial Lift.......................................................................... 14
1.2.5.5 Total Back-Transport Velocity and Critical Flux................. 15
1.2.5.6 Effect on Cake Layer Structure........................................... 16
1.2.6 Critical Flux........................................................................................ 18
1.2.6.1 Definition............................................................................. 18
1.2.6.2 Measurement........................................................................ 18
1.2.7 Effect of TMP on Flux........................................................................ 19
1.2.7.1 Theory.................................................................................. 19
1.2.7.2 Where Do Submerged and Sidestream Membranes
Stand in the Curve?.............................................................. 21
1.2.8 Effect of Membrane Resistance on Operating Flux............................ 21
1.2.9 Effect of Temperature on Flux............................................................ 23
1.2.10 Filtration Theory for Nonporous Membrane.......................................24
1.3 Membrane Fouling...........................................................................................26
1.3.1 Constant Flux versus Constant Pressure.............................................26
1.3.2 Membrane Fouling Roadmap.............................................................. 27
1.3.2.1 Constant Flux Mode............................................................ 27
1.3.2.2 Constant Pressure Mode......................................................28
1.3.2.3 Sudden TMP Increase......................................................... 29
1.4 Effect of Membrane Surface Property on Flux................................................ 31
1.4.1 Streaming Zeta Potential of Membrane Surface................................. 31
1.4.1.1 Definition and Measurement............................................... 31
1.4.1.2 Effect of Zeta Potential on Membrane Fouling................... 33

vii
viii Contents

1.4.2 Contact Angle......................................................................................34

1.4.2.1 Theory..................................................................................34
1.4.2.2 Effect of Contact Angle on Membrane Fouling.................. 36
1.4.3 Surface Roughness.............................................................................. 37
1.4.4 Pore Size and Distribution................................................................... 39
1.4.5 Internal Pore Connectivity.................................................................. 41
1.4.6 Limitation of the Theory..................................................................... 41
1.5 Membrane Chemistry and Manufacturing....................................................... 42
1.5.1 Membrane Structure............................................................................ 42
1.5.2 Membrane Chemistry.......................................................................... 43
1.5.3 Porous Membrane Manufacturing...................................................... 45
1.6 Why Is Increasing Flux Hard in Membrane Process?...................................... 47
1.6.1 History of Flux.................................................................................... 47
1.6.2 Self-Limiting Nature of Flux.............................................................. 48
1.6.3 Economic Constraints on Flux............................................................ 49

Chapter 2 Membrane Process...................................................................................................... 51

2.1 Classification of Membrane Process................................................................ 51
2.1.1 Depending on Pore Size...................................................................... 51
2.1.2 Membrane and Module Configuration................................................ 53
2.1.3 Sidestream MBR versus Submerged MBR......................................... 58
2.1.3.1 Sidestream MBR.................................................................. 58
2.1.3.2 Submerged MBR................................................................. 59
2.1.4 Integrated versus Separated Membrane Tank.....................................60
2.2 Hollow Fiber Membranes................................................................................. 62
2.2.1 Outside-In versus Inside-Out Filtration Mode.................................... 62
2.2.1.1 Outside-In Mode.................................................................. 62
2.2.1.2 Inside-Out Mode.................................................................. 63
2.2.2 Internal Pressure Loss.........................................................................64
2.2.2.1 Overview..............................................................................64
2.2.2.2 Theory..................................................................................64
2.2.2.3 Internal Pressure and Flux Profile as a Function of
Average Flux........................................................................66
2.2.2.4 Road Map of Flux Profile in Hollow Fibers........................ 67
2.2.2.5 Effect of Internal Pressure Drop in Crossflow and
Dead-End Modes................................................................. 70
2.2.2.6 Commercial Modules.......................................................... 71
2.3 Flat Sheet Modules........................................................................................... 72
2.4 Tubular Membrane........................................................................................... 74
2.4.1 Tubular Membranes with Single-Phase Flow..................................... 74
2.4.1.1 Optimization Issue............................................................... 74
2.4.1.2 Optimization of System Design and Operation................... 76
2.4.2 Tubular Membranes with Two-Phase Flow......................................... 77
2.4.2.1 Horizontally Mounted Tubular Membrane at High
Crossflow Velocity............................................................... 77
2.4.2.2 Vertically Mounted Tubular Membrane at Low
Crossflow Velocity............................................................... 77
2.5 Submerged Rotating Disc Modules..................................................................80
2.6 Filtration of Water with a Low Amount of Suspended Solids......................... 81
Contents ix

2.6.1 Pressure Filtration............................................................................... 81

2.6.2 Vacuum Filtration................................................................................ 82
2.6.3 Effect of Flux on System Performance............................................... 82
2.6.4 Pathogen Removal............................................................................... 83
2.6.4.1 Log Removal Value............................................................. 83
2.6.4.2 Virus Removal.....................................................................84
2.6.4.3 Coliform Removal............................................................... 86
2.7 Membrane Integrity Monitoring...................................................................... 86
2.7.1 Overview............................................................................................. 86
2.7.2 Direct Method..................................................................................... 88
2.7.2.1 Bubble Point Test................................................................. 88
2.7.2.2 Pressure Decay Test.............................................................90
2.7.2.3 Diffusive Air Flow Test.......................................................92
2.7.2.4 Vacuum Decay Test.............................................................92
2.7.3 Indirect Method................................................................................... 93
2.7.3.1 Turbidity Monitoring........................................................... 93
2.7.3.2 Particle Counting................................................................. 93
2.7.3.3 Microbial Challenge Test..................................................... 93
2.7.3.4 Nanoparticle Challenge Tests..............................................94
2.8 Membrane Suppliers.........................................................................................94

Chapter 3 Submerged Membrane Process...................................................................................97

3.1 Overview..........................................................................................................97
3.2 Operation of Submerged Membrane................................................................ 98
3.2.1 Permeate Drawing............................................................................... 98
3.2.1.1 Intermittent Permeate Drawing........................................... 98
3.2.1.2 Gravity-Driven Permeate Drawing...................................... 98
3.2.2 Intermittent Aeration...........................................................................99
3.2.2.1 Intermittent Aeration with Defined Cycle...........................99
3.2.2.2 Intermittent Aeration with Undefined Cycle..................... 102
3.2.3 Specific Air Demand and Specific Energy Demand......................... 104
3.2.4 Removal Efficiency........................................................................... 106
3.2.4.1 Effluent Quality................................................................. 106
3.2.4.2 Heavy Metals Removal...................................................... 108
3.2.5 Membrane Cleaning.......................................................................... 109
3.2.5.1 Backwashing...................................................................... 109
3.2.5.2 Maintenance Cleaning....................................................... 109
3.2.5.3 Recovery Cleaning............................................................ 110
3.2.6 Diffuser Cleaning and Maintenance................................................. 112
3.3 Fundamentals of Air Scouring in Submerged Membrane............................. 114
3.3.1 Membrane Scouring Mechanism...................................................... 114
3.3.2 Effect of Airflow on Membrane Fouling.......................................... 117
3.3.3 Effect of Bubble Size on Flux........................................................... 119
3.3.3.1 Overview............................................................................ 119
3.3.3.2 Flat Sheet........................................................................... 119
3.3.3.3 Hollow Fiber...................................................................... 123
3.4 Optimization of Submerged Hollow Fiber Module........................................ 124
3.4.1 Effect of Fiber Looseness.................................................................. 124
3.4.2 Effect of Fiber Flexibility.................................................................. 126
x Contents

3.4.3 Effect of Internal Pressure Loss........................................................ 128

3.4.3.1 Membrane Fouling Induced by Internal Pressure Loss.... 128
3.4.3.2 Advantages of Long and Thin Hollow Fibers................... 128
3.4.3.3 A New Direction to Improve Hollow Fiber Membrane
Performance....................................................................... 129
3.4.4 Hollow Fiber Dimension Optimization............................................. 130
3.4.5 Packing Density................................................................................. 132
3.4.5.1 Effect of Packing Density on Productivity........................ 132
3.4.5.2 Packing Density of Commercial Modules......................... 133
3.4.6 Effect of Fiber Location.................................................................... 133
3.4.7 Vertical Mount versus Horizontal Mount......................................... 135
3.4.8 Header Design................................................................................... 136
3.4.8.1 Bottom Header................................................................... 136
3.4.8.2 Open Top Header............................................................... 137
3.4.9 Connections among the Factors Affecting Module Optimization.... 138
3.5 Optimization of Submerged Flat Sheet Membrane........................................ 140
3.5.1 Overview........................................................................................... 140
3.5.2 Design Parameters............................................................................. 140
3.5.3 Upflow Pattern and Its Effect on Fouling.......................................... 141
3.5.4 Modified Module Design.................................................................. 143

Chapter 4 Activated Sludge Process.......................................................................................... 145

4.1 Overview........................................................................................................ 145
4.2 Wastewater Microbiology............................................................................... 147
4.2.1 Microorganisms................................................................................ 147
4.2.1.1 Virus.................................................................................. 147
4.2.1.2 Prokaryote.......................................................................... 147
4.2.1.3 Eukaryote........................................................................... 149
4.2.2 Bacterial Composition and Nutrient Requirement............................ 150
4.2.3 Kinetics............................................................................................. 152
4.2.4 Distinguished Microbial Properties of MBR from CAS.................. 154
4.3 Operational Issues.......................................................................................... 155
4.3.1 Foaming............................................................................................. 155
4.3.2 Sludge Bulking.................................................................................. 157
4.3.3 Sludge Rise in the Secondary Clarifier in CAS................................ 158
4.3.4 Chemical Treatment.......................................................................... 158
4.3.5 Effect of Foaming, Sludge Bulking, and Pin Floc in MBR.............. 159
4.4 Nitrogen Removal........................................................................................... 161
4.4.1 Nitrification....................................................................................... 161
4.4.1.1 Mechanism......................................................................... 161
4.4.1.2 Effect of pH and Alkalinity............................................... 162
4.4.1.3 Temperature Effect............................................................ 163
4.4.1.4 Dissolved Oxygen Effect................................................... 163
4.4.2 Denitrification................................................................................... 164
4.4.2.1 Effect of Oxidation Reduction Potential............................ 164
4.4.2.2 Requirement of Readily Biodegradable COD................... 165
4.4.2.3 Oxygen Credit from Denitrification.................................. 166
4.4.2.4 Alkalinity Production from Denitrification....................... 166
4.4.2.5 Simultaneous Nitrification and Denitrification................. 166
Contents xi

4.5 Phosphorus Removal...................................................................................... 167

4.5.1 Biological Phosphorus Removal........................................................ 167
4.5.2 Chemical Phosphorus Removal........................................................ 169
4.5.2.1 Overview............................................................................ 169
4.5.2.2 Chemicals Used................................................................. 169
4.5.2.3 Mechanism......................................................................... 170
4.5.2.4 Factors Affecting Removal Efficiency.............................. 171
4.5.2.5 Effect of the Me/P Ratio on Removal Efficiency.............. 174
4.5.2.6 Toxicity of Inorganic Coagulant........................................ 175
4.6 BNR Process................................................................................................... 176
4.6.1 Constraints in Process Design........................................................... 176
4.6.2 MLE Process..................................................................................... 177
4.6.3 Hyundai Advanced Nutrient Treatment Process............................... 178
4.6.4 Modified UCT Process...................................................................... 179
4.6.5 Step Feed Process.............................................................................. 181
4.6.6 Case Studies...................................................................................... 182
4.6.6.1 Traverse City, Michigan, USA........................................... 182
4.6.6.2 Nordkanal, Germany (Brepols 2011)................................. 185
4.7 Posttreatment.................................................................................................. 188
4.7.1 Disinfection....................................................................................... 188
4.7.2 Advanced Oxidation Process for Trace Organic Removal............... 190
4.7.3 Adsorption......................................................................................... 191
4.7.3.1 Principle............................................................................. 191
4.7.3.2 Application for the Secondary Effluent Treatment............ 192
4.8 Rheology of Mixed Liquor............................................................................. 193

Chapter 5 Membrane Fouling in Membrane Bioreactor............................................................ 197

5.1 Overview........................................................................................................ 197
5.2 Factors Affecting Membrane Performance.................................................... 197
5.2.1 Mixed Liquor Suspended Solids....................................................... 197
5.2.2 SMP and EPS.................................................................................... 199
5.2.2.1 Definition and Quantification............................................ 199
5.2.2.2 Effect on Membrane Fouling............................................. 201
5.2.3 Organic Loading............................................................................... 203
5.2.3.1 Effect of F/M Ratio on Membrane Fouling....................... 203
5.2.3.2 Effect of F/M Ratio on SMP/EPS......................................204
5.2.3.3 Effect of F/M Ratio on Membrane Fouling in
Anaerobic MBR.................................................................204
5.2.3.4 Effect on Subsequent Reverse Osmosis Membrane
Fouling in Water Recycle..................................................206
5.2.4 Dissolved Oxygen..............................................................................206
5.2.5 Fat, Oil, and Grease...........................................................................207
5.2.6 Antifoam...........................................................................................208
5.2.7 Effect of Unsteady Operation............................................................208
5.2.7.1 Normal Fluctuation of F/M Ratio......................................208
5.2.7.2 Shock Hydraulic Loading.................................................. 210
5.2.7.3 Shock Organic Loading at Low DO.................................. 212
5.2.7.4 Shock Organic Loading at High DO................................. 213
5.2.8 Water Temperature............................................................................ 213
xii Contents

5.2.9 Salinity.............................................................................................. 214

5.2.10 Shear Stress....................................................................................... 217
5.2.10.1 MBR with Submerged Membrane..................................... 217
5.2.10.2 MBR with Sidestream Membranes.................................... 217
5.2.11 Nutrient Balance................................................................................ 218
5.2.12 Scaling............................................................................................... 220
5.3 Mixed Liquor Characterization...................................................................... 221
5.3.1 Overview........................................................................................... 221
5.3.2 Direct Method................................................................................... 221
5.3.2.1 Free Drainage Test............................................................. 221
5.3.2.2 Time to Filter..................................................................... 222
5.3.2.3 Modified Free Drainage Test............................................. 222
5.3.2.4 Modified Fouling Index..................................................... 222
5.3.2.5 Delft Filtration Characterization Method..........................224
5.3.3 Indirect Method................................................................................. 225
5.3.3.1 Capillary Suction Time...................................................... 225
5.3.3.2 Colloidal TOC................................................................... 226
5.3.3.3 Particle Size Analysis........................................................ 227
5.3.3.4 Hydrophobicity of Floc...................................................... 227
5.4 Methods to Reduce Fouling........................................................................... 228
5.4.1 Use of Biocarrier (Biofilm-MBR)..................................................... 228
5.4.2 Use of Inorganic Coagulants and Adsorbents................................... 230
5.4.3 Use of Water-Soluble Polymers......................................................... 231
5.4.4 Experimental Methods...................................................................... 233
5.4.4.1 Quorum Quenching........................................................... 233
5.4.4.2 Vibration of Membrane or Mixed Liquor.......................... 234
5.4.4.3 Electrical Field................................................................... 236
5.4.4.4 Ultrasonication.................................................................. 236
5.4.4.5 Intermittent Ozone Sparging............................................. 237
5.5 Effect of Flow Balancing on Membrane Performance................................... 237
5.5.1 Scouring Air...................................................................................... 237
5.5.1.1 Cause of Unbalanced Scouring Air................................... 237
5.5.1.2 Consequence...................................................................... 239
5.5.2 Permeate Drawing............................................................................. 239
5.5.3 Mixed Liquor Circulation..................................................................240
5.6 Excess Sludge Reduction Process.................................................................. 241
5.6.1 Principle............................................................................................ 241
5.6.2 Sludge Reduction by Extending SRT: Economic Aspect.................. 242
5.6.3 Sludge Disintegration Methods......................................................... 243
5.6.3.1 Biological Method............................................................. 243
5.6.3.2 Chemical Method.............................................................. 243
5.6.3.3 Physicochemical Method................................................... 245
5.6.4 Effect of Sludge Reduction Process on Nutrient Removal................246
5.6.5 Effect of Sludge Reduction Process on Membrane Fouling............. 247
5.6.6 Economics of Biosolid Reduction Process........................................248
5.7 Scalability of MBR from Laboratory Scale to Full Scale.............................. 250

Chapter 6 MBR Design.............................................................................................................. 253

6.1 Lessons Learned from History....................................................................... 253
6.2 Pretreatment................................................................................................... 254
Contents xiii

6.3 Biological System Design............................................................................... 256

6.3.1 Organic Loading Rate or F/M Ratio................................................. 256
6.3.2 HRT/SRT........................................................................................... 258
6.3.3 Oxygen Uptake Rate......................................................................... 258
6.3.4 Sludge Yield...................................................................................... 259
6.3.5 Oxygen Demand................................................................................ 262
6.3.5.1 Overall Reaction................................................................ 262
6.3.5.2 Oxygen Demand Calculation............................................. 263
6.3.6 Comparison of CSTR with PFR........................................................ 265
6.3.6.1 Mixing Patterns in CSTR and PFR................................... 265
6.3.6.2 Advantages and Disadvantages of PFR in the CAS
Process............................................................................... 267
6.3.6.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of PFR in the MBR
Process............................................................................... 267
6.4 Membrane System.......................................................................................... 269
6.4.1 Flux and Membrane Area................................................................. 269
6.4.2 Specific Air Demand......................................................................... 270
6.4.3 Air Scouring System......................................................................... 270
6.5 Oxygen Transfer Efficiency............................................................................ 272
6.5.1 Theory............................................................................................... 272
6.5.1.1 Standardized Oxygen Transfer Efficiency......................... 272
6.5.1.2 OTE Estimation in Process Water/Mixed Liquor............. 273
6.5.2 Factors Affecting OTE...................................................................... 275
6.5.2.1 Diffuser Pore Size.............................................................. 275
6.5.2.2 Airflow Rate...................................................................... 276
6.5.2.3 Spatial Distribution of Diffuser......................................... 277
6.5.2.4 Diffuser Fouling................................................................ 277
6.5.2.5 MLSS and Viscosity.......................................................... 278
6.5.2.6 SRT and F/M Ratio............................................................ 278
6.5.2.7 Foaming.............................................................................280
6.5.2.8 Biocarriers and Flow Pattern in Aeration Tank................. 282
6.5.3 OTE Measurement............................................................................ 283
6.5.3.1 Non–Steady State Absorption Method.............................. 283
6.5.3.2 Non–Steady State Desorption Method.............................. 285
6.5.3.3 Steady State Method.......................................................... 286
6.6 Oxygen Balance in MBR................................................................................ 287
6.7 Peak Flow Handling....................................................................................... 288
6.8 Aeration Optimization.................................................................................... 290
6.9 Planning Hydraulic Grade Line..................................................................... 291
6.10 Membrane Life Span...................................................................................... 292
6.10.1 Factors Affecting Membrane Life..................................................... 292
6.10.2 Manufacturer’s Estimation................................................................ 293
6.10.3 Third Parties’ Estimation.................................................................. 294
6.11 Trace Organics Removal................................................................................ 296
6.11.1 Removal Mechanism......................................................................... 296
6.11.2 Factors Affecting Removal Efficiency.............................................. 297
6.11.2.1 Effect of Hydrophobicity of Compound............................ 297
6.11.2.2 Effect of Temperature........................................................ 298
6.11.2.3 Effect of SRT..................................................................... 298
6.11.3 Removal Efficiency........................................................................... 299
6.11.4 Comparison with CAS Process......................................................... 299
xiv Contents

6.12 Oily Wastewater Treatment............................................................................ 301

6.12.1 Pretreatment...................................................................................... 301
6.12.2 Produced Water................................................................................. 303
6.12.2.1 Characteristics of Produced Water.................................... 303
6.12.2.2 Optimum Design Parameters............................................304
6.12.2.3 Treatment Efficiency..........................................................304
6.12.3 Petroleum Refinery Wastewater........................................................ 305
6.13 Excess Sludge Treatment................................................................................306
6.13.1 Overview...........................................................................................306
6.13.2 Sludge Pretreatment..........................................................................306
6.13.3 Sludge Thickening or Dewatering.....................................................309
6.13.4 Sludge Stabilization........................................................................... 312
6.13.5 Sludge Disposal................................................................................. 313
6.14 Practical Issues in MBR Design..................................................................... 314
6.15 Power Costs.................................................................................................... 316
6.15.1 Blower................................................................................................ 316
6.15.2 Pump................................................................................................. 318
6.15.3 Motor................................................................................................. 319
6.15.4 Power Factor...................................................................................... 319
6.15.5 Price of Electrical Power................................................................... 321
6.15.6 Case Example No. 1: MBR with Submerged Membranes................ 321
6.15.6.1 Condition and Assumption................................................ 321
6.15.6.2 Results................................................................................ 323
6.15.7 Case Example No. 2: MBR with Crossflow Membranes.................. 324
6.16 Capital Expenditure........................................................................................ 328
6.17 SED of Submerged MBR............................................................................... 329
6.18 Operating Expenditure................................................................................... 331

Chapter 7 Other Applications.................................................................................................... 333

7.1 Direct Membrane Filtration of Wastewater.................................................... 333
7.1.1 Overview........................................................................................... 333
7.1.2 DMF Based on Tubular Membrane................................................... 333
7.1.3 DMF Based on Submerged Membrane............................................. 334
7.2 Membrane Contactors for Gas Transfer......................................................... 336
7.2.1 Overview........................................................................................... 336
7.2.2 Fundamental Issues Associated with Membrane Contactors...........340
7.2.2.1 Lumen Condensation.........................................................340
7.2.2.2 Pore Wetting...................................................................... 341
7.2.2.3 Biofilm Control Issue......................................................... 342
7.2.3 Water Vapor Condensation Modeling............................................... 342
7.2.4 Oxoanion Removal............................................................................ 343
7.2.5 Membrane Distillation...................................................................... 345
7.3 Membrane Process for Water Reclamation....................................................348
7.3.1 Nonpotable Reuse..............................................................................348
7.3.2 CAS Microfiltration or Ultrafiltration versus MBR as a
Pretreatment of Reverse Osmosis...................................................... 350
7.3.3 Indirect Potable Reuse....................................................................... 353
7.3.3.1 Concept.............................................................................. 353
7.3.3.2 Reclaimed Water Quality.................................................. 354
7.3.3.3 Groundwater Replenishment System................................. 355
Contents xv

7.3.4 Membrane Integrity Test/Monitoring............................................... 356

7.3.4.1 Overview............................................................................ 356
7.3.4.2 Method of Using Conductivity, TOC, and Sulfate............ 356
7.3.4.3 Method of Using Fluorescent Dye..................................... 357
7.4 Anaerobic MBR.............................................................................................. 359
7.4.1 Overview........................................................................................... 359
7.4.2 Biological Aspect of AD................................................................... 362
7.4.3 Advantages and Disadvantages over Conventional AD.................... 363
7.4.4 Membrane Fouling............................................................................ 365
7.4.5 Design of Mesophilic AnMBR......................................................... 366
7.5 High-Retention Membrane Bioreactor........................................................... 368
7.5.1 MBR with Nanofiltration Membrane................................................ 368
7.5.2 Application of Forward Osmosis to MBR......................................... 370
7.5.2.1 Principle of Forward Osmosis........................................... 370
7.5.2.2 Challenges of FO............................................................... 371
7.5.2.3 Energetics.......................................................................... 373
7.5.2.4 FOMBR............................................................................. 374
7.6 MBR with Woven or Nonwoven Textile Filter............................................... 376
7.6.1 Overview........................................................................................... 376
7.6.2 Factors Affecting the Performance................................................... 377
7.6.3 Operating Experiences in Literature................................................. 378
7.7 Thermophilic MBR........................................................................................ 380
References...................................................................................................................................... 383
Abbreviations................................................................................................................................407
Unit Conversion............................................................................................................................. 411
Preface
Membrane bioreactor (MBR) processes are one of the most successful commercial applications of
membrane technology along with membrane-based desalination, water clarification, process solu-
tions, etc. The knowledge base of MBR has expanded rapidly as the surging number of research
papers suggests in recent decades. Alongside, however, the gaps between the leading edge academic
research and the industrial practices have widened. Many key aspects of the innovations made in
industry are not a subject of open discussion, and as a result, those have only limited influences on
academic researches. Meanwhile, the main stream academic researches have evolved following
their own direction. Due to the diverging interests, MBR technology is not fully described in the
traditional scientific literature.
Hoping to fill the gap, I started a personal project of launching an MBR blog in 2011, i.e.,
http://www.onlinembr.info. I tried to explain the practical aspects of MBR technology based
on scientific principles as much as possible. The principles of commercial products/processes
were also described based on the knowledge obtained from relevant patent applications, con-
ference proceedings, and personal analyses. The open-source knowledge sharing through the
website turned out to be a great success, having more than 200 unique visitors a day globally,
almost equally distributed among the Americas, Europe, and Asia. The questions and comments I
received were a great source of new information and inspiration. With numerous encouragements
from audiences, I took courage to author this book. The contents in the blog were thoroughly
reviewed and modified with additional fillers to make the contents more rigorous and complete.
This book is written with an emphasis on the principles behind the scene instead of simply
introducing the way MBR works. Readers will learn the theoretical and practical backgrounds
of current practices involved with membrane module design, biological and membrane system
design, system optimization, and system operation. Chapters 1 and 2 are about the fundamen-
tals of membrane filtration relevant to MBR. Chapter 2 is specifically about the principles of
submerged membranes. Readers will learn why submerged and cross-flow membranes should
be operated at the conditions they are operated today and how the filtration performance can be
improved. In the next two chapters (Chapters 4 and 5), readers will also learn about the biologi-
cal principles that are closely related to the membrane performance. MBR design principles are
discussed in Chapter 6. All other MBR-related topics are discussed in Chapter 7. Covering the
available knowledge as much as possible, I hope this book gives a more holistic view on MBR
to audiences.
I am indebted greatly to the professors, engineers, and colleagues who helped directly or
indirectly in preparing this book. I would like to thank, in particular, professors Chung-Hak
Lee (Seoul National University, Korea), Icktae Yeom (Sungkyunkwan University, Korea), and
Hyungsoo Kim (Sungkyunkwan University, Korea) for the inspirations and comments they gave
me in the last two decades. I also thank all of my colleagues in Nalco, a company of Ecolab,
for their support. In particular, I appreciate John Collins and Jelte Lanting for sharing with me
their more than 30 years of expertise in water treatment with me. I profited greatly from the
discussions with Youngseck Hong (GE), Sangho Lee (Kookmin University, Korea), Hyung Hoon
(CH2M Hill), Yeomin Yoon (University of South Carolina, USA), and Hosang Lee (Asahi Kasei).
I also thank the companies and publishers that provided me with figures and pictures. I would
also like to gratefully acknowledge the use of the incredibly vast and versatile knowledge plat-
form provided by Google Inc., including search engine, cloud storage, email, picture editing, etc.
Furthermore, I thank Taylor & Francis/CRC Press, in particular, series editor Amy Forsgren,

xvii
xviii Preface

editor­Irma Britton, and coordinator Hayley Ruggieri, for their great care and dedication in pre-
paring this book. I also want to thank Ms. Amor Nanas of Manila Typesetting Company for her
excellent and meticulous works.
Finally, I thank my family, Mihyun Choi, Seungjoon, Seungmin, and Inkyung, for their love,
moral support, and patience.

Seong-Hoon Yoon
Naperville, Illinois
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THE MENTOR 1918.03.15, No. 151,
The Incas

LEARN ONE THING

EVERY DAY
MARCH 15 1918 SERIAL NO. 151

THE
MENTOR
THE INCAS
By
OSGOOD HARDY, M. A.
DEPARTMENT OF VOLUME 6
HISTORY NUMBER 3
TWENTY CENTS A COPY
 WORSHIPERS OF THE SUN

The deity whose worship the Incas especially inculcated, and which they
never failed to establish wherever their banners were known to penetrate, was
the Sun. It was he who, in a particular manner, presided over the destinies of
man; gave light and warmth to the nations, and life to the vegetable world;
whom they reverenced as the father of their royal dynasty, the founder of their
empire; and whose temples rose in every city and almost every village
throughout the land.

Besides the Sun, the Incas acknowledged various objects of worship, in

some way or other connected with this principal deity. Such was the Moon, his
sister-wife; the Stars, revered as part of her heavenly train, though the fairest
of them, Venus, known to the Peruvians by the name of Chasca, or the “youth
with the long and curling locks,” was adored as the page of the Sun, whom he
attends so closely in his rising and in his setting. They dedicated temples also
to the Thunder and Lightning, in whom they recognized the Sun’s dread
ministers, and to the Rainbow, whom they worshiped as a beautiful emanation
of their glorious deity.

In addition to these, the subjects of the Incas enrolled among their inferior
deities many objects in nature, as the elements, the winds, the earth, the air,
great mountains and rivers, which impressed them with ideas of sublimity and
power, or were supposed in some way or other to exercise a mysterious
influence over the destinies of man.

But the worship of the Sun constituted the peculiar care of the Incas, and
was the object of their lavish expenditure. The most renowned of the Peruvian
temples, the pride of the capital, and the wonder of the empire, was at Cuzco,
where, under the munificence of successive sovereigns, it had become so
enriched that it received the name of “The Place of Gold.” It consisted of a
principal building and several chapels and inferior edifices, covering a large
extent of ground in the heart of the city, and completely encompassed by a
wall, which, with the edifices, was all constructed of stone.

The interior of the temple was most worthy of admiration. It was literally a
mine of gold. On the western wall was emblazoned a representation of the
deity, consisting of a human countenance looking forth from amidst
innumerable rays of light which emanated from it in every direction, in the
same manner as the sun is often personified with us. The figure was engraved
on a massive plate of gold of enormous dimensions, thickly powdered with
emeralds and precious stones. It was so situated in front of the great eastern
portal that the rays of the morning sun fell directly upon it at its rising, lighting
up the whole apartment with an effulgence that seemed more than natural,
and which was reflected back from the golden ornaments with which the walls
and ceiling were everywhere encrusted. Gold, in the figurative language of the
people, was “the tears wept by the Sun,” and every part of the interior of the
temple glowed with burnished plates and studs of the precious metal.
From Prescott’s “Conquest of Peru.”
ENTRANCE TO DOMINICAN CHURCH, CUZCO, PERU
 THE INCAS
The Tellers of the Story
ONE

ude and destructive as were most of the Spanish

conquistadores (con-kees-tä-dõ´-rays), many of them
sympathized with the conquered people, and it is from the
records of their impressions that we have obtained most of
what we know about the Incas. Four of these Castilian
diarists whose work is most valued were soldiers. Of their number, Pedro
de Cieza de Leon (pay´-dro day see´-ay-sa day lay´-on) has given us
the fullest and most interesting account of the ancient Peruvians. Only a
boy of fourteen was he when he embarked on the Spanish Main, and he
was only nineteen when, in 1538, he joined an expedition up the valley
of the Cauca (kä-oo´-kä). He commenced his chronicle in 1541, and for
ten years traveled from one end of Peru to the other, writing down his
impressions as he went. The first part of his journal was published in
1554. Juan de Betanzos (hwän day bay-tän´-sos), another soldier, has
left us but a portion of his work. We have only the record used by Friar
Gregorio de Garcia (gray-go´-rio day gar-see´-a) in the first two
chapters of his “Origen (o-ree´-hen) de los Indios,” and an incomplete
manuscript in the Escurial (ay-skoo-ree-al). This was edited and printed
in 1880 by Jimenez de la Espada (hee-may´-nes day lä ay-spä´-dä).
Betanzos’ work is valuable, as he learned the Quichua (kee´-choo-a)
language and was an official interpreter. Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa
(pay´-dro sär-mi-ayn´-to day gäm-bo´-ä), a militant sailor, accompanied
the Viceroy Toledo (to-lay´-do), and was employed by him to write a
history of the Incas. Finished in 1572, it is without doubt the most
authentic and reliable we possess as regards the course of events. Pedro
Pizarro, a cousin of the conqueror, was also a historian of merit, finishing
the “Relaciones” (rā-lä-see´-o-nays) at Arequipa (är-ay-kee´-pä) in
1571.
 The writings of lawyers have been of little value, although Prescott
made use of the unpublished “Relaciones” of Polo de Ondegardo (po´-lo
day on-day-gär´-do), written in 1561 and 1570.
The priests were the most diligent inquirers respecting the native
religion, rites, and ceremonies. Vincente de Valverde (vis-ayn´-tä day
väl-vayr-day) was the first priest to come to Peru, but he stayed only a
short time and wrote very little. The best known clerical author is Josef
de Acosta (hos´-ayf day ä-cos´-tä), who was in Peru from 1570 to 1586,
and traveled over the greater part of the country. Cristoval Molina’s
(krees-to´-väl mo-lee´-nä) “Report on the Fables and Rites of the
Incas,” written previous to 1584, is also valuable, for he was a master of
the Quichua language. Fernando Montesinos (fayr-nän-do mon-tay-see
´-nos), who, with his amazing list of kings, traced Inca ancestry back to
Noah, was until recently given little consideration. But lately his work,
“Ophir de España, Memorias Historiales (o-feer´ day ay-spän-yä may-mo
´-ree-äs ees-tor-ee-a´-läs) y Políticos del Peru (po-lee´-tee-cos dayl
pay-roo´),” written about 1644, has been given more credence, since it
seems probable that much of it was based on the writings of Blas Valera
(bläs vä-lay-rä). The premature death of the latter and the disposal of
his valuable manuscripts is described by Markham as the most
deplorable loss that Inca civilization has sustained. His work was used
extensively by Garcilaso de la Vega (gär-see-lä´-so day la vay-gä), a
grandnephew of the Inca Huayna Ccapac (wy´-nä k-kä´-päk). He is the
most famous of all the historians, and is quoted some eighty times by
Prescott.
The works of many of these authors and of others less famous are
available today in English, as a result of the indefatigable efforts of Sir
Clements Markham, whose translations have been published by the
Hakluyt Society. There are still many interesting and valuable old
manuscripts reposing in the archives of Madrid (mäd-reed´) and Seville
(say-veel´-yay), which have yet to be discovered, edited, and given to
the world. Of the Spanish historians who have been engaged in this
work, Dr. Marcos Jimenez de la Espada is probably the best known. An
excellent bibliography of Peruviana has been prepared by Markham and
is published in “The History of the Incas,” Publications of the Hakluyt
Society, Series II, Vol. XXII, Cambridge, England.
 PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.

RUINS OF THE GREAT INCA TEMPLE OF VIRACCOCHA NEAR SICUANI, PERU

 THE INCAS
The Inca Sovereigns
TWO

he Inca sovereigns about whom tradition tells us enough so

that they may be considered historical personages are
twelve in number. The first of these, Sinchi Rocca (seen´-
chee rok-kä), or Rocca the Great, was the first ruler after
the return of the Incas to Cuzco (coos´-ko) at the close of
their long exile in Tampu-tocco (täm-poo-tok´-ko). He reigned from
1134-1197, according to the chronology of Dr. Gonzales de la Rosa (gon-
sä-lays day lä ro´-sä), the most eminent of modern Peruvian historians.
Rocca owed his position to a cleverly executed plot contrived by his
mother. She dressed him in glittering gold apparel, and hid him in the
Chingana (cheen-gä´-nä) Cave on Sacsahuaman (säk-sä-wä´-män) Hill.
At intervals for several days excited Cuzqueñans (koos-kayn-yäns)
beheld a golden vision moving on the fortress heights. Eventually, after
their curiosity and fanatical credulity had been sufficiently aroused, the
vision descended into the city. It gave itself over to the crowd, allowed
itself to be conducted to the temple, and there proclaimed itself the
adopted son of the Solar Deity. Under Rocca, the Temple of the Sun was
enlarged and the city greatly improved.
There is some question among historians as to the acts of Rocca’s
successors, Lloque Yupanqui (lyo´-kay yoo-pän´-kee) and Mayta Ccapac
(my´-tä k-kä´-päk), who reigned from 1197-1246, and 1246-1276,
respectively. Garcilaso (gär-see-lä´-so) records their conquering the
Cana (kä´-nä) and Colla (kol´-yä) people in the southwest, building a
Sun Temple at Hatun-Colla (ä-toom-kol´-yä), carrying on warfare along
the shores of Lake Titicaca (tee-tee-kä´-kä), and Lake Aullagas (aul-yä´-
gas), and on the west, going as far as Lake Parinaccochas (pär-een-äk-
ko´-chäs) and Arequipa (a-ray-kee´-pä). But the majority of historians
represent the first three Incas as confining themselves more or less to
the Cuzco Valley, and gradually, by diplomatic means, extending their
influence over the surrounding inhabitants.
Ccapac Yupanqui (yoo-pän-kee), 1276-1321, made the region to the
southeast the theatre of his operations, and Garcilaso credits him with
reaching Potosi (po-tos´-ee). Inca Rocca, 1321-1348, improved the
water supply of Cuzco (would that he might come again), founded
schools, and militariwise, attempted to penetrate the Amazonian forests.
His son, Yahuar-Huaccac (yä´-wär-wäk´-käk) (weeping-blood), 1348-
1370, was rather a nonentity. His name was acquired as follows, says
tradition: While a child he fell into hostile hands. At the point of death
he was seen to be weeping tears of blood. This so affected his enemy
that he was permitted to live; he eventually escaped to his own people
after a life of hardship among some shepherds.
He was followed by Uiraccocha (weer-äk-ko´-chä), 1370-1425, in
whose reign occurred the invasion of the Chancas (chän´-käs). The
invaders were finally driven out, chiefly through the bravery of his son,
Pachacuti (päch-ä-koo´-tee), who reigned from 1425-1478. Under this
rule and that of his successors, Tupac Yupanqui, 1478-1488, and
Huayna Ccapac (wy´-nä k-kä´-päk), 1488-1525, the Inca dominion grew
from a comparatively small confederation to the great, imperial state
found by the Spaniards. Huascar (wäs´-kär), the successor of Huayna
Ccapac, was overthrown and taken prisoner by his natural brother,
Atahuallpa (ä-tä-wäl´-pä), about the time that Pizarro entered Peru.
When the latter heard of the quarrel between the two brothers he
determined to settle it. Fearful lest the decision should go against him,
Atahuallpa had Huascar murdered, and this act provided Pizarro with an
excuse for the execution of Atahuallpa.
After he had acquired complete control of the country, Pizarro
elevated the Inca Manco (män´-co) to the throne. This proud youth
soon tired of the farce and fled to the fastnesses of the Vilcabamba
(veel-cä-bäm´-bä) mountains. Here he and his successors, Sayri Tupac
(sigh-ree too´-päk) and Tupac-Amaru (too´-päk-ä-mä´-roo), maintained
their independence until 1571, when the latter was captured by the
Viceroy Toledo, brought to Cuzco, and there beheaded in the great
square.
 In 1781, a descendant of Tupac-Amaru bearing his name, led a revolt
against the barbarous oppression of the Spaniards, only to fail and
suffer torture, together with his whole family. In 1814, Pumacagua (poo-
mäk-ä´-wä), also of Inca ancestry, started an abortive uprising, which,
although a failure, was the beginning of the struggle which was to
eventually break the power of Spain in Peru.
PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.

RUINS OF A TYPICAL INCA CITY

 THE INCAS
The Expansionist Policies of the Incas
THREE

lthough pacific by nature, the Incas built up their vast

empire by conquest. Not one reign lacked great military
campaigns, and in all of them the necessity of introducing
the worship of the Sun gave rulers a pretext as plausible as
the followers of Mahomet had for their great wars.
Wherever it was possible, peaceful methods were employed. Persuasion,
diplomacy and bribery were all tried; if these were unsuccessful, war
was declared, but only after the failure of all the arts used in the
acquisition of an empire by the most subtle politicians of a civilized land.
Immediately on the declaration of war, mobilization took place with
extreme rapidity, for the Incas aimed early to secure such an obvious
strategical advantage that their enemies would wisely surrender without
a struggle. This was made possible by the remarkable series of roads
constructed throughout the empire. In times of peace these served as
post roads, which enabled the Incas to have surprisingly rapid
intercommunication. At convenient places storehouses were located.
These were always kept completely equipped, so that the mobilization of
the Inca armies, which sometimes totaled 200,000 men, provided the
minimum of inconvenience for the civilian population.
Contrary to the customs of some of our supposedly civilized modern
nations, the Incas forbade their soldiers engaging in any unnecessary
outrages, and punished such infractions of the law very severely. Even
after the war had commenced, the Incas were always ready at any time
to bring about peace. At the conclusion of hostilities they adopted the
policy of the Romans, gaining more by clemency to the vanquished than
by their victories.
 As soon as the reduction of a country had been brought about,
measures were taken to insure the loyalty of those newly conquered.
The first step was the introduction of the worship of the Sun. No
disrespect was shown to the local gods, but an acceptance of the
priority of the Sun was always enforced. Often-times the peoples’ own
gods were treated as hostages and removed to Cuzco. The Inca system
of government was, of course, always imposed. Land was cultivated
according to the well-regulated schemes of the Incas, which included
fertilization, crop rotation, and careful supervision to see that the
desired amount of acreage was devoted to each product. The Quichua
language was enforced. The new members of the empire were assigned
their particular style of clothing and hair-dressing. Roads were built to all
parts of the new territories and absolute amalgamation was eventually
secured.
In some instances, where the loyalty of the conquered was doubtful, a
portion of them were removed, bag and baggage, to some locality
where they would be surrounded by inhabitants of whose loyalty there
was no question. Some of the latter were then sent to occupy the lands
of the exiles.
Through successive reigns the same policy was continued. Each Inca
took up the work where his predecessor had been compelled to leave it,
and tried to do his share in advancing the boundaries of the empire.
Each Inca’s life was a “crusade against the infidel to spread the worship
of the Sun, to reclaim the benighted nations from their brutish
superstitions, and to impart to them the blessings of a well-regulated
government.”
PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.
LLAMAS LADEN WITH FAGOTS COMING INTO CUZCO, PERU
 THE INCAS
The Incas’ Food Supply
FOUR

ne of the greatest aids to the Incas in extending their

domains was their abundant food supply: the result, largely,
of the great progress they had made along agricultural
lines. Although Peru is a very mountainous country, by
taking advantage of every available inch of fertile ground
where the climate permitted the raising of crops, they were able to carry
on a system of agriculture which, in the variety of products yielded,
seems truly marvelous. It is stated by Mr. O. F. Cook, of the United
States Department of Agriculture, that a complete census of the plants
cultivated by the ancient Peruvians would probably include between
seventy and eighty species.
The most important products are the maize and the potato, one world
crop of which is today more valuable than all the gold the conquering
Spaniards were able to take out of the country. The cultivation of corn
goes very far back, for abundant specimens have been found in ancient
graves, and the type of maize that furnishes the bulk of the Peruvian
crop is peculiar to that region.
Other plants familiar to us are the pineapple, the sweet potato,
peanuts, beans, Lima beans, guava (gwä´-vä), alligator pears, papayas
(pä-pä´-yäs), and chirimoyas (chee-ree-mo´-yäs), as well as many with
which we are not familiar, as affu (äf´-foo), arracacha (är-rä-cä´-chä),
tintin (teen´-teen), tomate (to-mä´-tay), purutu (poo-roo´-too), quinoa
(keen´-o-ä), occa (ok´-kä), and ullucu (ool-yoo´-koo). From the dried
potato a nutritious flour was made called chuña (choon´-yä), which was
used to thicken stews.
The coca plant (Erythroxylon) was widely cultivated, but in the days of
the Incas, if we are to believe the historians, its use was regulated by
the government. Commonly used today by their modern descendants, it
is alcohol’s most potent aid in the degradation of the Peruvian Indian.
We must not think, however, that the Incas were vegetarians.
Although they lacked sheep, hogs and cattle, in the llama (lyämä) and
alpaca they had excellent meat, as well as animals to provide them with
wool, and in the case of the llama, a serviceable pack animal. The
guanacos (gwä-nä´-kos) and vicuñas (vi-coo´-nyas), first cousins of the
llama, were never domesticated, but were hunted in large drives
superintended by representatives of the government. In the mountains
there were rodents, such as the viscacha (vee-scä´-chä), chinchilla
(cheen-cheel´-yä), and guinea-pigs. In the valleys there were monkeys
and parrots. At the sea-shore and near the larger rivers fish were
plentiful. Such excellent means of communication existed between the
capital at Cuzco and the coast, that the Incas were kept constantly
supplied with fresh fish.
The prevalence of both fishing and hunting is attested by the many
depictions of these industries found on ceramic art objects which have
been encountered by the archeologists. Hunting was carried on to such
an extent, and the country in general was so intensively cultivated, that
the Peruvian highlands today have less to offer the nimrod than any
other section of the world equally uninhabited and desolate.
Alcoholic beverages were used, of course, but the government saw to
it that their manufacture did not affect other industries. Chica (chee-
cha) was made from both potatoes and maize, but the favorite brand
was brewed from the molle (mol-yay) berry. Then, as today, religious
feasts provided the common people with an opportunity for debauchery,
but under the Incas there was less of the consequent inebriety.
PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.
SACSAHUAMAN, THE INCAS’ GREATEST FORTRESS, CUZCO, PERU
 THE INCAS
Inca Architecture
FIVE

ogether with the excellence of their governmental system

and the extent of their food supply, the architecture of
the ancient inhabitants of the Peruvian plateau
establishes their claim to fame. Although early historians
attempted to give the Incas themselves the credit for
the wonderful structures to be found in Peru, it is generally believed
today that most of the megalithic remains, such as Tiahuanaco,
Sacsahuaman and Ollantaytambo, are the work of a people living
many centuries before the Incas, whose own traditions carry them
back only about 400 years prior to the coming of the Spaniards.
However that may be, the ability to make equally fine structures
evidently existed down to Spanish times, although in later years
such work became less and less common.
There is a great uniformity in Inca architecture. In the highlands
the edifices are usually built of porphyry or granite, and in the
coastal regions more frequently of brick. The walls often have a
thickness of several feet, but are rather low, seldom attaining more
than ten or twelve feet in height. The apartments seldom open into
each other—usually onto a court. The doors, which ordinarily provide
the only entrance for light, are like the Egyptian, narrower at the
top. The ruins at Machu Picchu (mä-choo peek´-choo) and in that
vicinity are remarkable because windows are quite common in them.
As the Incas had not evolved the arch, their doors, windows and
niches were crowned with a lintel stone, in many cases necessarily a
huge affair. Among the most interesting features of an Inca
residence are these niches, probably used for shelves, perhaps for
shrines, although if for that purpose there would seem to be more of
them than necessary in most houses.
The fineness of the stonework is, of course, the most remarkable
characteristic of the Incas’ architecture. They seemed able to fit,
with equal facility, blocks of stone weighing tons and those weighing
but a few pounds. Although they are not known to have used the T-
square, some of their angles are very true, and when it seemed
desirable, they could build a straight wall. Particularly beautiful are
some of their circular structures, such as the Temple of the Sun in
Cuzco.
It is probable that only the temples and palaces of the rulers were
so well built, and that the common people lived in houses of mud
and stone. One of the most remarkable structures in Peru, the
temple of Uiraccocha (u-eer-äk-ko´-chä) at Racche (räk´-chay),
shows a combination of fine stonework, and mud and stone. In
addition, the upper part of these walls, which tower some thirty feet
high, is of adobe (a-do´-bay) only, and centuries of weathering has
done but little more damage to the sun-dried bricks than to the
granite foundations.
There is something incongruous in the fact that the roofs of the
buildings walled so beautifully, and often covered inside with skilfully
woven tapestries and gold adornments, were commonly of thatch.
The rafters were of wood, tied on to ring stones and projecting
cylinder stones with maguey withes. But, although they were
ignorant of iron, did not even mortise their timbers, and were
content with a dingy, unlighted interior, the buildings of the Incas
were adapted to the character of the climate, and the wisdom of
their plan is attested by the number which still survive, while the
more modern constructions of the conquerors have been buried in
ruins.
Providing they escape the destructive hands of the treasure-
hunting Peruvians, only a gigantic cataclysm of the earth’s surface
can destroy these monuments to the stoneworking skill of Peru’s
ancient inhabitants.
PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.

DOORWAYS IN INCA RUINS OF ROSASPATA

 THE INCAS
Vitcos and Tampu-tocco
SIX

he location of Vitcos (veet´-kos), or Pitcos (peet´-kos), the home of

the Inca Manco after he fled from Cuzco to the wilds of Vilcabamba
(veel-kä-bäm´-bä), was one of the questions which students of Inca
history had never answered. Arm-chair archeologists and historians
had selected the site of Choqquequirau (chok-kā-kee-rä´-oo) (cradle
of gold), which consists of a series of extensive ruins above the Apurimac (a-poo-
ree´-mak) River near Abancay (ä-bän-ca´-ee). His visit to these ruins convinced
Dr. Hiram Bingham, of Yale University (now Lieut.-Colonel Bingham), that Vitcos
and Choqquequirau could not be identical.
Accordingly, in 1911 he conducted an expedition to Peru, one object of which
was to find a place that would fit the descriptions of the Inca’s retreat as given by
the early Spanish historians, some of whom, i.e., Father Antonio de Calancha (än-
to´-nee-o day cä-län´-chä) and Baltasar de Ocampa (bäl-tä-sär´ day o-cäm´-pä),
had actually visited Vitcos.
The expedition went down the Urubamba (oo-roo-bäm´-bä) Valley to the mouth
of the Vilcabamba River, crossed the Chuquichaca (choo-kee-chä´-cä) Bridge, and
went up the Vilcabamba Valley, finding place after place which tallied with the
accounts of Ocampo (o-käm´-po) and Calancha (cä-län´-chä). Above the little
town of Puquiura (poo-kee-oo´-ra) were encountered ruins now called Rosaspata
(ro-säs-pä´-tä). Careful study has proved that these fit, in every detail, the
description of the Inca’s last home.
While on his way to Vitcos, Colonel Bingham was fortunate enough to discover
the ruins of Machu Picchu. Although the problematical existence of these ruins had
long been known, no one had ever taken the trouble to climb to the top of the
ridge and make certain as to their location. In so doing, Colonel Bingham came
upon ruins whose magnificent beauty alone makes them of more than ordinary
interest, but doubly important is the discovery because in Machu Picchu we seem
to have found at last the Tampu-tocco (tämpoo-tok´-ko) of early Inca legends.
The selection of Paccari-tampu (päk´-ka-ree-tam´-poo) as Tampu-tocco has
never seemed justified. The slight similarity in name, the location of a few ruins
and natural caves in that vicinity, and the non-existence of any place which had a
better claim, made up the evidence to substantiate the theories of those who
wished to call Paccari-tampu the cradle of the Inca race. Machu Picchu, as shown
by Colonel Bingham,[1] corroborates in every detail the descriptions of Tampu-
tocco given by all the historians.
[1] See The Story of Machu Picchu, by Hiram Bingham. Nat. Geo. Mag., Feb.,
1915, and Vitcos, ibid., Proceedings of the Am. Antiquarian Soc., April, 1912.
In addition, it appears that Machu Picchu may also be Vilcabamba, the old, the
mysterious place three days’ journey from Vitcos, to which, as told by Father
Calancha, two monks were taken by the Incas while they were in that region
seeking his conversion. No situation at all plausible has ever been suggested for
this mythical locality. Granting that Machu Picchu is Tampu-tocco, the presence of
two distinct cultures and skeleton remains, chiefly of women and effeminate men,
would seem to indicate that on his retreat to Vitcos the Inca Manco made use of
the wonderfully concealed first home of the Incas to provide safe retirement for
the priests and priestesses of the Sun.
A very important part of the work of modern archeology lies in identifying the
location of the cities and towns which have a place in Inca tradition and history.
The finding of the first and last home of the Incas by Colonel Bingham’s
expeditions is only the beginning of a great deal of similar work which awaits the
archeologist in Peru.
PREPARED BY THE EDITORIAL STAFF OF THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION
ILLUSTRATION FOR THE MENTOR, VOL. 6, No 3, SERIAL No. 151
COPYRIGHT, 1918, BY THE MENTOR ASSOCIATION, INC.

THE MENTOR · DEPARTMENT OF HISTORY

MARCH 15, 1918
RUINS OF MAUCALLACTA, PACCARITAMBO—Near view of the
gateway
 THE INCAS
By OSGOOD HARDY, M. A.
Instructor in Spanish in the Sheffield Scientific School, and Chief Assistant and
Interpreter of the Peruvian Expeditions of 1914-1915, under the auspices of Yale
University and the National Geographic Society

MENTOR GRAVURES
RUINS OF A TYPICAL INCA CITY · SACSAHUAMAN, THE INCAS’
GREATEST FORTRESS, CUZCO, PERU · ENTRANCE TO
DOMINICAN CHURCH, CUZCO, PERU · DOORWAYS IN INCA
RUINS OF ROSASPATA · LLAMAS COMING INTO CUZCO · RUINS
OF THE GREAT INCA TEMPLE OF VIRACOCHA, NEAR SICUANI,
PERU
NOTE.—All pictures in this Mentor are reproduced by permission of the National Geographic
Society and the South American Exploration Fund of Yale University, under whose auspices the
Peruvian Expeditions directed by Dr. Hiram Bingham have taken place.
NOTE ON PRONUNCIATION.—The letter “ä” with two dots above is pronounced as in “father”; the
“ā” with a horizontal line above is pronounced as in “ray.”
Entered as second-class matter March 10, 1913, at the postoffice at New York, N. Y., under the
act of March 3, 1879. Copyright, 1918, by The Mentor Association, Inc.
here is probably no part of the world that stimulates more curiosity in
an archeologist or even in a casual traveler than that part of South
America which was once inhabited by the Incas of Peru. Tiahuanaco’s
(tee-ä-wane-ä´-ko) finely carved gateway and its ponderous stone
platforms, Sacsahuaman’s (saks-ä-wa´-män) gigantic walls,
Ollantaytambo’s (ol-yän-tie-tam´-bo) monolithic fortress, and Machu Picchu’s (mä
´-choo peek´-choo) picturesque grandeur fill one with an admiration for their
builders which is only equaled by the sorrow that today, over three centuries after
the advent of Pizarro (pee-sä´-ro) and his conquistadores (con-kees-tä-do´-rays),
we can do little more than make conjectures concerning the ancient Peruvians.
And, furthermore, it is doubtful if we can ever go very far in solving the problem
of man in the Andes. Although they made great progress in architecture,
agriculture, engineering, and the science of government, the ancient Peruvians did
not achieve the art of writing, nor did they even reach the stage of hieroglyphics.
Their records were kept on quipus (kee-poos), variously colored strings with many
different kinds of knots. These seem, however, to have been used only for
accounting purposes. Thus far, the quipus in possession of our archeologists have
been of no particular aid in deciphering the
history of their makers. Accordingly, what we
know of the Incas consists of traditions
gathered together by early Spaniards, and the
work of present-day students who, by modern
archeological methods, are slowly bringing
some light to bear on this apparently
insolvable problem.

Origin RUINS OF PATALLACTA—A Typical

Inca Temple
of
Americ
an Aborigines
Although there are
many ideas advanced as
PISAC to the origin of the
Terraces below the principal ruins, still American aborigine, it is
used for growing wheat and barley commonly believed that
he came from
northeastern Asia and
gradually moved southward. Archeologists and geologists
are all agreed that he arrived at the close of the glacial
epoch, long after the disappearance of the prehistoric
animals which Dr. Matthew described for Mentor readers
some time ago. When he came to this continent he had DOORWAY
probably already reached the higher stages of the Stone In ruins, now known
Age, and was possibly already in the Bronze Age. Just how as Rosaspata, but which
long it has been since his arrival we cannot tell. Dr. Bingham has shown
are probably those
Although the number of traditions concerning the origin of known to the Incas as
the Inca empire is legion, the two best known are the “Vitcos,” the last home
Titicaca (tee-tee-kä´-kä) and Tampu-tocco (täm-poo-tok´- of the Incas
ko) legends. The former has been given us by the immortal
Prescott, relying on the Commentaries of the Inca Garcilaso
de la Vega (gär-sil´-ä-so day lä vay-gä). From him we know there was a time when
the ancient races of the continent were all plunged in deplorable barbarism. “The
Sun, the grand luminary and parent of mankind, taking compassion on their
degraded condition, sent two of his children, Manco Ccapac (män´-ko k-kä´-päk)
and Mama Occlo (mä´-mä ok´-klo), to gather the natives into communities and
teach them the arts of civilized life. The celestial pair, brother and sister, husband
and wife, advanced along the high plains in the neighborhood of Lake Titicaca to
about the 16th degree south. They bore with them a golden wedge, and were
directed to take up their residence on the spot where the sacred emblem should
without effort sink into the ground. They proceeded but a short distance—as far as
the valley of Cuzco (koos´-ko), the spot indicated by the performance of the
miracle; there the wedge speedily sank into the earth and disappeared forever. On
this spot the children of the Sun established their residence, and laid the
foundations of the city of Cuzco.”
The
Titicaca
myth,
howeve
r, does
not
receive
as
much
RUINS OF PATALLACTA INCA FORTRESS WALL,
SACSAHUAMAN conside
Showing niches with holes for bar ration
locks in the upper room of the temple The gigantic size of the stones and today
on top of the rock the precision with which they are fitted, as the
without mortar, bear testimony to the
engineering genius of the Inca
Tampu-
megalithic builders tocco
(täm´-
poo-tok
´-ko) myth. The former is characterized by the late Sir Clements Markham as an
obvious invention to account for the ancient ruins and statues in the vicinity of
Tiahuanaco (tee-ä-wane-ä´-ko), and on the islands of Titicaca and Koati (ko-ä´-
tee). “It has no historical value,” he says, “while the Tampu-tocco myth is as
certainly the outcome of a real tradition, and is the fabulous version of a distant
historical event.”
The story is somewhat as follows. At a distance from Cuzco is a place called
“Tampu-tocco” (“House of the Windows”). This was long considered to be identical
with “Paccari-tampu” (päk´-kä-ree-tam´-poo) (“House of the Dawn”), but the
explorations and study of Dr. Bingham have shown that the evidence is in favor of
his statement that Machu Picchu is Tampu-tocco. From this locality, at a date
placed by students somewhere between 950 B. C. and 200 A. D., came four
brothers accompanied by four sisters. Their leader, Manco (män´-ko) (the
princely), succeeded in making away with his three brothers, so that at length, on
their arrival at Cuzco, where the golden rod which this Manco also carried sank into
the ground, the first Inca and his sisters were able to found their kingdom without
rivals. Under the leadership of Manco and his successors, sometimes known as
“Pre-Megaliths,” the empire grew. In the seventeenth or nineteenth reign a change
in dynasty took place, and thenceforth the megalithic
monarchs, who were often distinguished and skilful
astrologers and reformers, ruled with the title of Amauta
(ä-mä-oo´-tä).
About 450 A. D. came the end of this dynasty.
Pachacuti (pä-chä-koo´-tee) VI, a ruler of peoples on the
east, south and west and subject tribes, had risen in
revolt. The invaders ultimately retired, but the power of
Cuzco was broken, and the ruler slain. The city was left
to the priests, and the inhabitants, under a new
sovereign, took refuge at Tampu-tocco, where some
twenty-four princes ruled in succession. At length, when
the provinces once under the control of the princes of
Cuzco had relapsed into barbarism, a woman of high CUZCO, PERU
birth named Siyu-yacu (see´-yoo-yä´-koo), contrived a
plot to place on the throne one who would initiate a bold PALACE OF THE INCA
attempt to recover the power once possessed by their ROCCA
forefathers. The individual selected was Siyu-yacu’s own A large gravure picture of
son, Rocca (rok´-kä). The plot was successful, and this massive structure will
Rocca, later known as Sinchi Rocca (seen´-chee rok´-kä) be found in The Mentor (No.
or the Great Rocca, was the first of the Inca sovereigns 132) on “Peru”
whose reign looms up clearly enough to remove it from
the realm of traditions and give it a place, although
slightly hazy, in history. From the accession of Rocca to the throne, about 1100 A.
D., down to the murder of Tupac Amaru (too´-päk ä´-mä-roo) in 1671 by the
Viceroy Francisco de Toledo (frän-sees´-ko day to-lay-do), the course of events is
fairly well authenticated. It is to this period that a discussion of the Incas must
necessarily be confined.
 GROUP OF LLAMAS IN JULIACA

ALPACAS

A semi-domesticated animal
resembling sheep, and yielding a long,
fine wool, usually brown or black

When the Spanish Came

When the Spaniards arrived, the little kingdom of Cuzco had already grown to an
empire that extended to the equator on the north, and was bounded on the south
by the River Maule (mä´-oo-lay) in southern Chile (chee´-lay). On the west it
extended to the Pacific Ocean, and on the east faded away in the torrid forests of
the Amazon and the rolling hills of the Argentine uplands. The Incas had
succeeded in conquering the many tribes scattered over this whole region, and for
the most part had enforced the use of their own language, the Quichua (kee´-
choo-a). They had evolved a system of government which, expanding from that of
a village community, had met the needs of a vast empire; and they had done it so
gradually that the inhabitants at large had been conscious of little change save in
the direction of increased prosperity and security.

Inca Government and Religion

The Inca government was a despotism. The Inca—the chief magistrate of the
dominant tribe—had absolute powers, and as a direct descendant of the Sun was
also vested with sacred attributes. Surrounding him and under him were his
immediate family. His official wife was his sister, and from their offspring was
chosen the successor of the Inca. The elder was usually designated, although this
rule was broken in several instances where the younger brother seemed more able.
Next in the social scale were the nobles, or orejones (o-ray-ho´-naze), as they
 were called by the Spaniards.
These officials wore very large
earrings. The lobe of the ear was
often distorted so that ornaments
several inches in diameter were
inserted. Under the orejones came
the caracas (cä-rä´-cäs), or
inspectors, who had charge of the
census, the estimation of local
resources, and the imposition and
collection of tribute. Their work was
MACHU PICCHU RUINS chiefly administrative, and the
actual government was left to
General view, showing growth covering ruins district magistrates and judges,
who acted as tax-collectors also.
Finally, there were the common
people. These were divided for military purposes into 10s, 100s, 1,000s, and
10,000s, and the mobilization of the Inca armies was almost Teutonic in its ease
and precision.
As might be expected, the Inca religion
included the worship of many things. The
priestly historians always characterize it as
extremely vile; but those of Inca ancestry
insist that it was remarkably pure and spiritual,
consisting of only one true worship, that of the
Sun. Only those that have experienced life in
the Peruvian highlands and have endured the
enervation of its cold altitudes can realize how
OLLANTAYTAMBO—The Town and
certainly must the early peoples have turned to Fortress
the worship of that force which alone makes
life endurable or possible on the Peruvian
plateau.
The places of worship were usually temples, so located as to catch the first rays
of the rising sun. Huacas (wä´-käs), such as large rocks or springs, were, of
course, worshiped where they were situated, and oft-times were surrounded by
temples. In the case of stones, shelves or platforms were carved, on which the
priests stood while making their offerings to the Sun god.
The worship was carried on by priests and mamaconas (mä-mä-ko´-näs), the
latter, the priestesses, directed the lives of the virgins of the Sun. The most
beautiful girls of the kingdom were gathered together from all parts of the land.
The most attractive became the wives of the Inca, after they had passed through a
severe training in the various feminine arts; others took the vows and became
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