Module 5

(Air pollution due to automobiles, standards and control methods. Noise pollution- causes, effects and
control, noise standards. Environmental issues, global episodes, laws, acts, protocols)

5.1 Air pollution due to Automobiles

Vehicular population is increasing randomly every year. In urban areas, 60% of air pollution is
caused by automobiles only. Mobile combustion sources include automobiles, trucks, buses, rail road
locomotives, aircraft and marine vessels. Pollutants from these sources are objectionable primarily as
well as secondarily.
Three main types of automotive vehicles being used in India
a) Passenger cars powered by four stroke gasoline engines
b) Motorcycles, scooters and auto-rickshaws powered by small two stroke gasoline engines
c) Large buses and trucks powered by four stroke diesel engines

5.1.1 Emissions from Gasoline vehicles

Emissions from gasoline powered vehicles are generally classified as
1) Exhaust emissions
2) Crank-case emissions
3) Evaporative emissions
The amount of pollutants that an automobile emits depends on a number of factors, including the
design and operation.

Sl.
Type of emission % CO % NOx % HC
No.
1 Exhaust emissions 98-99 98-99 65
2 Evaporative emissions 0 0 10
3 Crank case blow-by 1-2 1-2 25

Exhaust emissions
1. Exhaust emissions are substances that come out of an exhaust system of vehicles into the
atmosphere. A high-capacity catalytic converter reduces the level of harmful exhaust
emissions discharged into the atmosphere.
2. Exhaust gas or flue gas is emitted as a result of the combustion of fuels in the engine. And generally
it is discharged into the atmosphere through an exhaust pipe.
3. The important exhaust emissions from a gasoline engine are carbon dioxide, unburnt hydrocarbons,
nitrogen oxides and particulates containing lead compounds.
4. These emissions vary with the air fuel ratio, spark timings and the engine operating conditions like
speed, load and engine temperature.

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 Composition of exhaust emissions at different operating conditions
Idle Acceleration Cruising Deceleration
Air/Fuel ratio 11:1 – 12.5:1 11:1 – 13:1 13:1 – 15:1 11:1 – 12.5:1
% CO 4-6 0-6 1-4 2-4
NO (ppm) 10-50 1000-4000 1000-3000 10-50
Hydrocarbons
500-1000 50-500 200-300 4000-12000
(ppm)
% Unburnt fuel 4-6 2-4 2-4 20-60

Crack case emissions

1. A crankcase is the housing for the crankshaft in a reciprocating internal combustion engine. The
enclosure forms the largest cavity in the engine and is located below the cylinder.
2. Crank case emissions consist of engine blow-by which leaks by the side of piston mainly during the
compression stroke, oil vapours generated into crank case and lubricant fumes.
3. The quality of blow-by depends on engine design and operating conditions. And this blow-by may
be increased by poor engine maintenance and by use of crankcase oils.
4. Worn out piston rings and cylinder liner may greatly increase blow-by
5. These gases mainly contain hydrocarbons and nearly 25% of the total hydrocarbons are emitted
crank case.
6. These are eliminated by adopting PCV (positive crank-case ventilation) system.

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Evaporative emissions
1. Evaporative emissions are the result of gasoline vapors escaping from the vehicle's fuel system.
2. Evaporative emissions are because of high volatile nature of the fuel, constitute fuel vapours from
fuel tank and carburettor.
3. Evaporative emissions contain only hydrocarbons. An average Indian car would emit about 20Kg of
hydrocarbons per year through evaporation.
4. Evaporative emissions can be controlled by using charcoal canister. In a typical system, vapors from
the fuel tank and carburettor bowl vent are connected to canisters containing activated carbon. The
vapors are adsorbed within the canister. And during engine operation, fresh air is drawn through the
canister, pulling the vapor into the engine, where it burns.

5.1.2 Emissions from Diesel vehicles

1. Diesel powered vehicles create relatively minor pollution problems compared to gasoline
vehicles.
2. The diesel engine exhausts only about a tenth of the amount of carbon monoxide exhausted by
a gasoline engine, and its hydrocarbon emissions may be same as those of gasoline engine.
3. Blow by is negligible in the diesel, since the cylinders contain only air on the compression stroke.
4. Evaporative emissions are also low because the diesel engine uses a closed injection fuel system
and because the fuel is less volatile than gasoline.
5. The major problems of diesel engines are smoke and odour.

Effects from vehicle exhausts:

1. Contacts with pollutants – Irritation of the skin, eyes and respiratory system
2. Excess amount of carbon dioxide and Methane – Asphyxiates
3. Lack of Oxygen – destroys brain cells and affects central nervous system. The adverse effects
experiment by the individual depends on i) Age ii) General state of health and nutrition iii)
Concurrent exposure iv) Pre existing disease v) Temperature and humidity of the time of
exposure, duration of exposure vi) Nature and concentration of pollutants
Effects of some pollutants are
1. Particular matter – smoke from diesel engines and load from gas line engines produces skin
cancer and tumors of the lungs.
2. Lead – long term effects, high blood levels, and anemia affects liver and kidney functions.
3. Carbon monoxide – it reduces oxygen carrying capacity of blood, irreversible damage to the
central nervous system.
4. Hydrocarbons – it causes smog which in turn damage plant, eye and imitation in respiratory
tract.
5. NOx – death and chronic respiratory diseases.

5.1.3 Control of automobile emissions

Automobile emissions can be controlled as below
1. Control of exhaust emissions:
Exhaust emissions are minimised by
a) Modification in the engine design and operating variables
i) Use of leaner idle mixtures
ii) Use of cleanest possible mixture and maximum spark retard compatible with good
power output and drivability
iii) Use of minimum valve over tap necessary.

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 iv) Pre treatment of the mixture to improve vaporization and mixing of fuel with air.
v) Low quench combustion chambers
vi) Piston and ring variables
b) The basic techniques are to promote oxidation of HC and CO after emission from the
engine. Exhaust oxidation devices fall into two categories.
i) After burning of the pollutants by exhaust heat conservation, introduction of additional
air and by providing sufficient volume to ensure adequate reaction time
ii) Use of catalytic converters.
c) Other methods
i) Petrol injection – eliminates problem of sufficient mixing, better specific fuel
consumption.
ii) Stratified charge engine – it operates with very lean AF mixtures.

2. Control of crank case emissions

1. Crank case emissions are controlled by shifting crank case open vents to a feed back.
2. New engines are equipped with this positive crankcase ventilation system (PCV) to return
crankcase vapours back to carburettor/intake manifold, instead of venting into atmosphere.
3. This recycling of crankcase vapours burns hydrocarbons in the cylinders, decreasing overall
pollution by 25%.

3. Control of evaporation emissions

1. The main sources of evaporative emissions are fuel tank and the carburettor. It depends
upon fuel volatility and temperature. Tank design and location influence tank temperature
and thus tank emissions. Insulation of the fuel tank to reduce temperature, sealed and
pressurised fuel systems, and vapour collection systems will reduce tank emissions.
2. Carburettor emissions may be divided into running losses occurring during engine operation
and hot soak losses occurring when vehicle is just parked. Proper carburettor design and
reducing fuel volatility can minimise these losses.
3. Evaporative emissions can be controlled by using charcoal canister. In a typical system,
vapors from the fuel tank and carburettor bowl vent are connected to canisters
containing activated carbon. The vapors are adsorbed within the canister. And during engine
operation, fresh air is drawn through the canister, pulling the vapor into the engine, where it
burns.

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 4. Evaporative emissions are controlled by changing the properties of fuel like reducing the
volatility of fuel. And replacing olefinic hydrocarbons with less reactive paraffinic
hydrocarbons.

4. Use of alternative engines and fuels

1. Gas turbine engines of air that reduces HC and CO
2. The stratified charge – fuel injection engine: It operates with very lean AF mixtures.
3. The free piston diesel engine
4. The electric car
5. Use of fuels like LPG, CNG, LNG, solar energy, nuclear power and liquid hydrogen fuel.

5. Strict implementation of legislations

5.1.4 Vehicular emission standards

Emission norms for passenger cars

Norms CO( g/km) HC+ NOx(g/km)
1991Norms 14.3-27.1 2.0(Only HC)
1996 Norms 8.68-12.40 3.00-4.36
1998Norms 4.34-6.20 1.50-2.18
India stage 2000 norms 2.72 0.97
Bharat stage-II 2.2 0.5
Bharat Stage-III 2.3 0.35(combined)
Bharat Stage-IV 1.0 0.18(combined)

Emission norms for 2/3 wheelers

Norms CO( g/km) HC+ NOx)(g/km)
1991Norms 12-30 8-12 (only HC)
1996 Norms 4.5 3.6
India stage 2000 norms 2.0 2.0
Bharat stage-II 1.6 1.5
Bharat Stage-III 1.0 1.0

Emission norms for heavy diesel vehicles

Norms CO( g/kmhr) HC (g/kmhr) NOx (g/kmhr) PM(g/kwhr)
1991Norms 14 3.5 18 -
1996 Norms 11.2 2.4 14.4 -
India stage 2000 norms 4.5 1.1 8.0 0.36
Bharat stage-II 4.0 1.1 7.0 0.15
Bharat Stage-III 2.1 1.6 5.0 0.10
Bharat Stage-IV 1.5 0.96 3.5 0.02

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5.2 Noise Pollution
Unwanted sound is called Noise. Noise pollution is also known as environmental noise or sound
pollution, is the propagation of sound with harmful impact on the activity of human or animal
life. Noise is defined as, "the unwanted, unpleasant or disagreeable sound that causes discomfort
to all living beings". Sound intensity is measured in decibels (dB) that is the tenth part of the longest
unit Bel. One dB is the faintest sound that a human ear can hear.
The source of outdoor noise worldwide is mainly caused by machines, transport and transportation
systems. Poor urban planning may give rise to noise pollution, side-by-side industrial and residential
buildings can result in noise pollution in the residential areas. Some of the main sources of noise in
residential areas include loud music, transportation noise, lawn care maintenance, nearby construction,
or young people yelling (sports games). In many developing nations, the average noise level of 97.60 dB
obtained exceeded the WHO value of 50 dB allowed for residential areas. Research suggests that noise
pollution is the highest in low-income and racial minority neighborhoods.

5.2.1 Sources of Noise

Sources of noise are mainly either industrial or non-industrial.
Non industrial sources of noise are mainly loud speakers, automobiles, aeroplanes, trains, construction
works, radios, microphones with high volumes, household appliances etc.

Sources may also be classified as indoor and outdoor noises.

Indoor noises: The sources of indoor noises are moving people, crying of babies, playing of radios,
banging of doors, traffic on staircase, movement of furniture, conversion of the occupants, operation of
cisterns (i.e., water saving devices) and closets, noise of type writers, working of nearby machines etc.

Outdoor noises: The noises are created from nearby streets and the largest source of outdoor noise is
generally the automobile traffic on nearby roads, and railways, aeroplanes, loudspeakers, machines and
noise from any type of hardware work places etc.

Industrial Noise: It is a sound with high intensity caused by industrial machines. Sources of such noise
pollution are caused by machines in various factories, industries and mills. Noise from mechanical saws
and pneumatic drills is unbearable and a nuisance to the public. The Indian Institute of Oto-Rino
Laryngology, Chennai reported that increasing industrial noise pollution damages the hearing ability by
atleast 20%. Workers in steel industry, who work close to heavy industrial blowers are exposed to
112dB for eight hours suffer from occupational pollution.

Transport Noise: Transport noise mainly consists of traffic noise from road, rail and aircraft. The
number of automobiles like motors, scooters, cars, motor cycles, buses, trucks and diesel engine
vehicles on roads have increased enormously in the recent past, further increasing the problem of
transport noise. Noise levels in most residential areas in metropolitan cities are hovering around the
border line due to increased vehicular noise pollution. This high level of noise pollution leads to
deafening in the elderly.

Neighbourhood noise: This type of noise includes disturbance from household gadgets and
community. Common sources being musical instruments, TV, VCR, Radios, Transistors, Telephones,
and loudspeakers etc. Statistically, ever since the industrial revolution, noise in the environment has
been doubling every ten years.

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5.2.2 Causes of Noise Pollution

1. Industrialization: Most of the industries use big machines which are capable of producing large
amount of noise. Apart from that, various equipments like compressors, generators, exhaust
fans, grinding mills also participate in producing big noise. Therefore, you must have seen
workers in these factories and industries wearing ear plugs to minimize the effect of noise.

2. Poor Urban Planning: In most of the developing countries, poor urban planning also play a
vital role. Congested houses, large families sharing small space, fight over parking, frequent
fights over basic amenities leads to noise pollution which may disrupt the environment of
society.

3. Social Events: Noise is at its peak in most of the social events. Whether it is marriage, parties,
pub, disc or place of worship, people normally ignore rules set by the local administration and
create nuisance in the area. People play songs on full volume and dance till midnight which
makes the condition of people living nearby pretty worse. In markets, you can see people selling
clothes via making loud noise to attract the attention of people.

4. Transportation: Large number of vehicles on roads, aeroplanes flying over houses,

underground trains produce heavy noise and people get it difficult to get accustomed to that.
The high noise leads to a situation wherein a normal person lose the ability to hear properly.

5. Construction Activities: Under construction activities like mining, construction of bridges,

dams, buildings, stations, roads, flyovers take place in almost every part of the world. These
construction activities take place everyday as we need more buildings, bridges to accommodate
more people and to reduce traffic congestion. The down point is that these construction
equipments are too noisy.

6. Household Chores: We people are surrounded by gadgets and use them extensively in our
daily life. Gadgets like TV, mobile , mixer grinder, pressure cooker, vacuum cleaners , washing
machine and dryer, cooler, air conditioners are minor contributors to the amount of noise that is
produced but it affects the quality of life of your neighborhood in a bad way.

While this form of pollution may seem harmless, it in fact has far reaching consequences. The
adverse effects on the health of the environment are quite severe. Not only is the local wildlife affected
by the pollution, humans also face a number of problems due to it.

5.2.3 Effects of Noise Pollution

1. Hearing Problems: Any unwanted sound that our ears have not been built to filter can cause
problems within the body. Our ears can take in a certain range of sounds without getting damaged. Man
made noises such as jackhammers, horns, machinery, airplanes and even vehicles can be too loud for
our hearing range. Constant exposure to loud levels of noise can easily result in the damage of our ear
drums and loss of hearing. It also reduces our sensitivity to sounds that our ears pick up unconsciously
to regulate our body’s rhythm.

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2. Health Issues: Excessive noise pollution in working areas such as offices, construction sites, bars and
even in our homes can influence psychological health. Studies show that the occurrence of aggressive
behavior, disturbance of sleep, constant stress, fatigue and hypertension can be linked to excessive noise
levels. These in turn can cause more severe and chronic health issues later in life.

3. Sleeping Disorders: Loud noise can certainly hamper your sleeping pattern and may lead to irritation
and uncomfortable situations. Without a good night sleep, it may lead to problems related to fatigue and
your performance may go down in office as well as at home. It is therefore recommended to take a
sound sleep to give your body proper rest.

4. Cardiovascular Issues: Blood pressure levels, cardio-vascular disease and stress related heart problems
are on the rise. Studies suggest that high intensity noise causes high blood pressure and increases heart
beat rate as it disrupts the normal blood flow. Bringing them to a manageable level depends on our
understanding noise pollution and how we tackle it.

5. Trouble Communicating: High decibel noise can put trouble and may not allow two people to
communicate freely. This may lead to misunderstanding and you may get difficult understanding the
other person. Constant sharp noise can give you severe headache and disturb your emotional balance.

6. Effect on Wildlife: Wildlife faces far more problems than humans because noise pollution since they
are more dependent on sound. Animals develop a better sense of hearing than us since their survival
depends on it. The ill effects of excessive noise begin at home. Pets react more aggressively in
households where there is constant noise.
They become disoriented more easily and face many behavioral problems. In nature, animals may suffer
from hearing loss, which makes them easy prey and leads to dwindling populations. Others become
inefficient at hunting, disturbing the balance of the eco-system.
Species that depend on mating calls to reproduce are often unable to hear these calls due to excessive
man made noise. As a result, they are unable to reproduce and cause declining populations. Others
require sound waves to echo-locate and find their way when migrating. Disturbing their sound signals
means they get lost easily and do not migrate when they should.

As of now, there do not exist many solutions to reduce sound pollution. On a personal level, everybody
can help reducing the noise in their homes by lowering the volume of the radio, music system and the
television. Listening to music without headphones is also a good step forward. Removal of public
loudspeakers is another way in which the pollution can be countered as is controlling the sound levels in
clubs, bars, parties and discos. Better urban planning can help in creating ‘No-Noise’ zones, where
honking and industrial noise are not tolerated.

1. Noise pollution affects both human and animal health. It leads to:
1. contraction of blood vessels
2. making skin pale
3. excessive adrenalin in the blood stream which is responsible for high blood pressure.
4. Blaring sounds are known to cause mental distress
5. Heart attacks, neurological problems, birth defects and abortion
2. Muscle contraction leading to nervous breakdown, tension, etc
3. The adverse reactions are coupled with a change in hormone content of blood, which in-turn
increases heart beat, constriction of blood vessels, digestive spams and dilation of the pupil of the eye.

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4. Adverse affects health, work efficiency and behavior. Noise pollution may cause damage to the heart,
brain, kidneys, liver and may produce emotional disturbance.
5. The most immediate and acute effect of noise is impairment of hearing that diminishes some part of
the auditory system. Prolonged exposure to noise of certain frequency pattern leads to chronic damage
to the inner ear.
6. Impulsive noise may cause psychological and pathological disorders
7. Ultrasonic sound can affect the digestive, respiratory, cardiovascular system and semicircular canals
of the internal ear.
8. The brain is adversely affected by loud and sudden noise by jets and airplanes. People are subjected
to psychiatric illness.
9. Recent reports suggest that blood is thickened by excessive noise.
10. The optical system of human beings is also affected by noise pollution. Severe noise pollution
causes: 1. Pupullary dilation 2. Impairment of night vision and 3. Decrease in rate of colour perception

5.2.4 Control of noise pollution

1. Reduction of noise at source level: This includes source modification such as acoustic treatment
to machine surface, design changes, limiting operational timings etc. This is possible if working
methods are improved.
(a) Designing, fabricating and using quieter machines to replace the noisy ones.
(b) Proper lubrication and better maintenance of machines. Proper oiling will reduce noise from
the machine.
(c) Installing noisy machines in sound proof chambers.
(d) Covering noise-producing machine parts with sound-absorbing materials to check noise
production.
(e) Reducing the noise produced from a vibrating machine by vibration damping i.e. making a
layer of damping material (rubber, neoprene, cork or plastic) beneath the machine.
(f) Using silencers to control noise from automobiles, ducts, exhausts etc. and convey systems
with ends opening into the atmosphere.
(g) Using glass wool or mineral wool covered with a sheet of perforated metal for the purpose of
mechanical protection.
2. Transmission path intervention: This includes containing the source inside a sound insulating
enclosure, constructing a noise barrier or provision of sound absorbing materials along the path.
Increased distance between source and receiver by zoning of noisy industrial areas, bus terminals
and railway stations, aerodromes etc. away from the residential areas would go a long way in
minimising noise pollution. There should be silence zones near the residential areas, educational
institutions and above all, near hospitals.
(a) Sound travels through the cracks that get left between the door and the wall. For reducing
noise, this space (jamb frame gap) should be packed with sound absorbing material.
(b) Sound insulation can be done by constructing windows with double or triple panes of glass
and filling the gaps with sound absorbing materials.
(c) Acoustical tiles, hair felt, perforated plywood etc. can be fixed on walls, ceilings, floors etc. to
reduce noise (especially for sound proof recording rooms etc.)
3. Control at receptor end: This includes protection of the receiver by altering the work schedule or
provision of personal protection devices such as ear plugs for operating noisy machinery. The
measure may include dissipation and deflection methods. For people working in noisy installations,
ear-protection aids like ear-plugs, ear-muffs, noise helmets, headphones etc. must be provided to
reduce occupational exposure.

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4. Planting of Trees: Planting green trees and shrubs along roads, hospitals, educational institutions
etc. help in noise reduction to a considerable extent.
5. Legislative Measures: Strict legislative measures need to be enforced to curb the menace of noise
pollution. Some of these measures could be:
(a) Minimum use of loudspeakers and amplifiers especially near silence zones.
(b) Banning pressure horns in automobiles.
(c) Framing a separate Noise Pollution Act

5.2.5 Noise pollution standards

Noise levels limits - IS 4954:1968

Outdoor noise in residential areas Indoor noise in various type of buildings
Noise Level Noise levels
Sl. No. Location Sl. No. Location
in dB in dB
1 Rural 25-35 1 Radio & TV studio 25-30
2 Sub-urban 30-40 2 Music room 30-35
Hospitals, class rooms
3 Urban residential 40-50 3 35-40
and Auditorium
Apartment, Hotels,
Urban residential &
4 40-50 4 homes, conference 35-40
business
rooms, small offices
Court rooms, private
5 City 45-55 5 40-45
offices, libraries
Large public offices,
6 Industrial area 50-60 6 45-50
banks, stores
7 Restaurants 50-55

Ambient air quality standards in respect of Noise

(Amendment of Environment (protection) act, 1986)
Limits in dB
Area code Category of area
Day time 6am – 10pm Night time 10pm – 6am
A Industrial area 75 70
B Commercial area 65 55
C Residential area 55 45
D Silence zone 50 40

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5.3 Acid rain
Acid rain refers to a mixture of deposited material, both wet and dry, coming from the atmosphere
containing more than normal amounts of nitric and sulfuric acids. Simply put, it means rain that is
acidic in nature. It is easily defined as rain, fog, sleet or snow that has been made acidic by
pollutants in the air as a result of fossil fuel and industrial combustions that mostly emits
Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) and Sulfur Dioxide (SO2). Acidity is determined on the basis of the pH
level of the water droplets. Normal rain water is slightly acidic with a pH range of 5.3-6.0, because
carbon dioxide and water present in the air react together to form carbonic acid, which is a weak
acid. When the pH level of rain water falls below this range <5.3, it becomes acid rain.
When these gases react with water molecules and oxygen among other chemicals found in the
atmosphere, mild acidic chemical compounds such as sulfuric and nitric acid are formed resulting to
acid rain.

5.3.1 Forms of Acid Rain

There are two forms in which acid deposition occurs – wet and dry. Both are discussed below:
1. Wet Deposition: When the wind blows the acidic chemicals in the air to the areas where the
weather is wet, the acids fall to the ground in the form of rain, sleet, fog, snow or mist. It
removes acid from the atmosphere and deposit them on the earth’s surface. When this acid
flows through the ground, it affects large number of plants, animals and aquatic life. The water
from drain flows into rivers and canals which is then mixed up with sea water, thereby affecting
marine habitats.
2. Dry Deposition: If the wind blows the acidic chemicals in the air to the areas where the weather
is dry, the acidic pollutants slip into dust or smoke and fall to the ground as dry particles. These
stick to the ground and other surfaces such as cars, houses, trees and buildings. Almost 50% of
the acidic pollutants in the atmosphere fall back through dry deposition. These acidic pollutants
can be washed away from earth surface by rainstorms.

[It was discovered way back in 1800s during the Industrial Revolution. A Scottish chemist, Robert
Angus Smith, was first to discover this phenomenon in 1852 as a relationship between acid rain
and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England. But it gained public attention mainly in 1960s. The
term was coined in 1972 when the NY Times published reports about the climate change effects which
started arising due to the occurrence of acid rain in the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New
Hampshire.]

5.3.2 Causes of Acid Rain

Both natural and man-made sources are known to play a role in the formation of acid rain. But, it is
mainly caused by combustion of fossil fuels which results in emissions of sulfur dioxide (SO2) and
nitrogen oxides (NOx).
1. Natural Sources
The major natural causal agent for acid rain is volcanic emissions. Volcanoes emit acid producing gases
to create higher amounts of acid rain or any other form of precipitation such as fog and snow to an
extent of affecting vegetation and health of residents in the surrounding. Decaying vegetation, wildfires
and biological processes within the environment also generate the acid rain forming gases. Dimethyl
sulfide is a typical example of a major biological contributor to sulfur containing elements into the
atmosphere. Lighting strikes also naturally produces nitric oxides that react with water molecules via
electrical activity to produce nitric acid, thereby forming acid rain.
2. Man-made sources

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Human activities leading to chemical gas emissions such as sulfur and nitrogen are the primary
contributors to acid rain. The activities include air pollution sources emitting sulfur and nitrogen gases
like factories, power generations facilities, and automobiles. In particular, use of coal for electrical
power generation is the biggest contributor to gaseous emissions leading to acid rain. Automobiles and
factories also release high scores of gaseous emissions on daily basis into the air, especially in highly
industrialized areas and urban regions with large numbers of car traffic. These gases react in the
atmosphere with water, oxygen, and other chemicals to form various acidic compounds such as sulfuric
acid, ammonium nitrate, and nitric acid. As a result, these areas experience exceedingly high amounts of
acid rain.
The existing winds blow these acidic compounds over large areas across borders and they fall back to
the ground in the form of acid rain or other forms of precipitation. Upon reaching the earth, it flows
across the surface, absorbs into the soil and enters into lakes and rivers and finally gets mixed up with
sea water.
The gases i.e. i.e. sulfur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are primarily gases occurring from
electric power generation by burning coal and responsible for acid rain.

5.3.3 Effects of Acid Rain

Acid rain has significant effects on the world environment and public health.
1. Effect on Aquatic Environment: Acid rain either falls directly on aquatic bodies or gets run off
the forests, roads and fields to flow into streams, rivers and lakes. Over a period of time, acids get
accumulated in the water and lower the overall pH of the water body. The aquatic plants and
animals need a particular pH level of about 4.8 to survive. If the pH level falls below that the
conditions become hostile for the survival of aquatic life. Acid rain tendency of altering pH and
aluminum concentrations greatly affects pH concentration levels in surface water, thereby affecting
fish as well as other aquatic life-forms. At pH levels below 5, most fish eggs cannot hatch. Lower
pHs can also kill adult fish. Acid rain runoff from catchment areas into rivers and lakes has also
reduced biodiversity as rivers and lakes become more acidic. Species including fish, plant and insect
types in some lakes, rivers and brooks have been reduced and some even completely eliminated
owing to excess acid rain flowing into the waters.
2. Effect on Forests: It makes trees vulnerable to disease, extreme weather, and insects by destroying
their leaves, damaging the bark and arresting their growth. Forest damage due to acid rain is most
evident in Eastern Europe – especially Germany, Poland and Switzerland.
3. Effect on Soil: Acid rain highly impacts on soil chemistry and biology. It means, soil microbes and
biological activity as well as soil chemical compositions such as soil pH are damaged or reversed
due to the effects of acid rain. The soil needs to maintain an optimum pH level for the continuity
of biological activity. When acid rains seep into the soil, it means higher soil pH, which damages or
reverses soil biological and chemical activities. Hence, sensitive soil microorganisms that cannot
adapt to changes in pH are killed. High soil acidity also denatures enzymes for the soil microbes.
On the same breadth, hydrogen ions of acid rain leach away vital minerals and nutrients such as
calcium and magnesium.
4. Vegetation Cover and Plantations: The damaging effects of acid rain on soil and high levels of
dry depositions have endlessly damaged high altitude forests and vegetation cover since they are
mostly encircled by acidic fogs and clouds. Besides, the widespread effects of acid rain on
ecological harmony have lead to stunted growth and even death of some forests and vegetation
cover.
5. Effect on Architecture and Buildings: Acid rain on buildings, especially those constructed with
limestone, react with the minerals and corrode them away. This leaves the building weak and

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 susceptible to decay. Modern buildings, cars, airplanes, steel bridges and pipes are all affected by
acid rain. Irreplaceable damage can be caused to the old heritage buildings.
6. Effect on Public Health: When in atmosphere, sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide gases and their
particulate matter derivatives like sulfates and nitrates, degrades visibility and can cause accidents,
leading to injuries and deaths. Human health is not directly affected by acid rain because acid rain
water is too dilute to cause serious health problems. However, the dry depositions also known as
gaseous particulates in the air which in this case are nitrogen oxides and sulfur dioxide can cause
serious health problems when inhaled. Intensified levels of acid depositions in dry form in the air
can cause lung and heart problems such as bronchitis and asthma.
7. Other Effects: Acid rain leads to weathering of buildings, corrosion of metals, and peeling of
paints on surfaces. Buildings and structures made of marble and limestone are the ones especially
damaged by acid rain due to the reactivity of the acids in the rain and the calcium compounds in
the structures. The effects are commonly seen on statues, old grave stones, historic monuments,
and damaged buildings. Acid rain also corrodes metals like steel, bronze, copper, and iron.

5.3.4 Control and prevention of Acid Rain

1. Cleaning up Exhaust Pipes and Smoke-stacks

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) are the chief contributors to acid rain. Burning
coal is largely responsible for SO2 emissions and NOx emissions are mostly from fossil fuel
combustions.
Washing coal, use of coal comprised of low sulfur, and use of devices known as “scrubbers” can
provide technical solution to SO2 emissions. “Scrubbing” also called flue-gas desulfurization
(FGD) typically work to chemically eliminate SO2 from the gases leaving stacks. It can eliminate up
to 95% of SO2 gases. Power generation facilities can also shift to using fuels that emit much less
SO2 such as natural gas instead of burning coal.
Similarly, NOx emissions from automobile fossil fuel combustions are mitigated upon by use of
catalytic converters. Catalytic converters are fixed on the exhaust pipe system to reduce NOx
emission. Improvement of gasoline that combusts cleaner is also a strategy for reducing emission
of NOx gases.
2. Restoring Damaged Environments
Use of limestone or lime, a process called liming, is a practice that people can do to repair the
damage caused by acid rain to lakes, rivers and brooks. Adding lime into acidic surface waters
balances the acidity. It’s a process that has extensively been used, for instance in Sweden, to keep
the water pH at optimum. Even though, liming is an expensive method and has to be done
repeatedly. Furthermore, it only offers a short-term solution at the expense of solving the broader
challenges of SO2 and NOx emissions and risks to human health. Nevertheless, it helps to restore
and allow the survival of aquatic life forms by improving chronically acidified surface waters.
3. Alternative Energy Sources
Besides fossil fuels, there is a wide range of alternative energy sources that can generate electrical
power. These include wind energy, geothermal energy, solar energy, hydropower, and nuclear
power. Harnessing these energy sources can offer effective electrical power alternatives instead of
using fossil fuels. Fuel cells, natural gas, and batteries can also substitute use of fossil fuel as cleaner
energy sources. As of today, all energy sources have environmental and economic costs as well as
benefits. The only solution is using sustainable energy that can protect the future.
4. Individual, National/State, and International Actions
Millions of people directly and indirectly contribute to SO2 and NOx emissions. Mitigation of this
challenge requires individuals to be more informed about energy conservation and ways of

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 reducing emissions such as: turning off lights or electrical appliances when not using them; use
public transport; use energy efficient electrical appliances; and use of hybrid vehicles or those with
low NOx emissions.

5.4 Global warming

Green House effect
To understand global warming, it is first necessary to become familiar with the greenhouse effect. The
natural greenhouse effect normally traps some portion of heat in such a way that our planet is safe from
reaching freezing temperatures while human enhanced greenhouse effect leads to global warming. This
is due to burning of fossil fuels which increase the amount of greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide,
methane and oxides of nitrogen) present in the atmosphere.

The trade of incoming and outgoing radiation that heats up the Earth is often referred to as the
greenhouse effect because a greenhouse works in a similar way.
For example, in a car, which is parked outside, on a cold sunny day. Incoming solar radiation warms the
interior of the car but outgoing thermal radiation is trapped inside the closed windows of the cars. This
entrapment basically warms up the car. This trapping occurs in such a way that the hot air does not rise
and does not lose energy though convention.
"Gas molecules that absorb thermal infrared radiation, and are in significant enough quantity, can force
the climate system. These types of gas molecules are called greenhouse gases”.
Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases act like a mantle, absorbing infrared radiation and
preventing it from escaping into the outer space. The net effect is the regular heating of the Earth's
atmosphere and surface.
There are many greenhouse gases which are mainly emitted by human activity. The first and foremost in
the list is carbon dioxide. Excessive burning of fossil fuels like coal and oil is the major factor for
producing this gas. Moreover, deforestation i.e. removal of trees for acquiring lands also causes large
amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Cement manufacture also contributes carbon dioxide to
atmosphere when calcium carbonate is heated generating lime and carbon dioxide.
The second culprit gas is methane, commonly known as natural gas. It is produced as a result of
agricultural activities such as livestock digestion, paddy rice farming and use of manure. Methane is also
produced due to improper management of waste. Nitrous oxides are generated mainly by fertilizers.
Moreover, fluorinated gases such as chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) are chiefly a result of various industrial
processes and refrigeration. These gases are playing their negative part in increasing the havoc of global
warming. They are continuously causing an increase in the earth’s temperature.

Global Warming is defined as the increase of the average temperature on Earth. As the Earth is getting
hotter, disasters like hurricanes, droughts and floods are getting more frequent. Over the last 100 years,
the average air temperature near the Earth’s surface has risen by <1ºC or 1.3ºF. Global warming is the
cause, climate change is the effect.
The increased volumes of carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases released by the burning of fossil
fuels, land clearing, agriculture, and other human activities, are believed to be the primary sources of the
global warming that has occurred over the past 50 years. Scientists from the Intergovernmental Panel
on Climate carrying out global warming research have recently predicted that average global
temperatures could increase between 1.4 and 5.8 °C by the year 2100.
The buildup of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere, mainly from your fossil fuel emissions, is the most
significant human cause of global warming. Deforestation increases the severity of global warming as

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well. Carbon dioxide is released from the human conversion of forests and grasslands into farmland and
cities.

Effects of global warming:

Increasing global temperatures are causing a broad range of changes.
Effects on weather:
Sea levels are rising due to thermal expansion of the ocean, in addition to melting of land ice.
Amounts and patterns of precipitation (i.e., rain, snow, mist, fog etc) are changing. The total annual
power of hurricanes has already increased markedly since 1975 because their average intensity and
average duration have increased. Changes in temperature and precipitation patterns increase the
frequency, duration, and intensity of other extreme weather events, such as floods, droughts, heat
waves, and tornadoes. Polar region warms more than the rest of the hemisphere. There are three major
ways in which global warming will make changes to regional climate: melting or forming ice, changing
the hydrological cycle (of evaporation) and changing currents in the oceans and air flows in the
atmosphere. The coast can also be considered a region, and will suffer severe impacts from sea level
rise. Mountain glaciers and snow cover had decreased in both the northern and southern hemispheres.
This widespread decrease in glaciers and ice caps has contributed to observed sea level rise.
Other effects of global warming include higher or lower agricultural yields, further glacial retreat,
reduced summer stream flows, species extinctions.

Effect on oceans:
The oceans serve as a sink for carbon dioxide, taking up much that would otherwise remain in the
atmosphere, but increased levels of CO2 have led to ocean acidification. Furthermore, as the
temperature of the oceans increases, they become less able to absorb excess CO2. Global warming is
projected to have a number of effects on the oceans.

Effect on health:
Global warming can severely affect the health of living beings. Excess heat can cause stress which may
lead to blood pressure and heart diseases. Crop failures and famines, which are a direct consequence of
heating up of earth, can cause a decline in human body resistance to viruses and infections. Global
warming may also transfer various diseases to other regions as people will shift from regions of higher
temperatures to regions of comparatively lower temperatures. Warmer oceans and other surface waters
may lead to severe cholera outbreaks and harmful infections in some types of sea food. Moreover, it is
an established fact that warmer temperatures lead to dehydration which is a major cause of kidney
stones.

5.5 Major air pollution disasters

Meuse valley
The Meuse Valley Fog of 1930 was a severe air pollution event that affected Liege and the
surrounding area along the Meuse River in Belgium in December of 1930. Specifically, over the period
of December 1st to December 5th, 1930, heavy smog was reported over the area, determined to be the
result of both climate conditions and air pollution emissions from within the Meuse Valley. 63 excess
deaths were reported as a result of the event.
The Meuse Valley is the region along the Meuse River between Liege and Huy, Belgium. In 1930, this
20 km stretch housed 27 factories. These industries included zinc smelters, glass and steel
manufacturers and explosive plants. The sources of pollution within the Meuse Valley region were the

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result of both the densely populated factories along the Meuse River and the recent increase in
population and subsequent increase in domestic coal burning.
During the period of December 1st to December 5th, the weather was characterized as anticyclonic
with high atmospheric pressure and low-speed wind blowing from the east. In addition, temperature
inversion occurred at approximately 90 yards from ground level within the valley, just below the hills on
each side. Fallen fine solid particles were noted within the five day period, consisting primarily of soot
and ranging from 1 to 4 microns in diameter.
Starting the afternoon of December 3rd and onwards, hundreds of those residing within communities
of the Meuse Valley exhibited severe respiratory symptoms. Specifically, the residents were experiencing
laryngeal irritation, retrosternal pain, coughing fits and asthma-like symptoms. In addition, some
residents also experienced nausea and vomiting though no other symptoms which would point to
poisoning. 63 excess deaths within the Valley were reported by December 5 th.

London smog
The Great Smog of London of 1952, was a severe air-pollution event that affected the British
capital of London in early December 1952. A period of cold weather, combined with an anticyclone and
windless conditions, collected airborne pollutants—mostly arising from the use of coal—to form a thick
layer of smog over the city. It lasted from Friday, 5th December to Tuesday, 9th December 1952 and
then dispersed quickly when the weather changed.
On 4 December 1952, an anticyclone settled over a windless London, causing a subsidence
inversion with cold, stagnant air caught under a layer of warm air. The resultant fog, mixed with smoke
from home and industrial chimneys, particulates such as those from motor vehicle exhausts, and other
pollutants such as sulphur dioxide, formed a persistent smog, which blanketed the capital the following
day. The presence of tarry particles of soot gave the smog its yellow-black colour, hence the
nickname "pea-souper". The absence of significant wind prevented its dispersal and allowed an
unprecedented accumulation of pollutants. According one observer, “one could not see one’s hand
infront one’s face – a white shirt collar became almost black within 20min”. The symptoms were cough,
nasal discharge, sore throat, irritation of eyes and bronchi and sudden attacks of vomiting.
It caused major disruption by reducing visibility and even penetrating indoor areas, far more severe than
previous smog events experienced in the past, called "pea-soupers". Government medical reports in the
following weeks, however, estimated that up until 8 December, 4,000 people had died as a direct result
of the smog and 100,000 more were made ill by the smog's effects on the human respiratory tract. More
recent research suggests that the total number of fatalities was considerably greater; about 6,000 more
died in the following months as a result of the event. It is theorised that in 1952 in London, the
nitrogen dioxide and sulfur dioxide combined with fog rather than humidity; larger droplets of water
diluted the acid products, allowing more sulfate production as sulfuric acid. Sunrise burned off the fog,
leaving concentrated acid droplets that killed citizens.

Los Angeles smog

Subsidence inversion is responsible for the air pollution problem of Los Angeles. Los Angeles has
mountains to the north and east and these act as a trap for obnoxious gases from thousands of
automobiles as horizontal air movement is restricted by the mountains.
Temperature inversion increases the concentration of exhaust gases and photochemical smog is formed.
In Los Angeles, ozone is formed by the photochemical reactions of oxides of nitrogen and
hydrocarbons. The physical difficulties caused by smog are irritation of the eyes, nose, throat.
According to some investigators, eye irritation is due to PAN, which is formed photochemically.
As far as Los Angeles is concerned, motor vehicles are responsible for 75-80% of the existing air
pollution problems.

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Bhoopal Gas Tragedy
The Bhopal disaster or Bhopal gas tragedy was an industrial accident. It happened at a Union
Carbide subsidiary pesticide plant in the city of Bhopal, India. On the night of 2-3 December 1984, the
plant released approximately 40 tonnes of toxic methyl isocyanate (MIC) gas, exposing more than
500,000 people to toxic gases.
A mixture of poisonous gases flooded the city, causing great panic as people woke up with a burning
sensation in their lungs. Thousands died immediately from the effects of the gas. Many were trampled
in the panic that followed. The first official immediate death toll was 2,259. Another estimate is that
8,000 died within two weeks, that an additional 8,000 have since died from gas-related diseases.
The Bhopal disaster is frequently cited as the worst industrial disaster. The International Medical
Commission on Bhopal was established in 1993 to respond to the long term health effects of the
disaster.
The disaster happened because water entered a tank containing Methyl isocyanate. This caused a
chemical reaction which resulted in the buildup of much Carbon dioxide, among other things. The
resulting reaction increased the temperature inside the tank to reach over 200 °C (392 °F).
The pressure was more than the tank was built to withstand. The tank had valves to control
the pressure. These were triggered in an emergency, which reduced the pressure. As a result, large
amounts of toxic gases were released into the environment. The pipes were rusty. The rust in
the iron pipes made the reaction faster. All the contents of the tank were released within a period of
about two hours. The water had entered the tank because of a sequence of events. The tank had been
maintained badly. When cleaning work was done, water entered the tank.
Between 3,500 and 25,000 people died as a result of contact with the cloud of toxic gas. Up to 5,00,000
people were injured. Many of the injuries are permanent. Some of the chemicals lead to birth defects.
The numbers vary so vastly because there are no exact figures about how many people lived in the
neighbourhood of the plant. About 1,00,000 people were living in a radius of 1 km around the plant
where the disaster happened. The problem was then made worse by the plant's wrong location near a
densely populated area.

5.6 Environmental policy

Environmental policy is the commitment of an organization or government to the laws,
regulations, and other policy mechanisms concerning environmental issues. These issues generally
include air and water pollution, waste management, ecosystem management, maintenance
of biodiversity, the protection of natural resources, wildlife and endangered species. Concerning
environmental policy, the importance of implementation of an eco-energy-oriented policy world wide to
address the issues of global warming and climate changes should be accentuated. Policies concerning
energy or regulation of toxic substances including pesticides and many types of industrial waste are part
of the topic of environmental policy. This policy can be deliberately taken to direct and oversee human
activities and thereby prevent harmful effects on the biophysical environment and natural resources, as
well as to make sure that changes in the environment do not have harmful effects on humans. [3]

The ISO 14001 standard is probably the best reference standard for the development of an
environmental policy. In summary, an environmental policy must be:
1. appropriate to the organisation;
2. include a commitment for continual improvement and prevention of pollution;
3. include a commitment to comply to relevant legal and other requirements; and,
4. provide the framework for setting and reviewing environmental objectives and targets.

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 5. Also, consideration should be given to the reader's expectations. From a customer perspective
they would like to clearly know: what the organisation does and how it does it (e.g. do they
follow best practice and embrace cleaner production, if so how?);
6. understand whether the organisation is greener or browner than similar organisations;
7. understand whether the organisation presents a direct environmental risk to their operations;
8. understand whether the organisation presents a risk to public perception if they are engaged;
9. understand whether the organisation present an environmental risk by not understanding and
not complying with legal & other requirements; and,
10. understand whether the organisation has any environmental programs to their reduce
environmental impact and improve their environmental performance.

5.7 The Kyoto Protocol

The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework
Convention on Climate Change, which commits its Parties by setting internationally binding emission
reduction targets. Recognizing that developed countries are principally responsible for the current high
levels of GHG emissions in the atmosphere as a result of more than 150 years of industrial activity, the
Protocol places a heavier burden on developed nations under the principle of "common but
differentiated responsibilities." The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on 11 December
1997 and entered into force on 16 February 2005. The detailed rules for the implementation of the
Protocol were adopted at COP 7 in Marrakesh, Morocco, in 2001, and are referred to as the "Marrakesh
Accords." Its first commitment period started in 2008 and ended in 2012.
In Doha, Qatar, on 8 December 2012, the "Doha Amendment to the Kyoto Protocol" was adopted.
The amendment includes:
• New commitments for Annex I Parties to the Kyoto Protocol who agreed to take on
commitments in a second commitment period from 1 January 2013 to 31 December 2020;
• A revised list of greenhouse gases (GHG) to be reported on by Parties in the second
commitment period; and
• Amendments to several articles of the Kyoto Protocol which specifically referenced issues
pertaining to the first commitment period and which needed to be updated for the second
commitment period.

On 21 December 2012, the amendment was circulated by the Secretary-General of the United Nations,
acting in his capacity as Depositary, to all Parties to the Kyoto Protocol in accordance with Articles 20
and 21 of the Protocol. During the first commitment period, 37 industrialized countries and the
European Community committed to reduce GHG emissions to an average of five percent against 1990
levels. During the second commitment period, Parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least
18 percent below 1990 levels in the eight-year period from 2013 to 2020; however, the composition of
Parties in the second commitment period is different from the first.
Under the Protocol, countries must meet their targets primarily through national measures. However,
the Protocol also offers them an additional means to meet their targets by way of three market-
basedmechanisms. The Kyoto mechanisms are:
• International Emissions Trading
• Clean Development Mechanism (CDM)
• Joint implementation (JI)

The Adaptation Fund was established to finance adaptation projects and programmes in developing
countries that are Parties to the Kyoto Protocol. In the first commitment period, the Fund was financed

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mainly with a share of proceeds from CDM project activities. In Doha, in 2012, it was decided that for
the second commitment period, international emissions trading and joint implementation would also
provide the Adaptation Fund with a 2 percent share of proceeds.
The road ahead
The Kyoto Protocol is seen as an important first step towards a truly global emission reduction regime
that will stabilize GHG emissions, and can provide the architecture for the future international
agreement on climate change. In Durban, the Ad Hoc Working Group on the Durban Platform for
Enhanced ActionADP) was established to develop a protocol, another legal instrument or an agreed
outcome with legal force under the Convention, applicable to all Parties. The ADP is to complete its
work as early as possible, but no later than 2015, in order to adopt this protocol, legal instrument or
agreed outcome with legal force at the twenty-first session of the Conference of the Parties and for it to
come into effect and be implemented from 2020.

5.8 Air (Prevention and control of pollution) act, 1981

The air act, 1981 of government of India came into force from May 16, 1981. The act is applicable
throughout the country. The act provides for an integrated approach for tackling environmental
problems relating to the pollution.
For administering the act, the state governments have been authorised to declare, after consultation
with the state boards, any areas within the state as air pollution control areas. These areas may be
extended, reduced or even merged together in course of time. Pollution by ships and air craft is not
covered by provisions of the Act.
The Act includes the following,
1. Definitions of terms used
2. Constitution of the central and state boards
3. Functions of boards
4. Powers of board
a. Power to declare air pollution control areas
b. Power to give instructions for ensuring standards for emission from automobile
c. Restriction on use of certain industrial plants
d. Power of entry and inspection
e. Power to take samples of air and emissions
f. Establishment of state air laboratory
5. Penalty and procedures
In states where water pollution control boards have been constituted, they will also look after the
administration of the air pollution control act. In case of states which have not adopted the water
pollution control act, only air pollution control board will be constituted. The boards will a chairman,
member secretary and some official and non official members.
Two important functions of the central and state boards are laying down standards for emission of air
pollutants into the atmosphere from industrial plants and establishment of laboratories.

Other Acts
1948 – The factories Act and amendment in 1987- was the first to express concern for the working
environment of the workers. The amendment of 1987 has sharpened its environmental focus and
expanded its application to hazardous process.
1982 – The air Act rules- defines the procedures of the meetings of the boards and the powers
entrusted to them.
1987- The air (prevention and control of pollution) amendment Act- empowers the central and state
pollution control boards to meet with grave emergencies of air pollution.

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