Lecture Notes

Naval Architecture III (5007/2023)

- Q: What are the main types of propellers used for ship propulsion?

- A: The main types of propellers are fixed-pitch propellers, which have blades that
do not change their angle; controllable-pitch propellers, which have blades that can
change their angle to adjust the thrust; and ducted propellers, which have a nozzle
around the blades to improve efficiency and reduce noise.

- Q: What are the advantages and disadvantages of nuclear propulsion for ships?

- A: Nuclear propulsion uses a nuclear reactor to generate heat that is converted into
steam or electricity to power the ship. The advantages of nuclear propulsion are that it
provides a very high power output, a long endurance without refueling, and a low
environmental impact in terms of greenhouse gas emissions. The disadvantages of
nuclear propulsion are that it is very expensive to build and maintain, it poses safety
and security risks in case of accidents or attacks, and it generates radioactive waste
that requires careful disposal.

- Q: What are some examples of renewable energy sources for ship propulsion?

- A: Some examples of renewable energy sources for ship propulsion are solar power,
wind power, wave power, and biofuels. Solar power uses photovoltaic panels or solar
sails to capture sunlight and convert it into electricity or thrust. Wind power uses sails
or wind turbines to harness the wind and generate thrust or electricity. Wave power
uses devices that capture the motion of waves and convert it into electricity or
hydraulic pressure. Biofuels use organic materials such as vegetable oils or algae to
produce fuels that can be burned in engines or fuel cells.
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Different Types of Marine Propulsion Systems

Different Types of Marine Propulsion Systems

 Wind Propulsion. Wind assisted propulsion is the practice of using sails or a type of
wind capture device. ...
 Steam Turbine Propulsion. ...
 Diesel Propulsion. ...
 Gas Turbine propulsion. ...
 Nuclear Propulsion. ...
 Fuel Cell Propulsion. ...
 Solar Propulsion.

1. Diesel Propulsion
Diesel propulsion system is the most commonly used marine propulsion
system converting mechanical energy from thermal forces. Diesel
propulsion systems are mainly used in almost all types of vessels along with
small boats and recreational vessels.
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2. Wind Propulsion
Wind propulsion emerged as an alternative to those systems which emit
huge quantities of CO2 gases in the marine atmosphere. However, the usage
of wind turbine marine propulsion has not started extensively in large
commercial ships because of a requirement of constant windiness. Two
wind propulsion systems for ships that have become lately are- kite
propulsion and sail propulsion for merchant ships.

3. Nuclear Propulsion
Naval vessels incorporate the usage of nuclear maritime propulsion. Using
the nuclear fission process, nuclear propulsion is a highly complex system
consisting of water reactors and other equipments to fuel the vessel. The
nuclear reactors in the ships are also used to generate electricity for the
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ship. Several merchant ships are also being planned to be constructed with
this propulsion system

4. Gas Turbine Propulsion

Gas turbine propulsion is used for naval as well as non-naval ships. In case
of naval ships, the gas turbine propulsion system aids in faster movement
of the ships which is necessary in case of the ship coming under attack.
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5. Fuel Cell Propulsion

Fuel cell propulsion systems use hydrogen as the main fuel component.
Electricity is created in the fuel cell without any combustion whatsoever.
The process is clean and therefore has been regarded as a very important
alternative marine propulsion system. There are various types of propulsion
under the fuel cell propulsion head like PEM (Photon-Exchange-Membrane)
and the molten-carbonate systems.

6. Biodiesel Fuel Propulsion

Biodiesel propulsion has been deemed as a potential marine propulsion
system for the future. Currently tests are being carried out to find out about
the viability of this propulsion system which is expected to be in full
operation by the year 2017.

7. Solar Propulsion
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Solar propulsion for ships was utilised for the first time in the year
2008. Solar propulsion benefits include a high reduction in the poisonous
carbon dioxide emissions. Solar propulsions are capable of generating a
capacitance as high as 40 kilowatts (kW).

8. Steam Turbine Propulsion

Steam turbine propulsion involves the usage of coal or other steam-
generating fuels to propel the vessel. Steam turbine maritime propulsion
system was highly utilised between the late 19th and the early 20th century.

9. Diesel-Electric Propulsion
In simple terms, diesel-electric ship propulsion systems use a combination
of a generator operated by electricity attached to a diesel motor. The
technology has been in use since the early 1900s. In today’s times,
submarines and merchant ships incorporate the diesel-electric propulsion
system to propel themselves.
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10. Water-Jet Propulsion

Water-jet propulsion has been used since the year 1954. The most
important advantage of water-jet propulsion is that it does not cause noise
pollution and offers a high speed to the vessels. In contrast the water-jet
propulsion as a ship propulsion system is costlier to maintain which can
cause problems to the user.

11. Gas fuel or Tri Fuel Propulsion

LNG fuel is now utilised to be burnt in the Main Engine after adopting some
modification in the propulsion engine to reduce emission from the ship. It
is known as tri fuel because it can burn gas fuel, diesel and heavy fuel

Components of Total Hull Resistance

As a ship moves through calm water, there are many factors that combine to
form the total resistance force acting on the hull. The principle factors affecting ship
resistance are the friction and viscous effects of water acting on the hull, the energy
required to create and maintain the ship’s characteristic bow and stern waves, and the
resistance that air provides to ship motion. In mathematical terms, total resistance can
be written as:

Other factors affecting total hull resistance will also be presented. Figure 7.5 shows
how the magnitude of each component of resistance varies with ship speed. At low
speeds viscous resistance dominates, and at high speeds the total resistance curve
turns upward dramatically as wave making resistance begins to dominate.
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Figure – Components of Hull Resistance

Typical fluid flow around a body

The flow of fluid around a body can be divided into two general types of flow:
laminar flow and turbulent flow. A typical flow pattern around a ship’s hull showing
laminar and turbulent flow is shown in Figure.

Figure – Typical water flow pattern around a ship’s hull

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Brake Horsepower (BHP)

Brake horsepower (BHP) is the power produced by the ship’s prime mover. The prime
mover is portion of the drive train that converts heat energy into rotational energy. For
most ships, the prime mover is a steam turbine, gas turbine, or diesel engine. For some
ships, the prime mover can be a large electric motor (electric drive). The output speed
of the prime mover is usually quite high (several thousand rpm for a gas turbine at full
power) and must be reduced to a usable rotational speed.
Shaft Horsepower (SHP)
Shaft horsepower (SHP) is the power output the reduction gears (if installed).
Reduction gears are necessary to reduce the high revolutions per minute (rpm) of the
prime mover to a much slower shaft rotation speed required for efficient screw
propeller operation. For example, a steam turbine at full power may operate at 5,700
rpm and the reduction gear will reduce that to 258 shaft rpm. In order to accomplish
the speed reduction between the prime mover and propeller shaft, and to produce the
torque necessary to spin the propeller, a reduction gear is usually quite large and
heavy. Reduction gears are very efficient at power transmission, with only a one or
two percent loss of power between input (BHP) and output (SHP). The relationship
between BHP and SHP is called the gear efficiency (ηgear), and is written as follows:

Delivered Horsepower (DHP)

Delivered Horsepower (DHP) is the power delivered by the shaft to the propeller. The
amount of power delivered to the propeller will be less than shaft horsepower because
of transmission losses in the shaft. Losses are usually quite small: 2-3%. These losses
occur in the bearings, stern tube and its seal, and strut bearings. The thrust bearing
takes the axial propeller thrust produced by the rotation of the propeller shaft and
transmits the linear force of the thrust to the ship, which in turn produces translational
motion of the ship. Line shaft bearings are used to support the weight of the propeller
shaft between the reduction gear and stern tube. The stern tube and seal are necessary
to keep the ocean out of the ship. Transmission losses are primarily due to friction and
can be felt as heat in the bearings. The difference between delivered horsepower and
shaft horsepower is referred to as shaft transmission efficiency (ηshaft), and is defined
as:
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Thrust Horsepower (THP)

Thrust Horsepower (THP) is the power produced by the propeller’s thrust. THP is
smaller than DHP due to inefficiencies inherent in converting the rotational motion of
the propeller into linear thrust. The propeller is the least efficient component of the
ship’s drive train. Delivered and thrust horsepower are related through a quantity
called the propeller efficiency. Typically, a well-designed propeller will have an
efficiency of 70-75% at the ship’s design speed.

Effective Horsepower (EHP)

The amount of power is determined through the concept of Effective Horsepower
(EHP). Effective horsepower is defined as: “The horsepower required to move the
ship’s hull at a given speed in the absence of propeller action.” Effective horsepower is
determined through model data obtained from towing tank experimentation. In these
experiments, a hull model is towed through the water at a given speed while measuring
the amount of force resisting the hull’s movement through the water. Model resistance
data can then be scaled up to full-scale ship resistance. Knowing a ship’s total hull
resistance and its speed through the water, the ship’s effective horsepower can be
determined using the following equation:
EHP = RT x V

Propulsive Efficiency
Having established that the link between the power required to tow a ship
through the water (EHP) and the power produced by the propeller (THP) is the hull
efficiency, it is now possible to determine the shaft or brake horsepower the ship will
need. Figure shows a block diagram of the various components of a ship’s drive train
and the powers associated with each component that can aid in the determination of the
required SHP or BHP.

Figure- Block diagram of a ship’s drive train

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Instead of having to deduce the effect of all the separate efficiencies of each
component in the drive train, the separate efficiencies are often combined into a single
efficiency called the propulsive efficiency (ηP) or propulsive coefficient (PC).

The propulsive efficiency is the ratio of effective horsepower to shaft horsepower,

therefore allowing the designer to make a direct determination of the shaft horsepower
required to be installed in the ship. Common values of propulsive efficiency typically
range from 55% to 75%.

Screw Propeller Definitions

The screw propeller is the device most commonly used to transmit the power
produced by the prime mover into the water and drives the ship.

Figure– Basic propeller geometry; left handed propeller viewed from astern.
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• Propeller Radius (R) Distance from the propeller axis to the blade tip.
• Hub Connection between the blades and the propeller shaft
• Blade Tip Furthest point on the blade from the hub
• Blade Root Point where the blade joins the hub
• Tip Circle Circle described by the blade tips as the propeller rotates
• Propeller Disc Area described by the tip circle (propeller area, A0)
• Leading Edge First portion of the blade to encounter the water
• Trailing Edge Last portion of the blade to encounter the water
• Pressure Face High pressure side of the propeller blade. Astern side of
the blade when moving the ship forward
• Suction Back Low pressure side of the blade. Most of the pressure
difference developed across the blade occurs on the low
pressure side.
• Left Handed Screw Rotates counterclockwise when viewed from astern.
Single screw naval vessels use this type of propeller.
• Right Handed Screw Rotates clockwise when viewed from astern. Twin screw
naval vessels use one left handed and one right handed
propeller.

Propeller Pitch (P)

Propeller pitch (P) is the ideal linear distance parallel to the direction of motion
that would be traveled in one revolution of the propeller shaft; similar to what happens
when you turn a wood screw one revolution into a block of wood. The pitch angle (φ)
of a propeller is the angle that any portion of the blade makes from perpendicular to
the water flow. Since any point on a propeller blade describes a helix, the pitch of a
propeller (P) and pitch angle are related through the following equation:

where: P = propeller pitch (ft)

φ = pitch angle (degrees)
r = radial distance of any point on the blade from the propeller shaft axis (ft)
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Figure – Relationship between propeller pitch and pitch angle

Fixed Pitch Propeller

A fixed pitch propeller is a propeller whose blade is fixed with respect to the hub
and cannot be changed while the propeller shaft is rotating. A fixed pitch propeller may
have either constant or variable pitch blade shape. Most propellers in service today,
from those attached to outboard engines or to the large screws of aircraft carriers, are
fixed variable pitch propellers.
Variable Pitch Propeller
The pitch (P) varies at each radial distance from the blade root to tip.
Additionally, the pitch may vary across the face of the blade from leading edge to
trailing edge at any radial distance from the hub. The nominal pitch value for a
variable pitch propeller is taken at seventy percent of the blade radius (0.7R). A
variable pitch propeller has distinct advantages 7 - 31 over a constant pitch propeller.
A variable pitch propeller has greatly increased efficiency and is less likely to cavitate.
Nearly every propeller in use today is a variable pitch propeller. Recall that increased
propeller efficiency will increase a ship’s propulsive efficiency (ηp), resulting in less
shaft horsepower required to propel the ship at a given speed.
Controllable Pitch Propeller
This type of propeller design allows the position of the propeller blade with
respect to the hub to be changed while the propeller shaft is rotating. This is
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accomplished by using an electro-hydraulic system to change the pitch angle of the
blades. While the entire propeller is classified as a controllable pitch propeller, the
blades can also be variable pitch, producing a controllable variable pitch propeller. A
controllable pitch propeller can significantly improve the control and ship handling
capabilities of a ship. It also obviates the need for a prime mover reversing mechanism
because the pitch angle can be changed such that the blades provide reverse thrust
without changing the direction of shaft rotation.

Propeller Cavitation

Cavitation is the formation and subsequent collapse of vapor bubbles in regions

on propeller blades where pressure has fallen below the vapor pressure of water.
Cavitation occurs on propellers that are heavily loaded, or are experiencing a high
thrust loading coefficient.

Types of Cavitation
There are three main types of propeller cavitation:
• Tip Blade tip cavitation is the most common form of cavitation. Tip
cavitation forms because the blade tips are moving the fastest and
therefore experience the greatest dynamic pressure drop.
• Sheet Sheet cavitation refers to a large and stable region of cavitation
on a propeller, not necessarily covering the entire face of a blade.
The suction face of the propeller is susceptible to sheet cavitation
because of the low pressures there. Additionally, if the angle of
attack of the blade is set incorrectly (on a controllable pitch
propeller, for instance) it is possible to cause sheet cavitation on
the pressure face.
• Spot Spot cavitation occurs at sites on the blade where there is a
scratch or some other surface imperfection.
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Consequences of Cavitation
The consequences of propeller cavitation are not good and can include the
following:
• Reduction in the thrust produced by the propeller.
• Erosion of the propeller blades. As cavitation bubbles form and collapse
on the tip and face of a propeller blade, pressure wave formed causes a
small amount of metal to be eroded away. Excessive cavitation can erode
blade tips and cause other imperfections on the blade’s surface.
• Vibration in the propeller shafting.
• Increase in ship’s radiated noise signature.

Propeller Ventilation
Ventilation is a propeller effect often confused with cavitation. If a
propeller operates too close to the surface of the water, the localized low pressure
created by the propeller blades can draw air under the water and cause effects
similar to those mentioned for cavitation. Ventilation is most likely to occur when
operating in a very light displacement condition ( a condition common to
merchant ships transiting in ballast), ships operating in rough seas where ship
motion causes the propeller to go in and out of the water, and in ships with a large
negative trim (trim down by the bow).

General definitions of an aero foil section

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Resistance testing of a model in a towing tank

Resistance testing of a model in a towing tank utilizes the following generalized

procedure:
• Determine the full-scale ship speed range for the test: minimum ship speed
to a desired maximum speed.
• Determine towing speeds for the model using the Law of Comparison.
• Tow the model at each speed, recording the total hull resistance of the
model.
• Determine the coefficient of total hull resistance for the model at each
speed.
• Determine the coefficient of viscous resistance for the model at each speed.
• Calculate the wave making coefficient of the model at each speed
• CWS = CWM
• Determine the coefficient of viscous resistance for the ship at ship speeds
corresponding to model towing speeds
• Determine the coefficient of total hull resistance for the ship at each speed.
• Determine the total hull resistance of the ship for each speed.
• Determine and plot the effective horsepower of the ship at each speed 7 -
27 Once the full-scale EHP curve is known, a similar shaft horsepower
curve can be determined based on the assumed propulsive coefficient. The
bottom line of EHP testing in the towing tank is to determine the amount
of shaft horsepower that must be installed in the full scale ship in order to
drive at its maximum speed. Once the maximum shaft horsepower is
determined, the physical size and weight of the ship’s propulsion plant can
be resolved as well as the fuel storage requirements based on the expected
steaming range (miles) of the ship. These factors are important in
estimating the location of the ship’s center of gravity as well as the design
of the ship’s structure.