Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining

1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

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 Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining
1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

Proceedings
of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining

ISBN: 978-625-00-2493-5

Editor:
İ.Etem SAKLAKOĞLU

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 Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining
1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

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 Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining
1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

PREFACE………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 7
UTIS STEERİNG COMMITTEE……………………………………………………………………………….. 8
UTIS SCIENTIFIC COMMITTEE……………………………………………………………………………… 9
UTIS ACADEMICS COMMITTEE…………………………………………………………………………….. 11
IN PURSUIT OF SUSTAINABILITY FOR CUTTING TOOL MANUFACTURERS USING LIFE CYCLE
ANALYSIS………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 12
INVESTIGATION OF CARBON EMISSION DURING HARD TURNING OF AISI 4140 STEEL WITH
FEM AND REGRESSION METHODS…………………………………........................................ 24
INVESTIGATION OF SUSTAINABLE MACHINING FOR TI6AL7NB ALLOY USING ULTRASONIC
VIBRATION ASSISTED NANO-GRAPHENE BASED MQL………………………………………………… 35
THE EFFECTS OF HYBRID NANOFLUID-ASSISTED MQL IN THE ROLLER BURNISHING PROCESS
ON POWER CONSUMPTION AND SURFACE ROUGHNESS……………………………………………… 46
ANALYSIS OF NOVEL ULTRASONIC DICING BLADE DESIGN UTILIZING RESONANCE
IMPEDANCE MODEL …………………………………………………………………………………………. 55
SUSTAINABILITY ACHIEVEMENT FOR CUTTING TOOL INDUSTRY THROUGH INNOVATIVE
MACHINING TECHNIQUES…………………………………………………………………………………... 60
EFFECT OF CONCENTRATION RATE ON MACHINING PERFORMANCE IN HARD TURNING
PROCESS WITH QUANTUM DOT ADDED NANOFLUID………………………………………………….. 61
ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZATION OF MILLING PROCESS OF DIN 1.2738 MOLD STEEL USING
NANOFLUID ASSISTED MQL METHOD……………………………………………………………………. 72
INCREASING THE ROUGH MACHINING EFFICIENCY OF DIN 1.2738 STEELS WITH ADJUSTED
TROCHOIDAL MILLING TOOLPATH……………………………………………………………………….. 84
THE INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF ULTRASONIC FACTOR TO SURFACE TOPOGRAPHY
IN GRINDING OPERATION OF WC-CO WITH DIFFERENT CUTTING VARIANTS……………………. 93
EVALUATION OF THE MACHINABILITY PERFORMANCE OF PH 13-8 MO STAINLESS STEEL
UNDER SUSTAINABLE ECOLOGICAL COOLING/LUBRICATION CONDITIONS……........................... 103
FAILURE ROOT IDENTIFICATION AND WEAR MONITORING OF CERAMIC TOOLS IN TURNING
OPERATIONS…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 113
FEASIBILITY STUDY OF AN ABSORBER-INTEGRATED CUTTING TOOL IN MILLING FOR
CHATTER SUPPRESSION……………………………………………………………………………………... 114
INVESTIGATION OF SUSTAINABLE MACHINING OF TI-6AL-4V USING GRAPHENE ENHANCED
MINIMUM QUANTITY LUBRICATION……………………………………………………………………… 115
THE EFFECT OF CUTTING SPEED ON THE DEPTH OF CUT IN LASER TURNING OPERATION……. 126
EFFECT OF LASER CUTTING SPEED ON DEPTH OF CUTTING IN TUNGSTEN CARBIDE
MATERIAL……………………………………………………………………………………………………… 133
INVESTIGATION OF ROUGHNESS AND DELAMINATION IN DRILLING CURVE SURFACE
COMPOSITE MATERIALS……………………………………………………………………….. 141
PROCESS DESIGN FOR DRILLING OPERATIONS OF HIGH PERFORMANCE METAL COMPOSITE
STACK MATERIALS…………………………………………………………………………………………… 149
A NOVEL APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT AND SIMULATION OF A VIBRATION RESISTANT
BORING BAR…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 159
SURFACE ROUGHNESS ESTIMATION IN AA7075 FACE MILLING WITH XML
ALGORITHMS……………………………………………………………………………………….. 167
SURFACE INTEGRITY ANALYSIS OF INCONEL 625 ALLOY MILLED WITH CERAMIC CUTTING
TOOL…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 176
ADVANCED TECHNIQUES IN MILLING PROCESS MONITORING……………………………………… 186
THE EFFECT OF AXIAL VIBRATIONS ON CUTTING DEPENDING ON THE INTENSITY OF AXIAL
USE IN THE MILLING PROCESS…………………………………………………………. 196
NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF THE EFFECT OF THE ELEMENTS FORMING THE DRILL BIT
GEOMETRY ON THE DRILLING OF INCONEL 718………………………………………………………... 203
DEVELOPMENT AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF MQL OILS FOR THE MACHINING OF
INCONEL 718…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 213
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VIBRATION AXIS EFFECTS ON ULTRASONIC VIBRATION-
ASSISTED MACHINING OF INCONEL 718………………………………………………………………….. 214
EXPERIMENTAL CHARACTERIZATION OF TOOLHOLDER-MAIN SPINDLE CONTACT……………. 215
OPTIMIZATION OF MACHINING AND MQL PARAMETERS IN MILLING OF AUSTEMPERED
DUCTILE IRON ………………………………………………………………………………………………… 216

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 Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining
1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

INTELLIGENT CNC SYSTEM FOR CHATTER SUPPRESSION IN TURNING FOR THE MACHINING
OF FLEXIBLE WORKPIECES USING EKF AND SPINDLE SPEED VARIATION………………………… 224
INVESTIGATION OF THE CUTTING PARAMETERS OF CARBON FIBER COMPOSITE MATERIAL
WITH EPOXY RESIN PRODUCED BY AUTOMATIC FIBER LAYING METHOD IN CNC WORK
CENTER WITH VACUUM SYSTEM………………………………………………………………………..... 229
DATA USAGE IN THE INTERNET OF PRODUCTION: DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCESS DATABASE
FOR DATA-DRIVEN MODELING…………………………………………………………………………….. 239
AN ANALYSIS OF MECHANICAL STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS ON A PCD TOOL DURING CFRP
DRILLING CONSIDERING THERMAL EFFECTS…………………………………………………………… 249
ESTIMATION OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS IN WATER JET CUTTING USING FUZZY LOGIC
METHOD………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 250
MILLING FORCE ESTIMATION WITH KALMAN FILTER USING ANGULAR DOMAIN HARMONICS
AND ACCELERATION FEEDBACK………………………………………………………………………….. 260
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MACHINE LEARNING AND ENSEMBLE LEARNING APPROACH ON
TOOL WEAR CLASSIFICATION……………………………………………………………………………… 261
EFFECT OF CUTTING PARAMETERS ON THRUST FORCE AND HOLE DIAMETER IN MICRO
DRILLING OF AEROSPACE GRADE THERMOSET AND THERMOPLASTIC BASED COMPOSITE….. 270
EFFECTS OF MILLING TYPE ON CUTTING FORCES AND SURFACE FINISH IN ROBOTIC
MACHINING……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 278
INVESTIGATION OF TOOL CHIPPING RECOGNITION IN MILLING PROCESS………………………... 288
A COMPLETE MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF MILLING SPINDLE AND MOTOR FOR FORCE
ESTIMATION STUDIES………………………………………………………………………………………... 291
TURNING OF CoCrMo ALLOY PRODUCED BY MOLDING AND ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING
METHODS………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 301
ELECTROCHEMICAL PROCESSING AND SURFACE CHARACTERIZATION OF COCRMO ALLOY
SAMPLES MANUFACTURED BY SELECTIVE LASER MELTING……………………………………….. 310
EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON MILLING WITH PERMANENT MAGNETIC CUTTING TOOL…………. 320
COMPERATIVE CASE STUDY OF SIMPLE MILLING PROCESS SUBJECTED TO COULOMB
FRICTION……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 329
THE EFFECT OF SURFACE TREATMENTS ON HOLE QUALITY AND TOOL WEAR IN DEEP HOLE
DRILLS………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 335
THE EFFECT OF CUTTING PARAMETERS ON R-EFFECT UPDATE AND CUTTING TIMES IN SAW
MACHINES…………………………………………………………………………………………................... 342
THEORETICAL MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF CHIP CLOGGING IN DRILLING AND
EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION……………………………………………………………………………. 348
OPTIMIZATION OF PROCESS PARAMETERS IN FIVE AXES ULTRASONIC ASSISTED QUARTZ
MACHINING……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 349
INVESTIGATING THE ASYMMETRICITY OF INDEXABLE TOOL BODIES FOR BETTER CHATTER
RESISTANCE…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 350
INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF CIRCULAR SAW MACHINE PARAMETERS ON SURFACE
QUALITY………………………………………………………………………………………………………... 351
AN IN-PROCESS THIN-WALLED WORKPIECE DYNAMICS UPDATE MODEL USING A
MICROPHONE………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 359
COMPARISON OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS EXAMINATION IN END MILLING OF IMPAX AND
NIMAX TOOL STEELS………………………………………………………………………………………… 369
ESTIMATION OF CUTTING FORCES USING ARBITRARY LAGRANGIAN-EULERIAN FINITE
ELEMENT METHOD…………………………………………………………………………………………… 380
ESTIMATING THE EXPERIMENTAL CUTTING FORCES USING MACHINE LEARNING
ALGORITHMS………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 393
EFFECT OF CUTTING TOOL GEOMETRY AND CUTTING PARAMETERS ON SURFACE
ROUGHNESS IN DRILLING CF/PEEK COMPOSITE PLATES AND OPTIMIZATION OF
PARAMETERS………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 404
COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS of ULTRASONIC-ASSISTED and STANDARD CHEMICAL MACHINING 414
EXPERIMENTAL OPTIMIZATION OF CUTTING PARAMETERS FOR ROUGHING OF PROPELLER
BLADE TURBO DISCS FROM 17-4 PH MATERIAL……………………………………………………. 422
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF PARAMETERS AFFECTING HOLE QUALITY IN 3D
PRINTED PLA PARTS USING THE MEX PROCESS………………………………………………………... 431

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 Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining
1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

EFFECT OF THERMAL POST-PROCESSING ON THE DRILLING PROCESS OF L-PBFED PA12

PARTS…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 432
OPTIMIZATION OF DRILLING PARAMETERS FOR PC/ABS PARTS PRODUCED BY MATERIAL
EXTRUSION WITH VARYING SHELL COUNTS……………………………………………………………. 433
MACHINE LEARNING-BASED OPTIMIZATION FOR CHATTER-FREE MILLING WITH MAXIMUM
PRODUCTIVITY………………………………………………………………………………………………... 434
CHARACTERIZATION OF SAW-CUT AA7075 SURFACES IN TERMS OF SURFACE
ROUGHNESS……………………………………………………………………………………….................. 444
THE EFFECTS OF CORE MANUFACTURING PARAMETERS ON THE DRILLING PROCESS IN
HYBRID SANDWICH COMPOSITES WITH CARBON FIBER PREPREG AND ADDITIVE
MANUFACTURED CORE PLATES…………………………………………………………………………… 445
SENSITVITY ANALYSIS OF ROTATING AUXILIARY COMPONENTS OF A HIGH-SPEED SPINDLE
SHAFT ASSEMBLY…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 446
CUTTING-EDGE CBN GRINDING WHEELS: EXPLOITING TEXTURING FOR ENHANCED
PERFORMANCE VIA ATTENUATING HEAT GENERATION……………………………………………... 447
SURFACE FINISHING AND VIBRATION DAMPING IMPROVEMENT OF MACHINING THIN-
WALLED PARTS USING SMART FLUIDS…………………………………………………………………... 448
A KERNEL-BASED APPROACH FOR MODELLING FEED DRIVE DYNAMICS………………………… 453
A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF BALL BURNISHING PROCESS ON GROUND SURFACES……………... 454
ON-MACHINE SCANNING WITH CONTACT AND NON-CONTACT SENSORS AND HOW IT CAN
IMPROVE MACHINING WITH CLOSED LOOP METROLOGY FEEDBACK……………………………... 455
PROZESS STABILITY EVALUATION USING A SENSOR INTEGRATED TOOL HOLDER…………….. 468
BELT SANDER LIFE AND PROCESS QUALITY WITH THE DEVELOPED ROBOTIC SURFACE
SANDING SYSTEM…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 476
EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF ULTRASONIC WAVES ON CORROSION RATE AND SURFACE
TEXTURE IN CHEMICAL MILLING OF AL 2024-T4……………………………………………………….. 485
EXPERIMENTAL AND FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION STUDIES OF CHIP FORMATION IN
ORTHOGONAL CUTTING LEAD-FREE BRASS……………………………………………………………. 486
INVESTIGATION AND PREDICTION OF SURFACE INTEGRITY INDUCED BY MILLING OF HOT
FORGED AND HEAT TREATED AA7075……………………………………………………………………. 487
INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF CUTTING TOOL GEOMETRY ON THE MACHINABILITY OF
CW511L LEAD-FREE BRASS MATERIAL…………………………………………………………………… 500
CRYOGENIC MACHINING OF WAAMed IN625: TiAlN versus TiAlSiN COATED CARBIDE DRILLS… 509
SURFACE MACHINING OF STEEL DEFECTS DETECTION USING DEEP LEARNING AND
COMPUTER VISION…………………………………………………………………………………………… 520
EFFECT OF ASYMMETRIC CUTTING TOOLS ON SURFACE QUALITY………………………………... 521
EFFECT OF TOOL HOLDER RIGIDITY ON MACHINING…………………………………………………. 524
ANALYSIS OF MECHANICAL STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN STAINLESS STEEL CUTTING BLADES... 528
OPTIMISATION OF SANDING PARAMETERS OF ST37 PLATE SURFACE……………………………... 529
FABRICATING AND MACHINING OF ALUMINUM METAL MATRIX COMPOSITE REINFORCED
WITH GRAPHITE BASED ADDITIVES………………………………………………………………………. 530
NEW ASSESMENT TO ENHANCE EFFICIENCY OF CRYOGENIC TURN-MILLING…………………… 534
INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF CHIP SEPARATION ZONE AND CUTTING SPEED
VARIATION ON CHIP FORMATION IN ORTHOGONAL CUTTING OPERATIONS…………………….. 535

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 Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining
1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

Dear UTIS Community,

It is our pleasure to present this proceedings, which compiles the research works presented at the 12th
International Congress on Machining (UTIS 2024), held from November 1 to 3, 2024, at the Juju
Premier Palace Hotel in Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye.

The UTIS congress has served as a platform for experts from academia and industry to exchange
insights and discuss developments in machining. Over the years, UTIS has promoted the formation
of various collaborative research initiatives. We believe the 12th UTIS will continue this tradition,
fostering collaboration and promoting new research and development ideas. We trust that this
proceedings will contribute to this goal.

The papers included here reflect the diverse research presented during UTIS 2024. They are published
as abstracts or full-text papers, depending on the authors' preferences, and represent the latest trends
in machining research and practice.

We hope this compilation will serve as a valuable resource for researchers and practitioners, and we
look forward to future UTIS congresses.

On behalf of the UTIS Steering Committee,

Prof. Dr. İ. Etem Saklakoğlu
Chair of UTIS 2024

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 Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining
1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

UTIS Steering Committee

Erhan ALTAN Yıldız Technical University

Mustafa BAKKAL İstanbul Technical University

Erhan BUDAK Sabancı University

M. Cemal ÇAKIR Uludağ University

Yiğit KARPAT Bilkent University

Yusuf KAYNAK Marmara University

S. Engin KILIÇ Atılım University

İsmail LAZOĞLU Koç University

Ali ORAL Balıkesir University

Emre ÖZLÜ Sabancı University

İ. Etem SAKLAKOĞLU Ege University

Ulvi ŞEKER Gazi University

Ali ÜNÜVAR Istanbul Commerce University

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 Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining
1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

UTIS Scientific Committee

Hamza K. AKYILDIZ Bozok University,TÜRKİYE

Yusuf ALTINTAŞ The University of British Colombia, CANADA

Kubilay ASLANTAŞ Afyon Kocatepe University, TÜRKİYE

Erkan BAHÇE İnönü University, TÜRKİYE

Konstantinos-Dionysios BOUZAKIS Retired Professor, GREECE

Ulaş ÇAYDAŞ Fırat University, TÜRKİYE

Orhan ÇAKIR Yıldız Technical University, TÜRKİYE

Adem ÇİÇEK Yıldırım Beyazit University, TÜRKİYE

İbrahim ÇİFTÇİ Çankırı Karatekin University, TÜRKİYE

Can ÇOĞUN Çankaya University,TÜRKİYE

Zoltan DOMBOVARI Budapest University, HUNGARY

Şerafettin ENGİN Pratt & Whitney Canada Corp., CANADA

Kaan ERKORKMAZ University of Waterloo, USA

Anton GERMASHEV Zaporizhzhya National Technical University, UKRAINE

Naruhiro IRINO DMGMORI CO., LTD., JAPAN

Krzysztof JEMIELNIAK Retired Professor, POLAND

Bilgin KAFTANOĞLU Atılım University, TÜRKİYE

Umut KARAGÜZEL Yıldız Technical University, TÜRKİYE

Navneet KHANNA Institute of Infrastructure, Technology, R&M, INDIA

Zekai Murat KILIÇ The University of Manchester, UK

Turgay KIVAK Duzce University, TÜRKİYE

Murat KIYAK Yıldız Technical University, TÜRKİYE

Uğur KÖKLÜ Karamanoğlu Mehmetbey University, TÜRKİYE

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 Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining
1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

Gökhan KÜÇÜKTÜRK Gazi University, TÜRKİYE

Ali Taner KUZU Işık University, TÜRKİYE

Ehsan LAYEGH Sandvik Coromant, SWEDEN

Haydar LİVATYALI Yıldız Technical University, TÜRKİYE

Ali MAMEDOV American University of the Middle East, KUWAIT

Doruk MERDOL Terranic Systems Inc, TÜRKİYE

Jokin MUÑOA IK4-IDEKO, SPAIN

Ekrem OEZKAYA Turkisch-Deutsche Universitat, TÜRKİYE

Jose C. OUTEIRO ARTS & METIERS LaBoMaP Laboratory, FRANCE

Orkun ÖZŞAHİN Middle East Technical University, TÜRKİYE

Murat SARIKAYA Sinop University, TÜRKİYE

Burak SENCER Oregon State University, USA

M. Alper SOFUOĞLU Eskişehir Osmangazi University, TÜRKİYE

Lütfi Taner TUNÇ Sabancı University, TÜRKİYE

Sharif ULLAH Kitami Institute of Technology, JAPAN

Alper UYSAL Yıldız Technical University, TÜRKİYE

Durul ULUTAN Bahcesehir University, TÜRKİYE

Hakkı Özgür ÜNVER TOBB ETU University, TÜRKİYE

Bekir YALÇIN Afyon Kocatepe University, TÜRKİYE

Çağrı Vakkas YILDIRIM Erciyes University, TÜRKİYE

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 Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining
1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

UTIS Academics Committee

Kubilay ASLANTAŞ Afyon Kocatepe University

Umut KARAGÜZEL Yıldız Technical University

Yiğit KARPAT Bilkent University

Yusuf KAYNAK Marmara University

Turgay KIVAK Düzce University

Ali Taner KUZU Işık University

Orkun ÖZŞAHİN Orta Doğu Technical University

Murat SARIKAYA Sinop University

Ulvi ŞEKER Gazi University

Alper UYSAL Yıldız Technical University

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 Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining
1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

IN PURSUIT OF SUSTAINABILITY FOR CUTTING TOOL

MANUFACTURERS USING LIFE CYCLE ANALYSIS
Tarang Lotwalaa, Parth Ravala, and Navneet Khannaa

a, Advanced Manufacturing Laboratory, Institute of Infrastructure Technology Research and Management, Ahmedabad
380026, India, lotwala.tarang.22m@iitram.ac.in, parth.raval.20pm@iitram.ac.in, navneetkhanna@iitram.ac.in

Abstract
Sustainability in machining processes is critical for minimizing environmental impact. This study conducts a
comparative environmental analysis of cryogenic (LCO2) drilling of ‘Wire-Arc Additively Manufactured’
(WAAMed) Inconel 625 using two different drill bits: Drill bit-1 with TiAlN coating and a 30° helix angle,
and Drill bit-2 with TiAlSiN coating and a 20.45° helix angle. A Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) utilizing the
‘ReCiPe 2016 v1.03 Midpoint (H)’ methodology is performed to determine the environmental sustainability
of the machining operations. The results show that Drill bit-1 consistently outperforms Drill bit-2 across all 18
impact categories, primarily due to its longer tool life. Although Drill bit-2 consumes 21.9% less energy per
hole, its rapid wear results in a 352.9% higher total machining cost compared to Drill bit-1. These findings
emphasize on the importance of tool geometry and coating in enhancing sustainability, minimizing
environmental harm, and improving the efficiency of machining operations.

Keywords: Inconel 625; Cryogenic Drilling; Life Cycle Assessment.

Nomenclature

IN-625 Inconel 625 LCA Life Cycle Assessment

AM Additive Manufacturing ISO International Organisation for Standards
LCO2 Liquid Carbon Dioxide WAAM Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing
VMC Vertical Machining Center SLCA Streamlined Life Cycle Assessment
LCI Life Cycle Inventory FU Functional Unit
LCIA Life Cycle Impact Assessment LCIn Life Cycle Interpretation

Introduction
Manufacturing has evolved significantly with the advent of advanced technologies, including Additive
Manufacturing (AM), which has revolutionized the production of complex and high-performance components.
“Wire-Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM)” is particularly distinguished amidst various AM techniques due
to its exceptional efficiency in manufacturing large metal components. WAAM does this by utilizing high
deposition rates and minimizing material waste. WAAM employs a wire (as feedstock) and an electric arc (as
heat source), making it ideal for fabricating near-net-shape components [1].
Inconel 625 is a “nickel-based superalloy”, widely used in marine, aerospace, and nuclear industries for various
applications owing to its exceptional mechanical properties, including high strength, excellent fatigue and
thermal-fatigue resistance, and superior oxidation and corrosion resistance [2]. However, machining of IN-625
present various challenges. The alloy's high shear strength and tendency to work-harden result in rapid tool
wear, high cutting forces, and increased energy consumption during machining processes [3]. These challenges
necessitate the exploration of advanced machining techniques and cooling strategies to improve tool
performance and machining efficiency.
Cryogenic drilling is one of the most environmentally beneficial methods for processing superalloys with high
strength and heat-resistance properties, using coolants like liquid carbon dioxide (LCO2) and liquid nitrogen
(LN2). This technique is not only cost-efficient but also demonstrates better efficiency compared to
conventional cooling methods. The coolants effectively carry away the produced chips while lowering the

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 Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining
1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

temperature at the cutting zone, contributing to overall sustainability [4] [5]. In a study by Yildirim et al. [6],
which compared the turning of IN625 under various lubricating conditions, including dry, MQL, cryogenic,
and nanofluids, it was found that the combination of LN2 and nanoMQL resulted in superior surface quality
and tool life. Khanna et al. [7] conducted a comparison of the drilling performance of Inconel 718 under dry
as well as cryogenic conditions. The findings revealed that due to cryogenic cooling the tool life increased by
87.5% and the torque reduced by 30%. Similarly, Shah et al. [8] determined the drilling performance of
Ti6Al4V under flood and cryogenic (LN2, and LCO2) cooling conditions and concluded that flood machining
resulted in large serrated, lamellae-structured chips and higher adhesion compared to cryogenic approaches.
Sartori et al. [9] compared dry, wet, MQL, cryogenic (both LCO2 and LN2), and cryo-MQL cooling techniques
during the turning of Ti-6Al-4V and concluded that higher flow rates of cryogenic coolants led to better tool
life and surface quality. The collective results from various studies strongly advocate for the use of cryogenic
coolants, highlighting their benefits in enhancing tool life, improving surface quality, and reducing cutting
forces.
The variations in coating materials and helix angles are critical factors that can significantly influence the
cutting performance, power consumption, chip evacuation, and wear resistance of drill bits. TiAlN is known
for its high hardness and oxidation resistance, which enhances tool life under high-temperature conditions.
Other TiAlN-based coatings, such as PVD TiAlSiN, offer improved thermal stability and wear resistance,
potentially reducing friction and heat generation during cutting [10]. The different helix angles also play a key
role in chip formation and removal; selecting the appropriate angle can lead to more efficient chip evacuation,
better control, and increased stability.
A thorough environmental impact analysis of the machining operations can be achieved through Life-Cycle
Assessment (LCA). It gives a systematic framework for a product’s life cycle through assessment of the
environmental aspects and potential impacts, from raw material extraction to disposal [11]. It is generally
employed to assess the environmental impact of any component, method, or service. It adheres to the
International Organization for Standards (ISO) and the Environment Management System (EMS). The "cradle-
to-grave" approach in LCA allows for the analysis of a product throughout its life cycle stages, which includes
raw material extraction, design, manufacturing, transport, storage, and disposal at the end of its life.
Furthermore, LCA can be done in many ways, including Streamlined LCA (SLCA), Screening or Fast-track
LCA, and Full LCA, based on the availability of data and the extent of detail needed to be achieved. SLCA is
the simplest form of traditional LCA, focusing on key processes and significant environmental impacts,
thereby providing a quicker and more cost-effective assessment compared to more comprehensive approaches.
This novel study analyzes and compares the environmental impacts of two different drill bits, namely TiAlN
and PVD TiAlSiN coatings with helix angles of 30° and 20.45° respectively, on the drilling of WAAM-
produced Inconel 625 under similar cutting conditions. The rationale for selecting these two specific drill bits
is to analyze the impact of their geometric and coating differences on power consumption and environmental
sustainability. To the best of the author’s knowledge, very limited literature is available which investigates the
ecological impacts of drilling IN-625 using cryogenic environment of LCO2 comparing different drill bits. The
prime focus of the current study is to conduct LCA to investigate the environmental sustainability of the drilling
process with a brief cost analysis of the same.

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 Proceedings of 12th UTIS International Congress on Machining
1-3 November 2024 / Juju Premiere Palace Hotel Kemer, Antalya, Türkiye

Experimental setup

Figure 1: Experimental Methodology for drilling IN625

The IN-625 part used in this study was fabricated through the WAAM process utilizing a Pro-MIG-530
machine. This setup featured a wire feed mechanism and was controlled by a computing system running Win-
Mill software, which managed the precise motion of the welding torch. The WAAM setup is illustrated in
Figure-1. The process parameters for fabricating the Inconel 625 part using the WAAM process are as follows:
the wire-feed rate was set to 3.5 m/min, and the torch travel speed was maintained at 185 mm/min. The current
was set at 140 A and a gas flow rate of 15 l/min was maintained using Argon as the shielding gas. The applied
voltage during the process was 17.2 V. The deposition rate was measured at 0.0334 kg/h, with each layer having
a thickness of 3 mm. The total printing time for the process was 12 minutes. The WAAMed workpiece
exhibited a hardness of 186 HBW. After deposition on the mild steel plate was completed, the workpiece was
cut to the dimensions specified in Table 1 using WEDM (Wire-cut Electric Discharge Machining) process.
Drilling of IN-625 workpiece was performed on a Vertical Machining Centre using two different solid carbide
drills under similar cutting conditions. Power consumption was recorded with a “Fluke 3-phase energy and
power quality analyzer (435 series II)”. The experimental methodology is based on the analysis done by
Khanna et al. [12] and is illustrated in Figure 1. Detailed cutting conditions are provided in Table 1. The tool
wear criterion for this study has been decided to be 0.2 mm or 27 holes, whichever comes first.

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Table 1: Details of cutting conditions

Parameter Details
Workpiece WAAMed IN-625, Dimension: 150 × 45 × 9 mm
Drill (a)Drill bit-1: Coated solid carbide (TiAlN) twist drill, Drill diameter: 5 mm, No.
of flute: 2, Helix angle: 30°, Point angle: 140°
(b)Drill bit-2: Coated solid carbide (PVD TiAlSiN) twist drill, Drill diameter: 5
mm, No. of flute: 2, Helix angle: 20.45°, Point angle: 140°
Drilling Process Direct with Blind hole, Depth of hole: 3.5mm depth, Cutting speed: 50 m/min,
Feed: 100 mm/min
Cutting Fluid LCO2: Flow rate: 50 kg/h, Nozzle diameter: 2mm, workpiece to nozzle tip
distance: 20 mm, Nozzle angle: 45° for both approaches

Results and Discussion

Power Consumption
As shown in Figure 2, the Drill bit-1 demonstrated increasing power consumption, indicating gradual tool wear
and resistance with average power consumption of one hole drilled by Drill bit-1 being 21.9% higher than that
of Drill bit-2. The Drill bit-2 showed an initial power consumption which decreased sharply after six holes,
suggesting rapid wear and reduced cutting efficiency. The reason for such drastic change can be attributed to
the fact that Drill bit-2 crossed the pre-decided tool wear criterion of 0.2 mm just after 6 holes while Drill bit-
1 successfully drilled 27 holes without crossing the tool wear criterion. The TiAlN coating on the Drill bit-1
provided effective friction reduction and wear resistance, resulting in more stable power consumption.
Conversely, the PVD TiAlSiN coating on the Drill bit-2, despite its thermal stability and hardness, exhibited
higher initial power consumption and faster wear. The cryogenic environment helped reduce thermal effects
and maintain tool integrity, but the Drill bit-1’s more stable performance highlighted its superior suitability for
extended drilling operations in Inconel 625.

Figure 2: Comparison of Power consumption

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA)

In the current comparative analysis, impacts of cryogenic-assisted drilling of additively manufactured IN-625
using LCO2 are assessed and simulated using OpenLCA 2.1.1. The study compares similar cutting conditions
using two different drill bits here referred as Drill bit-1 and Drill bit-2.

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The LCA is executed on the basis of the ISO 14040 and 14044:2006 standards, which provide the framework
for the current analysis. The study employs a cradle-to-gate methodology, encompassing the stages from the
raw material extraction to the stage of manufacturing. The subsequent sections elucidate various facets of the
streamlined Life Cycle Assessment (SLCA), which encompasses goal and scope definition; Life-Cycle
Inventory (LCI); Life-Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA); and Life-Cycle Interpretation (LCIn).

Goal and Scope Definition

The aim of the study, as mentioned earlier, is to analyze the environmental performance of drilling IN-625 in
a cryogenic LCO2 environment, comparing the performance of two different solid carbide drill bits. For this
purpose, it is crucial to designate the system boundaries of the specified parameters. The system boundary sets
the scope of the study by identifying the processes, activities, and flows to be included in the analysis. It
establishes the limits of what is considered within the life cycle of product, process, or service being evaluated.
Clearly defining the system boundary ensures that the LCA study remains consistent, transparent, and relevant.
Figure 3 represents the system boundary for the current study, as well as the input-output flows of the
considered materials. For foreground processes, data is directly obtained from the experiments conducted,
while for background processes, data is sourced from published literature.

Figure 3: System boundary considered for the current LCA study.

A Functional Unit (FU) serves as a benchmark for comparing different processes (in this case, the use of
different drill bits) in the SLCA approach. In this study, the FU is defined as one drilled hole with a diameter
and a depth of 5 mm and 3.5 mm respectively. To address the potential limitations of the LCA conducted,
fundamental propositions and assumptions are considered, as outlined below:

• The crucial objectives reckoned are the use of two different drill bits with similar cutting parameters.
• Electricity consumption is assessed as per the West-India production mix.
• Transportation of the workpiece is omitted due to the lack of data.
• Depreciation of the devices is not considered owing to its negligible effect.
• The VMC and other drilling accessories are assumed to have a negligible impact due to their frequent
use.
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• Coolant leakage has also been omitted.

• The impacts due to LCO2 evaporation are disregarded, given that LCO2 is derived as a byproduct.
• Chip disposal/recycling is also omitted from the evaluation.

Life-Cycle Inventory (LCI)

This step of the LCA measures the input-output flows relevant to the system boundary. The data regarding
Electricity and LCO2 consumption has been accumulated at the time of drilling the holes. Table 2 shows the
inventory details for electricity and coolant consumption. Table 3 puts forth the inventory details to produce 1
unit of cutting tool (Drill bit-1 and Drill bit-2), whereas Table 4 highlights the dataset used to produce AMed
IN-625 workpiece. The database used for the LCI (i.e., Ecoinvent v3.10) does not include necessary datasets
for some input elements. To remedy this some assumptions are taken which are mentioned in tables 2, 3, and
4 along with the database descriptions.
Table 2: Details of Life cycle inventory
Drill bit-1 Drill bit-2 Ecoinvent v3.10 database
Power Consumption 1.77286 kWh 1.39817 kWh electricity, low voltage
Coolant Consumption 0.067 kg carbon dioxide, liquid

Table 3: Database for producing 1 unit of solid carbide drill bit [13,14]
Element Unit Drill bit-1 Drill bit-2 Ecoinvent v3.10 database
Input Aluminium sulphate kg 0.000744 0.00084 aluminium sulfate, powder
Diesel MJ 0.2976 0.336 diesel, burned in diesel-electric
generating set, 10MW
Electricity kWh 0.38874 0.4389 electricity, low voltage
Hydrogen kg 0.000744 0.00084 hydrogen, gaseous, medium
pressure, merchant
Kerosene kg 0.02418 0.0273 kerosene
Oleic acid kg 0.000744 0.00084 Oleic acid
Organic Solvent kg 0.001116 0.00126 methanol
Soda ash kg 0.022878 0.02583 soda ash, light
Sodium cyanide kg 0.000186 0.00021 sodium cyanide
sodium silicate kg 0.002232 0.00252 sodium silicate, solid
sodium sulphide kg 0.001302 0.00147 sodium sulfide
steel kg 0.01395 0.01575 steel, unalloyed
sulfuric acid kg 0.010044 0.01134 sulfuric acid
Tap water g 3.1248 3.528 tap water
Transport ton 6.1 6.1 transport, freight, lorry 16-32
metric ton, unregulated
Chromium g 0.093 0.1092 chromium
Iron g 0.04278 0.0525 iron pellet
Cobalt g 1.767 2.016 cobalt carbonate
Tantalum g 0.2046 0.1785 tantalum powder, capacitor-grade
Tungsten g 16.368 18.585 tungsten carbide powder
Output Used oil kg 0.0093 0.0105 Oils, unspecified
Waste water m^3 0.0186 0.021 wastewater, average

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Table 4: Database for production of one AMed IN-625 workpiece sample

Element Unit Ecoinvent v3.10 database
Wire Production 300 MJ/kg electricity, low voltage
Deposition 58.03 MJ/kg electricity, low voltage
Argon 120 litre argon, liquid
Steel Plate 0.75 kg forging, steel
Carbon 0.0062034 g carbon black
Silicon 0.527289 g silicon, multi-Si, casted
Manganese 0.1705935 g Manganese
Phosphorus 0.0031017 g phosphorus, white, liquid
Sulphur 0.031017 g Sulfur
Chromium 67.989264 g Chromium
Tantalum 11.259171 g tantalum powder, capacitor-grade
Molybdenum 27.015807 g Molybdenum
Iron 0.527289 g iron pellet
Aluminium 0.403221 g aluminium, primary, ingot
Titanium 0.62034 g Titanium
Nickel 200.804058 g nickel, class 1

Life-Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA)

This section highlights the relationship between the process being examined as well as its possible
environmental impacts. Identifying an appropriate LCIA method is very important for this purpose. P. Shah et
al. [15] compared various LCIA methods, including IMPACT 2002+, CML 2002, Eco-indicator 99, ReCiPe,
and eight other methodologies, and deduced that Eco-indicator 99, CML 2002, and ReCiPe have a well-
balanced presence in three impact categories: impact on Natural Resources, Human-Health, and Ecosystem.
Among these methods, ReCiPe is an upgraded form of the widely used Eco-indicator 99 and CML 2002 [16].
Further, the assessment can be conducted using either Midpoint or Endpoint approaches on the basis of study's
aim or goal and the available inventory data. Midpoint assessment models are observed to provide more
accurate results as they involve fewer assumptions and complications [17]. Considering this, “ReCiPe 2016
v1.03 Midpoint (H) methodology” is used to analyze 18 impact categories using openLCA 2.1.1 software.
Figure 4 shows 18 impact categories in consideration.

Figure 4: 18 Impact Categories (“ReCiPe 2016 v1.03 Midpoint (H) Methodology”).

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Life-Cycle Interpretation (LCIn)

This step of the LCA interprets the findings from the previous stages, emphasizing that a proper interpretation
is essential for a complete LCA. In the current study, the assessment considers impact categories (as mentioned
in Figure 4) to evaluate the potential harm caused to ecosystems, human-health, and natural resources. As
detailed in Table 5, the absolute values of these 18 impact categories for both cutting tools are calculated using
the “ReCiPe 2016 v1.03 Midpoint (H) methodology”.

Table 5: Impact assessment results of various categories for both cutting tools.
Impact categories (Unit) Drill bit-1 Drill bit-2
Acidification: terrestrial (kg SO2-Eq) 0.0566 0.05862
Climate change (kg CO2-Eq) 12.88853 13.04753
Ecotoxicity: freshwater (kg 1,4-DCB-Eq) 5.84137 5.99434
Ecotoxicity: marine (kg 1,4-DCB-Eq) 7.79243 7.98938
Ecotoxicity: terrestrial (kg 1,4-DCB-Eq) 374.45804 379.13171
Ecosystem Ozone Depletion (kg CFC-11-Eq) 4.92E-06 5.02E-06
Eutrophication: freshwater (kg P-Eq) 0.0091 0.00945
Eutrophication: marine (kg N-Eq) 0.00096 0.00108
Photochemical oxidant formation: terrestrial 0.04738 0.04814
ecosystems (kg NOx-Eq)
Particulate matter formation (kg PM2.5-Eq) 0.02829 0.02884
Ionising radiation (kBq Co-60-Eq) 0.76274 0.77272
Human toxicity: carcinogenic (kg 1,4-DCB-Eq) 41.8239 41.9459
Human-Health Human toxicity: non-carcinogenic (kg 1,4-DCB-Eq) 61.98036 67.46108
Photochemical oxidant formation: human health (kg 0.04566 0.04639
NOx-Eq)
Energy resources: non-renewable, fossil (kg oil-Eq) 3.29929 3.34241
Material resources: metals/minerals (kg Cu-Eq) 1.94661 1.98085
Natural Resources 2
Land use (m *a crop-Eq) 2.20106 2.21171
3
Water use (m ) 0.15015 0.15359

Given that this study specifically examines the performance of different solid carbide drills operating under
identical cutting speed, feed rate, and hole dimensions, the coolant consumption and workpiece production
remain consistent for both tools. Consequently, their environmental impact in these aspects is similar. The
variation in Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) results primarily arises from differences in power
consumption attributable to tool wear and manufacturing processes associated with the individual drill bits.

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Figure 5: Relative radar chart comparing Figure 6: Relative radar chart comparing LCIA of
LCIA of drilling WAAMed IN-625 using Drill bit- tool production of Drill bit-1 and Drill bit-2.
1 and Drill bit-2.

Figures 5 illustrates a comprehensive comparison of LCIA results, as discussed in the goal and scope definition,
which includes stages of material extraction, workpiece production, and the drilling process. From the
comparative analysis presented in Figure 5, alongside Table 5, it is evident that Drill Bit-1 consistently
outperforms Drill Bit-2 across all evaluated impact categories, or at the very least demonstrates comparable
performance. The inferior environmental performance of Drill Bit-2 can be largely attributed to its shorter tool
life during operation. Additionally, Figure 6 provides a more focused view of the relative LCIA results
concerning tool production, normalized with respect to tool wear. The data reveal a clear distinction in
performance, demonstrating that Drill Bit-1 exhibits superior outcomes in the tool production-tool wear
scenario, which contributes to its overall favorable performance in the LCA.

Cost Analysis
A brief cost-benefit analysis was conducted on a per-hole basis, focusing primarily on the cost of the cutting
tool and energy consumption. Other expenses, such as labor, machine tool usage, and cutting fluid, were
excluded as they remain constant for both drill bits, given the comparative nature of the study. These costs are
represented by the following formula [3]:

Cmachining = Clabour and machine−tool + Ccutting fluid + Ccutting tool + Cenergy + Cwaste processing (1)

20 0.10

18

16 0.08

14
Ccutting tool($)

12
Cenergy($)

0.06

10

8 0.04

4 0.02

0 0.00
Drill bit-1 Drill bit-2 Drill bit-1 Drill bit-2

Drill bits Drill bits

Figure 7: Cost comparison of cutting tool Figure-8: Cost comparison of energy consumption

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Figures 7 and 8 illustrate the cost comparisons for the cutting tool and energy consumption, respectively. Since
the costs associated with workpiece production, labor, machine tool, cutting fluid, and waste processing are
identical for both drill bits, they do not impact the comparative analysis. A detailed cost breakdown has not
been provided, as it falls beyond the scope of this study. Table 6 shows the total cost for the drilling of
WAAMed IN-625 for both the cases. Although Drill bit-2 is more energy-efficient, its significantly higher
cutting tool cost makes Drill bit-1 more favorable both economically and environmentally.
Table 6: Overall cost to drill one hole on WAAMed IN-625 using Drill bit-1 and Drill bit-2

Cost Components ($) Drill bit-1 Drill bit-2

Workpiece production cost 5.237 5.237
Machine tool and labour cost 0.25 0.25
Cutting fluid cost 0.00005 0.00005
Cutting tool cost 1.41 19.12
Energy consumption cost 0.092 0.073
Waste management cost 0.0043 0.0043
Total Cost 6.99335 24.68435

Conclusion
This study evaluates two different drill bits by comparing their power consumption, and effects on Natural
Resources, Ecosystem, and Human Health. The “ReCiPe 2016 v1.03 Midpoint (H) methodology” was
employed to perform the LCA using openLCA 2.1.1 Software. The following conclusions are put forth based
on LCA and power consumption results:

• Drill bit-2 consumes 21.9% less energy per hole but its total machining cost is over 352.9% higher
than Drill bit-1, making Drill bit-1 the more economical and environmentally friendly option for
drilling WAAMed IN-625.
• The analysis reveals that Drill Bit-1 consistently outperforms Drill Bit-2 across all assessed impact
categories in the Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). This is largely due to Drill Bit-1's longer tool life
which contributes to reduced environmental impact during machining processes.
• The findings emphasize the significance of effective tool design and material selection in mitigating
environmental harm. By focusing on minimizing tool wear and optimizing energy usage,
manufacturers can enhance sustainability and reduce the ecological footprint associated with
machining operations.

This analysis highlights the importance of tool design in mitigating environmental impact while highlighting
the need for continuous improvement in machining practices to achieve more sustainable manufacturing
processes.

Future Scope
Looking towards the future, the emphasis on sustainability cannot be overstated. There is a pressing need for
more comprehensive comparative analyses of additively manufactured (AM) workpieces, such as those
produced by SLM, WAAM, and other methods. These analyses should consider different parameters of the
process and their effects on machinability, including surface roughness, tool wear, power consumption, and
cutting force. Moreover, further comparative studies are required to evaluate the performance of various drill
coatings, particularly in terms of geometry, as exemplified by the comparison of TiAlN and TiAlSiN in this
study. These investigations should focus on how different coatings and geometries influence tool life, surface
quality, and energy efficiency. The application of LCA in these studies is also very crucial, yet it remains
underexplored within the scientific community. By conducting LCA for different AM processes, tool coatings,
and machining parameters, we can gain a better understanding of their environmental impacts and how the

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mentioned impacts shift with changes in process conditions or coating types. Additionally, integrating Life
Cycle Assessment (LCA) into your processes can provide invaluable insights into the environmental and
operational challenges of production. This integrated approach is essential for industry practitioners to
advancing sustainable manufacturing practices and reducing the ecological footprint of industrial operations.
Acknowledgements
This research was funded by SERB-DST, Government of India, through the ECR/2016/000735 project, with
title "Design and Development of an Energy Efficient Cryogenic Machining Facility for Heat Resistant Alloys
and Carbon Fibre Composites."

References
[1] Zhang, Y., Wu, L., Guo, X., Kane, S., Deng, Y., Jung, Y. G., ... & Zhang, J. (2018). Additive manufacturing
of metallic materials: a review. Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 27, 1-13.
[2] Dinda, G. P., Dasgupta, A. K., & Mazumder, J. (2009). Laser aided direct metal deposition of Inconel 625
superalloy: Microstructural evolution and thermal stability. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 509(1-2),
98-104.
[3] Salvi, H., Vesuwala, H., Raval, P., Badheka, V., & Khanna, N. (2023). Sustainability analysis of additive+
subtractive manufacturing processes for Inconel 625. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 35, e00580.
[4] Jayal, A. D., Badurdeen, F., Dillon Jr, O. W., & Jawahir, I. S. (2010). Sustainable manufacturing:
Modeling and optimization challenges at the product, process and system levels. CIRP Journal of
Manufacturing Science and Technology, 2(3), 144-152.
[5] Danish, M., Ginta, T. L., Habib, K., Carou, D., Rani, A. M. A., & Saha, B. B. (2017). Thermal
analysis during turning of AZ31 magnesium alloy under dry and cryogenic conditions. The
International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 91, 2855-2868.
[6] Yıldırım, Ç. V. (2019). Experimental comparison of the performance of nanofluids, cryogenic and
hybrid cooling in turning of Inconel 625. Tribology International, 137, 366-378.
[7] Khanna, N., Agrawal, C., Gupta, M. K., & Song, Q. (2020). Tool wear and hole quality evaluation
in cryogenic Drilling of Inconel 718 superalloy. Tribology International, 143, 106084.
[8] Shah, P., Khanna, N., Singla, A. K., & Bansal, A. (2021). Tool wear, hole quality, power
consumption and chip morphology analysis for drilling Ti-6Al-4V using LN2 and LCO2. Tribology
International, 163, 107190.
[9] Sartori, S., Ghiotti, A., & Bruschi, S. (2017). Hybrid lubricating/cooling strategies to reduce the
tool wear in finishing turning of difficult-to-cut alloys. Wear, 376, 107-114.
[10] Sousa, V. F., Da Silva, F. J. G., Pinto, G. F., Baptista, A., & Alexandre, R. (2021). Characteristics
and wear mechanisms of TiAlN-based coatings for machining applications: A comprehensive
review. Metals, 11(2), 260.
[11] Lunetto, V., Priarone, P. C., Kara, S., & Settineri, L. (2021). A comparative LCA method for
environmentally friendly manufacturing: Additive manufacturing versus Machining case. Procedia CIRP, 98,
406-411.
[12] Khanna, N., Shah, P., Wadhwa, J., Pitroda, A., Schoop, J., & Pusavec, F. (2021). Energy consumption
and lifecycle assessment comparison of cutting fluids for drilling titanium alloy. Procedia CIRP, 98, 175-180.
[13] Maheshwari, P., Khanna, N., Hegab, H., Singh, G., & Sarıkaya, M. (2023). Comparative environmental
impact assessment of additive-subtractive manufacturing processes for Inconel 625: A life cycle
analysis. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 37, e00682.
[14] A. Furberg, R. Arvidsson, S. Molander, Environmental life cycle assessment of cemented carbide (WC-
Co) production, J. Clean. Prod. 209 (2019) 1126–1138.
[15] Shah, P., Khanna, N., Maruda, R. W., Gupta, M. K., & Krolczyk, G. M. (2021). Life cycle assessment to
establish sustainable cutting fluid strategy for drilling Ti-6Al-4V. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 30,
e00337.

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[16] Ingarao, G., Priarone, P. C., Deng, Y., & Paraskevas, D. (2018). Environmental modelling of aluminium
based components manufacturing routes: Additive manufacturing versus machining versus forming. Journal
of Cleaner Production, 176, 261-275.
[17] Huijbregts, M. A., Steinmann, Z. J., Elshout, P. M., Stam, G., Verones, F., Vieira, M. D., ... & van Zelm,
R. (2016). ReCiPe 2016: a harmonized life cycle impact assessment method at midpoint and endpoint level
report I: characterization.

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AISI 4140 ÇELİK ALAŞIMIN SERT TORNALANMASINDAKİ KARBON

EMİSYON MİKTARININ SONLU ELEMANLAR VE REGRESYON
YÖNTEMLERİ İLE ANALİZİ

INVESTIGATION OF CARBON EMISSION DURING HARD TURNING OF

AISI 4140 STEEL WITH FEM AND REGRESSION METHODS

Kutay Aydına, Ulvi Şekerb

a
Amasya Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi, Makine Mühendisliği Bölümü, Amasya/Türkiye,
kutay.aydin@amasya.edu.tr, 0000-0003-3614-4877
b
Gazi Üniversitesi, Teknoloji Fakültesi, İmalat Mühendisliği Bölümü, Ankara/Türkiye,
useker@gazi.edu.tr, 0000-0001-6455-6858

Özet
Bu çalışmada, yüksek mekanik özellikleri sebebiyle endüstride yaygın tercih edilen AISI 4140 çelik alaşımın
sert tornalanma sürecinde karbon emisyon miktarları araştırılmıştır. Bu kapsamda, ilk olarak farklı kesme hızı,
ilerleme ve kesme derinliği parametreleri ile tornalama sonlu elamanlar metodu (FEM) ile simülasyonları
yapılmıştır. FEM simülasyonları sonucunda elde edilen kesme güçleri ve diğer karbon emisyon faktörleri
kullanılarak toplam karbon emisyon değerleri hesaplanmıştır. Sonrasında, Varyans analizi (ANOVA) ve
regresyon analizleri ile karbon emisyon modeli kurulmuştur. Sonuç olarak, en düşük karbon emisyon miktarı
100 m/dk kesme hızı, 0.3 mm/dev ilerleme ve 1.5 mm kesme derinliği parametrelerinde elde edilmiştir. Karbon
emisyon üzerindeki en etkili kesme parametresi, %37,58 oranla kesme hızı olduğu anlaşılmıştır. Ek olarak,
toplam karbon emisyon miktarının yaklaşık %51’inin atık talaş ve yaklaşık %41’inin iş malzemesi kaynaklı
karbon emisyon bileşenlerinin oluşturduğu görülmüştür.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Talaşlı imalat, Sert tornalama, AISI 4140, FEM, ANOVA, Karbon emisyonu

Abstract
In this study, carbon emission rates during hard turning of AISI 4140 steel alloy, which is widely preferred in
the industry due to its high mechanical properties, were investigated. In this context, firstly, Finite Element
Method (FEM) simulations were performed with different cutting speed, feed and cutting depth parameters for
turning operations. The total carbon emission values were calculated by using the cutting forces and other
carbon emission components obtained from the FEM simulations. Then, the carbon emission model was
established by Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) and regression analysis. As a result, the lowest carbon emission
amount was obtained at 100 m/min cutting speed, 0.3 mm/rev feed rate and 1.5 mm cutting depth. The most
effective cutting parameter on carbon emission was found to be cutting speed with a rate of 37.58%. In
addition, about 51% of the total carbon emission amount was found to be waste chips and about 41% was
found to be carbon emission components from the workpiece.

Keywords: Machining, Hard turning, AISI 4140, FEM, ANOVA, Cabon emission

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Giriş
AISI 4140 (42CrMo4) çelik alaşımı, krom (Cr), mangan (Mn) ve molibden (Mo) alaşım elementleri içeren,
yüksek dövülebilme kabiliyeti, korozyon direnci, süneklik, mukavemet ve tokluk vb. mekanik özellikleri
sebebiyle dikkat çeken bir çelik alaşımdır. Bu özelikleri nedeniyle otomotiv, imalat, inşaat, havacılık vb.
sektörlerde yaygın olarak tercih edilir. Makine parçaları, krank milleri, dişliler, akslar, soğuk çekme miller,
yaylar, fren halka ve kolları, türbin motor parçaları, gemi zincirleri vb. sayısız kullanım örneği bulunmaktadır
[1-3]. Günümüzde yaşanılan iklim değişimi, sera gazı salınımı ve çevre kirliği sorunları, öncelikli ilgilenilmesi
gereken büyük küresel problemler arasında yer almaktadır. Bu nedenlerle bilimsel açıdan, ulaşım, taşımacılık,
imalat, inşaat, altyapı, tarım, petrol vb. birçok endüstride karbon emisyonları, sürdürebilirlik, verimlilik,
yenilenebilir enerji kaynakları, güvenilirlik, geri dönüşüm vb. kavramların önemi artmaktadır [4-7].
Literatürde, AISI 4140 çelik alaşımın işlenmesi üzerine deneysel, sayısal, makine öğrenmesi ve istatistiksel
tabanlı çalışmalar bulunmaktadır. Akbar vd., AISI 4140 çeliğin kaplamasız ve TiN kaplı kesici takımlarla
yüksek hızda tornalanması sırasında kesici takımlar üzerindeki ısı dağılımını deneysel ve FEM analizi ile
değerlendirmişlerdir [8]. Tzotzis vd., seramik kesici takım ile AISI-4140 çeliğin sert tornalanmasında farklı
kesme parametrelerinin sürtünme kuvvetleri, ısı transferi ve takım-talaş temas alanı gerilmeleri üzerindeki
etkilerini FEM analizi ile araştırmış ve deneysel sonuçlarla karşılaştırmıştır [9]. Rafighi, AISI 4140 çeliğin sert
tornalanmasında kuru kesme koşulları altında kaplamalı karbür kesici takımlar kullanarak kesme hızı, ilerleme
ve talaş derinliğinin titreşim, motor akımı, işleme gürültüsü ve yüzey pürüzlülüğü üzerindeki etkilerini
araştırmıştır. Ayrıca elde edilen veriler ile yüzey pürüzlülüğü tahmini yapılmıştır [10]. Gürbüz ve Gönülaçar,
farklı kesme parametrelerinin ve kuru, ıslak ve MQL işleme koşullarının AISI 4140 çeliğin sürdürülebilirliği
ve işlenebilirliği üzerindeki etkisini deneysel ve istatistiksel olarak araştırmışlardır [11]. Makhesana vd., talaşlı
imalatta sürdürülebilirliği ve enerji tasarrufunu artırmak için AISI 4140 çeliğin kuru, bitkisel yağ bazlı
minimum miktar yağlama (VMQL) ve minimum miktar katı yağlayıcı (MQSL) koşullarında işleme
performansını, işleme verimliliği, toplam enerji tüketimi, karbon emisyonu, yüzey pürüzlülüğü, talaş-takım
arayüz sıcaklığı ve takım ömrü açısından değerlendirmişlerdir [12]. Asiltürk ve diğerleri, AISI 4140 çeliğin
kuru tornalanmasında farklı kesme parametrelerinin titreşim, yüzey pürüzlülüğü ve akustik emisyonlar
üzerindeki etkilerini deneysel ve bulanık mantık makine öğrenme algoritması ile araştırmışlardır [13]. Bagga
ve diğerleri, AISI 4140 çeliğin kuru tornalanmasında karbür kesici takımlar kullanarak farklı kesme
koşullarının kesici takım ömrü üzerindeki etkisini deneysel ve YSA yöntemi ile araştırmışlardır [14]. Chavoshi
ve Tajdari, CBN kesici takım kullanarak AISI 4140 çeliğin sert tornalanmasında yüzey pürüzlülük değerlerini
deneysel olarak incelemişlerdir. Elde edilen sonuçlar ile regresyon ve YSA yöntemini kullanarak yüzey
pürüzlülüğü modellemesi oluşturmuşlardır [15]. Rafighi vd. kriyojenik işlemle sertliği arttırılmış AISI 4140
çeliğinin sert tornalama işleminde CBN kesici takım kullanarak farklı kesme parametreleri ile ekonomik ve
sürdürülebilir işleme açısından işleme performansını araştırmışlardır [16].

Yapılan çalışmalar incelendiğinde AISI 4140 çelik alaşımın talaşlı işlenmesinde karbon emisyon miktarı,
sürdürülebilir ve çevreye duyarlı işleme konularındaki çalışmaların sınırlı olduğu görülmüştür. Bu nedenle bu
çalışmada, birçok endüstride yaygın olarak kullanılan AISI 4140 çelik alaşımın talaşlı imalat sürecinde
atmosfere salınan karbon emisyon miktarlarına odaklanılmıştır. Bu kapsamda, farklı kesme hızı, ilerleme ve
kesme derinliği parametreleri kullanılarak tam faktöriyel tasarımda sert tornalama FEM simülasyonları
yapılmıştır. FEM simülasyonlarından elde edilen kesme gücü sonuçları ve diğer karbon emisyon faktörleri
kullanılarak toplam karbon emisyon miktarları hesaplanmıştır. Sonrasında, ANOVA ve regresyon analizleri ile
karbon emisyon modellemesi kurularak optimum kesme şartları belirlenmiştir.

Sonlu Elemanlar Metodu (FEM)

FEM analizleri AdvantEdge® yazılımı ile sürdürülmüştür. AdvantEdge® yazılımı, talaşlı imalat operasyonları
için geliştirilmiş bir FEM yazılımıdır. Çözüm sırasında updated-Lagrangian yaklaşımı ve otomatik yeniden
mesh oluşturma tekniğini kullanmaktadır. Çalışmada 3 boyutlu tornalama simülasyonları sürdürülmüştür.
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Kesici takım gövdesi için tungsten karbür (WC) malzeme ve 2,5 µm kalınlığında TiN kaplama uygulanmıştır.
Tornalama için, kesici takım gövdesi rijit yapıda ve ISO standardına uygun CCGW-120408 olarak
tanımlanmıştır. Kesici takımın geometrik parametreleri, 80º köşe açılı baklava dilimi (C) profil, boşluk açısı
7º, burun yarıçapı ve kesici kenar yuvarlama yarıçapı 0,04 mm olarak belirlenmiştir. İş parçası olarak AISI
4140 malzeme seçilmiş, kesme parametreleri olarak, kesme hızı, ilerleme ve kesme derinliği kullanılmıştır.
Her kesme parametresi için üçer seviye belirlenmiştir (Tablo 1). Talaş kaldırma işlemleri kuru işleme
şartlarında simüle edilmiştir. FEM simülasyonu çıktısı olarak kesme güçleri elde edilmiş ve elde edilen kesme
gücü verileri, karbon emisyon değerlerinin hesaplanmasında kullanılmıştır. Simülasyonlarda iş parçası için;
talaşlı işleme simülasyonlarında yüksek oranda gerçekleşen gerilim, şekil değişimi, ısı üretimi vb. dinamik
faktörlerin doğru anlaşılması ve çözüm doğruluğunun artırılması açısından uygun malzeme modeli olan
“Johnson-Cook malzeme modeli” tanımlanmıştır. Johnson-Cook malzeme modelinin genel denklemi Eşitlik
1’de, AISI 4140 çelik için Johnson-Cook model parametreleri Tablo 2’de, mekanik özellikleri ise Tablo 3’te
verilmiştir. FEM analizlerinin çözüm doğruluğu açısından iş parçasının malzeme modeli kadar mesh yapısı da
son derece önemlidir. Bu nedenle, iş parçası ve kesici takım gövdelerinin mesh yapısında 4 nokta ve 12
serbestlik derecesine (dof) sahip tetrahedral sonlu elemanlar kullanılmıştır. Maksimum düğüm sayısı 24000
olarak tanımlanmıştır. Üç boyutlu FEM modeli, mesh yapısı ve sınır şartları Şekil 1’de gösterilmiştir.
Tablo 1. FEM simülasyonlarında kullanılan kesme parametreleri
Faktör
Kesme İlerleme, fKesme
hızı, v (mm/dev) derinliği,
(m/dk) ap
Seviye (mm)
1 100 0,1 0,5
2 200 0,2 1
3 300 0,3 1,5
Cevap Karbon emisyon, CE (kgCO2)

(1)

Burada σ, ε, έ ve έ0 sembolleri sırasıyla akış gerilimini, gerinim, gerinim oranı ve referans gerinim oranını
ifade etmektedir. T kesme sıcaklığı, Tmelt iş parçası erime sıcaklığı ve Troom ise ortam veya başlangıç sıcaklığını
göstermektedir. A, B, n, C ve m sembolleri sırasıyla akma dayanımı, pekleşme modülü, pekleşme katsayısı,
gerinim oranı bağımlılık katsayısı ve termal yumuşama katsayısı olarak ifade edilmektedir. Simülasyonlarda
Coulomb sürtünme modeli kullanılmıştır (Eşitlik 2).

F f =  Fn (2)

Burada Ff, µ ve Fn sembolleri sırasıyla sürtünme kuvveti, sürtünme katsayısı ve normal kuvvet olarak ifade
edilmektedir. Tungsten karbür ile AISI 4140 çelik alaşım arasındaki sürtünme katsayısı önceki çalışmalar
referans alınarak 0,5 olarak tanımlanmıştır [17,18].

Tablo 2. AISI 4140 çelik alaşım için Johnson Cook malzeme model parametreleri [19,18]

A (MPa) B (MPa) n Tmelt (℃) Troom (℃) m C &

0 (1/s)

598 768 0,2092 1416 20 0,807 0,0137 1

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Tablo 3. AISI 4140 çelik alaşımın mekanik ve fiziksel özellikleri

Özellik Değer
Termal iletkenlik (W/mK) 41,7

Özgül ısı (J/kgK) 361

Yoğunluk (kg/m3) 7850

Termal genleşme katsayısı (1/℃) 1,19E-5

Young modülü (GPa) 200

Poisson oranı 0,3

Şekil 1. Tornalama işlemi için FEM modelinin sınır şartları ve ağ yapısı [20]

Literatürdeki deneysel ve simülasyon çalışmalarında AISI 4140 çeliğin Johnson-Cook malzeme model
parametrelerinin doğruluğu gösterilmiştir [19,21]. Yine de literatürdeki deneysel bir çalışmadan elde edilen
kesme kuvveti bulguları ile FEM analizleri doğrulanmıştır [22]. Literatürdeki çalışmalarda, bu çalışma ile
karşılaştırılabilecek kesme gücü verileri yer almadığı için simülasyonlar, kesme kuvveti verileri ile
doğrulanmıştır. Validasyon analizleri Tablo 4’te gösterilmiştir. Tabloda deneysel ve simülasyon
çalışmalarından elde edilen bileşke kesme kuvvetleri karşılaştırılmıştır. Hata oranları %7’nin altında elde
edilmiştir. Böylece, AISI 4140 çelik için tanımlanan Johnson-Cook malzeme modelinin bu çalışma için
uyumlu ve kullanılabilir olduğu anlaşılmıştır.

Tablo 4. FEM simülasyonlarının doğrulanması

Run Kesme İlerleme, f Kesme Bileşke kesme Bileşke kesme Hata
hızı, v (mm/dev) derinliği, ap kuvveti, Deneysel kuvveti, FEM (%)
(m/dk) (mm) (N) [22] (N)
1 180 0,2 0,5 342,526 356,979 4,22
2 215 0,15 0,5 266,176 284,008 6,70
3 250 0,1 0,5 205,925 219,175 6,43

AISI 4140 Çelik Alaşımın Sert Tornalanması için Karbon Emisyon Modeli
Tornalama süresindeki karbon emisyon miktarını tespit etmek için kullanılan elektrik enerjisi, iş parçası ve
kesici takımın üretimi ve talaşın geri dönüşümü faktörlerinin her birinden açığa çıkan karbon emisyonlarının

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hesaplanması gerekmektedir. Kuru tornalama için karbon emisyonun hesaplanması için genel denklem Eşitlik
3’te verilmiştir [23].

CEturn = CEelec + CEwp + CEtool + CEchip (kgCO2 ) (3)

Burada, CEturn, CEelec, CEwp, CEtool, ve CEchip sembolleri sırasıyla kuru tornalama için toplam karbon emisyonu,
kesme enerjisinden kaynaklanan karbon emisyonu, iş parçasının üretiminden kaynaklanan karbon emisyonu,
kesici takımın üretiminden kaynaklanan karbon emisyonu ve atık talaşlardan kaynaklanan karbon emisyonu
olarak ifade edilmektedir.
Kesme enerjisinden kaynaklanan karbon emisyonu Eşitlik 4’te gösterilmiştir. Tornalama işleminde, işleme
tezgahındaki eksen hareketleri, boşta bekleme vb. dolaylı olarak kesme enerjisini etkileyen elektrik enerji
tüketimi mevcuttur. Bu çalışma FEM tabanlı yapıldığı için tezgahın elektrik tüketimi ihmal edilmiştir.
Hesaplamalara FEM simülasyonlarından elde edilen kesme gücü dahil edilmiştir. Kesme enerjisi ve kesme
süresi, sırasıyla Eşitlik 5 ve Eşitlik 6’da gösterilmiştir. Tornalama işleminde kesme parametrelerine ek olarak
kesme süresini etkileyen faktörler mevcuttur. Bu faktörler, işlenen malzeme kütlesi sabit 1 kg olacak şekilde
belirlenmiştir. Böylece, iş parçası çapı D=40mm, işlenen iş parçasının uzunluğu L=507mm, toplam işleme
derinliği Δ=2mm olarak tanımlanmıştır. Elektrik üretiminden kaynaklanan karbon emisyon faktörü olarak
(CEFelec), dünyanın farklı coğrafik bölgeleri için elektrik üretiminden kaynaklanan karbon emisyon
faktörlerinin ortalaması kullanılmıştır (Tablo 5).

CEelec = CEFelec  Ecut (kgCO2 ) (4)

Ecut = Pcut  tcut (kWh) (5)

 .D.L.
tcut = (h) (6)
60.1000.v. f .ap

Burada, CEFelec, Ecut, Pcut, ve tcut sembolleri sırasıyla elektrik üretiminden kaynaklanan karbon emisyon
faktörü, kesme enerjisi, kesme gücü ve kesme süresi olarak gösterilmektedir. D, L, ve Δ sembolleri ise iş parçası
çapı, işleme uzunluğu (paso) ve toplam işleme derinliğin ifade etmektedir.

Tablo 5. Dünyadaki farklı coğrafik bölgeler için elektrik üretiminden kaynaklanan karbon emisyon faktörleri

CEFelec
Coğrafik bölge (kgCO2/kWh)
[24,25]
Afrika 0,8665
Asya 0,5102
Avrupa 0,3619
Orta doğu 0,4804
Kuzey Amerika 0,2613
Güney Amerika 0,2088
Dünya ortalaması 0,4482

İş parçasının üretiminden kaynaklanan karbon emisyonu, kesici takımın üretiminden kaynaklanan karbon
emisyonu ve atık talaşlardan kaynaklanan karbon emisyonu sırasıyla Eşitlik 7, Eşitlik 8 ve Eşitlik 9’da
gösterilmiştir. Bu karbon emisyon bileşenlerinin hesaplanabilmesi için karbon emisyon faktörlerinin bilinmesi
gerekir. Çelik iş parçası üretiminden kaynaklanan karbon emisyon faktörü (CEFwp), karbür kesici takımların
üretiminden kaynaklanan karbon emisyon faktörü (CEFtool), atık çelik malzemenin geri dönüşümünden

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kaynaklanan karbon emisyon faktörü (CEFchip) Tablo 6’da verilmiştir. İş parçası için mühendislik çeliği üretimi
ve atık talaş için mühendislik çeliği atığına en verimli geri dönüşüm yöntemi uygulandığında elde edilen
karbon emisyon değerleri kabul edilmiştir. Kesici takım için hem karbür malzemesi hem de tornalama
insertinin üretiminden kaynaklanan karbon emisyonları kabul edilmiştir. Karbür tornalama kesici insert kütlesi
0,015 kg olarak tanımlanmıştır [23].İşlenen malzeme kütlesi Eşitlik 10’da verilmiştir.

CEwp = CEFwp  M chip (kgCO2 ) (7)

tcut .60
CEtool = CEFtool  M tool  (kgCO2 ) (8)
T

CEchip = CEFchip  M chip (kgCO2 ) (9)

v. f .ap.tcut . .60
M chip = (kg) (10)
106
Burada Mtool, Mchip ve T sembolleri sırasıyla kesici takım kütlesi, işlenmiş iş parçası kütlesi (talaş kütlesi) ve
kesici takım ömrü olarak gösterilmiştir.
Tablo 6. İşleme malzemeleri için karbon emisyon faktörleri

Malzeme CEF (kgCO2/kg)

Mühendislik çeliği üretimi (CEFwp) 1,27 [26]
Karbür kesici takım üretimi (CEFtool) 104,6 [23]
Atık mühendislik çeliği geri dönüşüm prosesi (CEFchip) 1,58 [26]

Takım ömrü hesaplaması için genişletilmiş Taylor eşitliği kullanılmıştır (Eş. 11). AISI 4140 çelik kullanılarak
yapılmış literatürdeki deneysel takım ömrü çalışmalarından elde edilen deneysel veriler üzerinde non-lineer
regresyon uygulanarak genişletilmiş Taylor eşitliği elde edilmiştir (Eş. 12). Literatürde yer alan AISI 4140
çelik ile yapılmış takım ömrü çalışmalarında, farklı işleme parametreleri, farklı takım geometrileri ve takım
kaplamaları bulunmaktadır (Tablo 7). Ayrıca literatürde birçok takım aşınması çalışması bulunmasına rağmen
takım ömrü verileri bulunan çalışmalar oldukça sınırlıdır. Bu sebeple bu çalışmada Taylor eşitliği (Eş. 12)
oluşturulurken, AISI 4140 çelik için genel ve ortalama bir takım ömrü modeli kurulmuştur. Literatürden elde
edilen takım ömrü verileri (Tablo 7) kullanılarak kurulan Non-lineer regresyon modeli sonucunda Eş. 11’deki
n, m, l ve k katsayıları elde edilmiştir. Deneysel ve non-lineer regresyon modeli ile tahmin edilen takım ömrü
karşılaştırmaları Şekil 2’de gösterilmiştir.

C = T .v n . f m .ap l .k (11)

Burada C bir dakikalık kesici takım ömrü için kesme hızıdır. C değeri Tablo 7’de belirtilen ve deneysel verilere
dayanılarak elde edilen C değerlerinin ortalaması olan 576 m/dk olarak hesaplanmıştır.

576
T= 3,04385 −0,307951
(dk) (12)
(v .f .ap 0,149435 .6, 77E-7)

Tablo 7. Deneysel ve non-lineer regresyon yönteminden elde edilen takım ömrü karşılaştırmaları

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ISO

Takım ömrü

Takım ömrü
C hız değeri
Tornalama

Kesme hızı

Non-lineer
malzemesi

regresyon
(mm/dev)
Kaplama
Referans

Deneysel
İlerleme

derinlği

tahmini
Üretici

(m/dk)

(m/dk)
Kesme

(mm)
kodu

(dk)

(dk)
ucu
TNMG
TiN 320 0,25 1 575 20 13,15
[27] Seco +Al2O3 360 0,25 1 575 10 9,19
160408 400 0,25 1 575 6,5 6,67
+TiCN
150 0,25 2 337 73,7 119,02
TiN 200 0,25 2 337 15,5 49,58
TNMG
[28] Korloy +Al2O3 250 0,25 2 337 5,5 25,14
220408 300 0,25 2 337 1,72 14,43
+TiCN
350 0,25 2 337 0,84 9,03
200 0,06 0,1 765 61 49,99
220 0,04 0,1 765 58 33,01
SNGA Al2O3
[29] Tungaloy 220 0,06 0,1 765 45 37,40
120408 +TiC 220 0,08 0,1 765 34 40,87
240 0,06 0,1 765 35 28,70
210 0,14 1 630 48,5 39,65
260 0,14 1 630 19,5 20,70
VBMT
[30] Kennametal TiAlN 310 0,14 1 630 8,5 12,12
160408 360 0,14 1 630 7 7,69
410 0,14 1 630 5 5,17

Şekil 2. Deneysel ve non-lineer regresyon sonuçları açısından takım ömrü karşılaştırma grafiği

Bulgular ve Tartışma
AISI 4140 çelik malzemesinin farklı kesme parametreleri kullanılarak yapılan tornalama FEM simülasyonları
sonucunda kesme güçleri elde edilmiştir. Kesme gücü ile hesaplanan kesme enerjisi ve diğer karbon emisyon
bileşenleri ile tornalama sürecindeki toplam karbon emisyonu hesaplanmıştır. Karbon emisyon değerleri, 1 kg
AISI 4140 çelik malzemesinin işlenmesi sonucu elde edilen karbon emisyonudur. Tam faktöriyel düzendeki
kesme parametreleri ve tüm karbon emisyon bileşenleri açısından sonuçlar Tablo 8’de gösterilmiştir. Toplam
karbon emisyonunun kesme parametrelerine göre değişimini göstermek için etki grafiği oluşturulmuştur (Şekil
3). Etki grafiği incelendiğinde kesme hızı artışı ile karbon emisyonunun arttığı görülmektedir. İlerleme ve
kesme derinliği artışı ile karbon emisyonları düşmüştür. Karbon emisyonunun kesme parametrelerine göre
değişiminin daha net görülebilmesi için karbon emisyon bileşenlerinin değişimleri Şekil 4’te verilmiştir.
İşlenen malzeme kütlesi sabit 1 kg olduğu için iş malzemesi (CEwp) ve atık talaş (CEchip) kaynaklı karbon
emisyon değerleri sabit görülmektedir. Tornalama sürecinde tüketilen elektrik enerjisi ile kesme süresi ters
orantılı olduğu için kesme enerjisinden kaynaklanan karbon emisyon bileşeninin (CEelec) toplam karbon
emisyonu üzerindeki etkisi belirgin değildir. Diğer yandan kesme hızı artışı ile takım ömrü azaldığı için kesici
takım üretiminden kaynaklanan karbon emisyonu (CEtool) değerleri artmıştır (Şekil 4). Bu sebeple kesme hızı
artışı ile toplam karbon emisyonu da artmıştır (Şekil 3) [23]. İlerleme ve kesme derinliği artışı ile karbon
emisyon değerlerinde belirgin azalma gözlenmiştir (Şekil 3). İlerleme ve kesme derinliği arttırıldığında kesme
süresi azalır. Kesme süresi azalınca kesici takım daha az aşınacağı için takım ömrü artar. Böylece kesici takım
üretiminden kaynaklanan karbon emisyonu (CEtool) azalır (Şekil 4). Sonuçta ilerleme ve kesme derinliği artışı
ile toplam karbon emisyonunu azaltır (Şekil 3).

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Tablo 8. Tam faktöriyel FEM simülasyonları ve hesaplanan karbon emisyon miktarları

gücü

Kesme enerjisi
Kesme derinliği

CEturn (kgCO2)
CEchip (kgCO2)
CEtool (kgCO2)
CEelec (kgCO2)

CEwp (kgCO2)
Kesme süresi

Takım ömrü
Kesme hızı

(mm/dev)
İlerleme
(m/dk)

Kesme

(kWh)
(mm)

(kW)
Run

(dk)
(h)
1 100 0,1 0,5 0,335 0,425 379,3 0,142 0,064 1,270 0,105 1,580 3,019
2 100 0,1 1 0,661 0,212 342,0 0,140 0,063 1,270 0,058 1,580 2,971
3 100 0,1 1,5 0,995 0,142 321,9 0,141 0,063 1,270 0,041 1,580 2,954
4 100 0,2 0,5 0,756 0,212 469,6 0,161 0,072 1,270 0,043 1,580 2,965
5 100 0,2 1 1,434 0,106 423,4 0,152 0,068 1,270 0,024 1,580 2,942
6 100 0,2 1,5 2,106 0,071 398,5 0,149 0,067 1,270 0,017 1,580 2,934
7 100 0,3 0,5 1,162 0,142 532,1 0,164 0,074 1,270 0,025 1,580 2,949
8 100 0,3 1 2,221 0,071 479,7 0,157 0,070 1,270 0,014 1,580 2,934
9 100 0,3 1,5 3,420 0,047 451,5 0,161 0,072 1,270 0,010 1,580 2,932
10 200 0,1 0,5 0,668 0,212 46,0 0,142 0,064 1,270 0,435 1,580 3,348
11 200 0,1 1 1,304 0,106 41,5 0,138 0,062 1,270 0,241 1,580 3,153
12 200 0,1 1,5 1,963 0,071 39,0 0,139 0,062 1,270 0,171 1,580 3,083
13 200 0,2 0,5 1,462 0,106 56,9 0,155 0,070 1,270 0,175 1,580 3,095
14 200 0,2 1 2,768 0,053 51,3 0,147 0,066 1,270 0,097 1,580 3,013
15 200 0,2 1,5 4,203 0,035 48,3 0,149 0,067 1,270 0,069 1,580 2,986
16 200 0,3 0,5 2,206 0,071 64,5 0,156 0,070 1,270 0,103 1,580 3,023
17 200 0,3 1 4,387 0,035 58,2 0,155 0,070 1,270 0,057 1,580 2,977
18 200 0,3 1,5 6,560 0,024 54,7 0,155 0,069 1,270 0,041 1,580 2,960
19 300 0,1 0,5 1,013 0,142 13,4 0,143 0,064 1,270 0,995 1,580 3,909
20 300 0,1 1 1,904 0,071 12,1 0,135 0,060 1,270 0,552 1,580 3,462
21 300 0,1 1,5 2,975 0,047 11,4 0,140 0,063 1,270 0,391 1,580 3,304
22 300 0,2 0,5 2,262 0,071 16,6 0,160 0,072 1,270 0,402 1,580 3,324
23 300 0,2 1 4,082 0,035 14,9 0,144 0,065 1,270 0,223 1,580 3,138
24 300 0,2 1,5 6,297 0,024 14,1 0,149 0,067 1,270 0,158 1,580 3,074
25 300 0,3 0,5 3,407 0,047 18,8 0,161 0,072 1,270 0,237 1,580 3,159
26 300 0,3 1 6,426 0,024 16,9 0,152 0,068 1,270 0,131 1,580 3,049
27 300 0,3 1,5 9,917 0,016 15,9 0,156 0,070 1,270 0,093 1,580 3,013

Şekil 3. Kesme parametrelerinin karbon emisyonu üzerindeki etki grafiği

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Şekil 4. Kesme parametrelerine bağlı olarak karbon emisyon bileşenlerindeki değişimler

Karbon emisyonu açısından kesme parametrelerinin etki seviyelerinin anlaşılabilmesi için ANOVA analizi ve
AISI 4140 çeliğin sert tornalanmasındaki karbon emisyon modellemesi için regresyon analizi yapılmıştır.
Analizler %95 güven seviyesi ile yapılmıştır. ANOVA analiz sonuçları, Tablo 9’da gösterilmiştir. Tüm P
değerlerinin %5 (P<0,05) oranından küçük çıktığı görülmektedir. Buna ek olarak faktörlerin F değerleri ile
0,05'e eşit anlamlılık veya %95 güven seviyesindeki kritik F değerleri de karşılaştırılmıştır. Tüm F değerleri,
kritik F değerinden (F.05,2,26=3,369, F.05,4,26=2,743, F.05,6,26=2,474, F.05,12,26=2,220) büyük çıkmıştır. Tüm P ve F
değerinin incelemesi sonucunda bağımsız faktörlerin ve seviyelerin istatiksel açıdan anlamlı olduğu
anlaşılmıştır. Karbon emisyonu açısından en etkili kesme parametresinin %37,58 oranla kesme hızı olduğu
görülmektedir. Regresyon analizi sonucu elde edilen model özeti incelendiğinde R2, R2(adj) ve R2(pred)
değerleri sırasıyla %97,88, %93,11 ve %75,84 olarak elde edilmiştir. Buradan, kurulan modelin FEM sonuçları
ile uyumlu olduğu anlaşılmaktadır. Regresyon analizi sonucu oluşturulan matematiksel model Eşitlik 13’te
verilmiştir.

Tablo 9. Kesme parametrelerinin karbon emisyonu üzerindeki etkisi için ANOVA sonuçları

Kaynak DF SS MS F Değeri P Değeri Katkı % Yorum

Model 18 1,18776 0,065987 20,51 0,000 97,88
Lineer 6 0,90065 0,150108 46,65 0,000 74,22 Anlamlı
v 2 0,45607 0,228033 70,87 0,000 37,58 Anlamlı
f 2 0,30053 0,150266 46,7 0,000 24,77 Anlamlı
ap 2 0,14405 0,072024 22,38 0,001 11,87 Anlamlı
2 Yönlü Etkileşimler 12 0,28712 0,023927 7,44 0,004 23,66 Anlamlı
v×f 4 0,16524 0,04131 12,84 0,001 13,62 Anlamlı
v×ap 4 0,07253 0,018132 5,64 0,019 5,98 Anlamlı
f×ap 4 0,04935 0,012338 3,83 0,050 4,07 Anlamsız
Hata 8 0,02574 0,003218
Toplam 26 1,21351
Model Özeti
S= 0,056725 R2 (adjusted)= %93,11
R2= %97,88 R2 (predicted)= %75,84

CEturn = 2,701 + (0,005263  v) − (0, 201  f ) − (0,113  ap) − (0,01104  v  f )

(13)
− (0,001480  v  ap) + (1,183  f  ap )

Sonuçlar
Bu çalışmada, AISI 4140 çelik alaşımın sert tornalanmasında sürdürülebilirliği artırmak açısından karbon
emisyon miktarı araştırılmıştır. Farklı kesme parametreleri kullanılarak yapılan üç boyutlu FEM analizleriyle
kesme güçleri elde edilmiştir. Kesme güçleri ve diğer faktörler ile toplam karbon emisyon miktarları
hesaplanmıştır. Çalışmadan elde edilen bulgular ışığında elde edilen sonuçlar aşağıda özetlenmiştir:

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• 1 kg kütleli AISI 4140 çelik alaşımın sert tornalanma süreci için en düşük karbon emisyonu, 2,932 kgCO2
olarak 100 m/dk kesme hızı, 0,3 mm/dev ilerleme ve 1,5 mm talaş derinliği parametrelerinde elde edilmiştir.
• En yüksek karbon emisyonu, 3,909 kgCO2 olarak 300 m/dk kesme hızı, 0,1 mm/dev ilerleme ve 0,5 mm
talaş derinliği parametrelerinde elde edilmiştir.
• Kesme parametreleri değişiminin karbon emisyonu üzerindeki etkileri sırasıyla %37,58 oranla kesme hızı,
%24,77 oranla ilerleme ve %11,87 oranla talaş derinliği olduğu anlaşılmıştır.
• Kurulan regresyon modelinin karbon emisyonu sonuçlarına ile %97,88 uyumlu olduğu görülmüştür.
• Karbon emisyon bileşenleri açısından; toplam karbon emisyon miktarı ortalamasının yaklaşık %51’ini atık
talaş (CEchip) kaynaklı karbon emisyon bileşeni ve yaklaşık %41’ini iş malzemesi (CEwp) kaynaklı karbon
emisyon bileşeninin oluşturduğu anlaşılmıştır.
• Küresel iklim değişimi ve talaşlı imalatta sürdürebilirlik açısından mühendislik malzemelerinin üretimi ve
geri dönüşümü süreçlerindeki atmosfere salınan karbon miktarlarının azaltılması için endüstrilerin bu konu
üzerindeki dikkati artırması gerekmektedir.

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[16] Rafighi, M., Özdemir, M., Das, A., Das, S.R. 2022. "Machinability investigation of cryogenically treated hardened
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[28] Karayel, B., Nalbant, M. 2014. "Ç4140 Malzemesinin Tornalamasinda İlerleme, Kesme Hizi Ve Kesici Takimin
Yüzey Pürüzlülüğü, Takim Ömrü Ve Aşinmaya Etkileri", Makine Teknolojileri Elektronik Dergisi, Volume 11,
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[29] Paengchit, P., Saikaew, C. 2023. "Simulation of the influence of cutting speed and feed rate on tool life in hard
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INVESTIGATION OF SUSTAINABLE MACHINING FOR TI6AL7NB

ALLOY USING ULTRASONIC VIBRATION ASSISTED NANO-GRAPHENE
BASED MQL
Erkin Dumana* , Yusuf Furkan Yapanb , M. Alper Sofuoğluc , and Alper Uysald

a, Istanbul Gedik University, Gedik Vocational School, Department of Machine and Metal Technology,
Istanbul/TURKIYE, erkin.duman@gedik.edu.tr
b, Yildiz Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/TURKIYE, yapan@yildiz.edu.tr
c, Eskisehir Osmangazi University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eskisehir/TURKIYE,
asofuoglu@ogu.edu.tr
d, Yildiz Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/TURKIYE, auysal@yildiz.edu.tr

Abstract
This work aims to assess the effectiveness and enhance the machinability and sustainability of biomedical
Ti6Al7Nb alloy, utilizing the nano graphene-based minimum quantity lubrication (N-MQL) and the ultrasonic
vibration assisted (UVA) machining method both separately, and in combination. The weight percentage of
graphene varied from 0.5% to 2.5%, and an increase in graphene ratio led to a reduction in cutting forces and
surface roughness. Compared to conventional dry machining and MQL method, the cutting forces were
reduced by 21% and 18% respectively with the UVA-2.5%GPn-N-MQL. The surface roughness also decreased
by 32% and 26%, respectively in terms of the same machining methods. Regarding sustainability analyses,
when compared to the dry and MQL conditions, the UVA-2.5%-GPn-N-MQL resulted in a 36.3% and 18.8%
improvement, Moreover, using NSGA-II and TOPSIS methods, it was determined that the UVA-N-MQL
method with a nanoparticle ratio in the range of 2.3%-2.5% would be the most optimal in terms of carbon
emissions and total machining costs.
Keywords: Sustainable machining, Carbon emissions, Titanium alloy.

Introduction

In the field of machining, various turning technologies have been explored to optimize performance and
enhance the quality of machining processes. These technologies include dry, Minimum Quantity Lubrication
(MQL), nanographene based MQL (N-MQL), and ultrasonic vibration assisted (UVA) turning, each offering
unique advantages and focusing on sustainability and efficiency. Dry turning is a method where no cutting
fluid is used, reducing the environmental impact and operational costs, although it may result in higher tool
wear and thermal impact on the workpiece. On the other hand, MQL utilizes a minimal amount of lubricant,
which is applied directly to the cutting zone, reducing the lubricant consumption while still providing effective
cooling and lubrication. The application of nano graphene in MQL has emerged as a significant advancement,
enhancing the lubrication properties due to the nano graphene particles' excellent thermal conductivity and
strength. This technology helps in further reducing friction and wear, leading to improved surface finishes and
tool life. The properties of the nanofluid are affected by the size, shape, and weight ratio of the nanoparticle.
Eltaggaz et al. [1] studied the impact of nanoparticle concentration (0% (pure MQL oil), 2%, and 4% by weight)
in nanofluid during the milling of Inconel 718 alloy using the MQL method. They found that surface roughness
and cutting forces decreased, while tool life increased with a higher weight ratio of Al2O3 nanoparticles in the
nanofluid. Similar results are obtained Thakur et. al [2]. In their study on the machining of EN-24 steel using
nanofluids-based Minimal Quantity Lubrication (MQL). They found that as the amount of nanoparticles
increased from 0.5 wt% to 1.5 wt%, the thermal conductivity coefficient increased, while the friction
coefficient and cutting forces decreased. On the other hand, thermal conductivity increases as the amount of
nanoparticles in the nanofluid increases by weight [3]. Another effect of increasing the amount of nano
graphene by weight is the reduction of cutting forces, which is attributed to the formation of lower cutting
temperatures in the tool and chip contact region. Moreover, ultrasonic vibration assisted turning involves the
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use of ultrasonic vibrations applied to the cutting tool or workpiece, which has been shown to reduce cutting
forces and improve chip breaking, ultimately leading to a better surface finish and decreased tool wear [4-8].
Each of these technologies has its focus and has been subjected to various studies to verify their efficacy and
determine optimal conditions. For instance, UVA turning has been found particularly effective in machining
hard-to-cut materials and achieving fine surface textures [4]. Furthermore, studies have integrated these
technologies in different combinations, such as ultrasonic vibration with MQL (UVA-MQL), to leverage the
benefits of both methods in enhancing the machining process [9-11]. The machining of Ti6Al7Nb is crucial
primarily due to its extensive use in biomedical applications, such as orthopedic implants, owing to its excellent
biocompatibility, superior mechanical properties, and enhanced wear resistance. Unlike other titanium alloys,
Ti6Al7Nb does not contain vanadium, reducing toxicity and allergenic potential, which is particularly
beneficial in medical applications. Additionally, its strength and corrosion resistance make it suitable for
aerospace and marine industries. However, the alloy's high strength and low thermal conductivity present
significant machining challenges, necessitating advanced machining techniques to ensure the integrity and
cost-efficiency of the manufactured components.
The turning of Ti-6Al-7Nb, a titanium alloy notable for its high strength and excellent biocompatibility,
presents specific challenges and has been the focus of numerous studies aimed at understanding and improving
its machinability and final properties. Research has particularly emphasized the importance of understanding
the cutting forces involved, as well as the behavior of the alloy under different machining conditions. One
critical aspect of machining Ti-6Al-7Nb involves the analysis of cutting forces, which are crucial for
optimizing process parameters and enhancing tool life. Filho et al. [12] have investigated these forces,
modeling the impacts during turning processes of Ti-6Al-7Nb and other similar titanium alloys. The findings
suggest specific strategies for reducing force-induced wear and improving the efficiency of material removal.
The integrity of the surface post-machining plays a critical role, especially for implants. Techniques such as
cryogenic machining have been explored to improve the surface characteristics of Ti-6Al-7Nb. Cryogenic
methods help in reducing the thermal damage to the workpiece, thereby enhancing the surface quality and
potentially reducing post-machining treatments [13]. Comparative studies with other alloys like Ti-6Al-4V
highlight the specific advantages of Ti-6Al-7Nb in terms of machining and final product quality. Multi-
objective optimization approaches in turning processes can further enhance machinability and efficiency,
making Ti-6Al-7Nb a preferable material in critical applications [17]. A study highlighted the significance of
surface topography in the machining of Ti-6Al-7Nb, using correlative microscopy to analyze surfaces
produced by turning. This analysis aids in optimizing machining parameters to improve the quality of medical
implants [15]. Hussain et al. [16] used response surface methodology to optimize wear behavior, aiming for
better sustainability in the machining processes of Ti-6Al-7Nb. Nano graphene based MQL (N-MQL) has been
investigated for its potential to further enhance the benefits of MQL by incorporating nano-sized graphene
platelets in the lubricant. These particles potentially increase the thermal conductivity of the fluid, thus
improving heat dissipation and further reducing tool wear and surface roughness. Duman et al. [17] explored
the impact of nano graphene additives in MQL on the machinability of Ti-6Al-7Nb, noting improved surface
quality and reduced tool wear due to the enhanced lubrication and cooling properties. Limitations exist in the
use of different hybrid turning machining techniques for Ti6Al7Nb, as evidenced by the literature. This study
aims to address this gap.
This study investigates the orthogonal machining of Ti6Al7Nb using different turning techniques, namely dry,
MQL, UVA, UVA-MQL, and UVA-N-MQL, with specific cutting parameters. The experimental results are
then compared based on cutting forces, surface roughness, carbon emissions, and total machining costs. The
second part of the study outlines the cutting parameters used in the experiments and methods. The third part
of the study presents the findings and discussion, which compare the experimental results in terms of surface
roughness, carbon emissions, and total processing costs. Finally, the last section provides conclusions and
recommendations.

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Material and Methods

Experimental Detail
In this study, a biomedical grade Ti-6Al-7Nb alloy work material was used. It has a yield strength of 883 MPa
and an ultimate tensile strength of 946 MPa. The workpiece had an initial diameter of 60 mm and width of
length 2.5 mm. Orthogonal cutting experiments were done with GOODWAY GA-230 CNC lathe, which has a
main power of 11 kW and can reach a spindle speed of up to 4200 rpm. Cutting speed and uncut chip thickness
were kept constant at 60 m/min and 0.1 mm respectively. TiAl, TiN, and TiCN are commonly utilized as
coating materials in coated cutting tools. It has been demonstrated that the high temperatures generated in the
cutting zone during the machining of titanium alloys can lead to crater wear in cutting tools due to reactions
with the coating materials and diffusion [18]. In addition, it is known that coatings for cutting tools result in
significantly higher manufacturing and recycling costs, as well as increased carbon emissions during
production processes [19]. Thus, to perform orthogonal cutting experiments, an uncoated tungsten carbide type
TCMW 16T304 HTI10 cutting tool insert was used with STNCN 2525 M16 tool holder. An MQL device with
a flow rate of 60 mL per hour and a pressure of 5 bar is used to deliver commercial vegetable cutting fluid and
graphene based nanofluid to the cutting zone. Nanofluids were prepared by adding nano graphene particles in
varying weight ratios of 0.5%, 1.0%, 1.5%, 2%, and 2.5% to commercial vegetable cutting oil. Graphene
nanoparticles were dispersed in a glass container and exposed to an 80-minute dehumidification and drying
process in an oven at a temperature of 118°C. To reduce clumping and sedimentation, SDS (Sodium Dodecyl
Sulfate) was added at a ratio of 0.1% by weight of graphene. Mixtures were blended using digital homogenizer
at 5000 rpm for 75 minutes. To ensure the stability of the nanofluids, the fluid was continually mixed with a
mechanical stirrer in the MQL unit throughout the experiments. In ultrasonic vibration assisted machining
tests, an ultrasonic generator, ultrasonic horn, and power unit were used with a 20 μm amplitude and a vibration
frequency of about 20 kHz. Cutting forces and surface roughness were measured using the Kistler 9257BA
model dynamometer, while the Mitutoyo SJ-210 surface roughness tester was used to measure the average
surface roughness profile of machined samples. The experimental methodology used in the study is presented
in Figure 1.

Figure 1: Experimental setup

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Sustainability Assessment and Optimization

Calculation of total carbon emissions
In the calculation of total carbon emissions (CEtotal), carbon emissions from electricity consumption
(CEelectricity), carbon emissions from cutting tool use (CEtool), carbon emissions from material consumption
(CEmaterial), carbon emissions from disposal/recycling of the resulting chips (CEchip) and carbon emissions from
coolant/lubricant consumption (CEc/l) were used [20]. In calculating CEelectricity, the total consumed energy
(Etotal) and the electricity carbon emission factor (0.5434 kgCO2/kWh [21]) were multiplied. When calculating
Etotal, the energy required to cut the material (Ecutting), the energy spent for the idle movement of the cutting tool
without cutting (Eidle), the energy required to adjust the tools and workpieces (Esetting) and the energy spent to
perform the cooling/lubrication processes (Es/y) values were collected. When calculating Ecutting, the power
spent for cutting, the power consumed by the ultrasonic vibration device, and the times spent were taken into
account. While calculating Es/y, the power and times consumed by the MQL device, the compressor and the
oven, balance, and homogenizer used in nanofluid preparation were taken into account. In calculating CE tool,
the equation suggested by Agrawal et al. [22] was used. Taylor equations of conventional and ultrasonic
machining presented by Zhang et al. [23] were used for the cutting tool life in the equation. The carbon
emission factor of the cutting tool was calculated using the equation presented by Saatçi et al. [24]. It is known
that MQL and nanofluid MQL cutting conditions reduce the flank wear of the cutting tool compared to dry
cutting conditions. Cutting tool wear was improved by 31.5% when cutting titanium alloy using a flow rate of
60 ml/h with an uncoated carbide cutting tool [25]. In line with the study conducted by Singh et al. [26], the
effect of graphene nanoparticle ratio on tool wear was determined. Thus, the tool life increase in cutting
conditions using 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, and 2.5% nanoparticles was accepted as 80.5%, 89%, 97.5%, 106%,
and 114.5%, respectively. In calculating CEmaterial and CEchip, the carbon emission factors of both the material
and the chip were multiplied by the weight of the chip. The carbon emission factors of the material and chip
are 0.0634 kgCO2/kg [27] and 5.2 kgCO2/kg [28] respectively, and the chip weight was calculated using the
equation suggested by Cönger et al. [20]. In calculating CEc/l, the cooling/lubrication carbon emission factor
was multiplied by the flow rate (60 mL/h) and the applied time (cutting time). In the MQL method, where pure
vegetable cutting fluid is used, the carbon emission factor value is 0.36 kgCO2/L [29]. The carbon emission
factor value of nanographene is 137 kgCO2/kg [30] and it was used in the nanofluid at the ratios of 0.5%, 1%,
1.5%, 2% and 2.5% by weight. According to these ratios, the carbon emission factor value of each nanofluid
prepared was determined and included in the calculations.

Calculation of total machining costs

In the calculation of total machining costs (Ctotal), orthogonal cutting cost (Ccutting), cutting tool usage cost
(Ctool), energy consumption cost (Cenergy), cutting fluid consumption cost for cooling/lubrication (Cs/y) and
environmental impact cost (Cenvironment) were summed [20]. In calculating the Ccutting, depreciation costs of the
machine, an ultrasonic vibration device, an MQL device, an oven, precision scale, a homogenizer used in the
preparation of nanofluids, labor costs, and some general expenses were taken into account. In calculating the
Ctool, the equation proposed by Demir et al. [29], which takes into account cutting tool cost (2.47 $/tool), cutting
time, and cutting tool life, was used. In calculating the Cenergy, the unit consumed energy value was multiplied
by the total consumed energy value (Etotal). The unit consumed energy value for industry is 0.12 $/kWh. The
equation given by Saatçi et al. was used to calculate the Cs/y. The unit cost of commercial vegetable-based
cutting fluid is 7.23 $/L and the unit cost of nanographene particles is 2 $/g. The flow rate of the
coolant/lubricant was 60 mL/h, and the application time of the coolant/lubricant was equal to the cutting time.
Cenvironment was obtained by multiplying the ecological load cost (0.025 $/kg) and CEtotal [28].

Sustainability-based optimization
Optimization was performed to minimize CEtotal and Ctotal using multi-objective optimization with NSGA-II
(non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II) and multi-criteria decision-making with TOPSIS (Technique for
Order of Preference by Similarity to Ideal Solution). To apply the NSGA-II algorithm, the dependent variables
of cutting force, surface roughness, CEtotal and Ctotal cost must be mathematically modeled with independent
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variables and given as input to NSGA-II as an objective function. For this purpose, firstly, full quadratic
regression equations were derived using the experimental results. The independent variables in the presented
study are cutting condition (conventional or ultrasonic), MQL flow rate (0 or 60 mL/h) and nanoparticle ratio
(0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5%, 2%, or 2.5%), respectively, and the dependent variables are cutting force, surface
roughness, CEtotal and Ctotal, respectively. The Dummy Variable method was used to mathematically express
verbal independent variables such as conventional and ultrasonic vibration. Dummy variables are binary
quantitative variables and can only take two quantitative values, such as 1 or 0 [24]. For this reason, a dummy
variable of “0” was used for conventional and “1” was used for ultrasonic vibration. Established regression
equations were defined as the objective function of the NSGA-II algorithm and the population size of NSGA-
II was determined as 50, 50 result outputs were requested and the maximum number of generations was
selected as 20000. Finally, the Pareto optimal results obtained as a result of NSGA-II were ranked and selected
using the CEtotal and Ctotal-weighted TOPSIS method. Here, CEtotal and Ctotal weight coefficients are selected as
0.4 each, and the cutting force and surface roughness weight coefficients are selected as 0.1 each.

3. Results and Discussion

3.1 Analysis of Force Components
The force occurs during the cutting process is an important factor in chip removal. Figure 2 shows the results
of the main cutting force at a cutting speed of Vc=60 m/min and an uncut chip thickness of 0.1 mm. In
conventional machining, cutting forces of 504 N and 460 N were recorded in dry cutting and 2.5% GPn-N-
MQL methods, respectively. N-MQL method has decreased cutting forces by 9% compared to dry cutting.
Besides, increasing the rate of graphene particles in the nanofluid has a positive impact on cutting forces. A
6% force reduction was achieved by increasing graphene content from 0.5% to 2.5% by weight. N-MQL
method has resulted in lower cutting forces compared to the MQL method, due to the remarkable properties of
nanographene, such as atomic-level thinness and remarkably low surface energy, that reduce friction and
adhesion [31]. In ultrasonic vibration assisted machining, UVA-Dry recorded forces of 452 N, and UVA-MQL
recorded forces of 442 N. Compared to conventional dry machining, UVA-Dry methods offer a force reduction
of 10%, which is probably due to the intermittent cutting process introduced through ultrasonic vibration-
assisted machining. In conventional continuous cutting (CT), the tool maintains constant contact with the
workpiece, resulting in relatively elevated cutting forces.

Figure 2: Variation of main cutting force under different cutting conditions

The combination of N-MQL with ultrasonic vibration-assisted machining has enabled a significant reduction
in cutting forces for all selected cutting conditions. Intermittent cutting features in UVA-N-MQL diminish the
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friction between the tool and the workpiece, leading to a reduction in cutting forces. For instance, the main
cutting force recorded in dry was 504 N whereas, with the application of UVA-%2.5GPn-N-MQL, the force
was measured to be approximately 21% lower at 401 N. When compared to MQL machining, the utilization
of UVA-%2.5 GPn-N-MQL resulted in about an18% reduction (488 N to 401 N). Figure 3 shows the alteration
of the thrust force at a cutting speed of Vc=60 m/min and an uncut chip thickness of 0.1 mm under different
cutting conditions. Increasing the amount of graphene added to the nanofluid by weight into the nanofluid
showed a tendency to decrease in thrust force. In dry cutting, the highest thrust force was recorded as 207 N,
while the lowest force was recorded using the 2.5%Gpn-N-MQL method (191 N). As a result, using the N-
MQL method resulted in an 8% reduction in thrust forces compared to dry cutting. In ultrasonic assisted
machining, thrust forces decreased by 6%, 1%, and 10% for dry, MQL, and 2.5%-GPn-N-MQL methods,
respectively.

Figure 3: Variation of thrust force under different cutting conditions

3.2Surface Roughness
In biomedical applications, it is important to ensure essential surface roughness values within nominal limits.
This helps to conform tissue and implants to each other. Thus, the average surface roughness (Ra) of machined
samples was measured for all machining conditions as shown in Figure 4. It can be seen that the highest average
surface roughness value was obtained under conventional dry cutting (Ra = 0.142µm) and UVA-dry cutting
conditions (Ra = 0.119µm). In MQL, the roughness value decreased by 26% against to dry machining.
Additionally, compared to dry, the roughness decreased by 32% and was measured as Ra = 0.096 µm in
2.5%GPn-N-MQL method. It has been understood that the use of UVA method enhances the penetration of the
cutting fluid into the cutting area between the tool and the chip by momentarily retracting the cutting tool at
certain intervals, resulting in a smoother surface. Surface roughness was also reduced with increasing graphene
content from 0.5% to 2.5% by weight. Additionally, the two methods that yielded the lowest average roughness
values across the experiments were UVA-2%GPn-N-MQL (Ra=0.091µm) and UVA-2.5%GPn-N-MQL
(Ra=0.082µm).

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Figure 4: Measured surface roughness (Ra) values under various cutting conditions

3.3Total Carbon Emissions and Machining Costs

The total carbon emission (column graph) and total machining cost (line graph) results are given in Figure 5.
As can be seen from the figure, both results show a similar trend. First of all, if we compare conventional and
UVA conditions on average, UVA-machining achieved 14.9% and 7.5% improvements in terms of CEtotal and
Ctotal, respectively. Although there is an increase in the depreciation cost of the ultrasonic vibration device,
carbon emissions and machining costs due to the energy it consumes, the advantage it provides in cutting tool
life has improved CEtotal and Ctotal.

Figure 5: Total carbon emissions and total machining cost results.

Although the dry cutting condition is thought to be the best in terms of energy consumption and the most
sustainable method due to the absence of cutting fluid and extra equipment, it is the worst cutting condition in
terms of carbon emissions and machining costs. Compared to the dry cutting condition, UVA-2.5%-GPn-N-
MQL cutting condition provided an improvement of 36.3% and 18.8% in terms of CEtotal and Ctotal, respectively.

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Although the use of MQL and nanofluid MQL methods in both conventional and UVA-machining negatively
affects the sustainability indicators due to cutting fluid consumption, energy consumption of the MQL system
and MQL system cost, the lubricity and thermal conductivity advantage provided by the methods reduces the
CEtotal and Ctotal due to the reduction of cutting force, cutting power and tool wear.

3.4Sustainability Optimization Results

Pareto optimum solutions obtained with the NSGA-II algorithm are given in Figure 6. The figure shows the
relative tendencies of the values obtained as a result of multi-objective optimization of the dependent variables
of cutting force, surface roughness, CEtotal and Ctotal. To achieve sustainable machining, the independent
variable sets that enable these optimum results to be achieved must be selected by weighting CEtotal and Ctotal.

Figure 6: Pareto optimal solutions

The optimum results selected by TOPSIS in CEtotal and Ctotal-weighted order are given in Table 1. As can be
seen from the results, using ultrasonic vibration-assisted machining instead of conventional cutting and the
nanofluid MQL method containing 2.3%-2.5% graphene nanoparticles with a flow rate of 60 mL/h is the most
sustainable machining method in terms of cutting force, surface roughness, CEtotal, and Ctotal.

Flow Nanoparticle Cutting Surface Total Carbon Total

Cutting
Rate Ratio Force Roughness Emission Machining
Condition
(mL/h) (%) (N) (µm) (kgCO2) Cost ($)
Ultrasonic 60 2.5 404.4 0.086 0.0516 1.297
Ultrasonic 60 2.4 406.3 0.086 0.0516 1.296
Ultrasonic 60 2.3 408.4 0.087 0.0517 1.296
Table 1: Optimal results selected by the TOPSIS method

4. Conclusions
An exploration of the orthogonal machining of biomedical-grade Ti6Al7Nb alloy under various cutting
conditions is presented in this study, with a focus on assessing cutting forces, surface roughness, and
sustainability aspects. The findings of this study lead to the following conclusions:

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• Application of graphene-based N-MQL resulted in a 6% reduction in cutting forces compared to

conventional MQL. Similarly, the UVA-2.5GPn-N-MQL method resulted in a 9% reduction in cutting
forces compared to UVA-MQL.
• Compared to dry cutting, the 2.5%GPn-N-MQL method reduced cutting and thrust forces by
approximately 9%. The addition of UVA to the 2.5%GPn-N-MQL further decreased cutting forces by
21% and thrust forces by 17%
• In the UVA-N-MQL method, intermittent cutting process led to lower cutting forces, which in turn
contributed to improved surface roughness. As compared to the dry cutting, the Ra value decreased by
32% with the 2.5% conventional GPn-N-MQL method and by 42% with the UVA-2.5%GPn-N-MQL
method.
• UVA machining achieved 14.9% and 7.5% improvements in terms of carbon emissions and total
machining cost, respectively.
• Compared to the dry cutting condition, UVA-2.5%GPn-N-MQL cutting condition provided an
improvement of 36.3% and 18.8% in terms of total carbon emission and total machining cost,
respectively.
• From the sustainability-based optimization results, which is carbon emissions and total machining
cost-weighted optimization, it was determined that ultrasonic vibration-assisted machining with
graphene nanofluid should be used, and the nanoparticle ratio should be selected between 2.3%-2.5%.

5. Acknowledgements
This study was supported by Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey (TUBITAK) under the
Grant Number 123M048. The authors thank to TUBITAK for their supports.

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THE EFFECTS OF HYBRID NANOFLUID-ASSISTED MQL IN THE

ROLLER BURNISHING PROCESS ON POWER CONSUMPTION AND
SURFACE ROUGHNESS
Yusuf Furkan Yapana, Mine Uslu Uysalb, and Alper Uysalc

a, Yildiz Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/TURKIYE, yapan@yildiz.edu.tr

b, Yildiz Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/TURKIYE, mineuslu@yildiz.edu.tr
c, Yildiz Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/TURKIYE, auysal@yildiz.edu.tr

Abstract
It is known that performing the roller burnishing (RB) process in dry or wet conditions has negative effects on
process outputs and sustainability. Therefore, the importance of using the minimum quantity lubrication
(MQL) method is increasing. In this study, nano-molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) doped nanofluid-assisted MQL
(MoS2-NMQL), nano-graphene (nGP) doped nanofluid-assisted MQL (nGP-NMQL) and MoS2/nGP doped
hybrid nanofluid-assisted MQL (HNMQL) burnishing conditions were used for the first time in the RB of AISI
H11 steel and RB performance was investigated in terms of burnishing power and surface roughness
improvement. Then, optimization was performed to minimize power consumption and maximize surface
roughness improvement using NSGA-II and CoCoSo methods. Compared to the dry condition, using the
HNMQL condition reduced the burnishing power and increased the surface roughness by 2.8% and 16.3%,
respectively. Using the HNMQL condition, a burnishing speed value of 250 rpm, feed values between 0.075-
0.084 mm/rev and depth of burnishing values between 0.391-0.412 mm provided optimum results in terms of
power consumption and surface roughness improvement.
Keywords: Roller burnishing; Hybrid nanofluid; Minimum quantity lubrication.

Introduction
Roller burnishing (RB) is one of the surface improvement methodologies generally performed without chip
removal to improve the surface integrity of mechanical parts and perform pre-processed workpieces smooth
and hard, increasing fatigue strength, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance [1]. Despite the advantages
offered by the method, not optimizing the process parameters and carrying out the process dry without
lubrication or using plenty of lubricants brings with it some disadvantages. The increase in force applied by
the RB tool in dry burnishing conditions, thus increasing the power required for burnishing, seriously damages
the precision and life of the machine tool [2]. Increasing burnishing power also causes energy consumption to
increase [3]. Additionally, as a result of high temperature in the burnishing zone, the productivity and surface
integrity properties of the components are negatively affected [4]. Since the RB process is a cold-forming
process with continuous friction, the use of lubricant is essential to overcome these problems, and the use of
abundant lubricants has significant effects on the environmental burden [5].
In this regard, although strategies to reduce lubricating fluid consumption such as the minimum quantity
lubrication (MQL) method are very interesting and discussed in the literature on various machining processes
[6], they have been discussed in a limited number of studies in the RB process performed on the same machine
tools. By Nguyen et al. [7], total energy consumption, surface roughness, and roundness deviation were
reduced by 12.2%, 14.2%, and 42.5%, respectively, in the RB of hardened AISI 5150 steel with the in-hole
MQL method. After that, Nguyen et al. [3] conducted a study that took into account the effects of the MQL
parameters on the surface properties, and the optimum nozzle diameter, nozzle angle, flow rate, and air pressure
were determined. In the study by Bobrovskij et al. [2], it was shown that using the MQL method in the RB of
an AISI 1043 steel alloy increased energy efficiency by more than 20%. Although it is known that the use of
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nanofluids in the MQL method greatly increases the processing performance [8], only the MQL method using
nanofluids was used in the RB process by Khalilpourazary et al [9]. It was determined that the use of nanofluid
prepared by adding alumina to ethanol alcohol in the RB process with the help of the MQL method provided
an improvement of 15% and 20%, respectively, in the surface roughness and microhardness of the 7175
aluminum alloy.
In this study, nano-molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) reinforced nanofluid-assisted MQL (MoS2-NMQL), nano-
graphene (nGP) reinforced nanofluid-assisted MQL (nGP-NMQL) and MoS2/nGP reinforced hybrid
nanofluid-assisted MQL (HNMQL) burnishing conditions were used for the first time in the roller burnishing
of AISI H11 steel and burnishing performance was investigated in terms of burnishing power and surface
roughness. Then, optimization was performed to minimize power consumption and maximize surface
roughness improvement using multi-objective optimization with NSGA-II (Non-dominated Sorting Genetic
Algorithm II) and multi-criteria decision-making with CoCoSo (Combined Compromise Solution) method.

Material and Methods

Mono and hybrid nanofluids preparation
In this study, two different mono-nanofluids and one hybrid-nanofluid were prepared for RB experiments.
Mono-nanofluids were prepared by adding nano-molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) and nanographene (nGP)
nanoparticles separately to the commercial vegetable cutting oil at a ratio of 1% by weight. Also, Hybrid-
nanofluid was prepared by using 0.2% by weight MoS2 and 0.8% by weight nGP nanoparticles together for a
total of 1% by weight. In the preparation of nanofluids, first of all, nGP and MoS2 nanoparticles were dried in
an oven at 120°C for 1 hour, and their moisture was removed. Then, the dried nanoparticles were added to the
commercial vegetable cutting fluid at the above-mentioned weight ratios using precision balance. To increase
the homogeneity of the mixtures and prolong the settling time, 10% of the nanoparticle weight of SDS (Sodium
Dodecyl Sulphate) was added to the nGP-doped nanofluids as a surfactant [10] and to the MoS2-doped
nanofluids, 2 times the nanoparticle weight of lecithin was added as an emulsifier [11]. The prepared mixtures
were mixed using digital homogenizer at 5000 rpm for 1 hour, and a homogeneous mixture was obtained.

Experimental setup and procedure

The experimental setup and applied procedure in the presented study are given in Figure 1. Roller burnishing
(RB) experiments were carried out on a Goodway GA 230 CNC lathe. Before the experiments, the AISI H11
workpieces were cleaned with the turning process using the same cutting parameters to ensure that the AISI
H11 workpieces reached the initial surface roughness range specified by the RB tool manufacturer and that all
workpieces had approximately the same initial surface roughness. After this, RB experiments were carried out
using the Yamasa SX8 single roller burnishing tool. To measure the power consumed by the lathe during the
experiments, the Entes ES3-80LS three-phase power meter was connected to the electrical panel of the lathe.
Before and after the RB experiments, the surface roughness values of the initial and burnished samples were
measured using the Mitutoyo Surftest SJ-210 device, and the results of the improvement in surface roughness
were given.

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Figure 1: Experimental setup and procedure

Design of roller burnishing process experiments

Five variable factors (burnishing condition, burnishing speed, feed, and depth of burnishing) with five levels
were studied as shown in Table 1; therefore, the L25 orthogonal array was selected for this study. The layout of
the L25 orthogonal array is given in Table 2.
Factors Level 1 Level 2 Level 3 Level 4 Level 5
Burnishing Condition (A) Dry MQL MoS2-NMQL nGP-NMQL HNMQL
Burnishing Speed (rpm) (B) 250 350 450 550 650
Feed (mm/rev) (C) 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12
Depth of Burnishing (mm) (D) 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
Table 1: Variable factor levels

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Exp. No. Condition Burnishing Speed (rpm) Feed (mm/rev) Depth of burnishing (mm)
1 Dry 250 0.04 0.2
2 Dry 350 0.06 0.3
3 Dry 450 0.08 0.4
4 Dry 550 0.1 0.5
5 Dry 650 0.12 0.6
6 MQL 250 0.06 0.4
7 MQL 350 0.08 0.5
8 MQL 450 0.1 0.6
9 MQL 550 0.12 0.2
10 MQL 650 0.04 0.3
11 MoS2-NMQL 250 0.08 0.6
12 MoS2-NMQL 350 0.1 0.2
13 MoS2-NMQL 450 0.12 0.3
14 MoS2-NMQL 550 0.04 0.4
15 MoS2-NMQL 650 0.06 0.5
16 nGP-NMQL 250 0.1 0.3
17 nGP-NMQL 350 0.12 0.4
18 nGP-NMQL 450 0.04 0.5
19 nGP-NMQL 550 0.06 0.6
20 nGP-NMQL 650 0.08 0.2
21 HNMQL 250 0.12 0.5
22 HNMQL 350 0.04 0.6
23 HNMQL 450 0.06 0.2
24 HNMQL 550 0.08 0.3
25 HNMQL 650 0.1 0.4
Table 2: Taguchi L25 experimantal plan.

Optimization using NSGA-II and CoCoSo Methods

Optimization was performed to minimize power consumption and maximize surface roughness improvement
using multi-objective optimization with NSGA-II (non-dominated sorting genetic algorithm II) and multi-
criteria decision-making with CoCoSo (Combined Compromise Solution) methods. To apply NSGA-II,
burnishing power and surface roughness must be modeled mathematically and given as input to NSGA-II as
an objective function [12]. For this purpose, the Dummy Variable method was used to express the burnishing
conditions numerically [13]. [1 0 0 0], [0 1 0 0], [0 0 1 0], [0 0 0 1], and [0 0 0 0] dummy variables were used
for the burnishing conditions of dry, MQL, MoS2-NMQL, nGP-NMQL, and HNMQL, respectively. Afterward,
in establishing the regression equations, burnishing conditions, which were converted into dummy variables,
burnishing speeds, feed values, and depth of burnishing values were defined as independent variables, while
burnishing power and surface roughness improvement results were defined as dependent variables. The
regression equations were defined as the objective function of the NSGA-II algorithm and the population size
of NSGA-II was determined as 50, 50 result outputs were requested and the maximum number of generations
was selected as 20000. Finally, the Pareto optimal results obtained as a result of NSGA-II were sorted by the
CoCoSo method and the optimum results were selected in terms of power consumption and surface roughness
improvements.

Results and Discussions

Burnishing power
The increase in power consumption for RB due to the force applied by the RB tool seriously damages the
precision and life of the machine tool [2]. This situation will shorten the service life of the machine in the
medium-long term, increase maintenance costs, cause disruptions in production due to the machine stopping

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during maintenance, and cause industrial companies to suffer losses in terms of cost. In addition, high
burnishing powers increase energy consumption, causing sustainability concerns [3]. For these reasons, the
power consumption of the RB process needs to be reduced. The results obtained for burnishing power are
given in Figure 2.
Compared to the dry burnishing condition, MQL, MoS2-NMQL, nGP-NMQL, and HNMQL burnishing
conditions reduced the average burnishing power by 0.4%, 2%, 2.5%, and 2.8%, respectively. The reason why
HNMQL conditions yield better results is due to the synergistic effect between MoS 2 and nGP nanoparticles
in the hybrid nanofluid [14]. The effect here is that the nGP nanoparticle increases the retention of MoS 2 on
the friction surfaces, resulting in the formation of a thicker adsorbed tribofilm and thus increasing the
lubrication between the tool and workpiece [15]. When the full quadratic variance analysis of the burnishing
power results was performed, it was seen that the most effective parameter for burnishing power was the depth
of burnishing value with a contribution ratio of 92.01%, followed by the burnishing condition with a
contribution ratio of 4.46%.

Figure 2: Burnishing power results.

Surface roughness improvement

Surface roughness is one of the most important characteristics of product quality, which directly affects product
performance, aesthetic appearance, fatigue, corrosion resistance, etc. [16]. The RB is one of the surface
improvement methodologies that is generally performed without machining to improve the surface integrity
of mechanical parts and makes pre-processed workpieces smooth and hard, increasing fatigue strength, wear
resistance and corrosion resistance [1]. In the RB process, the initial surface roughness of the workpiece is
among the process parameters. However, since the effect of initial surface roughness was not examined in this
study, a cleaning operation was performed before the RB experiments to ensure that the workpieces had the
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same surface roughness as possible. Even though the workpieces are subjected to the cleaning process with
the same parameters, differences in surface roughness may occur due to tool wear, small changes in the
workpiece or zeroing. Therefore, in the presented study, surface roughness values before and after the process
were determined and the results of the percentage improvement in surface roughness are presented in Figure
3.
Compared to the dry burnishing condition, MQL, MoS2-NMQL, nGP-NMQL, and HNMQL burnishing
conditions reduced the average surface roughness improvement by 4.2%, 9.6%, 14.8%, and 16.3%,
respectively. In the HNMQL method, MoS2 nanoparticles holds to the nGPs, preventing it from turning into
small and defective nanoparticles and reducing wear between rubbing surfaces [15], which results in a decrease
in surface roughness. When the full quadratic variance analysis of the test results was performed, it was seen
that the most effective parameter for the improvement in surface roughness was the depth of burnishing value
with a contribution ratio of 73.65%, followed by the burnishing condition and feed with a contribution ratio of
5.86% and 1.3%.

Figure 3: Surface roughness improvement results.

Optimization results
The regression equations for burnishing power and surface roughness improvement are given in Equation 1
and Equation 2, respectively. C1, C2, C3, and C4 in the equations represent dummy variables and, for example,
correspond to values of 1, 0, 0, and 0 respectively for the dry burnishing condition. Also, V, F, and D refer to
burnishing speed, feed, and depth of burnishing, respectively.The coefficient of determination (R 2) was used
to assess the equations' accuracy in performing predictions. R² values for burnishing power and surface
roughness improvement regression equations were successfully determined as 99.14% and 96.35%,
respectively.
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Burnishing Power (kW)

= 1.3342 + 0.0132 ∗ C1 − 0.1 ∗ C2 − 0.0001 ∗ C3 − 0.0491 ∗ C4 + 0.000296 ∗ V
+ 0.72 ∗ F + 0.043 ∗ D + 0 ∗ V ∗ V − 4.38 ∗ F ∗ F − 0.004 ∗ D ∗ D + 0.000072 (1)
∗ C1 ∗ V + 0.000207 ∗ C2 ∗ V + 0.65 ∗ C2 ∗ F − 0.0162 ∗ C2 ∗ D + 0.00005 ∗ C3
∗ V + 0.068 ∗ K3 ∗ F − 0.0374 ∗ C3 ∗ D + 0.000072 ∗ C4 ∗ V + 0.28 ∗ C4 ∗ F
Surface Roughness Improvement (%)
= −8.2 − 11.3 ∗ C1 − 40.8 ∗ C2 − 15.8 ∗ C3 + 20.5 ∗ C4 + 0.028 ∗ V − 9 ∗ F
+ 357 ∗ D − 0.000018 ∗ V ∗ V − 453 ∗ F ∗ F − 326 ∗ D ∗ D − 0 ∗ C1 ∗ V + 0.0301 (2)
∗ C2 ∗ V + 62 ∗ C2 ∗ F + 34.7 ∗ C2 ∗ D + 0.014 ∗ C3 ∗ V − 11 ∗ C3 ∗ F + 28.6 ∗ C3
∗ D − 0.0442 ∗ C4 ∗ V − 21 ∗ C4 ∗ F

The NSGA-II algorithm was run with the obtained regression equations and the obtained Pareto optimum
solutions are given in Figure 4. The figure shows the results of improvement in surface roughness
corresponding to the polishing power obtained according to the RB parameter sets optimized in the given
Pareto optimal solutions.

Figure 4: Pareto optimal solutions.

The final solution or solutions must be selected from the Pareto optimal solutions. In this study, the CoCoSo
method, which is a multi-criteria decision-making method, was used to select the optimum results among the
Pareto solutions given in Figure 4. The CoCoSo method's chosen best outcomes are shown in Table 3 as a
consequence. As can be seen from the CoCoSo optimal results, it has been determined that the most suitable
burnishing condition and burnishing speed for RB of AISI H11 steel is the HNMQL method and 250 rpm.
When the outputs of burnishing power and surface roughness improvement are evaluated together, the use of
feed values between 0.075-0.084 mm/rev and the depth of burnishing values between 0.391-0.412 mm appear
as optimum process parameters that minimize each of them.

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Burnishing Burnishing Feed Depth of Burnishing Surface Roughness

Condition speed (rpm) (mm/rev) Burnishing (mm) Power (kW) Improvement (%)
HNMQL 250 0.075 0.412 1.517 93.6
HNMQL 250 0.078 0.402 1.521 92.2
HNMQL 250 0.084 0.391 1.53 90.5
Table 3: Optimal results selected by the CoCoSo method.

Conclusions
In this study, nano-molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) doped nanofluid-assisted MQL (MoS2-NMQL), nano-
graphene (nGP) doped nanofluid-assisted MQL (nGP-NMQL) and MoS2/nGP doped hybrid nanofluid-assisted
MQL (HNMQL) burnishing conditions were used for the first time in the roller burnishing of AISI H11 steel
using different burnishing speed values, feed values, and depth of burnishing values, and burnishing
performance was investigated in terms of burnishing power and surface roughness improvement. Then,
optimization was performed to minimize power consumption and maximize surface roughness improvement
using NSGA-II and CoCoSo methods. The findings from the studies conducted are listed below:

• Compared to the dry burnishing condition, using the HNMQL burnishing condition reduced the
burnishing power and increased the surface roughness by 2.8% and 16.3%, respectively.
• The most effective parameter in both burnishing power and surface roughness improvement is the
depth of burnishing with 92.01% and 73.65% contribution rates, followed by the burnishing condition
with 4.46% and 5.86% contribution rates.
• The HNMQL burnishing condition, burnishing speed value of 250 rpm, feed values between 0.075-
0.084 mm/rev, and depth of burnishing values between 0.391-0.412 mm should be used to obtain the
values closest to the optimum result.

Acknowledgements
This work was supported by Research Fund of the Yildiz Technical University. Project Number: FBA-2023-
5511.

References
[1] Raza, A., Kumar, S., 2022, “A critical review of tool design in burnishing process”, Tribology International,
Volume 174, 107717.
[2] Bobrovskij, I., Bobrovskij, N., Khaimovich, A., Travieso-Rodriguez, J.A., 2022, “Impacts of Surface
Texture and Nature of Friction on Energy-Force Efficiency of Surface Plastic Deformation during Burnishing”,
Metals, Volume 12, 1568.
[3] Nguyen, TT., Nguyen, TA., Trinh, QH., Le, X.B., Pham, L.H., Le, X.H., 2022, “Artificial neural network-
based optimization of operating parameters for minimum quantity lubrication-assisted burnishing process in
terms of surface characteristics”, Neural Computing & Applications, Volume 34, Pages 7005-7031.
[4] Sachin, B., Narendranath, S., Chakradhar, D., 2020, “Application of Desirability Approach to Optimize the
Control Factors in Cryogenic Diamond Burnishing”, Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering, Volume
45, pages 1305-1317.
[5] Kovacs, Z.F., Viharos, Z.J., Kodacsy, J., 2022, “Improvements of surface tribological properties by
magnetic assisted ball burnishing”, Surface & Coatings Technology, Volume 437, Pages 128317.
[6] He, T., Liu, N., Xia, H., Wu, L., Zhang, Y.,Li, D., Chen, Y., 2023, "Progress and trend of minimum quantity
lubrication (MQL): A comprehensive review", Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 386, 135809.

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[7] Nguyen T.T., Le, M.T., 2021, “Optimization of internal burnishing operation for energy efficiency,
machined quality, and noise emission”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology,
Volume 114, Pages 2115-2139.
[8] Dubey, V., Sharma, A.K., 2023, “A short review on hybrid nanofluids in machining processes. Advances
in Materials and Processing Technologies”, Volume 9(1), Pages 138-151.
[9] Khalilpourazary, S., Salehi, J., 2019, “How alumina nanoparticles impact surface characteristics of Al7175
in roller burnishing process”, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, Volume 39, Pages 1-11.
[10] Musavi, S.H., Davoodi, B., Niknam, S.A., 2019, “Effects of reinforced nanoparticles with surfactant on
surface quality and chip formation morphology in MQL-turning of superalloys”, Journal of Manufacturing
Processes, Volume 40, Pages 128-139.
[11] Usluer, E., Emiroğlu, U., Yapan, Y.F., Kshitij, G., Khanna, N., Sarıkaya, M., Uysal, A., 2023,
“Investigation on the effect of hybrid nanofluid in MQL condition in orthogonal turning and a sustainability
assessment”, Sustainable Materials and Technologies, Volume 36, e00618.
[12] Oussama, B., Yapan, Y.F., Uysal, A., Abdelhakim, C., Mourad, N., 2023, “Assessment of turning AISI
316L stainless steel under MWCNT-reinforced nanofluid-assisted MQL and optimization of process
parameters by NSGA-II and TOPSIS”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology,
Volume 127(7), 3855-3868.
[13] Demir, U., Yapan, Y. F., Uysal, M.U., Uysal, A., 2023, Sustainability assessment and optimization for
milling of compacted graphite iron using hybrid nanofluid assisted minimum quantity lubrication method,
Sustainable Materials and Technologies, Volume 38, e00756.
[14] Marlinda, A.R., Thien, G.S.H., Shahid, M., Ling, T.Y., Hashem, A., Chan, K.-Y., Johan, M.R., 2023,
“Graphene as a Lubricant Additive for Reducing Friction and Wear in Its Liquid-Based Form”, Lubricants,
Volume 11, 29.
[15] Xu, Y., Peng, Y., Dearn, K.D., Zheng, X., Yao, L., Hu, X., 2015, “Synergistic lubricating behaviors of
graphene and MoS2 dispersed in esterified bio-oil for steel/steel contact”, Wear, Volume 342-343, Pages 297-
309.
[16] Abellán-Nebot, J.V., Vila Pastor, C., Siller, H.R., 2024, “A Review of the Factors Influencing Surface
Roughness in Machining and Their Impact on Sustainability”, Sustainability, Volume 16, 1917.

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ANALYSIS OF NOVEL ULTRASONIC DICING BLADE DESIGN

UTILIZING RESONANCE IMPEDANCE MODEL
Rendi Kurniawana,b*, Chen Shuoa, Hanwei Tenga, Gandjar Kiswantob, Pil-Wan Hanc,* and Tae Jo Koa*

a, Yeungnam University Mechanical Department, Gyeongsan/SOUTH KOREA, *tjko@yu.ac.kr

b, Universitas Indonesia Engineering Faculty Mechanical Department, Depok/INDONESIA, *rendi.mech@eng.ui.ac.id
c, KERI Electric Machines and Drives Research Center, Chanwon/SOUTH KOREA, *pwhan@keri.re.kr

Abstract
Semiconductor materials are commonly used in the computer, automobile, automation, and electronics
industries. These materials, typically made of silicon, have a brittle nature. This brittleness poses challenges in
cutting processes, particularly during dicing. To address this, a novel ultrasonic dicing blade design featuring
a triangular hinge in the main body is proposed. A resonance electromechanical impedance model was created
to estimate the natural radial frequency, leading to the development of a total electromechanical equivalent
impedance equation. Experimental measurements were taken for the resonance and anti-resonance frequencies
of the new ultrasonic dicing blade. The frequency modeling based on the electromechanical equivalent
impedance closely matched the experimental results. However, the correction factor used in this method needs
improvement for future advancements in the electromechanical model.

Keywords: Ultrasonic; Frequency; Electromechanical Impedance.

Introduction
Semiconductor materials such as silicon (Si), silicon carbide (SiC), and germanium (Ge) have gained
significant attention in industrial applications, including electronics, computers, automation, and robotics.
These materials are used in chip processors, microcontrollers, transistors, and even solar cells or photovoltaic
applications. Due to their brittle nature, characterized by low fracture toughness and limited plastic
deformation, semiconductor materials are prone to fracture and cracking. Therefore, the cutting process of
these materials requires special attention, such as determining the critical cutting depth. In chip processor
manufacturing, the final stage is the dicing process, where a silicon wafer containing millions of transistors on
its surface is cut using a dicing blade with a thin blade thickness ranging from 0.3 to 0.1 mm.
In this paper, a novel ultrasonic vibration dicing blade designed to vibrate along a radial direction is proposed.
Several models of radial vibrators exist in the research field. For example, Kim et al. [1] investigated the
vibrational behavior of PZT cylindrical transducers by developing a resonance equation based on the
electromechanical relationship. Their experiments showed that the piezoelectric natural frequency increases as
the cylinder's radius of curvature decreases, while the cylinder's thickness does not affect the fundamental
mode frequency. Haidao et al. [2] researched the vibration characteristics of longitudinal and radial composite
piezoelectric ultrasonic transducers using an electromechanical equivalent circuit. Their model had an error of
about 1.95%, demonstrating good agreement between experimental and simulation results. Yao et al. [3]
studied the radial vibration characteristics of piezoelectric ceramic composites using a simplified mechanical
model based on the wave equation. They claimed their simulations were accurate and aligned well with
experimental results.
Piezoelectric lead zirconate titanate (PZT) is widely used as a ceramic resonator in engineering applications,
particularly in ultrasonic vibration-assisted machining processes such as turning, milling, drilling, and grinding
[4]. The piezoelectric transducer operates based on the piezoelectric effect, and the reverse piezoelectric effect
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is commonly utilized for resonance actuators in ultrasonic vibration-assisted cutting. For instance, Tan et al.
[5] developed a single-driven ultrasonic transducer with a tilted slot groove array on the horn. This transducer
vibrates in resonance mode at a frequency of 28.3 kHz and an amplitude of 6.8 – 8.7 µm. Kurniawan et al.
[6][7] designed an ultrasonic transducer with PZT actuators as the main components. They used
electromechanical impedance to determine the resonance frequency with an error of less than 3%, discovering
that the overhanging tool impacts the resonance frequency. Chen et al. [8][9] created bending and torsional
vibrators to produce micro-textured surfaces, achieving a resonance frequency of about 19 kHz and
longitudinal and torsional amplitudes of approximately 10 µm and 12 µm, respectively.
The main objective of this short report is to propose a resonance electromechanical impedance model
developed to estimate the natural radial frequency of a novel ultrasonic dicing blade design. The resonance
frequency of the equivalent electromechanical impedance is presented and analyzed using a frequency
response function (FRF). The simulated impedance is compared with experimental results across different PZT
thicknesses. The simplified electromechanical impedance model can reasonably predict the radial resonance
of the novel ultrasonic dicing blade design.

Electromechanical Impedance
Lin’s work [10] on the radial vibration of composite transducers inspires our approach to establishing the
electromechanical impedance model. The electromechanical impedance of the novel ultrasonic dicing blade
design has been simplified, making several assumptions for straightforward analysis. These assumptions
include perfect attachment of the PZT to the metal body (ignoring PZT adhesive), disregarding the saw blade,
and considering the metal body as perfectly solid without any flexure hinge shape or gaps between assembled
parts. The detailed equation derivation is not presented here but will be included in our next report. According
to Fig. 1, the equivalent electromechanical impedance is described in Eq. 1.
𝑉𝑃 𝑍𝑚
𝑍𝑒 = = 2 +𝑗𝜔𝐶 𝑍 (1)
𝐼𝑃 −𝑁31 𝑜𝑟 𝑚

3D CAD Model
Metal Body PZT

PZT
Metal Body

Metal Body 1 Metal Body 2 & PZT 1 Metal Body 3 4

Figure 1: Electro-mechanical impedance model of ultrasonic dicing blade.

Experimental Setup
The impedance model of the ultrasonic dicing blade was validated using an impedance analyzer, model KM-
PV520A. A swept sine frequency ranging from 30 to 50 kHz was applied, with a voltage generation of
approximately 1 Volt. The impedance analyzer measured the voltage output at the shunt resistor, as shown in
the simplified diagram in Figure 2. Essentially, a sine wave was generated in a series circuit combination
between the PZT ring and the shunt resistor at a low voltage input. The impedance of the PZT ring was
determined by measuring the output voltage and the current flowing through both the PZT ring and the shunt

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resistor. The impedance of the PZT ring reflects the resonance of the structure during vibration using
piezoelectric effects. The experimental impedance results were then compared to the simulated impedance.
Schematic Diagram
1V , 30 – 50 kHz
Positive (+)
Positive (+)
Impedance
Analyzer
Negative (-)
Negative (-)

DICING BLADE
Impedance Analyzer
Positive (+)
Impedance
Graph
PZTO-ring

Negative (-)
Sine Wave
Generator

Rshunt

Figure 2: Experimental impedance of the ultrasonic dicing blade measurement.

Result and Discussion

Impedance comparison
Figure 3 shows the comparison between experimental and simulated impedance using similar parameters. The
magnitude of the logarithmic impedance and the phase angle are presented in Figure 3. Additionally, Table 1
summarizes the comparison between experimental and simulated impedance for resonance and anti-resonance
frequencies. In Figure 3, the resonance frequency is identified at the point where the impedance is at its lowest,
and the anti-resonance frequency is where the impedance reaches its highest peak. The simulation includes a
correction factor, which results in a small error as shown in Table 1. The correction factor is introduced in
Equation 2, where 𝑓𝑟_𝑠𝑖𝑚 is the resonance frequency after correction, 𝑓𝑟_𝑒𝑥𝑝 is the resonance frequency
measured experimentally, and 𝑓𝑟_𝑠𝑖𝑚_0 is the resonance frequency before correction.

𝑓𝑟_𝑠𝑖𝑚 = 𝑓𝑟_𝑠𝑖𝑚_0 − (𝑓𝑟_𝑒𝑥𝑝 − 𝑓𝑟_𝑠𝑖𝑚_0 ) (2)

Table 1 Summary of comparison between experimental and simulated impedance

PZT Resonance Resonance Error Anti- Anti- Error

Thickness 𝒇𝒓𝟏_𝒆 [kHz] - 𝒇𝒓𝟏_𝒔 [kHz] - ∆𝒓𝟏 (%) Resonance Resonance ∆𝒓𝟐 (%)
Experiment Simulation 𝒇𝒓𝟐_𝒆 [kHz] - 𝒇𝒓𝟐_𝒆 [kHz] -
Experiment Simulation
0.5 mm 42.82 42.82 0.00 % 42.96 43.09 0.30 %

1 mm 42.44 42.45 0.02 % 42.66 42.74 0.18 %

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Figure 3: Experimental impedance of the ultrasonic dicing blade with piezo ring thickness of 0.5 mm.

According to Figure 3, the impedance graph is well obtained, indicating that the assembly process was
successful. Achieving radial resonance requires radial prestressing, which is crucial for optimal vibration.
There are two primary methods to achieve radial prestressing: using adhesive or thermal fitting (employing
heat expansion and cold shrinking of the die). In our case, adhesive (Loctite super glue) was used to provide
radial prestressing. According to Table 1, the thickness of the PZT slightly decreases both the resonance and
anti-resonance frequencies. The resonance frequencies are around 42 kHz, while the anti-resonance
frequencies are around 43 kHz. The small error of less than 1% shown in Table 1 indicates a strong agreement
between the impedance simulation and experimental results. The error for resonance and anti-resonance
frequencies was calculated using the following equations:

|𝑓𝑟1_𝑒 − 𝑓𝑟1_𝑠 | |𝑓𝑟2_𝑒 − 𝑓𝑟2_𝑠 |

𝑓𝑟1_𝑒 × 100% ; ∆𝑟2 = (3)
∆𝑟1 = ⁄ ⁄
𝑓𝑟2_𝑒 × 100%

Conclusion
In this short paper, we proposed an electromechanical model for the ultrasonic dicing blade. We developed an
electromechanical impedance equivalent circuit and determined the resonance and anti-resonance frequencies
of the blade. The following conclusions can be drawn:

• The developed electromechanical impedance equivalent equation yielded simulation results that
closely matched experimental impedance results, with an error of less than 1%. This indicates the
correctness and accuracy of our impedance simulation model. However, the inclusion of a correction
factor was necessary during simulation.
• The ultrasonic dicing blade with a PZT thickness of 0.5 mm exhibited a resonance frequency of
approximately 42.82 kHz and an anti-resonance frequency of about 42.96 kHz. On the other hand, the
blade with a PZT thickness of 1 mm showed a resonance frequency of around 42.44 kHz and an anti-
resonance frequency of about 42.66 kHz. These findings suggest that increasing thickness decreases
both resonance and anti-resonance frequencies.

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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korea
government (MSIT) (RS-2023-00278890). This work is also supported by Korea Electrotechnology Research
Institute (KERI) through MSIT (No. 23A01021).

References
[1] J. O. Kim, K. K. Hwang, and H. G. Jeong, 2004, “Radial vibration characteristics of piezoelectric
cylindrical transducers,” J. Sound Vib., vol. 276, no. 3–5, pp. 1135–1144.
[2] Z. Haidao, X. Long, Z. Guangping, Z. Lun, Y. Jiawei, and Y. Qingyu, 2023, “Research on vibration
characteristics of the longitudinal-radial composite piezoelectric ultrasonic transducer,” Appl. Acoust.,
vol. 206, p. 109299.
[3] C. Yao, C. Zhang, J. Zhang, and Y. Zhang, 2020, “Radial vibration characteristics of piezoelectric
ceramic composite ultrasonic transducer,” Shock Vib., vol. 2020, pp. 1–13.
[4] W. Chen, D. Huo, Y. Shi, and J. M. Hale, 2018, “State-of-the-art review on vibration-assisted milling:
principle, system design, and application,” Int. J. Adv. Manuf. Technol., vol. 97, no. 5–8, pp. 2033–
2049.
[5] R. Tan, X. Zhao, X. Zou, Z. Li, Z. Hu, and W. Zhang, 2018, “Design and Implementation of a Novel
Single-Driven Ultrasonic Elliptical Vibration Assisted Cutting Device,” Micromachines, vol. 9, no. 10,
pp. 1–12.
[6] R. Kurniawan et al., 2023, “Influence of overhanging tool length and vibrator material on
electromechanical impedance and amplitude prediction in ultrasonic spindle vibrator,” J. Zhejiang
Univ. Sci. A.
[7] R. Kurniawan, T. J. Ko, S. T. Kumaran, and F. Ahmed, 2021, “3-DOF ultrasonic elliptical vibration tool
holder based on coupled resonance modes for manufacturing micro-groove,” Precis. Eng., vol. 67.
[8] C. Chen, P. Feng, F. Feng, and J. Wang, 2024, “Fast texturing of micron grating on curved metallic
surfaces using bending-torsional-coupled rotary ultrasonic side milling,” Manuf. Lett., vol. 40, pp. 16–
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[9] Z. Zheng, J. Zhang, P. Feng, and J. Wang, 2023, “Controllable fabrication of microstructures on the
metallic surface using oblique rotary ultrasonic milling,” Int. J. Mech. Sci., vol. 237, no. October 2022,
p. 107805.
[10] S. Lin, “Radial vibration of the composite ultrasonic transducer of piezoelectric and metal rings, 2007,”
IEEE Trans. Ultrason. Ferroelectr. Freq. Control, vol. 54, no. 6, pp. 1276–1280.

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SUSTAINABILITY ACHIEVEMENT FOR CUTTING TOOL INDUSTRY

THROUGH INNOVATIVE MACHINING TECHNIQUES

Vrajrajsinh Sodha a, Jay Airaob, and Navneet Khannaa,*

a
Advanced Manufacturing Laboratory, Institute of Infrastructure, Technology, Research and Management (IITRAM),
Ahmedabad 380026, India, navneetkhanna@iitram.ac.in
b
, Department of Mechanical and Production Engineering, Aarhus University, Aarhus 8000, Denmark,
navneetkhanna@iitram.ac.in

Abstract
Sustainable manufacturing encompasses a wide-ranging field of study aimed at integrating sustainability
principles into the realms of production and manufacturing. This study evaluate the sustainability considering
economic and carbon emission analysis for drilling of Ti6Al4V using TiN and TiAlN coated drill bits under
cryogenic LCO2 cooling. Apart from it, the drilling performance is also examined considering hole quality,
tool wear, power consumption, thrust force and torque. From a sustainability perspective, replacing TiAlN
coated drill bits with TiN coated ones proves advantageous. The TiN coated drill bit not only offers a cost-
saving advantage of 100.90% but also achieves a 71.9% reduction in carbon emissions. The analysis includes
a thorough examination of tool wear, which decreases by 71% when using TiN coated drill bits instead of
TiAlN coated ones. Furthermore, measurements of hole quality indicators such as hole surface quality,
cylindricity, and circularity reveal reductions of 46.67%, 55%, and 50%, respectively, with the use of TiN
coated drill bits.

Key words: Sustainability assessment, cryogenic, TiAlN, TiN, Drilling

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QUANTUM NOKTA KATKILI NANOAKIŞKAN İLE SERT TORNALAMA

İŞLEMİNDE KONSANTRASYON ORANININ İŞLEME PERFORMANSINA
ETKİSİ
Muhammed Ömer Ayhana, Emine Şirinb, Çağrı Vakkas Yıldırımc, Şenol Şirind, Turgay Kıvake ve
Murat Sarıkayaf

a, Erciyes Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Uçak Gövde ve Motor Bakımı ABD, Kayseri/TÜRKİYE,
m.omer.ayhan1@hotmail.com
b, Düzce Üniversitesi Gümüşova MYO Makine ve Metal Tek., Düzce/TÜRKİYE, eminesirin@duzce.edu.tr
c, Erciyes Üniversitesi Havacılık ve Uzay Bilimleri Fak. Uçak Gövde ve Motor Bakımı, Kayseri/TÜRKİYE,
cvyildirim@erciyes.edu.tr
d, Düzce Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fak. Mekatronik Müh. Bölümü, Düzce/TÜRKİYE, senolsirin@duzce.edu.tr
e, Düzce Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fak. Makine Müh. Bölümü, Düzce/TÜRKİYE, turgaykivak@duzce.edu.tr
f, Sinop Üniversitesi Mimarlık ve Mühendislik Fak. Makine Müh. Bölümü, Sinop/TÜRKİYE, msariakaya@sinop.edu.tr

Özet
Nanoakışkanlar, baz sıvının içerisine katılan nano boyutlu katkı maddeleri sayesinde sıvının termal ve
tribolojik özelliklerini geliştirerek talaş kaldırma operasyonları için önemli bir yardımcı olmuştur.
Nanoakışkanların özellikleri katılan katkı maddesinin türüne ve konsantrasyon oranına bağlı olarak
değişmektedir. Bu nedenle birçok katkı maddesine ait denemeler devam etmektedir. Bu çalışmada, kuantum
nokta katkı maddesi eklenmiş nanoakışkanın işleme performansını belirlemek için bir dizi deney yapılmıştır.
Ayrıca, nanoakışkanın farklı işleme parametreleri altındaki davranışını görmek için üç farklı ilerleme değeri
ve üç farklı kesme hızı deney tasarımına dahil edilmiştir. Deney tasarımı esnasında Taguchi L 9 dikey dizini
kullanılmıştır. Ayrıca, parametrelerin sonuçlar üzerindeki etkinlik seviyesini belirlemek için ANOVA analizi
uygulanmıştır. Deney sonuçlarına göre, optimum Ra değeri 30 m/dak kesme hızı, 0.04 mm/dev ilerleme ve
%0.6 konsantrasyon oranıyla elde edilirken optimum kesme sıcaklığı 15 m/dak kesme hızı, 0.04 mm/dev
ilerleme ve %0.6 konsantrasyon oranıyla elde edilmiştir.
Keywords: Sert tornalama, nanoakışkan, kuantum nokta.

Abstract
Nanofluids have become an essential aid for machining operations by improving the thermal and tribological
properties of the liquid thanks to the nano-sized additives added into the base fluid. The properties of nanofluids
vary depending on the type and concentration ratio of additive. For this reason, experiments of many additives
continue. This study conducted a series of experiments to determine the machining performance of quantum
dot nanofluid. In addition, three different feed rates and three different cutting speeds were included in the
experimental design to see the behavior of the nanofluid under different machining parameters. Taguchi L 9
orthogonal array was used during the experimental design. Furthermore, ANOVA analysis was applied to
determine the level of effectiveness of the parameters on the results. According to the experimental results, the
optimum Ra value was obtained with 30 m/min cutting speed, 0.04 mm/rev feed and 0.6% concentration rate,
while the optimum cutting temperature was obtained with 15 m/min cutting speed, 0.04 mm/rev feed and 0.6%
concentration rate.
Keywords: Hard turning, nanofluid, quantum dot.

Giriş
Sertleştirilmiş çeliklerin işleme süreci genellikle kaba tornalama, ısıl işlem ve son olarak taşlama işlemini
içermektedir. Bununla beraber, sert tornalama işleminin uygulanması ile bazı gereksiz adımlar ortadan
kaldırılabilir ve daha efektif bir işleme süreci uygulanabilir [1]. Bu nedenden dolayı günümüzde birçok
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durumda taşlama yerine sert tornalama tercih edilebilmektedir. Karmaşık geometriye sahip parçaların imalatı
esnasında sert tornalama işleminin tercih edilmesiyle üretim maliyetleri %30 seviyesinde azaltılabilmektedir
[2]. Hem üretim sürecinin niteliği hem de üretim maliyetlerini azaltma potansiyeli olduğundan sert tornalama
işlemi, imalatçıların ve araştırmacıların ilgisini çekmeyi başarmıştır. Ramesh ve ark. [3] sertleştirilmiş (62
HRC) AISI 52100 çeliğini kuru kesme şartı altında ve farklı kesme hızlarında işleyerek, beyaz katmanların
yapı ve özelliklerinin işleme parametrelerine bağlı değişimlerini incelemişlerdir. Dureja ve ark. [4] 58 HRC
sertliğindeki AISI D3 çeliğini TiSiN-TiAlN kaplamalı karbür kesicilerle tornalarken kesme hızı ve ilerlemenin
takım aşınması ve yüzey pürüzlülüğü üzerindeki etkisini incelemişlerdir. Sert tornalama felsefesi gereği
işlenen malzemelerin yüksek sertliği sahip olmasıyla bilinir ve bu işlem esnasında en çok tercih edilen yardımcı
kesme sıvılarıdır.
Kesme sıvıları, talaş kaldırma esnasında talaşı kesme bölgesinden uzaklaştırma, yağlama ve soğutma gibi ana
görevleri yerine getirerek işleme verimliliğini artırmaktadır. Bununla beraber klasik kesme sıvılarının
kullanımı çevre, çalışan sağlığı ve üretim maliyetleri üzerinde olumsuz etkiye sahiptir [5]. Bu nedenle, işleme
verimliliği azaltılmadan, kesme sıvısı miktarının azaltılması oldukça önem arz etmektedir. Böyle bir durumda
akla gelen ilk alternatiflerden en önemlileri arasında minimum miktarda yağlama (MMY) sistemi olmuştur.
MMY sisteminde basınçlı havayla iletildiği için takım-talaş-iş parçası arayüzeylerine nüfuz etmesi kolaylaşan
kesme yağı çoğunlukla daha iyi sonuç vermektedir. Bu durum daha önce yapılan çalışmalarda da ortaya
konulmuştur. Örneğin, Masoudi ve ark. [6] AISI 1045 çeliğini tornalarken MMY, konvansiyonel soğutmayı ve
kuru işlemeyi kıyaslamışlardır. Araştırmacılar MMY sisteminin çıktı parametrelerini olumlu anlamda
etkilediğini söylemişlerdir. Elbah ve ark. [7] sertleştirilmiş AISI 4140 çeliğinin sert tornalanması esnasında
kuru, ıslak ve MMY sistemlerinin işleme verimi açısından etkisini incelemişlerdir. Araştırmacılar MMY
sisteminin diğer yöntemlere göre daha iyi sonuçlar verdiğini iddia etmişlerdir. Bununla beraber literatürde yer
alan bir başka görüşe göre MMY sistemi hafif ve orta kesme şartlarında işleme verimliliğini artırırken
kesilmesi zor malzemelerin işlenmesi gibi ağır kesme koşullarında etkisini kaybetmektedir [8]. Özellikle ağır
işleme koşullarında MMY sisteminin etkinliğini artırmak için nano katkı maddelerinin kesme yağı içerisinde
eklenmesiyle baz sıvının özelliklerinin geliştirilmesidir.
Nanoakışkan olarak da bilinen nano kesme sıvıları, nanometre boyutundaki metalik ve metalik olmayan
parçacıklarla karıştırılmış kesme sıvılarıdır. Böylece baz kesme sıvılarının termofiziksel (ısıl iletkenlik ve
viskozite) ve tribolojik (aşınma ve sürtünme katsayısı) özellikleri geliştirilerek potansiyeli yüksek ısı transfer
sıvıları elde edilmektedir [9]. Duc ve ark. [10] sertleştirilmiş 90CrSi çeliğinin sert tornalanması esnasında baz
akışkanların içerisine eklenen Al2O3 ve MoS2 nano katkı maddelerinin kesme performansına etkisini
araştırmışlardır. Deney sonuçlarını kesme kuvvetleri ve yüzey pürüzlülüğü açısından inceleyen araştırmacılar
katkı maddelerinin kesme performansını farklı etkilediğine rapor etmişlerdir. Das ve ark. [11] AISI 4340
çeliğinin sert tornalanması esnasında baz kesme sıvısı içerisindeki farklı nano katkı maddelerinin işleme
performansına etkisini araştırmışlardır. Araştırmacılar, katkı maddesi tipinin önemli bir değişken olduğunu ve
işleme performansı açısından en iyi sonucu CuO’nun verdiğini iddia etmişlerdir. Kumar ve ark. [12] AISI D2
çeliğinin sert tornalanması esnasında deiyonize su içine eklenen nano Al2O3 ve TiO2 katkı maddelerinin işleme
performansı üzerindeki etkisini incelemişlerdir. Araştırmacılar, katkı maddesi türü ve konsantrasyon oranının
işleme performansı üzerinde etkili olduğunu rapor etmişlerdir. Son dönemde katkı maddeleri değiştirilerek
daha efektif kesme sıvıları elde edilebilmesi için araştırmalar devam etmektedir. Bu alternatiflerden birisi de
kuantum noktalardır. Kuantum noktalar, benzersiz özellikleri ve düşük üretim maliyetleri nedeniyle şu anda
çok çeşitli biyolojik uygulamalarda talep görmektedir. Kuantum noktalardan biri olan grafen kuantum noktalar,
yanal boyutları 100 nm’den küçük ve sıfır boyutlu (0D) tek ila on katmanlı grafen tabakalarından oluşmaktadır.
Grafen kuantum noktaları, biyolojik olarak parçalanabilen ve toksik olmayan kaynaklardan sentezlenebilen
yeni nesil karbon nanopartikülleridir. Bu nanopartiküller, düşük sitotoksisite, mükemmel çözünürlük, geniş
yüzey alanı, sağlam kimyasal inertlik, ayarlanabilir bant aralığı ve kuantum sınırlaması gibi özel avantajlar
sağlamaktadır [13]. Grafen kuantum noktalar biyomedikal uygulamaların yanı sıra optoelektronik, yakıt
hücreleri ve ışık yayan diyotlar gibi uygulamalarda da tercih edilmektedir. Bununla beraber ısı transferi
konusunda çok az çalışma olup bu alandaki potansiyeli merak edilmektedir. Ettefaghi ve ark. [14] sitrik asit ve
üre kullanılarak hidrotermal yöntemle grafen kuantum noktaları üretmiş ve konsantrasyon oranının ısı
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transferindeki etkisini araştırmışlardır. Deney sonuçlarına göre grafen kuantum noktalar hem çevresel riskleri
azaltmaya yardımcı olmakta hem de ısı transfer açısından endüstriyel uygulamalar için umut verici sonuçlar
sunmaktadır.
Literatür araştırmasında da görüldüğü üzere grafen kuantum noktalar ağırlıklı olarak biyomedikal cihazlar,
optoelektronik, yakıt hücreleri ve ışık yayan diyotlar gibi uygulamalarda kullanılmaktadır. Ancak grafen
kuantum noktalar üzerine araştırmalar henüz başlangıç seviyesindedir ve bu malzemenin tam potansiyeli henüz
anlaşılamamıştır. Dolayısıyla potansiyel alanlardan birisi de ısı transferidir. Henüz çok az çalışma yapılmasına
rağmen ortaya çıkan sonuçlar ısı transferi açısından umut vericidir. Böylece, metal kesme operasyonlarındaki
potansiyel kullanımı merak edilmektedir. Bu amaca uygun olarak mevcut çalışmada üç farklı konsantrasyon
oranında hazırlanan grafen kuantum nokta katkılı nanoakışkanlar kullanılarak bir dizi deney yapılmıştır.
Ayrıca, grafen kuantum nokta katkılı nanoakışkanların farklı kesme parametreleri altındaki davranışlarının
belirlenmesi için üç farklı kesme sıvısı ve üç farklı ilerleme değeri deney tasarımına dahil edilmiştir. Çalışmaya
ait materyal-metot, bulgular ve sonuçlar aşağıda verilmiştir.

Materyal ve Yöntem
İş Parçası, Tezgah ve Takım Özellikleri
Bu çalışmada, deney malzemesi olarak sertleştirilmiş AISI D3 soğuk iş takım çeliği kullanılmıştır. Malzemenin
çapı 60 mm ve boyu 200 mm olacak şekilde ayarlanmıştır. Deney malzemesinin kimyasal bileşimi Tablo 1’de
sunulurken, mekanik özelliklerine ait değerler Tablo 2’de verilmiştir.
Malzemenin dayanım özelliklerini artırmak adına ısıl işlem uygulanmıştır. AISI D3 malzemeye önce 970 °C
1 saat östenitleme işlemi yapılmış ve ardından 180 °C menevişleme işlemi uygulanmıştır. Sertleştirme
işleminden sonra malzeme sertliği 60 HRC değere ulaşmıştır.
C Si Mn P S Cr Fe
2.02 0.42 0.32 0.028 0.003 12.13 Kalan

Tablo 1: AISI D3 takım çeliğinin kimyasal bileşimi.

Isıl Genleşme Isı İletkenliği
Yoğunluk Sertlik
Katsayısı (20°C)
g/cm3 (HB)
1/K x 10-6 W/mK
10.8 – 12.5 16.7 7.85 213

Tablo 2: AISI D3 takım çeliğinin mekanik özellikleri.

AISI D3 soğuk iş takım çeliği malzemeyi işleme deneyleri Düzce Üniversitesi, Makine Mühendisliği CNC
laboratuvarında bulunan ACCUWAY marka ve JT-150 model CNC torna tezgâhında gerçekleştirilmiştir.
Deneylere ait görüntü Şekil 1’de verilmiştir. Deneylerde TaeguTec firması tarafından CNMG120408 MT
TT5080 (S05-S25) kodlu PVD TiAlN-TiN kaplamalı karbür kesici uçlar kullanılmıştır. Kesici uçlar TaeguTec
firması tarafından üretilen Burst PCLNR 2020 M12-TB kodlu takım tutucu kullanılarak tezgaha bağlanmıştır.

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Termal kamera

MMY sistemi

Yüzey profilometre

MMY nozulu

Kesici takım
İş parçası

Şekil 1: Deney seti.

MMY Sistemi ve Nanoakışkanın Hazırlanması

Tornalama deneylerinde soğutma/yağlama için SKF firması tarafından üretilen Vario modeli minimum
miktarda yağlama sistemi kullanılmıştır. MMY sisteminde kesme sıvısı 30° püskürtme açısı, 2 mm çapında
nozul ve 30 mm püskürtme mesafesinde kesme noktasına dışardan uygulanmıştır. MMY sisteminde kullanılan
parametreler literatür çalışmalardan ve ön deney sonuçlarından faydalanılarak belirlenmiştir.
Nanoakışkan karışım hazırlamada kesme sıvısı olarak Falcon K 151 bitkisel esaslı sentetik esaslı bitkisel yağ
kullanılmıştır. Bitkisel esaslı yağa ait teknik özellikler Tablo 3’ te gösterilmiştir Katkı maddesi olarak su
içerisinde çözünmüş grafen kuantum nokta partikülü olarak tercih edilmiştir. Grafen kuantum noktalar (GQD)
bir veya birkaç katman grafenden oluşmaktadır. Biyouyumluluk, yüksek yüzey/hacim oranı, fotolüminesans
ve mükemmel çözünürlük özelliklerinden dolayı sıklıkla tercih edilmektedir [15]. Kullanılan grafen kuantum
nokta partikülüne ait teknik özellikler Tablo 4’te verilmiştir.

Viskozite Yoğunluk
Alevlenme noktası
(40 °C) (20 °C) Görünüm
(°C)
(mm2/sn) (g/cm2)
8.5 0.860 200 Açık sarı

Tablo 3: Bitkisel yağa ait teknik özellikler.

Emisyon dalga Uyarılma dalga Uygulanan
Boyut
Partikül tipi boyu boyu voltaj Görünüş
(nm)
(nm) (nm) (V)
Grafen kuantum Boyut 20
442 344 420 Mavi floresan
nokta Çap <10

Tablo 4: Grafen kuantum nokta partikülüne ait teknik özellikler.

Kesme yağı içerisine hacimce üç faklı oranda grafen kuantum nokta eklenerek karışım oluşturulmuştur.
Karıştırma prosesinde üç aşama kullanılarak homojen karışımlar elde edilmiştir. Karıştırma prosesine göre
bitkisel esaslı sentetik yağın içerisine katılan katkı maddeleri birinci aşamada Daihan marka ve HS-100D
modelindeki mekanik karıştırıcı kullanılarak 1 saat boyunca 750 rpm ile karıştırılmıştır. İkinci aşamada
Bandelin Sonopuls HD3200 ultrasonik homojenizatör ile 30 dakika karışıma devam edilmiştir. Son aşamada,
Termal marka N11150M modeli manyetik karıştırıcı kullanılarak 1500 dev/dak hızda ve 60 dakika boyunca
karıştırılmıştır. Karışımların homojenliğini kaybetmemesi için bekletilmeden hemen kullanılmıştır.
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Ölçümler
Çalışmada yüzey pürüzlülüğünü değerlendirmek adına ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü (Ra) baz alınmıştır. Ra
ölçümleri Accretech marka Handysurf+ model portatif yüzey pürüzlülük ölçüm cihazı ile gerçekleştirilmiştir.
Cihaz çalışma öncesinde kalibrasyon bloklarıyla kalibre edilerek hazır hale getirilmiştir. Ölçüm sırasında
örneklem uzunluğu 0.8 mm ve ölçme uzunluğu 4 mm olarak belirlenmiştir. Deneyler sonrasında işlenilen
yüzey üzerinden 3 farklı bölgeden yapılan ölçümlerin ortalaması alınarak ortalama yüzey pürüzlülük (Ra)
değeri belirlenmiştir.
Kesme bölgesinde maksimum kesme sıcaklığının ölçülmesinde Optris marka PI 450 model kızılötesi termal
kamera kullanılmıştır. 80 Hz anlık görüntü alan kameranın ölçüm aralığı -20~900 °C aralıktaki sıcaklığı
ölçebilmek için ayarlanmıştır. Termal kamera tüm kesme alanını görebilecek şekilde 300 mm mesafeye sabit
şekilde konumlandırılmıştır. Anlık olarak alınan sıcaklık görüntüleri Optris PI Connect yazılımı okunmuştur.
Üretici firmanın tavsiye ettiği emisivite değeri Ɛ 0.5 olarak alınmıştır.

Deneysel Tasarım
Taguchi optimizasyon yöntemi deney sayısını azaltmayı sağlayan bir optimizasyon yöntemidir. Bu çalışmada
da Taguchi optimizasyon tekniğinin L9 dikey dizilimi kullanılmıştır. Tornalama deneyleri esnasında kesme
hızı, ilerleme ve konsantrasyon oranı işleme parametreleri olarak seçilmiştir. İşleme parametreleri ve işleme
parametrelerine ait seviyeler Tablo 5’te sunulmuştur.
Kontrol Faktörleri Seviye 1 Seviye 2 Seviye 3
Kesme Hızı (m/dak) 15 30 45
İlerleme (mm/dev) 0.04 0.08 0.12
Konsantrasyon Oranı (%) 0.3 0.6 0.9

Tablo 5: Kontrol faktörleri ve seviyeleri.

Mevcut çalışmada çıktı parametresi olarak Ra (ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü) ve T (kesme sıcaklığı) seçilmiştir.
Taguchi sisteminde, deneysel sonuçlar bir sinyal/gürültü (S/N) oranına dönüştürülerek sonuçların etki
faktörleri tespit edilmiştir. S/N oranlarını hesaplamak için nominal en iyi, en büyük en iyi ve en küçük en iyi
yaklaşımlar kullanılır. Bu çalışmada en küçük en iyi fonksiyon denklemi kullanılır. Kullanılan denklem eşitlik
1’de verilmiştir [16].
𝑆 1
𝜂= = −10𝑙𝑜𝑔 ( ∑𝑛𝑖=1 𝑦𝑖2 ) (1)
𝑁𝑠 𝑛

Deney ve Optimizasyon Sonuçları

S/N Oranlarının Analizi
Tablo 6’da verilen veriler dikkate alındığında ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü için ortalama değer 0.978 μm olarak
elde edilirken bu verilere ait S/N değerlerinin ortalaması 1.26626 dB olarak bulunmuştur. Tablo 6’da sunulan
bir başka sonuç ise kesme sıcaklığına ait değerlerdir. Kesme sıcaklığı değeri 191.56°C olurken kesme
sıcaklığına ait S/N oranlarının ortalama değeri -45.5213 dB olarak elde edilmiştir. Deney sonuçlarına ait S/N
yanıt tablosu Tablo 7’de sunulmuştur.

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Deney Vc f Oran Ra T
S/N Oranı S/N Oranı
No (m/dak) (mm/dev) (%) (µm) (°C)
1 15 0.04 0.3 0.823 1.6920 158 -43.9731
2 15 0.08 0.6 0.471 6.5396 144 -43.1672
3 15 0.12 0.9 1.238 -1.8544 208 -46.3613
4 30 0.04 0.6 0.428 7.3711 165 -44.3497
5 30 0.08 0.9 0.781 2.1470 213 -46.5676
6 30 0.12 0.3 1.313 -2.3653 163 -44.2438
7 45 0.04 0.9 0.602 4.4081 223 -46.9661
8 45 0.08 0.3 0.911 0.8096 237 -47.4950
9 45 0.012 0.6 1.714 -4.6802 213 -46.5676

Tablo 6: Deney tasarımı, sonuçlar ve S/N oranları.

Ra T
Kontrol Faktörleri Kontrol Faktörleri
Seviyeler Vc f Oran Vc f Oran
Seviye 1 2.1257 4.4904 0.0455 -44.50 -45.10 -45.24
Seviye 2 2.3843 3.1654 3.0768 -45.05 -45.74 -44.69
Seviye 3 0.1792 -2.9666 1.5669 -47.01 -45.72 -46.63
Delta 2.2051 7.4570 3.0314 2.51 0.65 1.94

Tablo 7: Deney sonuçlarına ait S/N yanıt tablosu.

Şekil 2’de Ra için S/N oranlarına ait etki grafiği sunulmaktadır. Buna göre, giriş parametrelerine ait
seviyelerden en üstte olanı optimum sonucu veren seviyeyi göstermektedir. Kesme hızı açısından en iyi sonucu
2. seviye değer (30 m/dak) verirken ilerleme için 1. seviye (0.04 mm/dev) ve konsantrasyon oranı için 2. seviye
(hacimce %0.6) vermiştir. Bu değerlere ait S/N oranları sırasıyla 2.3843, 4.4904 ve 3.0768 dB olarak elde
edilmiştir. Bir başka deyişle, en iyi ortalama yüzey pürüzlülük değeri 30 m/dak kesme hızı, 0.04 mm/dev
ilerleme ve %0.6 konsantrasyon oranı ile elde edilmiştir.

Şekil 2: Ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğünde kesme şartlarının S/N oranına etkisi.

T için S/N oranları etki grafiği Şekil 3’te sunulmuştur. Buna göre, kesme hızı açısından en iyi sonucu 1. seviye
değer (15 m/dak) verirken ilerleme için 1. seviye (0.04 mm/dev) ve konsantrasyon oranı için 2. seviye (hacimce
%0.6) vermiştir. Bu değerlere ait S/N oranları sırasıyla -44.50, -45.10 ve -44.69 dB olarak elde edilmiştir. Bir
başka deyişle, en iyi kesme sıcaklığı değeri 15 m/dak kesme hızı, 0.04 mm/dev ilerleme ve %0.6 konsantrasyon
oranı ile ortaya çıkmıştır.

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Şekil 3: Kesme sıcaklığında kesme şartlarının S/N oranına etkisi.

Bulguların Değerlendirilmesi
Sertleştirilmiş AISI D3 çeliğinin farklı işleme şartları altında işlenmesi sonucunda alınan Ra’ya ait 3D yüzey
grafikleri Şekil 4’te sunulmuştur. Yüzey grafiği kesme hızı açısından incelendiğinde, en düşük ortalama yüzey
pürüzlülük değerinin 30 m/dak ile elde edildiği görülmektedir (Şekil 4a). Kesme hızının Ra üzerindeki etkisi
lineer değil değişken bir davranış göstermiştir. Bir başka deyişle 15 m/dak kesme hızında Ra değeri ortalama
0.844 μm olarak elde edilirken 30 m/dak kesme hızında Ra değerinin ortalaması 0.840 μm olmuştur. 45 m/dak
kesme hızında Ra değeri ortalaması ise 1.076 μm olarak elde edilmiştir. Elde edilen ortalama değerler oransal
olarak incelendiğinde ise 15 m/dak kesme hızına göre 30 m/dak kesme hızında ortalama %4.73 iyileşme
görülürken 45 m/dak kesme hızında %27.49 kötüleşme ortaya çıkmıştır. Bu durum ilk artışta kesme
bölgesindeki ısının artması ve yumuşama ile kesmenin kolaylaşmasına atfedilirken, kesme hızının artışıyla
beraber kesici takımın aşınma sürecine girmesi ve yüzey kalitesini düşürmesi ile ilişkilendirilmiştir. Daha önce
yapılan çalışmalarda kesme hızının belli bir seviyeye kadar artmasıyla birlikte kesme bölgesinin yumuşadığı
ve böylece daha rahat bir kesme yapıldığı vurgulanmıştır [17]. Böylece yüzey kalitesi de artmaktadır. Bununla
beraber, kesme hızının belli bir seviyenin üzerine çıkması ile kesici takım aşınma sürecine girmekte ve yüzey
kalitesi kötüleşmektedir. Ayrıca, kesme hızının artması ile tırlama veya titreşimin artması da yüzey
pürüzlülüğünün artma gerekçelerinden biri olabilir [18]. Şekil 4a’da sunulan bir başka durum ise kuantum
nokta konsantrasyon oranının ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü üzerindeki etkisidir. Buna göre, en düşük Ra değeri
orta konsantrasyon oranı olan %0.6 ile elde edilmiştir. %0.3 konsantrasyon oranı ile elde edilen ortalama Ra
değeri 1.016 μm olurken %0.6 konsantrasyon oranı ile elde edilen ortalama Ra değeri 0.871 μm, %0.9
konsantrasyon oranı ile elde edilen ortalama Ra değeri ise 0.874 μm olarak elde edilmiştir. %0.3 konsantrasyon
oranına göre Ra değeri oransal olarak %0.6 konsantrasyon değerinde %14.27 iyileşirken %0.9 konsantrasyon
değerinde %13.98 seviyesinde iyileşme görülmüştür. Bu durum kuantum nokta katkı maddesinin kesici takım
aşınmasına katkısı ile ilişkilendirilmiştir. Bir başka deyişle, doğru konsantrasyon oranında kuantum nokta
partikülleri takım-talaş-iş parçası arayüzüne girerek sürtünmeyi azaltmakta ve böylece ısı oluşumunu
azaltmaya yardımcı olmaktadır. Kesme bölgesindeki ısının azalması ile kesme daha kontrollü şartlarda olmakta
ve böylece daha iyi bir yüzey kalitesi elde edilmektedir. Şekil 4b’de ilerleme oranının ortalama yüzey
pürüzlülüğü üzerindeki etkisi görülmektedir. Şekil 4b incelendiğinde ilerlemenin artması ile Ra değerinin
arttığı bir durum söz konusudur. Ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü ilerlemenin bir fonksiyonudur ve ilerlemenin
artmasıyla ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğünün artması beklenen bir durumdur.

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Şekil 4: Parametrelerin Ra üzerindeki etkisini gösteren 3D yüzey grafiği a) Konsantrasyon oranı-kesme hızı,
b) Konsantrasyon oranı-ilerleme.

Mevcut çalışmada işleme parametrelerinin kesme sıcaklığı üzerindeki etkisini gösteren 3D yüzey grafikleri
Şekil 5’te sunulmuştur. Şekil 5a kesme hızı açısından analiz edildiğinde minimum kesme sıcaklığı değerinin
15 m/dak kesme hızında elde edildiği, kesme hızının artmasıyla birlikte kesme sıcaklığının da arttığı
görülmektedir. 15 m/dak kesme hızında elde edilen ortalama kesme sıcaklığı değeri 170 °C olarak elde
edilmiştir. 30 m/dak kesme hızında ortalama kesme sıcaklığı değeri 180.3 °C olurken 45 m/dak kesme
hızındaki ortalama kesme sıcaklığı değeri 224.3 °C olmuştur. Elde edilen ortalama değerler oransal olarak
incelendiğinde 15 m/dak kesme hızına göre 30 m/dak ve 45 m/dak kesme hızlarındaki ortalama kesme sıcaklığı
artışı %6.06 ve %31.94 olarak elde edilmiştir. Bu durum kesme hızının artmasıyla birim zamandaki
sürtünmenin artışına atfedilmiştir. Ayrıca, kesme hızının artmasıyla plastik deformasyon hızındaki artış da
kesme sıcaklığının artmasının ana nedenlerindendir. Saglam ve ark. [19] AISI 1040 çeliğinin tornalanmasında
kesme derinliği ve ilerleme hızını sabit tutarak kesme hızı ve takım geometrisinin kesme sıcaklığı üzerindeki
etkisini incelemişlerdir. Deney sonuçlarını analiz eden araştırmacılar kesme hızının artmasıyla kesme
sıcaklığının bariz bir şekilde arttığını rapor etmişlerdir. Şekil 5’te görülen bir başka durum ise kuantum nokta
konsantrasyon oranının kesme sıcaklığı üzerindeki etkisidir. Grafiğe göre en düşük kesme sıcaklığı değeri
%0.6 konsantrasyon oranı ile elde edilmiştir ve bu konsantrasyon değeri ile elde edilen kesme sıcaklığı
değerlerinin ortalaması 174 °C olmuştur. Bununla beraber en yakın kesme sıcaklığı değeri %0.3 konsantrasyon
oranı ile elde edilmiştir ve ortalama kesme sıcaklığı değeri 186 °C olmuştur. En yüksek kesme sıcaklığı değeri
ise %0.9 konsantrasyon değeri ile elde edilmiştir ve ortalama kesme sıcaklığı değeri 214.67°C olmuştur. %0.3
konsantrasyon değeri referans alındığında %0.6 konsantrasyon değerinde kesme sıcaklığı %6.45 oranında
azalırken %0.9 konsantrasyon oranında %15.41 oranında artış göstermiştir. Konsantrasyon oranına bağlı
olarak kesme sıcaklığındaki bu değişim partiküllerin sürtünmeye etkisiyle ilişkilendirilmiştir. Bir başka
deyişle, nanoakışkanların içerisindeki partiküller takım-talaş-iş parçası arayüzüne girerek bilye etkisi
oluşturmakta ve sürtünmeyi azaltmaktadır [9]. Sürtünmenin azalmasıyla birlikte kesme sıcaklığı azalmaktadır.
Orta seviyedeki konsantrasyon oranının daha etkin bir sonuç vermesi ise partikül Miktarı ile ilişkilendirilmiştir.
Düşük oranda partikül miktarının bilye etkisi için yeterli olmadığı, yüksek oranda ise kesme arayüzüne dahil
olmakta zorlandığı düşünülmektedir. Şekil 5b incelendiğinde, ilerleme hızının kesme sıcaklığı üzerindeki
etkisi görülmektedir. Buna göre en düşük kesme sıcaklığı 0.04 mm/dev ilerleme hızında elde edilirken ilerleme
hızının artmasıyla birlikte kesme sıcaklığı artış göstermiştir. 0.04 mm/dev ilerleme hızında ortalama kesme
sıcaklığı değeri 182°C olurken 0.08 mm/dev ilerleme hızında ortalama kesme sıcaklığı 198°C, 0.12 mm/dev
ilerleme hızında ortalama kesme sıcaklığı 194.67°C olarak elde edilmiştir.

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Şekil 5: Konsantrasyon oranı ve kesme hızının T üzerindeki etkisini gösteren 3D yüzey grafiği.

Varyans Analizi
Mevcut çalışmada tercih edilen faktörler ve seviyelerinin deney sonuçları üzerindeki etkisini oransal olarak
gösterilmesi önemlidir. Böylece, tercih edilen faktörlerin çalışmadaki önemi belirlenmektedir. Buna göre, bu
çalışmada faktörlerin etkisini belirlemek için ANOVA analizi yapılmıştır. Bu analiz %95 güven aralığında
uygulanmıştır. Sonuçlar için uygulanan ANOVA analizine ait sonuçlar Tablo 8 ve Tablo 9’da sunulmuştur.
Tablo 8 faktörlerin ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü üzerindeki etkisini göstermektedir ve buna göre ortalama
yüzey pürüzlülüğü için en etkili faktör %78.65 ile ilerleme olmuştur. İlerlemeyi %7.46 oranı ile kesme hızı ve
%2.82 oranı ile konsantrasyon oranı takip etmektedir. Ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü için hata oranı ise %11.07
olmuştur. Tablo 9’da faktörlerin kesme sıcaklığı üzerindeki etkisini göstermektedir ve buna göre kesme
sıcaklığı için en etkili faktör %54.57 ile kesme hızı olmuştur. Kesme hızını %28.62 oranı ile konsantrasyon
oranı ve %4.67 oranı ile ilerleme takip etmektedir. Kesme sıcaklığı için hata oranı ise %12.13 olmuştur.

PCR
Faktörler SD KT KO F P
(%)
Vc 2 0.1089 0.0545 0.67 0.597 7.46
f 2 1.1480 0.5740 7.11 0.123 78.65
Oran 2 0.0411 0.0206 0.25 0.797 2.82
Hata 2 0.1616 0.0808 - - 11.07
Toplam 8 1.4596 - - - 100

Tablo 8: Ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü için ANOVA sonuçları.

PCR
Faktörler SD KT KO F P
(%)
Vc 2 4994.9 2479.4 4.50 0.182 54.57
f 2 427.6 213.8 0.39 0.722 4.68
Oran 2 2619.6 1309.8 2.36 0.298 28.62
Hata 2 1110.2 555.1 - - 12.13
Toplam 8 9152.2 - - - 100

Tablo 9: Kesme sıcaklığı için ANOVA sonuçları.

Sonuçlar
Bu çalışmada, sertleştirilmiş AISI D3 çeliğinin tornalanması esnasında üç farklı kesme hızı, üç farklı ilerleme
hızı ve üç farklı konsantrasyon oranındaki kuantum nokta katkılı nanoakışkanın ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü
ve kesme sıcaklığı üzerindeki etkisi araştırılmıştır. Deney tasarımı ve sonuçların değerlendirilmesi esnasında
Taguchi yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Deney sonuçlarının analizine göre aşağıdaki sonuçlar elde edilmiştir.

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• Ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü ve kesme sıcaklığı kesme hızı, ilerleme ve konsantrasyon oranına bağlı
olarak değişmektedir.
• Ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğünde optimum sonuç 30 m/dak kesme hızı, 0.04 mm/dev ilerleme ve %0.6
konsantrasyon oranına sahip kuantum nokta katkılı nanoakışkan ile elde edilmiştir.
• Kesme sıcaklığı için optimum sonucu 15 m/dak kesme hızı, 0.04 mm/dev ilerleme ve %0.6
konsantrasyon oranına sahip kuantum nokta katkılı nanoakışkan kombinasyonu vermiştir.
• Ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü için en etkili parametre %78.45 ile ilerleme olurken kesme sıcaklığı için
en etkili parametre %54.57 ile kesme hızı olmuştur.

Teşekkür
Bu çalışma Erciyes Üniversitesi Bilimsel Araştırma Projeleri tarafından desteklenmiştir (Proje kodu: FYL-
2023-13394).

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ANALYSIS AND OPTIMIZATION OF MILLING PROCESS OF DIN 1.2738

MOLD STEEL USING NANOFLUID ASSISTED MQL METHOD
Mevlüt Aydına, Yusuf Günayb, Yusuf Furkan Yapanc, Haydar Livatyalıd, and Alper Uysale

a, Konya Technical University, Mechanical Engineering Department, Konya/TURKIYE, maydin@ktun.edu.tr

b, Yildiz Technical University, Mechanical Engineering Department, Istanbul/TURKIYE, yusuf.gunay@std.yildiz.edu.tr
c, Yildiz Technical University, Mechanical Engineering Department, Istanbul/ TURKIYE, yapan@yildiz.edu.tr
d, Yildiz Technical University, Mechatronics Engineering Department, Istanbul/ TURKIYE, hlivatya@yildiz.edu.tr
e, Yildiz Technical University, Mechanical Engineering Department, Istanbul/ TURKIYE, auysal@yildiz.edu.tr
Abstract
The presented study investigated the milling performance of DIN-1.2738 steel under various cutting speeds,
feeds, dry, minimum quantity lubrication (MQL), and nanographene-reinforced nanofluid-assisted MQL (N-
MQL) cutting conditions. The results of cutting temperature, cutting force, feed force, and surface roughness
were obtained using a full-factorial experimental design. Under the N-MQL cutting conditions, the cutting
temperature, cutting force, feed force, and surface roughness improved by 30.1%, 22.3%, 26.3%, and 40.2%,
respectively. The most effective parameter on cutting temperature, feed force, and surface roughness turned
out to be the cooling conditions with 81.6%, 41.7%, and 72% contribution ratios, respectively. Also, feed had
the strongest effect on cutting force, with a 44.7% contribution ratio. The Grey Wolf algorithm optimized the
milling parameters and cooling conditions in terms of output parameters. The optimum levels of cutting
conditions, cutting speed, and feed values are N-MQL, 80 m/min, and 0.04 mm/rev, respectively.

Keywords: MQL, Nanofluid, Nanographene, Grey Wolf Algorithm

Introduction
The manufacturing of plastic parts has been growing continuously for many years. Many metal parts have been
replaced with polymers, such as car bumpers, small household appliances, measuring instruments, etc. Plastics'
specific mechanical and thermal properties make them highly suitable for replacing metals [1]. Therefore, the
plastics industry is becoming increasingly important daily [2]. Plastic parts are generally manufactured using
production methods such as plastic injection molding [3][4], extrusion [5][6], thermoforming [7][8], blow
molding [9][10], and machining [11][12]. Plastic injection molding is one of the most widely used
manufacturing methods for plastic parts, using molds with small tolerances and good surface quality. The
molds' surface quality must be at the desired levels for part quality and dimensional accuracy. Understanding
injection process parameters and the machinability of molds has been an important focus for both industry
professionals and scientific literature [1][2][3]. End milling, a fundamental machining technique, is often used
to manufacture injection molds. The surface quality of injection molds must be at the desired levels for the
manufactured part quality and dimensional accuracy. Therefore, optimal machining parameters are crucial for
high-cutting performance in mold manufacturing. However, these parameters are usually determined by
operators or practical knowledge. Not knowing the optimum cutting conditions will have a detrimental result
in terms of savings in both time and cost. Therefore, it becomes essential to determine the optimum cutting
and cooling conditions, considering surface finish, cutting temperature, and cutting forces as the main
machinability criteria for improving manufacturing efficiency [1][11][12].
DIN-1.2738 steel is widely used as a mold material, especially in injection molding, where thermal
conductivity is essential. Compared to other steels, P20 exhibits excellent wear resistance and high thermal
conductivity [13]. The occurrence of a built-up edge (BUE) during the machining of this steel is a significant
challenge, affecting both tool life and manufacturing efficiency [14]. Many studies in the literature investigate
the machinability of DIN-1.2738 steel. Abou-El-Hossein et al. studied the prediction of cutting force in end
milling of DIN-1.2738 steel. They used a response surface model to predict these cutting forces based on four
inputs: cutting speed, feed rate, radial depth, and axial depth of cut [15]. Kara and Öztürk examined surface
roughness and tool flank wear as machinability criteria. The effect of tool coating was investigated instead of
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the cooling condition. Cutting speed was the most effective parameter for surface roughness and tool flank
wear of DIN 1.2738 steel under hard turning conditions. Similarly, in the literature, cutting speed [2,13-34],
feed rate [2,13-32,34], depth of cut [2,13-16,19-24,26-31,34] nose radius [13,19-21, 23,24,27,30], cutting
environment [19,23,24,33], radial depth of cut [15,21,24,27,30], cryogenic soaking duration [22,26,34], insert
type [2], tool coating, [17], cutting path [16], were used for input parameters in the machinability of DIN-
1.2738. Using these parameters, surface roughness [14,16,17,19,20-24,26-34], cutting force [14,15,19,20,22-
24,29], material removal rate [13,18,24,26,27,34], tool wear [2,17,26,31-33], tool life [19,20,23], power
consumption [19,22,23], machining time [25] and chip characteristics [32] were characterized as machinability
criteria.
Cutting fluids and lubrication are crucial in material removal processes such as turning, milling, grinding, or
drilling [11,12,22,26,36]. Generally, cutting fluids are used for cooling, lubrication, reducing cutting
temperature, improving surface integrity, reducing cutting forces, and increasing tool life [37-40]. In recent
years, numerous studies have used various cooling techniques to enhance the machinability of different
materials. Some examples of these are minimum quantity lubrication (MQL), nanofluid-assisted MQL (N-
MQL), hybrid nanofluid-assisted (HN-MQL), and cryogenic cooling, as opposed to the typical flood-cutting
method [37-40]. As a result of the detailed literature review, it was analyzed that cooling conditions such as
dry, flood, and MQL were researched in the machining of DIN-1.2738 steel. However, the nanoparticle-added
MQL cooling condition was not studied in the machining of DIN-1.2738 steel.
In this context, this study aims to consider in detail the effects of cooling conditions and milling parameters on
the machinability of DIN-1.2738 steel. The process variables considered include cooling condition (dry, MQL,
N-MQL), cutting speed, and feed, each examined at three levels. The effects of the input parameters on cutting
temperature, cutting force, feed force, and surface roughness were investigated in detail using a full factorial
experimental design. Variance analysis and regression analysis were used to examine the effects of the input
parameters on the performance criteria. Finally, the optimum values of the input parameters were calculated
using multi-objective weighted optimization.

Material and Method

Workpiece material
DIN 1.2738 (DIN-1.2738+Ni) plastic injection mold steel was used in the experimental study. A major
percentage of the cost of mold manufacturing is machining and polishing operations [35]. Steel manufacturers
have developed two different steels, DIN-1.2738 +S and DIN-1.2738 +Ni, to reduce the total cost. DIN-1.2738
+S steel has better machinability, while DIN-1.2738 +Ni steel has superior polishability [2]. The chemical
composition of DIN 1.2738 was provided by the material supplier and is given in Table 1. The hardness of the
workpiece was determined as 26 HRC, as a result of five repeated hardness measurements using the BMS 203-
RSR model Rockwell hardness measuring device. The workpiece with a 13 x 103 x 172 mm dimension was
milled at a constant cutting depth.

Table 1: Chemical composition of DIN 1.2738 mold steel.

Elements C Si Mn Cr Mo Ni Fe
Wt. (%) 0.38 0.30 1.50 2.00 0.20 1.10 Rest

Experimental setup and cutting tool

The experiments were carried out on the First MCV-300 CNC milling machine. The machinability of the mold
steel was investigated under different cooling conditions using the MQL system. Milling experiments were
conducted in dry, MQL (using commercial pure vegetable cutting fluid), and N-MQL (using 1% wt.
nanographene added vegetable cutting fluid) environments. Figure 1 shows the experimental setup used to
perform the milling experiments. The experimental setup consists of end mills, a dynamometer for measuring

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cutting forces, a monitoring system for cutting temperature, an MQL system, and a device for measuring
surface roughness.

Figure 1: Experimental setup.

In all experiments, KARCAN 111 Series end mills were used. The new end mill was used in each experiment.
The feed (x-axis) and cutting (y-axis) forces were measured using a Kistler 9275BA dynamometer. The
workpiece was precisely fixed on the dynamometer using CNC clamps. The forces were visualized and
recorded in Newton units using the Dynoware software.
To demonstrate the effect of different cooling environments and cutting parameters on the surface integrity,
the average surface roughness (Ra) was measured. Measurements were performed using the Mitutoyo Surftest
SJ 210 digital roughness tester. A total of 15 surface roughness measurements were made, five each at the ends
and in the center of the milled groove. The average roughness of these 15 measurements is presented in the
results section. Measurements were made by ISO 4287:1997. The diamond-tipped probe moves at a speed of
0.5 mm/s, and the cut-off length (λc) is set to 0.8 mm for the measurements.
Friction between the end mill and the workpiece causes an increase in temperature during cutting. Temperature
monitoring is essential for tool wear and determining the optimum cooling environment. In this study, cutting
temperatures were measured using an Optris PI400 thermal camera. The maximum temperature at the cutting
zone was used during milling.

Nanofluid preparation
In this study, graphene nanoparticles (GNPs) were used as the N-MQL content. The moisture in the GNPs was
first removed during the nanofluid preparation. GNPs were dried at 120 °C for 120 minutes using a Thermal -
G11420SD model oven. The nanofluid (GNP-added) was prepared using dried nanoparticles. Nanoparticles
were weighed using a precision balance model Radwag PS 510.R1. A concentration of 1 wt.% of dried GNP
was added to the vegetable cutting fluid (Werte KT2000). The density of vegetable cutting fluid and
nanoparticles are 0.85 g/cm3 and 2 g/cm3 at 20°C, respectively. To homogenize the nanofluid in terms of GNPs
and to extend the sedimentation time, Sodium Dodecyl Sulfate (SDS) was added to the mixture as a surfactant
at 0.10 wt.% of GNPs. The prepared fluid was mixed using a Daihan WiseTis HG-15D digital homogenizer at
5000 revolutions per minute (rpm) for 1 hour and then transferred to the MQL system.

Input parameters, design of experiment, and performance criteria

This study's input parameters are cutting condition, cutting speed (m/min), and feed value (mm/rev). Each
parameter has three levels, and a full factorial (33=27) experimental design was used. In this way, the effects
of the parameters on the results could be thoroughly analyzed. The parameters and their levels are shown in
Table 2. The experimental design table is given in the 3rd section with the results. Depth of cut (1 mm), nozzle
angle (30°), nozzle distance (30 mm), and MQL flow rate (60 ml/h) were kept constant in the experiments.
The performance criteria of this study are cutting temperature, cutting and feed force, and average surface
roughness. These performance criteria were evaluated in different cooling environments and cutting
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conditions. Thus, valuable information has been obtained about the machinability of mold steels, which have
an important place in the industry.

Table 2: Input parameters and their levels.

Level/Parameter Cutting condition Cutting Speed (m/min) Feed (mm/rev)
1 Dry 80 0.04
2 MQL 110 0.06
3 1 wt.% Graphene N-MQL 140 0.08

Statistical analysis and mathematical modeling

In this study, statistical analyses were performed to determine cutting temperature, cutting and feed force, and
average surface roughness. First, variance analysis (ANOVA) was applied to the output parameters. In the
ANOVA table, the p-value, and the contribution of the parameters to the results were interpreted. Regression
analyses were then performed. Regression analysis created mathematical models for all performance criteria.
These models were used in the optimization stage.

Multi-objective optimization
In this study, the optimum machinability parameters were determined. The grey wolf algorithm introduced by
Mirjalili et al. [41] was used in the optimization process. Grey wolf optimization has been used in the literature
for both single- and multi-objective optimization problems for many engineering disciplines [42-47].

Results and discussions

Experimental results
The experimental results of machinability parameters such as cutting temperature, feed and cutting force, and
surface roughness are investigated using a full factorial experimental design. The effect of the input parameters
on the performance criteria is discussed in detail. Then, the ANOVA technique was used to determine the
contribution ratio of the parameters to the results and their significance values. Mathematical modeling using
regression analysis was performed with the obtained results. In addition, machinability optimization was
performed using multi-objective optimization with the Grey Wolf Algorithm.
A comparative graphical representation of the cutting temperature results is shown in Figure 2. Considering
the cooling conditions, the lowest cutting temperature was 226°, and the highest was 262.2° in dry conditions.
Using the MQL cooling system, this range decreased to a minimum of 164.8° and a maximum of 218.7°. The
highest cutting temperature in the MQL was even smaller than the lowest cutting temperature in dry condition.
In the 1% graphene-added N-MQL condition, the lowest and highest cutting temperatures were 158.9° and
199.6°, respectively. N-MQL decreased the cutting temperature by up to 30% compared to dry conditions.
However, some experiments showed significant differences in cutting temperature between N-MQL and MQL;
almost similar temperatures were observed in the others. This relationship between dry, N-MQL, and MQL
conditions for different material (TC4) was also reported by [45]. Besides the cooling condition, milling
parameters also affect the cutting temperature. As the cutting speed and feed increased, the cutting temperature
increased in all three cooling conditions. As the feed increases during cutting, severe plastic deformation of
the material and frictional heat is generated at the tool/chip interface. Due to this phenomenon, the cutting
temperature is expected to increase with increasing feed. The effects of all input parameters on the results and
their significance values are explained in section 3.2.

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Figure 2: Cutting temperature results.

The main cutting and feed force results are shown graphically in Figure 3. Changes in the cooling environment
and milling parameters affect the main cutting and feed forces. Plastic deformation and frictional heat increase
as cutting speed and feed value increase. Thus, the main cutting and feed force is expected to increase when
the cutting speed and feed value increase [11]. On the contrary, cutting forces are expected to decrease as the
cooling effect increases. In this study, the main cutting force for the three cooling conditions increased as the
feed value increased. At the same feed values, the main cutting force decreased with increasing cutting speed.
Depending on the cutting conditions, an inverse correlation between cutting speed and cutting force may occur
due to thermal softening caused by excessively increasing temperature [37]. It was thought that thermal
softening was the underlying cause of the inverse correlation between cutting speed and cutting force. A
significant increase in temperature occurred with increasing cutting speed for all cooling conditions. As the
cutting speed increased from 80 m/min to 140 m/min, the temperature increased by 5.1% in the dry condition,
17.1% in the MQL condition, and 11.4% in the N-MQL condition. This indicates that thermal softening may
occur with increasing cutting speed [37]. The lowest main cutting force was 103.1 N, 101.3 N, and 96.4 N
under dry, MQL, and N-MQL conditions, respectively. The highest main cutting force was 159.9 N, 144.7 N,
and 124.2 N, respectively. The average cutting forces in the dry and MQL conditions were close to each other.
However, the average cutting force decreased by approximately 9% in the N-MQL condition. The thermal
softening effect was not observed in the feed force. At the same feed value, the feed force increased as expected
as the cutting speed increased. The lowest feed force was 119.3 N, 114.8 N, and 87.9 N in dry, MQL, and N-
MQL conditions, respectively. The highest feed force was 177 N, 148.9 N, and 134 N, respectively. There was
an 17.9% decrease in the feed force with MQL compared to the dry condition. This improvement was 26.3%
in N-MQL condition compared to dry condition. Graphene nanoparticle-reinforced nanofluid N-MQL instead
of vegetable-based cutting oil MQL reduced the feed force by 10 %. This is because nanoparticles in the
cooling oil can enhance the development of a thin protective lubricating film and increase the heat transfer
coefficient. This study's results for cutting and feed forces align with the literature [46-48].

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Figure 3: Cutting and feed force results.

Figure 4 graphically shows the surface roughness results for different cooling conditions and cutting
parameters. The lowest surface roughness was obtained at 140 mm/min cutting speed and 0.4 mm/rev feed
value in the N-MQL condition. In contrast, the highest surface roughness was obtained at 80 m/min cutting
speed and 0.08 mm/rev feed value in dry condition. Thus, a 40.3% reduction was achieved by adding
nanoparticles into the vegetable-cutting fluid. Thanks to lubrication and cooling effects, MQL and N-MQL
milling conditions reduced the surface roughness values compared to dry milling, as reported in the literature
[39]. Similar to the literature, the surface roughness increased with increasing feed value for all cooling
conditions [24]. Only by decreasing the feed value, the surface roughness decreased by 16.2%, 19.7%, and
17.8% in dry, MQL, and N-MQL conditions, respectively. The lowest Ra values were 0.844 µm, 0.542 µm,
and 0.504 µm in dry, MQL, and N-MQL conditions, respectively. The highest Ra values were 1.056 µm, 0.920
µm, 0.722 µm, respectively. The lowest surface roughness occurred at the highest cutting speed and lowest
feed value in all three conditions.

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Figure 4: Surface roughness results.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

The ANOVA was performed to understand the effects of cooling conditions and cutting parameters on the
output parameters. The ANOVA tables discussed the parameters' p-value and contribution ratio on the results.
The F-value is calculated as the model's mean square divided by the error's mean square. A higher F-value
indicates a significant difference between the input parameters. The p-value is also known as the significance
measure. A small p-value (typically less than 0.05) indicates a statistically significant difference between the
means of the input parameters. It is important to remember that the p-value should not be used as the only
measure of proof in a scientific study. The contribution ratio measures the proportion of the total variation in
the response variable explained by a given independent variable. A high contribution ratio indicates that the
independent parameter strongly influences the outcome, whereas a low contribution ratio indicates a weak
influence.

The ANOVA table for the cutting temperature is given in Table 4. The highest F-value was found in the cooling
condition, and the lowest F-value was found in the feed value. The p-value of all input parameters in the table
is less than 0.05. This result shows that the input parameters significantly affect the cutting temperature. The
parameter with the highest contribution to cutting temperature was the cooling condition. The contribution
ratio of the cooling condition on the cutting temperature was calculated as 81.68%. The cutting speed and feed
value came in second and third, with contribution ratios of 9.54% and 6.00%, respectively. The error ratio in
the ANOVA analysis was calculated as 2.79%.

The ANOVA table for the main cutting force is given in Table 4. The p-value of all input parameters is less
than 0.05. This result shows that the input parameters significantly affect the cutting temperature. The most

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effective parameter was the feed value for the main cutting force. The feed value, which has the lowest effective
impact on cutting temperature, was found to be the most influential parameter for the main cutting force.
Cutting temperature is predominantly dependent on cooling conditions. However, cutting forces vary based on
the cooling and milling parameters. The contribution ratio of the feed value on the main cutting force was
calculated as 44.77%. The cooling condition and cutting speed came in second and third, with contribution
ratios of 23.58% and 23.11%, respectively. The error ratio in the ANOVA analysis was calculated as 8.54%. In
the ANOVA conducted in this study, the interaction of the parameters was not considered. Therefore, the error
rate is expected to be at these values. The error ratio will decrease when the parameters' interactions are
considered.

The ANOVA table for the feed force is given in Table 4. The p-value of all input parameters is less than 0.05.
When the variance analysis result of the feed force is examined, it has been determined that the contribution
ratios for cooling condition, feed value, and cutting speed are 41.76%, 28.46%, and 22.28%, respectively.

The ANOVA results for surface roughness are given in Table 4. The p-value of all input parameters is less than
0.05. The cooling condition, like the cutting temperature, is the most effective input parameter for surface
roughness. The cooling condition with a contribution ratio of 72.05% was the most effective parameter for
average surface roughness. The feed value and cutting speed came in second and third, with contribution ratios
of 12.56% and 11.06%, respectively.

Mathematical models of performance criteria and optimization by Grey

Wolf Algorithm
In this study, regression analysis was performed using the experimental results. A mathematical model of each
output parameter was created by regression analysis. [C1:1 C2:0], [C1:0 C2:1], and [C1:0 C2:0] dummy variables
were used for the cutting conditions of dry, MQL, and N-MQL, respectively. R-square values of the
mathematical equations were obtained. The R-square value is between 0-1. A higher R-square value means the
input variables predict the output variable more accurately. Regression models are shown in Eqs. (1) – (4). An
equally weighted (0.25) multi-objective mathematical model given Eq. (5) was derived using all models. The
optimum cutting and cooling conditions were determined using the Grey Wolf Algorithm.

Table 4: ANOVA table for cutting temperature, cutting force, feed force, and surface roughness.
Source SS DF F-value P-value Cont.% Remarks
Cooling Condition 22950.8 2 292.89 < 0.0001 81.68 Significant
Temperature

Cutting Speed (m/min) 2680.7 2 34.21 < 0.0001 9.54 Significant

Feed (mm/rev) 1685 2 21.50 < 0.0001 6.00 Significant
Cutting

Error 783.6 20 2.79

Total 28100.2 26 100.00
Source SS DF F-value P-value Cont.% Remarks
Cooling Condition 1382.0 2 27.07 < 0.0001 23.11 Significant
Cutting Force

Cutting Speed (m/min) 1410.2 2 27.62 < 0.0001 23.58 Significant

Feed (mm/rev) 2677.2 2 52.43 < 0.0001 44.77 Significant
Error 510.6 20 8.54
Total 28100.2 26 100.00
Source SS DF F-value P-value Cont.% Remarks
Force

Cooling Condition 3808.1 2 55.69 < 0.0001 41.76 Significant

Feed

Cutting Speed (m/min) 2031.3 2 29.71 < 0.0001 22.28 Significant

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Feed (mm/rev) 2594.8 2 37.95 < 0.0001 28.46 Significant

Error 683.8 20 7.5
Total 9118.1 26 100.00
Source SS DF F-value P-value Cont.% Remarks
Surface Roughness

Cooling Condition 0.456 2 166.60 < 0.0001 72.05 Significant

Cutting Speed (m/min) 0.070 2 25.57 < 0.0001 11.06 Significant
Feed (mm/rev) 0.079 2 29.05 < 0.0001 12.56 Significant
Error 0.027 20 4.32
Total 0.633 26 100.00
SS: Sum of squares, DF: Degree of freedom, F-value: Fisher test, P-value: Probability, Cont.%: Percentage contribution.

Cutting temperature (°C)= 171.4 + 74.24 ∗ 𝐶1 − 20.94 ∗ 𝐶2 + 692 ∗ 𝑓 − 0.923 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 − 1042 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑓 + 0.00548 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 ∗
𝑉𝑐 − 45.8 ∗ 𝐶1 ∗ 𝑓 − 0.0339 ∗ 𝐶1 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 − 145.8 ∗ 𝐶2 ∗ 𝑓 + 0.4006 ∗ 𝐶2 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 − 0.17 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 (1)

Cutting force (N) = 54.8 + 44.91 ∗ 𝐶1 − 19.12 ∗ 𝐶2 + 1228 ∗ 𝑓 − 0.234 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 − 3425 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑓 + 0.00076 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 −
190.3 ∗ 𝐶1 ∗ 𝑓 − 0.3530 ∗ 𝐶1 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 + 181.2 ∗ 𝐶2 ∗ 𝑓 − 0.1852 ∗ 𝐶2 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 − 3.02 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 (2)

Feed force (N) = 30.2 + 15.4 ∗ 𝐶1 + 36.7 ∗ 𝐶2 + 0.264 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 + 1096 ∗ 𝑓 − 0.00071 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 − 7431 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑓 + 0.18 ∗
𝐶1 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 − 104 ∗ 𝐶1 ∗ 𝑓 − 0.1567 ∗ 𝐶2 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 − 38 ∗ 𝐶2 ∗ 𝑓 + 3.97 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 ∗ 𝑓 (3)

Surface Roughness (µm) = 0.374 + 0.156 ∗ 𝐶1 + 0165 ∗ 𝐶2 + 0.00261 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 + 5.06 ∗ 𝑓 − 0.000017 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 − 15.3 ∗
𝑓 ∗ 𝑓 + 0.00066 ∗ 𝐶1 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 + 1.409 ∗ 𝐶1 ∗ 𝑓 − 0.001627 ∗ 𝐶2 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 + 1.995 ∗ 𝐶2 ∗ 𝑓 − 0.0094 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 ∗ 𝑓 (4)

Model for optimization = 0.25 ∗ 𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 0.25 ∗ 𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 0.25 ∗ 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 0.25 ∗
𝑆𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑅𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 (5)

The optimal cutting parameters obtained using the Grey Wolf Algorithm are the N-MQL cutting conditions,
with a cutting speed of 80 m/min and a feed value of 0.04 mm/rev, when evaluating cutting temperature cutting
force, feed force, and surface roughness together.

Conclusions
This study presents the milling performance of DIN 1.2738 plastic injection mold steel using three different
cutting speeds, three different feed values, and three different cutting conditions, including dry, vegetable-
based fluid MQL and nanographene-reinforced MQL (N-MQL). Next, a multi-objective weighted optimization
was conducted to minimize the cutting temperature, cutting force, feed force, and surface roughness using the
Grey Wolf Algorithm. The results obtained from the experimental study conducted can be summarized as
follows:
1) Compared to the dry cutting condition, using the N-MQL with 1 wt% nanographene cutting condition
reduced the cutting temperature, cutting force, feed force, and surface roughness by a maximum of
30.1%, 22.3%, 26.3%, and 40.2%, respectively.
2) The cutting condition demonstrates the highest effectiveness in influencing cutting temperature, feed
force, and surface roughness, with contribution ratios of 81.7%, 41.8%, and 72.1%, respectively.
Conversely, the feed value exhibits the highest effectiveness in influencing feed force with a
contribution ratio of 44.8%.
3) The best-performing cutting conditions for all machining responses are N-MQL, MQL, and dry,
respectively.
4) The presented study has shown that using N-MQL in the milling of DIN 1.2738 steel is significantly
more effective in terms of performance criteria than dry and vegetable-based cutting fluid-based MQL
methods.
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5) The optimal cutting parameters obtained using the Grey Wolf Algorithm are the N-MQL cutting
conditions, with a cutting speed of 80 m/min and a feed value of 0.04 mm/rev, when evaluating cutting
temperature cutting force, feed force, and surface roughness together.

Acknowledgment
The authors would like to express their gratitude to BLG Kimya Tekn. Inc. and Mr. Cemil Bilge for financially
supporting the project that yielded the outcomes presented in this paper.

References
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of energy aspects during dry and MQL turning of unreinforced polypropylene (PP): an approach based on
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[17] K. Fuat, Ö. Burak, 2018, “Comparison and optimization of PVD and CVD method on surface
roughness and flank wear in hard-machining of DIN 1 . 2738 mold steel,”, Sensor review, Volume 1, Pages
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[18] I. A. Daniyan, I. Tlhabadira, O. Daramola, and K. Mpofu, 2023, “ScienceDirect Design and
Optimization of Machining Parameters for Effective AISI P20 Removal Rate during Milling Operation,”
Procedia CIRP, Volume 84, Pages 861–867.
[19] A. Gupta, H. Singh, and A. Aggarwal, 2011, “Expert Systems with Applications Taguchi-fuzzy multi
output optimization (MOO) in high-speed CNC turning of AISI P-20 tool steel,” Expert Syst. Appl., Volume
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[20] A. Aggarwal, H. Singh, P. Kumar, and M. Singh, 2007, “Optimization of multiple quality
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[21] B. S. Reddy, J. S. Kumar, and K. V. K. Reddy, 2011, “Optimization of surface roughness in CNC end
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[24] A. Aggarwal, H. Singh, P. Kumar, and M. Singh, 2009, “Optimizing feed and radial forces in CNC
machining of P-20 tool steel through Taguchi’s parameter design approach,”, Indian J. of Engineering &
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[25] W. Sumbodo, Kriswanto, J. Jamari, 2021, “Simulation and Optimization of Machining Time During
Milling AISI P20 Steel Simulation and Optimization of Machining Time During Milling AISI P20 Steel”, IOP
Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science, Volume 700, Pages 1-8.
[26] V. V. Mukkoti, C. P. Mohanty, S. Gandla, P. Sarkar, S. R. P, and B. Dhanraj, 2020, “Optimization of
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of Mold Steel”, Acta Physica Polonica, Volume 134, Pages 24–27.
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in End Milling Of P20 Mould Steel Using Artificial Neural Networks”, J. of Engineering Science and
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AISI-1050 During Milling Machining”, Advanced Materials Research, Volume 932, Pages 333–337.
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[36] Tawakoli, T., Hadad, M.J., Sadeghi, M. H., Daneshi, A., Stöckert, S., Rasifard, A., 2009, “An
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optimization for milling of compacted graphite iron using hybrid nanofluid assisted minimum quantity
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condition in orthogonal turning and a sustainability assessment”, Sustain. Mater. Technol., Volume 36.
[40] E. Saatçi, Y. F. Yapan, M. U. Uysal, and A. Uysal, 2023, “Orthogonal turning of AISI 310S austenitic
stainless steel under hybrid nanofluid-assisted MQL and a sustainability optimization using NSGA-II and
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INCREASING THE ROUGH MACHINING EFFICIENCY OF DIN 1.2738

STEELS WITH ADJUSTED TROCHOIDAL MILLING TOOLPATH
Alperen Alsoya,b , Turgut Gülmeza

a, Istanbul Technical University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/TURKEY,

gulmez@itu.edu.tr
b, Aselsan A.S., Ankara/Turkey, aalsoy@aselsan.com

Abstract
Trochoidal milling is an innovative machining technique uses specialized tools, machining parameters and
toolpaths to effectively machine a part. Unlike conventional milling processes, which rely on linear toolpaths
and sharp corners, trochoidal milling uses curved trochoids for toolpath generation and aims to ensure that the
forces acting on the tool are constant during machining process. In addition, while standard milling operations
typically uses lower axial depths of cut and higher radial depths of cut, trochoidal milling adopts the reverse
approach. This study is an experimental work that aims to compare several commercial tools in terms of tool
edge geometry, tool coating and to determine machining parameters for DIN 1.2738 tool steel. Trochoidal
milling toolpath is adjusted for this study for a representative plastic injection mold roughing operation. As a
result of this study, adjusted toolpath of trochoidal milling process shows an 460% increase in tool life and
37% increase in material removal rate with compared to the conventional milling process.

Keywords: DIN 1.2738, Rough Machining, Trochoidal Milling

Introduction
This study was prepared within the scope of the Aselsan Akademi program, in partnership with Aselsan and
Istanbul Technical University, as part of the Materials and Manufacturing Master's Program of the Mechanical
Engineering Department. This study is based on a R&D study aimed at increasing efficiency conducted for the
needs of the Communication and Information Technologies Business Sector which works in the fields of
radios, land-sea-air-space communication devices, and cognitive technologies.
Machining processes are one the most frequently used methods in the industry for producing high precision
metal parts. Milling, one of the traditional machining processes, has become widely used in areas such as
aerospace, defense industry, and mold manufacturing with the expanding usage of CNC controlling units. The
most significant advantages of the milling method are the ability to produce with parts with high precision and
complex details, achieve high surface quality and maintain high repeatability with respect to other
manufacturing methods. [1] This study consists of a group of experiments related to productivity and the cost
of machining using modern machining methods.
Today, the need for higher quality and faster production has led companies and academics involved in
machining to focus on increasing the efficiency of the machining process. A significant portion of the
production time in machining processes is spent on roughing operations, where high amount of material is
removed from the raw material before finishing operations. Additionally, the tools used in machining usually
wear significantly during roughing operations due to the high amount of material being removed. The
efficiency of milling operations for roughing is directly related to the tool path, the geometry of the tool, the
material of the tool, and the coating of the tool.
In milling, a part is processed by directing the tool's cutting point to the coordinates where material will be
removed. Modern machining operations are typically performed using CNC machines, which use specific
codes of cutting coordinates for each part. CAM programmers are responsible for the selection of the toolpath
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strategies and many other parameters affecting the tools performance. Proper selection of toolpaths impacts
the forces on the tool, vibrations during machining, and the temperature rise, therefore directly affecting the
tool life and the quality of the finished part. Some of the important parameters of toolpath selection are; how
the tool enters and exits the material, radial depth of cut, axial depth of cut, spindle rotation speed and the
linear movement speed of the tool in the workpiece. By optimizing these parameters, the efficiency and quality
of the milling process can be significantly improved. [1] Figure 1 shows three different toolpath strategies used
in conventional rough machining.

Figure 1: Common Roughing Toolpath Examples

Another important factor for machining productivity is selecting right cutting tools. It is crucial in machining
processes as it significantly impacts the cost, completion time, surface quality, and tolerances of the finished
product. There are 3 important parameters related to tools used in milling operations. Tool geometry influences
the speed, cost, and quality of the operation. Milling tools can differ in terms of diameter, overall length, helix
angle, number of teeth and tool tip geometries. Tool materials significantly affect tool performance and are
chosen based on application. 3 main tool material groups include high-speed steels (HSS), ceramics and super-
hard materials and carbides. Tool coatings enhance tool performance by reducing friction, heat dissipation, and
wear. Common coating materials include diamond and diamond-like carbon (DLC), transition metal
compounds (nitrides, carbides, borides), and multi-layer coatings. Application methods like physical vapor
deposition (PVD) and chemical vapor deposition (CVD) influence the coating's effectiveness. [2]
Trochoidal milling is developed to enhance efficiency in machining difficult-to-process materials such as
titanium alloys, nickel alloys, and certain types of steel. It is primarily used in profile or pocket milling
operations where the intersection region between the tool and the workpiece and the contact angle are small.
Due to the low contact angle, the cutting forces on the tool are reduced compared to other methods, and the
non-cutting portion of the tool experiences better cooling, leading to longer tool life. Studies on various metal
alloys have shown that trochoidal milling reduces energy consumption, processing time, tool wear, and
improves surface quality and chip evacuation. [3]

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Figure 2: Trochoidal Milling for Pockets [3]

Trochoidal milling uses circular tool paths known as trochoids, unlike traditional methods that use linear tool
paths. Due to the structure of these paths, the local feed rate remains constant, providing more stable
acceleration for the tool and applying consistent cutting forces. This results in better kinematic performance,
allowing for much higher depths of cut compared to traditional methods. In trochoidal milling, depths of cut
up to twice the tool diameter can be achieved, making the process more efficient. [3] Trochoidal milling is
commonly used for titanium alloys, nickel alloys, and certain types of steel and there are many studies in
literature but the lack of studies in on its application for DIN 1.2738 tool steels and lack of knowledge of
overall cost are the main reasons behind this study. In this thesis, various experiments were planned on DIN
1.2738 type steels, frequently used in plastic injection molds and the basic principles of the trochoidal milling
method were adapted to roughing operations. As a result of the experiments, the application of the basic
principles of trochoidal milling to DIN 1.2738 steels will be compared with traditional methods for roughing
operations.

Materials and Methods

DIN 1.2738 blocks with dimensions of 250x250x100 mm were prepared for experiments, considering an
average-sized injection mold. To compare two different machining approach, tools in 12 mm diameters are
obtained from two different companies. First, four different tools were obtained from first company for the
experiments related to tool tip geometry: flat-edged, 0.8 mm chamfered edged, 0.8 mm round edged, and 1.5
mm round edged. For experiments related to tool coatings, two different tools with AlCrN and TiAlN coatings
were obtained from second company. Details related to machining paremeters and tools are shared in Table 1
and Table 2 respectively. Since trochoidal milling is usually used in slot milling applications in the literature,
there was a need to create a toolpath covering the basic features of trochoidal milling for roughing. Among the
roughing tool paths recommended by the developers of the CAM program Powermill, the vortex toolpath,
shown in Figure 3, was selected for this study. Main reason behind this decision is that it provides constant
engagement angle and feed rate along the toolpath. [4] As the tool starts to wear, the surface roughness value
of the workpiece is expected to increase. Therefore, surface roughness values are noted for each 200 cm³
volume machined. During the experiments it is found that 2 µm average surface roughness shows that tool is
near failure. Therefore, a criterion of 2 µm Ra was determined for tool life.

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Conventional Trochoidal

Axial Depth of Cut (mm) 2 20

Radial Depth of Cut (mm) 0.7xD (8.4 mm) 0.1xD (1.2 mm)

Spindle Speed (rpm) 2600 2000

Cutting Speed (mm/min) 98 75

Feed per Tooth (mm) 0.1 0.1

800 (4 toothed)
Feed Rate (mm/min) 1040
1000 (5 toothed)
72 (4 toothed)
Total Machining Time (min) 97
58 (5 toothed)

Table 1: Conventional vs. Trochoidal Machining Parameters for Roughing

Figure 3: Vortex Toolpath

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First Company Second Company

Diameter (mm) 12 12

Length of the Helix (mm) 26 36

Total Length (mm) 83 93

Number of Teeth 4 5

Helix Angle 38 constant 41-42 expanding

Coating AlCrN PVD TiAlN ve AlCrN PVD

Flat-edged, 0.8 chamfered, 0.8
Tool Tip Geometry 0.3 radiused
radiused ve 1.5 radiused

Table 2: Information on Tools

Experiment Results
Preliminary Experiment
To identify any issues that may arise during the experiments, it is planned to conduct a preliminary experiment
with another tool that has the same geometry as the tools to be tested. In this preliminary experiment, the sound
produced by the machine, the condition of the cutting fluid and the chips during the cutting process, the type
of workpiece clamping, the tool's capability in chip evacuation, and machining parameters obtained from the
literature were tested. Parameters obtained from the literature before the preliminary experiment have been
replaced with the values obtained after the preliminary experiment shown in Table 3.

Before Preliminary Experiment After Preliminary Experiment

Axial Depth of Cut (mm) 20 20

Radial Depth of Cut 0.15xD (1.8 mm) 0.1xD (1.2 mm)

Spindle Speed (rpm) 2600 2000

Feed per Tooth (mm) 0.1 0.1

1040 (4 toothed) 800 (4 toothed)
Feed Rate (mm/min)
1300 (5 toothed) 1000 (5 toothed)
56 (4 toothed) 72 (4 toothed)
Total Machining Time (min)
45 (5 toothed) 58 (5 toothed)

Table 3: Before and After Preliminary Experiments Parameters

As a result of the preliminary experiment, the tool suddenly failed after machining only 346 cm³ from part.
After the preliminary experiment, considering that the force exerted on the tool was high, it was decided to
reduce the radial depth of cut from 15% of the tool diameter to 10%. Additionally, due to the unusual high
noise and vibration in the machine, the spindle speed was reduced from 2800 rpm to 2000 rpm. The chip feed
rate was also reduced to 1000 mm/min to match the 0.1 mm per tooth feed value used in the conventional
method.

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Tool Tip Geometry Experiments

The experiments began with tools manufactured with four different radii. Initially, the flat-edged tool was
tested. After the preliminary experiment, a partially machined workpiece was reattached to the machine, and
the test was conducted with this piece. After machining the first piece, crater formation and damage were
observed on the cutting edges and the experiment has ended. Four roughness measurements were taken from
the piece, which had discharged 890 cm³ of chips. Since the roughness measurement after 800 cm³ reached a
value of 2 µm Ra, the experiments were terminated, and the tool life was accepted as 800 cm³.
The next experiment was conducted with the tool that had a 0.8 mm chamfer on the tool edge. An unmachined
second workpiece was mounted on the machine, and one complete block was successfully machined. Wear
was observed on the cutting regions of the tool after the experiment. Since the 2 µm Ra criterion was not
exceeded in the six different average roughness values taken from the first block, it was decided to continue
the experiment. The second block was mounted for the continuation of the experiments, and after discharging
741 cm³ of chips, the tool suddenly fractured. Since the roughness value exceeded the criterion after 1600 cm³
of chips were discharged by the tool, which discharged a total of 1977 cm³ of chips, the tool life was determined
to be 1600 cm³.
The third experiment was conducted with the tool that had a 0.8 mm radius. The half-machined block from the
previous tool was started for this experiment, and a total of 495 cm³ of chips were discharged. After completing
the first block, since the roughness value did not reach our criterion and no damage was observed on the tool,
the second block was mounted and a full block of 1236 cm³ was machined. After machining the second block,
crater formation was observed on the cutting edge of the tool. Since the roughness value exceeded the criterion
after 1600 cm³ of chips were discharged by the tool, which discharged a total of 1731 cm³ of chips, the tool
life was determined to be 1600 cm³.
The fourth and final tool tip radius experiment was conducted with the tool that had a 1.5 mm radius. After
machining one complete block, since the roughness value did not reach our criterion and no damage was
observed on the tool, the experiment continued with the second block. After machining the second complete
block, crater formation was observed on the cutting edge of the tool. Since the roughness value exceeded the
criterion after 2400 cm³ of chips were discharged by the tool, which discharged a total of 2472 cm³ of chips,
the tool life was determined to be 2400 cm³.

Tool Coating Experiments

The experiments continued with tools coated with two different coatings. First, experiments began with the
AlCrN-coated tool. Four blocks were machined, and since no damage was observed on the tool at the end of
each block and the roughness criterion was not met, the experiments continued with the fifth block. The fifth
block was mounted, and after discharging 189 cm³ of chips, the tool suddenly fractured. Since the roughness
value exceeded the criterion after 5000 cm³ of chips were discharged by the tool, which discharged a total of
5132 cm³ of chips, the tool life was determined to be 5000 cm³.
The next experiments were conducted with the TiAlN-coated tool. The block left half-machined by the
previous tool was started for this experiment, and a total of 1047 cm³ of chips were discharged. Then, three
blocks were machined, and since no damage was observed on the tool at the end of each block and the
roughness criterion was not met, the experiments continued with the fourth block. The fourth block was
mounted, and after discharging 985 cm³ of chips, the tool suddenly fractured. Since the roughness value
exceeded the criterion after 5600 cm³ of chips were discharged by the tool, which discharged a total of 5740
cm³ of chips, the tool life was determined to be 5600 cm³.

Discussion
During preliminary tests of machining parameters from tool manufacturers and literature, the tool performed
well below expectations and therefore several milling parameters were revised. Preliminary experiments

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indicated that the machining parameters recommended in the literature and by tool manufacturers are not
always the most efficient and may vary depending on the conditions. It was found that a 15% lateral feed rate
is not advisable for DIN 1.2738 steel in trochoidal milling, as it could reduce the expected tool life. During the
experiments it is found that 2 µm average surface roughness shows that tool is near failure. Therefore, we can
conclude that 2 µm Ra is an important indicator of tool life for roughing operations.
Using updated parameters, it was calculated that operational costs are decreased by 10% for the first company
and 37% for the second company with compared to conventional methods. It was determined that the
trochoidal roughing process with a flat-tipped tool was 20% disadvantageous in terms of tool life compared to
traditional methods. For both 0.8 mm radiused and chamfered tools, tool life improved by 60%, and for 1.5
mm radius tools, it improved by 140%. Tool life improved by 400% with AlCrN coated tool and by 460% with
TiAlN coated tool.
Tool geometry tests revealed that flat-end tools have a shorter lifespan than radiused tools, increasing costs if
used for roughing operations. No significant difference was observed between chamfered and radiused tool
geometries. For 12 mm diameter tools, those with a 1.5 mm radius significantly increased tool life compared
to those with a 0.8 mm radius.
Although there are studies in the literature showing that both AlCrN and TiAlN coatings have advantages over
each other in terms of hardness, the experiments concluded that TiAlN coating was more efficient under the
same conditions with trochoidal milling principles. [5] [6] While hardness is one of the most important factors
regarding the lifespan of tools in machining applications, there are many parameters affecting tool life, so
repeating the experiments is recommended in future. Considering both the initial purchase costs and the
performance during the experiments, the AlCrN coated tool was concluded to be the best tool in terms of total
cost of the roughing operation.
Figure 4 shows surface roughness values obtained periodic measurement during experiments. Although it was
observed from the experiments that as the amount of material removed by the tools increased, a worse surface
roughness value was obtained on the workpiece, there are no linear or curvilinear relationship was found
between the total material removed and the surface roughness. This is interpreted as the deterioration of the
surface being caused by micro-fractures at the tool's tip. In addition, surface roughness increases due to the
rise in the tool's temperature during the operation, and when transitioning to a new workpiece, the surface
roughness may improve despite the increase in the total removed material, as the tool cools down.

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Figure 4: Surface Roughness vs. Total Machined Volume

Conclusion
Within the scope of this study, experiments were conducted to machine DIN 1.2738 steels, which are frequently
used in the production of plastic injection molds, more efficiently and cost-effectively using machining
processes. The principles of trochoidal milling, known in the literature as an innovative milling method, were
adapted to the vortex tool path for roughing, and the effects of tools with different characteristics on machining
were observed.
As a result of preliminary experiments, it was concluded that the machining parameters obtained from the
literature and recommended by tool manufacturers are not always the most efficient values and may vary
according to conditions. In machining operations like trochoidal milling, where the depth of cut is higher than
in conventional methods, it is not recommended to use a 15% side feed value for DIN 1.2738 steels. Otherwise,
it is predicted that the expected tool life will decrease.
In experiments related to tool tip geometry, it was found that the lifetimes of flat-end tools are shorter than
those of radius tools, and using them in roughing operations would decrease productivity. No significant
difference was observed between chamfered and radius structures in tool tip geometries. It was found that 1.5
mm radius tools significantly increased tool life compared to 0.8 mm radius tools in 12 mm diameter tools. In
the experiments related to coatings, it was determined that TiAlN coating performed better than AlCrN coating.
Given the differing views in the literature regarding which of these two coatings is superior in terms of
hardness, and since the difference observed in the experiments was not high, it is considered beneficial to
repeat the experiments specifically for the coatings.
All experiments show that 2 µm Ra is an important indicator of tool life for roughing operations and it can be
used as the failure criterion. As a result, 37% improvement on operational cost and 460% in tool life was
observed for best tool compared to conventional methods by applying the principles of trochoidal milling to
the roughing operations of DIN 1.2738 steels.

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References
[1] Groover, M. P. (2010). Fundamentals of modern manufacturing: materials, processes, and systems. John Wiley &
Sons.
[2] Hosseini, A., & Kishawy, H. A. (2014). Cutting tool materials and tool wear. In Machining of titanium alloys (pp. 31-
56). Berlin, Heidelberg: Springer Berlin Heidelberg.
[3] Liu, D., Zhang, Y., Luo, M., & Zhang, D. (2019). Investigation of tool wear and chip morphology in dry trochoidal
milling of titanium alloy Ti–6Al–4V. Materials, 12(12), 1937.
[4] Autodesk, 29.05.2024, “Autodesk Powermill 2023 Vortex”,
https://help.autodesk.com/view/PWRM/2023/ENU/?guid=GUID-FD08A473-9992-4E0D-A283-A4946A2BA0BB
[5] Fox-Rabinovich, G. S., Beake, B. D., Endrino, J. L., Veldhuis, S. C., Parkinson, R., Shuster, L. S., & Migranov, M.
S. (2006). Effect of mechanical properties measured at room and elevated temperatures on the wear resistance of cutting
tools with TiAlN and AlCrN coatings. Surface and coatings technology, 200(20-21), 5738-5742.
[6] Sampath Kumar, T., Balasivanandha Prabu, S., Manivasagam, G., & Padmanabhan, K. A. (2014). Comparison of
TiAlN, AlCrN, and AlCrN/TiAlN coatings for cutting-tool applications. International Journal of Minerals, Metallurgy,
and Materials, 21, 796-805.

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THE INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF ULTRASONIC FACTOR TO

SURFACE TOPOGRAPHY IN GRINDING OPERATION OF WC-CO WITH
DIFFERENT CUTTING VARIANTS
Tayfur Yavuzbaruta , Emre Sandalb, , Kemal Bartu Aydınc

a, Nedu Bağlantı Elemanları A.Ş, R&D Center, IAOSB, Cigli, Izmir 35620, Turkey,
tayfur.yavuzbarut@normtooling.com
b, Nedu Bağlantı Elemanları A.Ş, R&D Center, IAOSB, Cigli, Izmir 35620, Turkey, emre.sandal@normtooling.com
c, Izmir Katip Çelebi University, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Cigli, Izmir 35620, Turkey,
kemal.aydin@normtooling.com

Abstract
Tungsten carbide is a composite material consisting of a hard material and a comparatively soft binder metal,
like cobalt (Co). It is very difficult to process, due to its extreme wear resistance and high hardness. Hence,
many non-conventional production methods have been found out such as electrical discharge machining and
ultrasonic assisted grinding operation to achive this. The article is focused on processing tungsten carbide
cobalt (WC-Co) material with ultrasonic assisted grinding (UAG) operation. In this study, tungsten carbide
cobalt (WC-Co, Co%25 and grain size < 5µm) material was grinded with Ultrasonic 20 (DMG Mori) machine.
To see the effects of ultrasonic factor on the parts’ surface which processed with different direction and
ultrasonic mode on / off, was aimed. Only ultrasonic mode of the process parameters was altered as “ultrasonic
on” or “ultrasonic off” and the effects of the other process parameters was eliminated. After processing, the
changes of the specimen surfaces were investigated via taking surface roughness values and SEM images. As
a result, the surface properties of specimens that were processed with ultrasonic and non-ultrasonic were
compared each other.

Keywords: Ultrasonic assisted grinding, tungsten carbide, surface topography, surface roughness.

Introduction
Grinding is a critical machining operation used to achieve precise forms and tolerances in parts through a high-
speed rotating abrasive end-mill [1]. This process plays a vital role in manufacturing by providing the ability
to achieve desired surface quality, particularly for hard and brittle materials. The effectiveness of the grinding
operation is directly linked to the surface finish of the machined part, making it essential for finishing
operations. Traditional grinding methods, while effective, come with certain limitations, including low material
removal rates, extended processing times, and high wear rates of cutting tools. These drawbacks have spurred
interest in developing more efficient techniques.

One promising approach is the integration of ultrasonic vibrations into the conventional grinding process,
known as ultrasonic-assisted grinding (UAG). The concept of ultrasonic-assisted grinding emerged from
research conducted in 1961, where it was discovered that introducing vibrations could enhance the grinding
process. The fundamental principle behind UAG is that the ultrasonic vibrations, when applied during the
grinding process, can reduce processing time and improve efficiency. These vibrations help to break up the
abrasive particles and enhance material removal, leading to a more effective grinding operation.

Early studies on ultrasonic-assisted grinding demonstrated several advantages over conventional grinding
methods. Key benefits included increased material removal rates (MRR), reduced processing temperatures,
and a significant decrease in cutting forces. For instance, Feucht et al. found that ultrasonic oscillation reduce
the cutting force by up to 30% compared to traditional grinding methods [2]. This reduction in force not only

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improves the efficiency of the process but also extends the life of the grinding tools. Additionally, the
introduction of ultrasonic vibrations helps to minimize surface burns and improve the overall surface finish of
the workpiece [3].

Ultrasonic-assisted grinding (UAG) can be categorized into two main groups based on the interaction between
the ultrasonic waves and the workpiece or tool. These groups are: (1) processes where the ultrasonic waves are
applied directly to the workpiece or tool, and (2) processes involving an abrasive slurry between the tool and
workpiece without direct contact. In the latter scenario, the abrasive slurry facilitates material removal through
both ultrasonic oscillation and rotary movement. This combination of movements results in a more effective
grinding process, particularly for hard and brittle materials.

The literature reveals a range of studies that have explored the impact of ultrasonic processing on traditional
grinding techniques. Research has focused on comparing stationary ultrasonic machining with rotational
ultrasonic machining, examining how these methods affect surface quality and material removal. For example,
R. Wdowik et al. compared the surface roughness of ZrO2 specimens processed using conventional grinding
and UAG [5]. While differences in surface morphology were observed, the roughness values were not
significantly affected, suggesting that other factors, such as the grain size of the grinding tool, might influence
these results.

In another study, H. Gong et al. investigated the effects of ultrasonic processing on surface milling, particularly
with optical K9 glass [6]. The study found that ultrasonic mode reduced tool wear during lateral processing
and improved overall process performance, especially at lower feed rates and increased processing depths.
This suggests that ultrasonic assistance can enhance the efficiency of machining hard and brittle materials.

Further research by Kuruc et al. focused on polycrystalline cubic boron nitride, aiming to achieve minimal
surface roughness while maintaining high precision in machining [7]. The study utilized rotary ultrasonic
machining (RUM) but did not compare the results with non-ultrasonic processing of the same material.
Similarly, Kataria et al. conducted experiments with ultrasonic machining on tungsten carbide-cobalt (WC-
Co) materials, evaluating tool wear and material removal rates [8]. The study revealed that increasing cobalt
content in WC-Co materials led to a decrease in MRR, attributed to the linear relationship between cobalt ratio
and fracture toughness.

On the other hand, tungsten carbide-cobalt (WC-Co) is a materials that exhibit a good hardness and toughness
correlation. WC-Co is used in various applications, such as dies, molds, and tools, where wear resistance is
important. However, its high hardness and brittleness restrict the machining capability to produce WC-Co in
the desired form. Hence, conventional machining processes are unable to machine components made of WC-
Co effectively. In this sense, more advanced methods (e.g. electrical discharge machining, EDM) are preferred
to machine WC-Co components in desired form with high dimensional accuracy. Nevertheless, EDM is a
process necessitating more time that is a drawback for a mass production lines. Therefore, ultrasonic-assisted
machining is a promising technology that need to deep understanding for a broad range of applications.

Despite the advancements in ultrasonic processing, there remain gaps in the literature, particularly regarding
the detailed study of RUM and UAG processes on WC-Co materials and other types of raw materials. This
study aims to address these gaps by investigating the effects of tool rotation and ultrasonic assistance on the
surface quality of WC-Co material, including samples processed with and without ultrasonic assistance. The
study will compare these samples in terms of surface topography to assess the potential benefits of
incorporating ultrasonic vibrations into the grinding process.

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Materials and Methods

The work was carried out on a work piece made of tungsten carbide cobalt (WC-Co, Co 25% and grain size
<5µm). The grinding operation was performed on the ULTRASONIC 20 linear (DMG MORI Sauer) device
and the spindle used on the device is the MFW-1224/42 VC HSK-E32 (Fischer Spindle Group A.G) model
Fig. 1.

Figure 1: DMG MORI Sauer ULTRASONIC 20 linear.

Since the grinding operation is performed using the same CAM, the tool path, feed-rate, and spindle speed are
kept constant for each cutting variant. The ultrasonic mode was exclusively activated and deactivated during
the operation. All procedures were conducted using a tool that was newly unsealed. The tool path and its angle
was shown in Fig 2.

A B C

Figure 2: Illustration of the tool path (cutting variant) and its angle in experiment as schematically.

Operation A is the drilling operation and the tool is positioned perpendicular to the work piece. The parameters
used during the drilling operation are 400mm/min feed-rate and 6000 RPM. In operation B, the process was
carried out at 12000 RPM and 45° tool angle with a 600mm/min feed-rate. In the C operation, machining was
performed on the lateral surface with 6000 RPM and 600 mm/min feed-rate.
Operation A B C
Ultrasonic Mode Off / On Off / On Off / On
Spindle speed (rpm) 6000 / 6000 12000 / 12000 6000 / 6000
Feed rate mm/dk 400 /400 600 / 600 600 / 600
Machine model Linear ultrasonic 20 DMG MORI
Gripper ER11 collet ultrasonic
Coolant Boron oil
Grinding tool Effgen d126 ball

Table 1: The parameters of the operation.

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A Ø6 sphere d126 (Effgen) tool was used in all operations. The code 126 in the tool means the abrasive grain
size in the tool. M12 code has been added and removed from the NC code to turn the ultrasonic mode on and
off on the device. After processing the parts, surface images were taken with the ZEISS Smartzoom 5 device.
Surface roughness measurements were made using MarSurf LD 130 device and BFW A 10-45-2 13440 probe.
SEM images of differently processed surfaces were added to the study.

Result of Experiments
The surfaces of the work piece obtained from the study were visualized with the help of an optical microscope.
Microscope images taken from vertical drilling (A operation), 45-degree machining (B operation) and lateral
surface machining (C operation) are shown in Fig 3, Fig 4, and Fig 5, respectively.

a b

Figure 3: The images were formed as a result of operation A (Vertical drilling). Processed with
a)NonUltrasonic machining, b) Ultrasonic machining. Images were taken at x452 zoom.

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a b

c d

Figure 4: The images are formed as a result of B operation (45° surface machining) and processed with a)Non-
Ultrasonic machining x202 zoom, b)Ultrasonic machining x202 zoom c)Non-Ultrasonic machining x610
zoom, d)Ultrasonic machining x610 zoom

a b

Figure 5: Images were created as a result of C operation (Vertical milling). Processed with A) Non-Ultrasonic
machining, B) Ultrasonic machining. Images were taken at x1210 zoom.

The surfaces of the work pieces using SEM (Scanning Electron Microscope). Figure 6, Figure 7, and Figure 8
display SEM images of the ultrasonic and non-ultrasonic machining of vertical drilling, 45-degree machining,
and vertical milling surfaces, respectively.

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a b

Figure 6: The images were formed as a result of operation A (Vertical drilling). Processed with a) Non-
Ultrasonic machining, b) Ultrasonic machining. Images were taken at 1Kx zoom.

a b

Figure 7: The images are formed as a result of B operation (45° surface machining) and processed with a) Non-
Ultrasonic machining, b) Ultrasonic machining. Images were taken at 1Kx zoom.

a b

Figure 8: Images were created as a result of C operation (Vertical milling). Processed with A) Non-Ultrasonic
machining, B) Ultrasonic machining. Images were taken at 1Kx zoom.

Surface roughness measurements directions shown in figure 9.

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Figure 9: Surface roughness Measurement Directions.

The surface roughness values obtained from the sample surfaces are given in Table 1.
A Operation Surface B Operation Surface C Operation Surface
Roughness (µm) Roughness (µm) Roughness (µm)
Non-Ultrasonic Ultrasonic Non-Ultrasonic Ultrasonic Non-Ultrasonic Ultrasonic
Ra 0,16 0,32 0,86 0,33 0,39 0,29
Rz 1,19 2,06 3,90 2,15 2,14 1,75
Rmax 1,66 2,63 4,16 2,65 2,82 2,09

Table 2: Surface Roughness Values.

Ra Comparison (µm)
1 0,86

0,5 0,32 0,33 0,39

0,29
0,16

0
A Op. B Op. C Op.

Ultrasonic Assisted Non-ultrasonic

Rz Comparison (µm)
6
3,9
4
2,06 2,15 1,75 2,14
2 1,19

0
A Op. B Op. C Op.

Ultrasonic Assisted Non-ultrasonic

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Rmax Comparison (µm)

6
4,16
4 2,63 2,65 2,82
1,66 2,09
2

0
A Op. B Op. C Op.

Ultrasonic Assisted Non-ultrasonic

Figure 10: Surface roughness values according to operation results.

When the values are examined, ultrasonic-assisted machining yielded better results in terms of surface
roughness compared to other operation types, except for operation A. The impact of ultrasonic treatment is
most prominent in operation B.

Results and Discussion

Based on the results obtained from the trials, it was concluded that the tool angle and path play a crucial role.
Furthermore, it has been observed that in order to achieve improvement in surface roughness values, there
should be a difference in the direction of tool feed and ultrasonic oscillation. In operations such as drilling
holes (Operation A), where ultrasonic oscillation and tool feed occur in the same direction, the surface
roughness values have reached higher values than normal. Mechanistically, it is considered logical for the
ultrasonic effect to be observed in the direction of chip removal to avoid additional surface damage. In the
SEM images shown in Figure 6 indicate that tool marks observed in a normal machining process appear wavy,
which is thought to contribute to increased surface roughness due to the ultrasonic effect. In the B process,
where the most significant effect is observed, the inclined position of the abrasive tool during ultrasonic
oscillation is believed to exert both perpendicular and horizontal influences on the surface, resulting in the
maximum effect. The results suggest that the tool angle and machining direction directly impact surface
roughness values. In the C process, the occurrence of pseudo-circular patterns is hypothesized to result from
oscillations in the Z-axis while the tool traverses along the X-axis, leading to the generation of overlapping
circular paths, as visualized in Fig. 11. Considering the material removal mechanism, the direction of ultrasonic
oscillation also plays a significant role in surface roughness values.

a b

Figure 11: a) Tool path with ultrasonic oscillation in operation C and b) the corresponding surface SEM image.

According to the studies conducted, ultrasonically assisted drilling operations do not yield satisfactory results
in terms of surface quality, whereas surface scanning operations show promising outcomes. Therefore, it can
be inferred that achieving better surface quality is possible when the tool path and the direction of the ultrasonic

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effect are perpendicular to each other. Conversely, when the ultrasonic effect aligns with the tool path, the
surface roughness values increase by a factor of two.

Conclusion
In the literature, the processes of RUM (Rotary Ultrasonic Machining) or UAG (Ultrasonic Assisted Grinding)
have not been extensively studied in processing of WC-Co material. Furthermore, there is a need for further
research in the literature, specifically focusing on different types of raw materials and optimization of
processing parameters. Although there may not be significant variations, the range of studies conducted in this
area can serve as a useful reference for those interested in utilizing this technology.

The obtained results from this study are as follows:

When the tool direction and ultrasonic oscillation are in the same direction, surface roughness values increase.
(Operation A)

When the tool is positioned at a 45-degree angle to the work piece, it exhibits both vertical and horizontal
ultrasonic effects, resulting in the best surface roughness values in this operation. (Operation B)

When the tool is positioned perpendicular to the work piece and horizontal machining is performed, the
ultrasonic effect is observed and contributes to the improvement of surface roughness values. (Operation C).

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References
[1] O. Adiyaman and F. Sönmez, “Yeni Tip Taşlama Yönteminde Taşlama Parametrelerinin Deneysel
Tasarım Yöntemi İle Yüzey Pürüzlülüğü Üzerine Etkisinin İncelenmesi,” 2020.

[2] F. Feucht, J. Ketelaer, A. Wolff, M. Mori, and M. Fujishima, “Latest Machining Technologies of Hard-
to-cut Materials by Ultrasonic Machine Tool,” Procedia CIRP, vol. 14, pp. 148–152, 2014, doi:
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2014.03.040.

[3] Robert E. Greenlee William H. Bickley, “Ultrasonic - Assisted Grinding...(A Possible New Method
for Machining Space Age Materials),” 1961. Accessed: Feb. 13, 2023. [Online]. Available:
https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA397561.pdf

[4] S. Kumar, S. Das, B. Doloi, and B. Bhattacharyya, “Rotary Ultrasonic Machining–New Strategy of
Cutting and Finishing,” in Advances in Abrasive Based Machining and Finishing Processes, S. Das,
G. Kibria, B. Doloi, and B. Bhattacharyya, Eds., Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2020, pp.
53–70. doi: 10.1007/978-3-030-43312-3_3.

[5] R. Wdowik, J. Porzycki, and M. Magdziak, “Measurements of Surface Texture Parameters after
Ultrasonic Assisted and Conventional Grinding of ZrO2 Based Ceramic Material Characterized by
Different States of Sintering,” in Procedia CIRP, Elsevier B.V., 2017, pp. 293–298. doi:
10.1016/j.procir.2016.06.049.

[6] H. Gong, F. Z. Fang, and X. T. Hu, “Kinematic view of tool life in rotary ultrasonic side milling of
hard and brittle materials,” Int J Mach Tools Manuf, vol. 50, no. 3, pp. 303–307, Mar. 2010, doi:
10.1016/j.ijmachtools.2009.12.006.

[7] M. Kuruc, M. Kusý, V. Šimna, and J. Peterka, “Influence of machining parameters on surface
topography of cubic boron nitride at rotary ultrasonic machining,” in Key Engineering Materials, Trans
Tech Publications Ltd, 2016, pp. 180–185. doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.686.180.

[8] R. Kataria, R. P. Singh, and J. Kumar, “An experimental study on ultrasonic machining of Tungsten
carbidecobalt composite materials,” AIMS Mater Sci, vol. 3, no. 4, pp. 1391–1409, 2016, doi:
10.3934/matersci.2016.4.1391.

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PH 13-8 MO PASLANMAZ ÇELİĞİN SÜRDÜRÜLEBİLİR EKOLOJİK

SOĞUTMA/YAĞLAMA KOŞULLARI ALTINDA İŞLENEBİLİRLİK
PERFORMANSININ DEĞERLENDİRİLMESİ
Şenol Şirina, Çağrı Vakkas Yıldırımb, Emine Şirinc, Turgay Kıvakd ve Murat Sarıkayae
a, Düzce Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fak., Mekatronik Müh., Düzce/TÜRKİYE, senolsirin@duzce.edu.tr
b, Erciyes Üniversitesi, Havacılık ve Uzay Bilimleri Fak., Uçak Gövde ve Motor Bakımı, Kayseri/TÜRKİYE,
cvyildirim@erciyes.edu.tr
c, Düzce Üniversitesi, Gümüşova MYO, Makine ve Metal Tek., Düzce/TÜRKİYE, eminesirin@duzce.edu.tr
d, Düzce Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fak., Makine Müh., Düzce/TÜRKİYE, turgaykivak@duzce.edu.tr
e, Sinop Üniversitesi, Mimarlık ve Mühendislik Fak., Makine Müh., Sinop/TÜRKİYE, msariakaya@sinop.edu.tr

Özet
PH 13-8, yüksek mekanik dayanım istenen bileşenlerde, uçak iniş takımlarında, petrokimya sektöründe ve
nükleer santral mil komponentlerinde sıklıkla tercih edilen üstün özellikli Mo esaslı paslanmaz çeliktir. Bu
çalışmada, PH 13-8 Mo esaslı paslanmaz çeliğin sürdürülebilir işleme koşullarında şekillendirilmesi
amaçlanmıştır. Dahası PH 13-8 Mo çeliği sürdürülebilir kuru, minimum miktarda yağlama (MMY), Vorteks,
Vorteks+MMY, grafen nano plakalar (GnP) ve Vorteks+GnP koşullarında tornalanmıştır. Sürdürülebilir
koşulların tornalama performansına etkisinin tespitinde performans değerlendirmesi olarak; kesme
bölgesindeki sıcaklık, kesici takım ömrü ve aşınması ile işlenen yüzeylerin yüzey pürüzlülük ortalaması (Ra)
tercih edilmiştir. Vorteks+GnP koşulu kuru koşula göre kesme sıcaklığını, takım aşınmasını ve Ra değerini
sırasıyla %39.2, %26.67 ve %24.43 oranlarında azalttığı tespit edilmiştir. Deneysel yürütülen çalışmada elde
edilen sonuçlara göre hibrid Vorteks+GnP koşulu diğer koşullara göre daha iyi performans sergilemiştir.
Anahtar kelimeler: PH 13-8, GnP, sürdürülebilir imalat.

EVALUATION OF THE MACHINABILITY PERFORMANCE OF PH 13-8

MO STAINLESS STEEL UNDER SUSTAINABLE ECOLOGICAL
COOLING/LUBRICATION CONDITIONS
Abstract
PH 13-8 is a superior Mo-based stainless steel that is frequently preferred in components requiring high
mechanical strength, aircraft landing gear, petrochemical industry, and nuclear power plant shaft components.
This study aimed to shape PH 13-8 Mo based stainless steel under sustainable processing conditions.
Moreover, PH 13-8 Mo steel was turned under sustainable dry, minimum quantity lubrication (MQL), Vortex,
Vortex+MQL, graphene nano platelets (GnP), and Vortex+GnP conditions. In order to determine the effect of
sustainable conditions on turning performance, the temperature in the cutting zone, cutting tool life and wear,
and the average surface roughness (Ra) of the machined surfaces were preferred as performance evaluations.
The vortex+GnP condition reduced the cutting temperature, tool wear, and Ra value by 39.2%, 26.67%, and
24.43%, respectively, compared to the dry condition. According to the results obtained in the experimental
study, the hybrid Vortex+GnP condition performed better than the other conditions.
Keywords: PH 13-8, GnP, sustainable manufacturing.

1 Giriş
Çökelme sertleşmeli paslanmaz çelikler 1900’lü yılların erken dönemlerinden itibaren kullanılmaya
başlanmıştır ve sahip oldukları üstün niteliklerden dolayı oldukça yaygın hale gelmişlerdir. Yüksek derecede
mukavemet, mükemmel mekanik özellikler, yüksek korozyon direnci, iyi derecede tokluk, süneklik ve yüksek
yüzey çatlama direncine sahip olmaları nedeniyle havacılık, otomotiv, kalıp, inşaat ve petrokimya gibi çeşitli
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sektörlerde yoğun olarak tercih edilmektedirler [1]. Bu malzemeler, ağırlıkça %13-17 Cr ve %4-8 Ni ile Mo,
Ti ve Al gibi diğer elementleri içeren düşük karbonlu çeliklerdir [2]. Östenitik bölgede çözündürüldükten sonra
400-600 °C aralığında yaşlandırma sırasında nano ölçekli intermetalik çökeltilerin oluşması yoluyla
güçlendirilebilirler [3]. Çökelme sertleştirilmeli paslanmaz çeliklerden birisi olan PH 13-8 Mo paslanmaz
çeliği, oda ve yüksek sıcaklıklarda mükemmel derecede mukavemet, korozyon direnci ve tokluk sergileyen
martenzitik bir alaşımdır. PH 17-4 ve 15-5 paslanmaz çelikleri ile kıyaslandığında üstün süneklik ve kırılma
tokluğuna sahiptir [3]. Tüm bu iyi özelliklerine karşın PH 13-8 başta olmak üzere çökelme sertleşmeli
paslanmaz çelikler, zayıf ısıl iletkenlik, olağanüstü mekanik özellikler, süneklik ve kesme esnasındaki
sertleşme eğiliminden dolayı işlenmesi zor malzemeler arasında gösterilmektedir [4]. Shao ve ark. [5] %3Co–
%12Cr ısıya dayanıklı paslanmaz çelikleri işlemişler ve sonuç olarak bu malzemelerin işlenmesinde kötü
yüzey kalitesi ve kısa takım ömrünün yaygın olduğunu rapor etmişlerdir. Kesilmesi zor malzemelerin işlenmesi
esnasında en çok başvurulan yardımcı ise kesme sıvısı kullanımıdır.
Talaş kaldırma esnasında talaş-kesici takım ve iş parçası arasındaki sürtünen yüzeylerde sıcaklık oluşumu
bilinen bir durumdur. Ortaya çıkan bu sıcaklık kesici takımın ömrünü önemli ölçüde kısaltırken yüzey kalitesi
ve boyutsal hassasiyetler üzerinde önemli olumsuzlukların oluşmasına neden olur. Bu anlamda işleme verimini
düşürmemek ve kesici takımın ömrünü uzatmak için kesici takım malzemesinin iyileştirilmesi başta olmak
üzere çeşitli alternatifler üretilmiştir ancak bu alternatifler maliyetleri oldukça artırabilmektedir [6]. Paslanmaz
çelikler gibi kesilmesi zor malzemelerin işlenmesi esnasında bu durum daha da belirgin hale gelmektedir. Bu
durumda alternatif olarak ortaya çıkan bir başka çözüm ise kesme sıvısı kullanımıdır. Kesme sıvıları yağlama
özelliği sayesinde takım-talaş-iş parçası yüzeyine girerek sürtünmeyi azaltabilir ve böylece kesme sıcaklığını
azaltabilir. Dahası, termal iletkenlik özelliği ile kesme bölgesinde ortaya çıkan ısıyı hızlı bir şekilde
uzaklaştırabilir. Böylece, işleme verimliliğini önemli ölçüde artırabilir [7]. Bununla beraber, günümüzde yoğun
olarak tercih edilen kesme sıvıları çoğunlukla petrol bazlıdır ve çevre, çalışan sağlığı ve üretim maliyetleri
konusunda bazı dezavantajlara sahiptir. İşleme verimliliğini düşürmeden bu dezavantajları ortadan kaldırmak
oldukça önemlidir. Son dönemde hem araştırmacılar hem de üreticiler bu alternatifleri geliştirmek için yoğun
emek harcamaktadırlar. Bu emeklerin neticesi olarak öne çıkan alternatiflerin temelinde kullanılan kesme sıvısı
miktarının azaltılması hedefi yatmaktadır. Bu hedefle elde edilen alternatif soğutma/yağlama yöntemleri
günümüzde çevreci veya sürdürülebilir soğutma yöntemleri olarak tanımlanmaktadır [8]. Sürdürülebilir
soğutma/yağlama stratejileri için literatür henüz tam anlamıyla netleşmediği için tek bir tanım veya belirli
stratejiler sayılamasa da kullanılan kesme sıvısı miktarlarının tamamen ortadan kaldırıldığı ya da miktarının
önemli ölçüde azaldığı stratejiler bu tanıma dahil olabilmektedir. Bu tanım için en uygun strateji kuru işleme
olsa da işleme verimliliğini önemli ölçüde azaltması nedeniyle bu stratejiler arasında değerlendirilmemektedir.
Sürdürülebilir soğutma/yağlama stratejilerini genel hatlarıyla sıralamak gerekirse minimum miktarda yağlama
(MMY) işlemi, nanoakışkanlar, kriyojenik gaz ve/veya sıvı ile soğutma, vorteks tüpü kullanımı ve bu
stratejilerin beraber kullanıldığı hibrit sistemler sayılabilir. Bu stratejilerin veya bunlara benzer stratejilerin
beraber kullanıldığı ve/veya karşılaştırıldığı çalışmalar literatürde gün geçtikçe daha fazla yer almaktadır.
Hegab ve ark. [8] bahsedilen soğutma/yağlama stratejileri için kapsamlı bir araştırma yapmış ve stratejilerin
işleme üzerindeki etkisini enerji tüketimi, işçi sağlığı ve iş güvenliği, üretim maliyetlerine etkisi ve çevresel
etkileri açısından tartışmışlardır. Araştırmacılar çalışmanın sonunda her bir stratejinin bu kriterler üzerinde
farklı seviyede etkiye sahip olduğunu, ancak etkilerin değişen seviyelerde dahi olsa çoğunlukla olumlu
olduğunu rapor etmişleridir. Yurtkuran ve Günay [9] PH 13-8 Mo paslanmaz çeliğinin çevreci soğutma şartları
altında frezelenmesinde kesme kuvvetini (Fr) ve yüzey pürüzlülüğünü (Ra) optimize etmek ve modellemek
için bir dizi deney yapmışlardır. Kesme şartı olarak kuru, MMY ve kriyojenik soğutmayı kullanmışlardır.
Deney sonuçlarına göre MMY sistemi en iyi sonucu verirken en kötü sonuçlar kuru işleme altında elde
edilmiştir. Öndin ve ark. [10] çok duvarlı karbon nanotüpler (MWCNT'ler) ile güçlendirilmiş kesme sıvısının
PH 13-8 Mo paslanmaz çeliğin işlenebilirlik özelliklerine etkisinin araştırılması için bir dizi deney
yapmışlardır. Çalışma esnasında kuru, MMY ve nanoakışkanın etkinliğini araştıran araştırmacılar bazı kesme
parametrelerini de deney tasarımına ekleyerek farklı kesme koşullarını test etmek istemişlerdir. Deney
sonuçlarına göre en iyi sonuçlar nanoakışkan ile elde edilirken en kötü sonuçlar kuru işleme altında meydana
gelmiştir. Khanna ve ark. [11] sürdürülebilir soğutma şartlarını test etmek için PH 15−5 paslanmaz çeliğini
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işlemişlerdir. Deneyler esnasında kuru, ıslak, MMY ve kriyojenik soğutma şartlarını karşılaştıran
araştırmacılar çıktı parametresi olarak enerji tüketimi, kesme kuvveti, yüzey pürüzlülüğü ve talaş tipini dikkate
almışlardır. Deney sonuçlarına göre özellikle yüksek kesme hızlarında kriyojenik soğutma daha etkin bir
iyileştirme sağlamıştır. Yine bir başka çalışmada Khanna ve ark. [12] PH 15-5 paslanmaz çeliğini tornalarken
birçok soğutma/yağlama alternatifini karşılaştırmış ve sürdürülebilirlik analizi yaparak soğutma/yağlama
şartlarının sürdürülebilirlik üzerindeki etkisini kapsamlı bir araştırmaya tabi tutmuştur. Sisteme dahil edilen
soğutma/yağlama şartları kuru, ıslak, MMY, elektrostatik MMY, batırılmış hibrit nanoakışkan destekli MMY,
elektrostatik yağlama, LCO2 ve LN2 şeklinde sıralanmıştır. Yapılan işlenebilirlik ve sürdürülebilirlik
analizlerine göre batırılmış hibrit nanoakışkan destekli MMY çevresel açıdan en iyi sonucu vermiştir.
Literatür araştırmasında da görüldüğü üzere sürdürülebilir soğutma/yağlama şartları için oldukça fazla
alternatif olduğu ancak bunların yeterli seviyede karşılaştırılmasının yapılmadığı görülmüştür. Özellikle
kesilmesi zor malzemelerle yapılacak karşılaştırmalar bu alternatif yöntemlerin ağır işleme koşullarındaki
davranışını göstereceğinden oldukça önemlidir. Bu çalışmada PH 13-8 Mo çeliği işlenirken kuru, MMY,
Vorteks, MMY+Vorteks, GnP katkılı nanoakışkan ve GnP katkılı nanoakışkan+Vorteksin kesme sıcaklığı,
kesici yanak aşınması ve yüzey pürüzlülüğü üzerinde etkisinin görülmesi için bir dizi deney yapılmıştır.
Böylece, farklı sürdürülebilir soğutma/yağlama şartlarının kapsamlı bir kıyaslamasının yapılması
amaçlanmıştır. Kıyaslamanın sadece soğutma/yağlama şartları seviyesinde yapılması için işlenebilirlik
üzerinde etkisi olan kesme hızı, ilerleme ve kesme derinliği sabit tutulmuştur. Yine MMY ve Vorteks
parametreleri sabit tutularak parametre farklılıklarının etkisinin ortadan kaldırılması amaçlanmıştır. Çalışmaya
dair hazırlık süreci, materyal ve metot, bulguların değerlendirilmesi ve sonuçlar aşağıda bölümler halinde
verilmiştir.

2 Materyal ve Metod
2.1 İş Parçası, Takım Tezgahı, Kesici Takım ve Deney Parametreleri
İş parçası olarak havacılık endüstrisinde yaygın bir kullanımı olan PH 13-8 Mo esaslı malzeme tercih
edilmiştir. PH 13-8 Mo paslanmaz çeliği diğer paslanmaz çeliklere nazaran hem pahalı hem de işlenebilirliği
zor olarak bilinirler. Bu yüzden normal paslanmaz çeliklerin özelliğinin yetmediği spesifik önemli
komponentlerde kullanılmaktadırlar. Bu çalışmada ticari halde PH 13-8 Mo çeliği kullanılmış olup, Ø35 × 200
mm ölçülerinde temin edilmiştir. PH 13-8 Mo paslanmaz çeliği kimyasal kompozisyonu ve mekanik özellikleri
sırasıyla Tablo 1 ve Tablo 2’de verilmiştir.

Malzeme Cr Ni Mo Al Si C Mn P
PH 13-8
0.10 0.05 0.10 0.01
EN 1.4534 12.75 8.00 2.25 1.15
maks maks maks maks
AMS 5629
Tablo 1: PH 13-8 Mo paslanmaz çeliği kimyasal % kompozisyonu.

Uzama (%) Çekme (MPa) Akma (MPa) Sertlik (HRC)

10 1410 min 1310 min 43
Tablo 2: PH 13-8 Mo paslanmaz çeliği mekanik özellikleri.

Tornalama deneyleri, azami 4500 dev/dak devri olan Accuway JT 150 CNC torna işleme merkezinde
gerçekleştirilmiştir. İş parçası CNC torna merkezinde punta, ayna arasına rijit ve salgısız bir şekilde
bağlanmıştır. TBurst PCLNR 2020 M12-TB torna kateri CNC tornaya uygun mesafede rijit bir biçimde
sabitlenmiştir. Kesici takım olarak paslanmaz çelik için özel üretilen, PVD TiAlN+TiN kaplamalı CNMG
120408 TF IC 807, ISO M05-M20 kalite uçlar kullanılmıştır. Uçlar tornalama deneyleri öncesinde özel olarak
kodlanmış ve her bir deney için yeni bir torna kesme kenarı kullanılmıştır.

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2.2 MMY Sistemi, Nanopartikül ve Nanoakışkan Hazırlama Prosesi

MMY yağlama sistemi olarak SKF Vario tercih edilmiştir. Vario yağlama sistemi kompresörden gelen havayı,
yağ haznesinde bulunan akışkanla birlikte pülverize ederek üç farklı kanalla çıkış verebilmektedir. MMY
sisteminde kullanılan kurulum değerleri Tablo 3’te verilmiştir.
Giriş Hava Nozul Çapı Kesme Bölgesine Debi MMY Uygulama Şekli
Basıncı Nozul Mesafesi
Dıştan kesici takım
8 bar 2 mm 20 mm 60 mL/saat
ön yüzeyine
Tablo 3: MMY kurulum ayarları.

MMY sisteminde sentetik, yarısentetik, mineral ve bitkisel esaslı yağlar kullanılabilmektedir. Ancak literatür
çalışmaları incelendiğinde bitkisel esaslı yağların performansı diğer yağlara göre daha üstün çıkmıştır [13],
[14]. Bu noktadan hareketle MMY sisteminde bitkisel esaslı yağ tercih edilmiştir. Opet Fuchs PlantoCut SR
10 bitkisel esaslı yağ MMY sisteminde ve nanoakışkan hazırlamada kullanılmıştır. Bu yağ ester esaslı,
biyolojik olarak parçalanabilen, ağır metal ve klor içermeyen MMY özel yağıdır. Bitkisel yağın kinematik
viskozitesi 10 mm²/s olup, parlama noktası 206 °C ve yoğunluğu 0.86 g/mL’dir. Nanoakışkanlar bir akışkan
(su, etilen glikol, yağ vb.) içerisine eklenerek hazırlanabilmektedir. Tek adım veya iki adım yöntemi
kullanılarak nanoakışkanlar hazırlanabilmektedir. Zaman ve maliyetten tasarruf için bu çalışmada iki adım
yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Nanopartikül olarak ticari halde katı GnP nanopartiküller olarak Nanografi,
Türkiye’den temin edilmiştir. GnP nanopartikülleri 1 L yağ içerisine hacimce %0.7 oranında eklenerek
hazırlanmıştır. Üç farklı karıştırma prosesi (mekanik karıştırıcı 120 dak, ultrasonik karıştırıcı 30 dak ve
manyetik karıştırıcıda 60 dak) sonunda nanoakışkan karışım elde edilmiştir. Hazırlanan nanoakışkanlar
bekletilmeden taze bir şekilde MMY sistemine eklenerek deneysel çalışmalar gerçekleştirilmiştir.

2.3 Deneysel Ölçüm Metodolojisi ve Kurulum

Vorteks, basınçlı havanın çok yüksek hızda dönmesini sağlayarak bir üretece doğru gönderilir. Sıcak havanın
dışarı atılırken soğuk hava diğer uçtan bir boru yardımıyla uygulama bölgesine gönderilir. Bu çalışmada
soğutma sistematiğinin iyileştirilmesi adına Ranque-Hilsch tipi Tecus vorteksi kullanılmıştır. Vorteks çıkışında
elde edilen soğuk hava, 3 mm çapında nozulla kesme bölgesine iletilmiştir. Tüm deneysel çalışmada 20 mm
mesafede sabit konumlandırılmıştır. Tornalama deneylerinde kullanılan parametreler ön deneyler sonuçları ve
kesici takım üretici tavsiyesi dikkate alınarak belirlenmiştir. Tüm deneylerde kesme hızı 300 m/dak, ilerleme
0.3 mm/dev ve kesme derinliği 1.2 mm sabit alınmıştır. Kesme sıcaklığının değerlendirilmesinde kızılötesi
termal görüntüleme yapan -20~900 °C ölçüm kapasiteli Optris PI 450 kamera kullanılmıştır. Termal kamera
emisivite değeri üretici kataloğunda faydalanılarak Ɛ 0.55 ve kesme bölgesine olan mesafe 300 mm olarak
ayarlanmıştır. Kesici takım yanak aşınma değeri, Dino Lite AM7915MZT dijital mikroskop kullanılarak
ölçülmüştür. Yüzey pürüzlülük Ra ölçümlerinde ise Mahr Marsurf PS10 taşınır bir test cihazı kullanılmıştır.
Deney seti ve kurulumu Şekil 1’de verilmiştir.

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Şekil 1: Deneysel kurulum.

3 Bulgular ve Tartışma

3.1 Kesme Sıcaklığının Değerlendirilmesi

PH 13-8 Mo paslanmaz çeliğinin tornalanmasında, kesme bölgesinden termal kızılötesi kamera yardımıyla
tespit edilen azami sıcaklık değerlerini gösteren grafik, Şekil 2’de sunulmuştur. Grafik incelendiğinde en
yüksek kesme sıcaklığının (301 °C) hiçbir soğutma/yağlama ajanının olmadığı kuru koşullar altında elde
edildiği anlaşılmaktadır. En düşük kesme sıcaklığı (183 °C) değeri ise GnP+Vorteks hibrid koşulunda elde
edilmiştir. Hibrid koşulda, GnP nanoakışkanının yağlama ve Vorteks koşulun soğutma kombinasyon uyumu
sayesinde düşük kesme sıcaklığı değeri elde edildiği ifade edilebilir. Zira literatürde yapılan çalışmalarda
hibrid soğutma/yağlama koşullarının kesme bölgesindeki kesme sıcaklığını düşürmede etkili olduğu
belirtilmiştir [15], [16]. Kuru koşuldan sonra en yüksek kesme sıcaklığı değeri ise 269 °C ile MMY koşulunda
elde edilmiştir. MMY sistemindeki sis bulutu şeklindeki pülverize yağ, kesici takım-talaş-iş parçası ara
yüzeylerine nüfuz ederek tribolojik yağ film tabakası oluşturmaktadır [17], [18]. Bu sayede sürtünmenin
minimize olduğu ve bunun sonucunda kesme sıcaklığının ise nispeten düştüğü ifade edilebilir. MMY koşuluna
Vorteks koşulu dahil edilmesiyle kesme sıcaklığı değeri 214 °C olarak ölçülmüştür. Yani MMY koşuluna göre
hibrid MMY+Vorteks koşulu kesme sıcaklığı değerini %20.45 oranında azaltmıştır. Bu azalmada en büyük
etkinin Vorteks soğutmadan kaynaklandığı düşünülmektedir. GnP nanoakışkan koşulunda kesme sıcaklığı
değeri 229 °C olarak kaydedilmiştir. Nanoakışkan içerisindeki nanopartiküller, kesici takım-talaş-iş parçası ara
yüzeylerinde yuvarlanma, tamir, parlatma, yastıklama, tabakalar arası kayma gibi mekanizmaları
bulunmaktadır [19], [20]. Bu mekanizmalar sayesinde kesme bölgesindeki sürtünmenin azaldığı
düşünülmektedir. Dahası katı haldeki nanoakışkanların yağlayıcılık ve yüksek termal iletim katsayıları vardır
[21], [22]. Kesme bölgesindeki sıcaklık tahliyesi, yüksek oranda talaşlar ile sağlanmaktadır. Talaşların
tahliyesinde nanoakışkanlar, sıcaklığın dağıtılmasında yardımcı etmen olarak görev yaptığı vurgusu yapılabilir.
Vorteks koşulunda kesme sıcaklığı 193 °C ölçülmüş ve en düşük ikinci sıcaklık değeri olarak kayıtlara
geçmiştir. Bir başka deyişle Vorteks koşulu, kuru koşula göre %35.88 oranında azalma göstermiştir. Kesme
sıcaklığı genel olarak değerlendirildiğinde en iyi performansı, Vorteks ile GnP koşullarının hibrid
kombinasyonunda elde edildiği anlaşmaktadır. Daha açıkça ifade etmek gerekirse, GnP+Vorteks koşulu, kuru,

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MMY, GnP, MMY+Vorteks, Vorteks koşullarına göre kesme sıcaklığını sırasıyla %39.20, %31.97, %20.09,
%14.49 ve %5.18 oranında azaltmıştır.

Şekil 2. Farklı soğutma/yağlama koşullarında kesme bölgesindeki sıcaklık değerleri.

3.2 Kesici Takım Ömrünün Değerlendirilmesi

Farklı soğutma/yağlama koşulları altında 18,000 mm3 talaş hacmi sonunda elde edilen kesici takım yanak
aşınma eğilim grafiği ve aşınan takım görüntüleri Şekil 3’te verilmiştir. Eğilim grafiği incelendiğinde En
yüksek yanak aşınma değeri herhangi bir koşulun olmadığı kuru koşulda (0.255 mm) elde edildiği
görülmektedir. En düşük yanak aşınma değerinin ise kuru koşula göre %26.67 oranında azalma gösteren
GnP+Vorteks koşulunda (0.187 mm) elde edildiği anlaşılmaktadır. Kuru koşulda kesme sıcaklığı (Şekil 2) ve
yüzey pürüzlülük (Şekil 4) değerlerine ait grafiklerde benzer sonuçlar sergilemektedir. Kuru koşuldaki yüksek
kesme sıcaklığı, ilerleyen çevrim sürelerinde aşınma mekanizmalarının oluşmasına yardımcı olduğu
düşünülmektedir. Salur ve ark. kuru koşulda en yüksek kesme sıcaklığı değerlerine ulaştıklarını belirtmiş ve
yüksek kesme sıcaklığının da aşınma mekanizmalarını tetiklediğini ifade etmişlerdir [23]. Benzer şekilde bu
çalışmada da elde edilen sonuçlar bu durumu da doğrular nitelikte olmuştur. Kuru koşula göre MMY, Vorteks,
MMY+Vorteks, GnP koşulları sırasıyla yanak aşınma değerlerini %3.53, %10.20, %13.33 ve %22.35
oranlarında azaltmıştır. MMY koşulunda pülverize olan yağ, kesme bölgesinde tribofilm bariyer tabakasının
oluşmasına yardımcı olmaktadır [24]. Bu sayede kesici takım aşınma değerinin kuru koşula göre nispeten
azaldığı düşünülmektedir. GnP+Vorteks koşulundan sonra Vorteks koşulunda kesme sıcaklığının en düşük
değeri kaydedilmiştir. Yukarıda da bahsedildiği üzere bu düşüş sayesinde Vorteks koşulunda, takım
aşınmasının görece daha düşük elde edildiği yorumu yapılabilir. MMY+Vorteks koşulunda hem soğutma hem
de yağlamanın sistematik kullanımı ile takım ömrünün artış gösterdiği ifade edilebilir. Nanopartiküllerin tamir
ve yastıklama etkisi sayesinde kesici takımın anlık hasara uğraması nispeten önlenebilmektedir [25]. Bu sayede
GnP koşulunda tamir ve yastıklama etki sayesinde takım ömründe kuru, MMY, Vorteks ve MMY+Vorteks
koşullarına göre sırasıyla %22.35, %19.51, %13.54 ve %10.41oranında azalma gösterdiği düşünülmektedir.
Hibrid GnP+Vorteks koşulu soğutma/yağlama kombinasyonu ve sinerjik etkisi sayesinde en düşük takım
aşınması görüldüğü ifade edilebilir. Zira literatür çalışmalarına hibrid soğutma/yağlama koşullarının takım
ömrünü arttırmada son derece etkili oldukları ifade edilmektedir [26], [27].

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Şekil 3: Farklı soğutma/yağlama koşullarında kesici takım yanak aşınması (18,000 mm3 talaş hacmi sonunda).

3.3 Yüzey Pürüzlülüğünün Değerlendirilmesi

Yüzey pürüzlülüğü işlenmiş parçaların işlevselliği üzerinde önemli bir etkiye sahiptir. Aşınma direnci, yorulma
mukavemeti, yağlama, sürtünme ve optik özellikler dahil olmak üzere birçok kritik özellik yüzey pürüzlülüğü
ile doğrudan ilişkilidir [28]. Buna karşın işleme parametrelerinin yüzey pürüzlülüğü üzerindeki etkisinin
bilinmesi ve optimum yüzey pürüzlülüğünü veren parametre grubunun bilinmesi gerekmektedir. Bu çalışmada
çeşitli soğutma/yağlama şartlarının yüzey pürüzlülüğü üzerindeki etkisini incelemek için bir dizi deney
yapılmıştır. Çalışmanın ana amacı soğutma şartlarının etkisini görmek olduğundan kesme hızı, ilerleme ve
kesme derinliği gibi kesme parametreleri sabit tutulmuştur. Ayrıca, soğutma şartlarının yüzey pürüzlülüğünü
iyileştirme oranlarının kıyaslanabilmesi için kuru işleme de deney tasarımına dahil edilmiştir. Şekil 4’te
soğutma/yağlama şartlarına bağlı olarak ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğündeki değişim verilmiştir. Şekil 4
incelendiğinde 2.706 μm ile en yüksek Ra değerinin kuru işleme altında elde edildiği görülmektedir. Soğutma
şartlarının devreye girmesiyle Ra değerinin çeşitli seviyelerde iyileşme gösterdiği Şekil 4’te görülen bir başka
durumdur. Bu durum oransal olarak ele alındığında kuru işlemeye göre MMY %1.59 oranında iyileşme
sağlarken Vorteks %3.07, MMY+Vorteks %3.77, GnP %4.99 ve GnP+Vorteks %9.46 oranında iyileşme
sağlamıştır. İyileşme oranlarından da görüleceği gibi MMY sisteminin kullanılması ile Ra değerinde az da olsa
bir iyileşme sağlanmıştır. İyileşme yağlamanın sisteme dahil olması ve daha rahat bir kesme ortamı
oluşturmasıyla ilişkilendirilirken iyileşme oranının düşük seviyede kalması ağır işleme koşullarının varlığı ile
ilişkilendirilmiştir. Bir başka deyişle, MMY sisteminde kullanılan az miktardaki yağ yüksek sıcaklık ortamında
işlevini tam yerine getirmeden buharlaşmaktadır. Bu nedenle kesilmesi zor malzemelerin işlenmesi esnasında
verimi düşmektedir [29]. Vorteks tüpünün kullanılmasıyla birlikte iyileşme devam etmiş ve MMY sistemine
göre daha iyi bir yüzey kalitesi elde edilmiştir. Bu durum Vorteks tüpünün soğutucu özelliği ile
ilişkilendirilmiştir. Buna göre ağır işleme koşulunda ortaya çıkan yüksek kesme sıcaklığı soğutma sonucu daha
kontrol edilebilir hale gelmiş ve daha rahat bir kesme ortamını açığa çıkarmıştır. Ancak MMY ve Vorteks
tüpünün beraber kullanılmasıyla birlikte her iki sisteme göre daha iyi bir yüzey pürüzlülük değeri elde
edilmiştir. Bunun sebebinin hem yağlama hem de soğutma işlevinin beraber yapılması olduğu
düşünülmektedir. Yağlama ve soğutmanın beraber yapılmasıyla kesme sıcaklığı oluşumu bir nebze azaltılmış
ve soğutma ile beraber oluşan sıcaklığın düşürülmesi sağlanmıştır. Böylece kesici takım daha etkin bir kesme
yapmış ve daha iyi bir yüzey kalitesi elde edilmesini sağlamıştır. GnP katkılı nanoakışkanı kullanılmasıyla
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birlikte yüzey kalitesindeki iyileşme devam etmiştir. Nano katkı maddeleri takım-talaş-kesici arayüzüne
girerek bilye etkisi göstermekte ve sürtünmeyi engellemektedir. Sürtünmenin engellenmesi veya azaltılması
da ısı oluşumunu azaltmaktadır. Ayrıca, baz sıvının içerisine katılan nano boyutlu GnP sıvının tribolojik ve
iletkenlik özelliklerini artırmaktadır [30]. Böylece kesme bölgesindeki sıcaklık çok daha hızlı tahliye
edilmiştir. Ancak, tüm deney sisteminde en iyi Ra değeri GnP katkılı nanoakışkan ve Vorteks tüpünün beraber
kullanılmasıyla elde edilmiştir. MMY+Vorteks kullanımında da vurgulandığı gibi yağlayıcı ve soğutucu
sistemlerin beraber kullanılmasıyla hem etkin bir yağlama hem de etkin bir soğutma işlemi ortaya çıkmaktadır.
Böylece yüzey kalitesinin artması sağlanmaktadır.

Şekil 4: Tornalanan yüzeylerden elde edilen Ra pürüzlülük değerleri.

4 Sonuçlar
Bu çalışmada PH 13-8 Mo esaslı paslanmaz çeliği, kuru, MMY, Vorteks, MMY+Vorteks, GnP ve GnP+Vorteks
soğutma/yağlama koşulları altında tornalanmıştır. Deneysel yürütülen çalışmada performans kriteri olarak,
kesme sıcaklığı, kesici takım ömrü ve yüzey pürüzlülük dikkate alınmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlar aşağıda
maddeler halinde verilmiştir.

• GnP+Vorteks koşulu kesme sıcaklığında 183 °C ile en etkili performansı göstermiştir. Bunu sırasıyla
Vorteks (193 °C), MMY+Vorteks (214 °C), GnP (229 °C), MMY (269 °C) ve kuru (301 °C) koşullar
takip etmiştir.
• Kesici takım ömür sonuçlarında, kuru koşulda en yüksek GnP+Vorteks koşulda en düşük yanak aşınma
değerleri elde edilmiştir. Büyükten küçüğe doğru yanak aşınma değerleri sıralanacak olursa, kuru
(0,255 mm), MMY (0,246 mm), Vorteks (0,229 mm), MMY+Vorteks (0,221 mm), GnP (0,198 mm)
ve GnP+Vorteks (0,187 mm) sıralaması elde edilmiştir.
• Yüzey pürüzlülüğünde en iyi performansı GnP+Vorteks koşulu, en kötü performansı ise kuru koşulu
göstermiştir. Yüzey pürüzlülük değerleri sıralandığında: kuru (2.706 µm) > MMY (2.663 µm) >
Vorteks (2.623 µm) > MMY+Vorteks (2.604 µm) > GnP (2.571 µm) > GnP+Vorteks (2.450 µm)
sonucu elde edilmiştir.

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5 Referanslar
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[12] Khanna, N., Shah, P., Sarikaya, M. ve Pusavec, F. 2022 “Energy consumption and ecological analysis
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[13] Yıldırım, Ç. V. “Waspaloy Süper Alaşımının Farklı Soğutma Teknikleri Kullanarak Frezeleme
Yöntemi ile İşlenebilirliğinin İncelenmesi”, Doktora Tezi, Düzce Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, 2017.
[14] Yıldırım, Ç. V., Kıvak, T. ve Erzincanlı, F. 2019 “Influence of Different Cooling Methods on Tool Life,
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Sci Eng, cilt 44, sayı 9, s. 7979-7995.
[15] Yıldırım, Ç. V., Şirin, Ş., Dağlı, S., Salvi, H. ve Khanna, N. 2023 “Analysis of machinability and
sustainability aspects while machining Hastelloy C4 under sustainable cutting conditions”, Sustainable
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[16] Şirin, E. 2023 “Evaluation of tribological performance of MQL technique combined with LN₂, CO₂,
N₂ ecological cooling/lubrication techniques when turning of Hastelloy C22 superalloy”, Tribol Int, cilt 188,
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[17] Danish, M., Gupta, M. K. ve Garcia-Collado, A. 2023 “Use of sustainable cooling/lubrication
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Mech Eng Sci, cilt 238, sayı 8, s. 3442-3453.
[18] Şirin, Ş. 2022 “Performance evaluation of MQL, hBN and N2 lubrication/cooling conditions when
turning of AISI 904L super duplex stainless steel”, International Journal of Innovative Engineering
Applications, cilt 6, sayı 1, s. 103-110.
[19] Şirin, Ş. 2023 “Sustainable Materials and Manufacturing Technologies”, 1. bs, N. Khanna, K. K.
Gajrani, K. Giasin, ve J. P. Davim, Ed., CRC Press, s. 125-151.
[20] Şirin, Ş. 2022 “Investigation of the performance of cermet tools in the turning of Haynes 25 superalloy
under gaseous N2 and hybrid nanofluid cutting environments”, J Manuf Process, cilt 76, s. 428-443.

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[21] Akincioğlu, S. ve Şirin, Ş. 2021 “Evaluation of the tribological performance of the green hBN
nanofluid on the friction characteristics of AISI 316L stainless steel”, Industrial Lubrication and Tribology, cilt
73, sayı 9, s. 1176-1186.
[22] Şirin, Ş. ve Kıvak, T., 2019 “Performances of different eco-friendly nanofluid lubricants in the milling
of Inconel X-750 superalloy”, Tribol Int, cilt 137, s. 180-192.
[23] Salur, E., Kuntoğlu, M., Aslan, A. ve Pimenov, D. Y. 2021 “The Effects of MQL and Dry Environments
on Tool Wear, Cutting Temperature, and Power Consumption during End Milling of AISI 1040 Steel”, Metals
2021, cilt 11, s 1674.
[24] Yıldırım, Ç. V., Şirin, Ş., Kıvak, T. ve Sarıkaya, M. 2023 “The effect of nanofluids reinforced with
different surfactants on the machining and friction-wear properties of Waspaloy”, Tribol Int, cilt 181, s.
108316.
[25] Şirin, E. 2023 “Evaluation of tribological performance of MQL technique combined with LN₂, CO₂,
N₂ ecological cooling/lubrication techniques when turning of Hastelloy C22 superalloy”, Tribol Int, cilt 188,
s. 108786.
[26] Gupta, M. K., Song, Q., Liu, Z., Sarikaya, M., Jamil, M., Mia, M., ... ve Li, Z. 2020 “Ecological,
economical and technological perspectives based sustainability assessment in hybrid-cooling assisted
machining of Ti-6Al-4 V alloy”, Sustainable Materials and Technologies, cilt 26, s. e00218.
[27] Pereira, O., Català, P., Rodríguez, A., Ostra, T., Vivancos, J., Rivero, A., & López-de-Lacalle, L. N.
2015 “The Use of Hybrid CO2+MQL in Machining Operations”, Procedia Eng, cilt 132, s. 492-499.
[28] He, C. L., Zong, W. J., ve Zhang, J. J. 2018 “Influencing factors and theoretical modeling methods of
surface roughness in turning process: State-of-the-art”, Int J Mach Tools Manuf, cilt 129, s. 15-26.
[29] Sharma, A. ve Kumar, R. 2021 “Potential use of minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) in machining
of biocompatible materials using environment friendly cutting fluids: An overview”, Mater Today Proc, cilt
45, s. 5315-5319.
[30] Amin, A. R., Ali, A. ve Ali, H. M. 2022 “Application of Nanofluids for Machining Processes: A
Comprehensive Review”, Nanomaterials, cilt 12, sayı 23, s. 4214.

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FAILURE ROOT IDENTIFICATION AND WEAR MONITORING OF

CERAMIC TOOLS IN TURNING OPERATIONS
Lele Baia,b,*, Jon Ander Ealob, Pablo Fernández-Luciob, Luis Norberto López de Lacalleb, Asier
Artabe Zamalloab, Gonzalo Martínez-Pissonb, Shuo Liua,b, Jun Wangb, and Jun Zhanga

a, Xi’an Jiaotong University, State Key Laboratory for Manufacturing System Engineering, Xi’an/CHINA
b, University of the Basque Country, Aeronautics Advanced Manufacturing Center (CFAA), Zamudio/SPAIN

*Corresponding author: lelebai@stu.xjtu.edu.cn.

Abstract
Tight control of tool wear and breakage is critical during machining of high-added-value turbine components.
Therefore, this study investigates tool breakage, chipping diagnosis, and wear monitoring during turning of
large size turbine casing parts. The root causes of catastrophic tool breakage are identified and analyzed by
process data. The dominant cause of edge chipping induced by low-frequency structural vibration and chatter
has been discussed, and methods for prevention of unwanted tool failures have also been given. Moreover, a
new tool wear monitoring method is introduced by decoupling the wear-induced force components from the
measured force. The proposed tool wear monitoring method is experimentally validated during grooving
operations. Research shows that cutting forces have excellent advantages in early tool wear monitoring
compared to acceleration signals, wear-induced force components show a significant increasing trend with tool
deterioration.
Keywords: Tool condition monitoring, process monitoring, turning operations.

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FEASIBILITY STUDY OF AN ABSORBER-INTEGRATED CUTTING

TOOL IN MILLING FOR CHATTER SUPPRESSION

Hakan Dogana, Muhammet Ozsoyb, and Alborz Shokranic

a, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Hacettepe University, 06800, Ankara, Turkey,

hakan.dogan@hacettepe.edu.tr
b, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Eskisehir Technical University, 26555, Eskisehir,
Turkey, muhammet.ozsoy@eskisehir.edu.tr
c, Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Bath, BA2 7AY, Bath, UK, asc28@bath.ac.uk

Abstract
Vibration is a major issue during machining leading to short tool life and poor surface finish. Chatter occurring
due to cutting tool flexible is a prominent issue in milling operation. Vibration absorbers have frequently been
studied to suppress vibration and chatter during machining. Their practical applications have mostly focused
on boring bars for turning or workpiece-mounted configurations in milling. Integration tuned mass dampers
(TMDs) into cutting tools in milling is a challenging task due to the tool rotation. This study presents a
feasibility study for an absorber-integrated cutting tool to suppress vibration and increase stability. It considers
that the cutting tool is flexible in both radial directions and TMDs located on the shank of a milling cutting
tool in both directions are analysed. Differently from commonly applied in the literature, the design parameters
for the TMDs are directly tuned for the absolute stability limit rather than minimising/maximising the
magnitude or real part of the frequency response function (FRF). The results show that tuning the design
parameters considering directly the absolute stability limit provides a better chatter suppression performance
in the practical cases where the milling cutting tool is almost identically flexible in both radial directions. The
effect of the location of the TMDs on the shank is examined and an uncertainty analysis is presented. Finally,
a design consideration for the application of such absorber-integrated tools is discussed.

Keywords: Tool design, chatter suppression, absorber

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INVESTIGATION OF SUSTAINABLE MACHINING OF TI-6AL-4V USING

GRAPHENE ENHANCED MINIMUM QUANTITY LUBRICATION
Kadir ÖZENa, Mustafa Burak SAĞENERb, Oğuz ÇOLAKc

a, Ömür Çelik Inc. İstanbul/Turkey, kadirozen3474@gmail.com

b, Eskisehir Technical University, Eng. Faculty, Mech. Engineering, Eskisehir/TURKEY, mbs@eskisehir.edu.tr
c, Eskisehir Technical University, Eng. Faculty, Mech. Engineering, Eskisehir/TURKEY, oguzcolak@eskisehir.edu.tr

Abstract
The aerospace, biomedical engineering, and military industries have recently relied on titanium alloys due to
their exceptional strength to weight ratio and corrosion resistance. However, titanium alloys are known to be
challenging to machine due to their low thermal conductivity, high hardness, and tendency to chemically react
with all tool materials at high temperatures. To overcome this issue, the use of cutting fluid has an important
role in reducing the high temperature and friction that occurs in machining processes. However, excessive or
incorrect use of cutting fluids has adverse effects on human health and the environment. Therefore, The
Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) technique has gained significant interest in machining processes to
reduce the environmental impact caused using traditional cutting fluids. Recently, nanofluids have become
increasingly utilized in the mechanical engineering field due to their superior lubrication and heat dissipation
capabilities. The objective of this study is to enhance the surface roughness using cutting fluid with added
nanoparticles during the turning process of Ti-6Al-4V alloy. Several factors such as chip formation, tool
degradation, and surface characteristics were examined at varying cutting speeds, feed rates, cutting conditions,
and nanoparticle concentrations.

Keywords: Minimum Quantity Lubrication, Sustainable Machining, Ti-6AL-4V,

Introduction
Titanium is a valuable material due to its low density, non-magnetic properties, and exceptional strength-
to-weight ratio, which makes it a popular choice in various industries such as aerospace, medical, and nuclear
power. Its alloys are particularly useful in these industries as they offer superior corrosion resistance,
biocompatibility, and good heat resistance. [1]. The aerospace industry is the largest consumer of titanium
alloys, using about half of the world's total reserves. Among the titanium alloys, Ti-6Al-4V is the most used,
but it is challenging to machine due to its low thermal conductivity and high chemical reactivity with cutting
tools. These properties result in poor surface finish, reduced tool life, and high tool wear, making it a difficult
material to work with [2]. To address the issues of tool wear and poor surface finish, the use of cutting fluids
is necessary to improve workpiece production. However, conventional cutting fluids can be harmful to the
environment, operators, and constitute a significant cost. To overcome these problems, researchers are
exploring the use of minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) as a sustainable alternative to flood cooling. The
MQL system uses less cutting fluid compared to conventional cooling, indicating that it is among the
sustainable techniques that can be used in machining [3,4]. In studies conducted by different researchers [5-
7], it has been observed that the MQL system gives better results in terms of workability compared to flood
cooling.
Recent developments in Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) involve the incorporation of nanofluids to
enhance base fluid properties, such as thermal conductivity and viscosity. Nanotechnology aims to improve
cooling and lubrication in cutting fluids by adding nanoparticles, including copper, aluminum oxide, and
graphite, which impact fluid properties in various ways. Metallic oxides enhance thermal properties, while
solid lubricants reduce friction [8]. Prasad and Srikant [9] found that increasing nano graphite particle
concentration in MQL for turning AISI 1040 steel improved pH, viscosity, and thermal conductivity, while
reducing tool wear, surface roughness, and cutting forces, with optimal performance at 0.3% concentration and
a 15 ml/min flow rate. Yan et al. [10] demonstrated that using Cu nanoparticles (10% by weight) in cutting
fluid during silicon carbide turning yielded superior surface quality and minimized tool wear. Rahmati et al.
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[11] observed better surface quality in AL6061-T6 alloy end milling with 0.5 wt.% MoS2 nanoparticles,
attributing this to enhanced polishing and lubrication effects. Jamil et al. [12] reported significant reductions
in surface roughness, cutting force, and tool wear during Ti–6Al–4V turning with Al2O3 and carbon nanotubes
in deionized water. Thakur et al. [13] showed improved machining performance with SiC-based nanofluids in
MQL for EN-24 steel turning. Li et al. [14] found that CNT nanofluids provided the best cooling during surface
grinding of Ni-based alloy due to their high heat transfer capacity. Kalita et al. [15] observed reduced friction,
energy consumption, and tool wear using MoS2 nanoparticles in soybean oil during EN24 steel and cast-iron
grinding. Sinha et al. [16] achieved lower friction and grinding forces with ZnO-based nanofluids in MQL for
Inconel 718 grinding, while Nam et al. [17] noted reduced torque and thrust forces with nano diamond particles
in MQL micro drilling, improving lubrication and cooling.
The present study is aimed to improve the surface roughness of nanoparticle added cutting fluid in the turning
process of Ti-6Al-4V alloy, which is the most widely used among titanium alloys. Chip morphology, tool wear
and surface quality were evaluated at different cutting speeds, different feed rates and cutting conditions using
different nanoparticle concentrations.

Methodology
Workpiece and Cutting Tool
Commercially available titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V) material was used for turning experiments. A cylindrical
rod with a diameter of 50 mm and a length of 200 mm was used as the workpiece. The chemical content of the
titanium alloy is given in Table 1.
Turning of Ti-6Al-4V alloy was carried out on SPINNER TC400 52 MC model CNC lathe. During the
turning experiments, carbide PVD-coated inserts (TNMG160408 – MF1, TS2000) with 60º insert angle, 0.8
mm corner radius and 6 cutting edges produced by Seco Tools company were used. The tool used is a hard
micro-grained and wear resistant quality tool designed for superalloys and titanium alloys as well as many
stainless steels. PTGNR 2020k-16 model tool holder of ISCAR company was used to connect the inserts to
the lathe. A new cutting edge was used after each test so that wear and different lubrication conditions could
be measured accurately.
Combination of elements by weight %
C Ti Al V Fe O2 Cu H N
0.02% 88% 5.72% 4.10% < 0.02% < 0.2% 0.12% 0.005% 0.022%

Table 1: Chemical properties of Ti-6Al-4V alloy.

MQL System Cutting Fluid and Nano Particles

In the turning operations, the UNIST cooling/lubrication system was employed. The MQL system (Unist)
delivered small amounts of coolant to the tool-chip interface, applying minimal lubrication in the cutting zone
with a pressure of 4 bar and a flow rate of 100 ml/h. The cutting fluid used in both the pure MQL experiments
and the preparation of nanofluids was an ester-based fluid, Vascomill CSF35, supplied by the Blaser company.
The properties of this base fluid are listed in Table 2. For nanofluid preparation, graphene nanoparticles (GNPs)
obtained from NanografiTM (Turkey) were used. Due to their superior properties, including high modulus of
elasticity, lightweight, low coefficient of friction, high thermal conductivity, and chemical stability, GNPs
significantly enhance the cutting fluid's performance. The technical specifications of the GNPs are detailed in
Table 3.

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Viscosity at Density at Flash Ester Mineral Oil Zinc Chlorine Sulfur Color
40 °C 20 °C Point Ratio Content Ratio Ratio Ratio
35 mm2/s 0.90 g/cm3 333 °C >90% %0 %0 %0 %0 Yellow

Table 2: Properties of base fluid

Nanographene Value Unit
Purity 99.9+ %
Thickness 5 nm
Diameter 7 µm
Surface Area 135 m2/g
Conductivity 1100-1600 s/m

Table 3: Specification of nanoparticle

Preparation of cutting fluid

A two-step mixing process was employed to prepare the nanofluids. Graphene nanoparticles were
incorporated at percentages of 0.5% and 1% relative to the base cutting fluid, with these concentrations being
selected based on literature recommendations. To achieve these concentrations, the weight of the nanoparticles
was calculated as a percentage of the base fluid's total weight. After the nanoparticles were added, the mixture
was first stirred at 750 rpm for 90 minutes using a magnetic stirrer. Subsequently, the stirring process was
extended for an additional 60 minutes in an ultrasonic bath to ensure a uniform dispersion of the nanoparticles
within the base cutting fluid. To prevent any potential precipitation, the nanofluids were prepared just before
conducting the experiments.

Experimental Design
Turning parameters were determined according to the recommendations of the company that
manufactured the insert and the results of the literature review. Parameters such as cooling conditions, cutting
speed and feed during turning of Ti-6Al-4V alloy are given in Table 4. The cutting depth was taken as 1 mm
for each experiment. Ti-6Al-4V alloy is machined through 40 mm. The nozzle positioned at a approximately
45° angle to the rake face, with a distance of 15 mm from the cutting zone, as derived from literature. As a
result of the experiments, the average surface roughness (Ra), tool wear and chip morphology were
investigated. The experimental setup is given in Figure 1. For this study, three different cutting speeds, three
different feed rates and three different nanographene concentration ratios were selected for the analysis of the
effects on the surface roughness values, also three different cutting speeds and three different concentration
ratios were selected for the tool tip flank wear analysis. Various experiments were performed based on
Taguchi's L27 orthogonal array. Each experiment was repeated twice for the reliability of the experiments.

İnput Value
Lathe Spinner TC400 CNC Lathe
Work Material Ti-6Al-4V
Cutting Tool TNMG160408 – MF1, TS2000
Cutting Speed (m/min) 80,100,120
Feed Rate(mm/rev) 0.12, 0.18, 0.24
Depth of Cut (mm) 1
Cooling Strategy %0.5 GNP+Base Fluid, %1 GNP+Base Fluid, Base Fluid

Table 4: Experiment Parameters

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Figure 1: The experimental setup

After the experiments the average surface roughness (Ra), was measured using a NANOVEA profilometer.
Measurements were taken every 10 mm along the piece, and the average values were calculated. To prevent
surface oxidation and ensure accurate results, measurements were conducted immediately after each
experiment. Additionally, tool tip wear and chip morphology were examined using a Zeiss optical microscope.

Results and Discussion

Surface Roughness
The measured surface roughness values and signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios for the machined surfaces at various
parameter levels during the turning experiments are presented in Table 5. Taguchi's method utilizes the S/N
ratio to assess quality characteristics that deviate from the target value, where 'S' represents the mean value of
the results and 'N' represents the undesired variability. The analysis of each parameter's effect (cutting speed,
feed rate, and concentration ratio) on surface roughness is illustrated in the S/N response table. The
experimental results for surface roughness were analyzed using Minitab 21 statistical software. Table 6
presents the S/N response table for surface roughness, the key quality characteristic of this study. The optimal
levels for minimizing surface roughness were determined to be a cutting speed of 80 m/min (A1), a feed rate
of 0.18 mm/rev (B2), and a nanoparticle concentration ratio of 0.5% (C2).
A B C Surface
Experiment Cutting Speed Feed Rate GNP Surface Roughness
No. (m/min) (mm/rev) Concentration Roughness (µm) S/N Ratio
Ratio (%) (dB)
1 80 0.12 0 0.763 2.349509
2 80 0.12 0.5 0.63 4.013189
3 80 0.12 1 0.875 1.159839
4 80 0.18 0 0.86 1.310031
5 80 0.18 0.5 0.611 4.279176
6 80 0.18 1 0.904 0.876631
7 80 0.24 0 0.93 0.658405
8 80 0.24 0.5 0.81 1.8303
9 80 0.24 1 1.23 -1.7981
10 100 0.12 0 1.22 -1.7272
11 100 0.12 0.5 1.04 -0.3407
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12 100 0.12 1 1.26 -2.0074

13 100 0.18 0 1.06 -0.5061
14 100 0.18 0.5 0.871 1.19964
15 100 0.18 1 1.44 -3.1672
16 100 0.24 0 1.14 -1.1381
17 100 0.24 0.5 0.825 1.67092
18 100 0.24 1 1.33 -2.477
19 120 0.12 0 1.12 -0.9065
20 120 0.12 0.5 0.888 1.03174
21 120 0.12 1 1.33 -2.477
22 120 0.18 0 1.11 -0.9844
23 120 0.18 0.5 0.82 1.72372
24 120 0.18 1 1.45 -3.2274
25 120 0.24 0 1.05 -0.4238
26 120 0.24 0.5 0.909 0.82872
27 120 0.24 1 1.23 -1.7981

Table 5: L27 Test results and S/N ratios

Surface Roughness (Ra)

Control Factors
Levels A B C
Level 1 1.6310 0.1217 -0.152
Level 2 -0.9437 0.1671 1.8041
Level 3 -0.6925 -0.2941 -1.6573
Delta 2.5747 0.4612 3.4614

Table 6: L27 Surface roughness S/N response table

According to the test results, the lowest Ra value was observed at 80 m/min cutting speed, 0.18 mm/rev feed
rate and 0.5% nanographene added cutting fluid. Increasing the cutting speed and feed rate while machining
Ti-6Al-4V alloy increases the surface roughness due to the increase in temperature and deformation in the
cutting zone It was observed that the surface roughness values increased with the increase of nanoparticle
concentration ratio. The amount of NGP added to the cutting fluid affects surface roughness. An increase in
NGP concentration leads to a deterioration in surface roughness results, indicating that the use of nanoparticles
in cutting fluids is beneficial only up to a certain concentration. Beyond a certain point, higher concentrations
may result in the formation of larger particles, leading to adhesion or grouping, which in turn compromises
lubrication stability. Additionally, a higher concentration of nanoparticles increases the likelihood of collisions
with surface asperities during machining, necessitating higher cutting forces which results in poor surface
quality.

Tool Wear
Using the Taguchi L9 experimental design, the effects of cutting parameters (cutting speed and concentration
ratio) on the cutting tool flank wear were examined and the optimum machining conditions results were found.
The S/N response table applied in the surface roughness analysis is also applied here. The flank wear values
and S/N ratios after turning tests are given in Table 7.
The high temperatures that occur during the processing of materials directly affect the life of the cutting
tool. Tool wear is one of the most important problems that occur during machining. The wear of the cutting
tool causes deterioration in the surface roughness of the workpiece and an increase in the cutting forces.
Friction and cutting temperature are parameters that increase cutting tool wear. The turning process performed
along 120 mm at different cutting speeds (80, 100, 120 m/min) and different cutting fluid concentrations (0,
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0.5, 1 % wt.) and a feed rate of 0.18 mm/rev, which was selected based on its optimal performance in previous
experiments for surface roughness. The flank wear of the cutting tool investigated. In the study, the S/N
response table for tool tip flank wear, which has quality characteristics, is given in Table 8. Optimum levels
for flank wear values obtained at 80 m/min cutting speed (A1) and 0.5% concentration ratio (B2), respectively.

A B Flank Wear
Experiment No. Cutting Speed (m/min) GNP Concentration Flank Wear (µm) S/N Ratio
Ratio (% wt.) (dB)
1 80 0 95.21 -39,7899
2 80 0.5 93.02 -39.3715
3 80 1 94.87 -39.5426
4 100 0 98.64 -39.8811
5 100 0.5 93.21 -39.3893
6 100 1 97.61 -39.7899
7 120 0 123.28 -41.8179
8 120 0.5 111.36 -40.9346
9 120 1 114.24 -41.1564

Table 7: L9 results and S/N ratios for tool wear.

Flank Wear
Control Factors
Levels A B
Level 1 -39.50 -40.42
Level 2 -39.69 -39.60
Level 3 -41.30 -40.16
Delta 1.81 0.53

Table 8: L9 flank wear and S/N response chart.

It has been observed that the wear on the side surface of the cutting tool using a cutting fluid with 0.5% NGP
at a cutting speed of 80 m/min is the least compared to other conditions. The dispersion of graphene
nanoparticles in the cutting fluid facilitates easier processing and sliding movement in the cutting zone, thereby
reducing wear. The excellent thermal conductivity of graphene is believed to contribute to a reduction in
friction. Better results were noted at low cutting speeds, as the strength and hardness properties of the cutting
tool are more adversely affected by the elevated temperatures generated in the cutting zone at higher speeds.
Figure 2 presents optical microscope images of the cutting tool tips after the experiments.

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Figure 2: Optical microscope image of cutting tool edges under 1 mm cutting depth (x50) 80 m/min a) Pure
MQL, b) %0,5 GNP, c) %1 0,5 GNP, 100 m/min d) Pure MQL, e) %0,5 GNP, f) %1 0,5 GNP, 120 m/min g)
Pure MQL, h) %0,5 GNP, ı) %1 0,5 GNP.

Chip Morphology
Images of some of the chips obtained after the experimental study were taken under an optical
microscope. The results obtained when the chip morphology was examined are shown in figure 3. Chips
formed during machining of Ti-6Al-4V alloy are variable, forming peak height and valley height. Peak height
(tP), valley height (tV) and tooth spacing (pc) were measured from the cross-sectional images of sawtooth chips
obtained with an optical microscope. The total height of the chip, which is the continuous and separated part,
is called the peak height (tP). The gap between the valley and the hill is called the tooth height (t T) and is
calculated with the given equation (1).
tT= tₚ- tv (1)
The degree of segmentation (Gs) is the ratio of tooth height to crown height and is calculated by the following
equation (2).
GS=(tₚ-tv)/ tₚ = tT / tₚ (2)
The chip segmentation frequency (fCS) is calculated by the following equation (3);
fCS=Vc/pc (3)
where Vc is the chip speed.

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1000
800
Height (µm)

600 tP (peak)

400 tV (valley)

200 tC (tooth)

0
0,12 0,18 0,24
Feed Rate (mm/rev)
(a)

1200 tP (peak)
1000
Height (µm)

800
tV (valley)
600
400
200 tC (tooth)
0
80 100 120
Cutting Speed (m/min)
(b)

1000
800 tP (peak)
Height (µm)

600
tV (valley)
400
200 tC (tooth)
0
0 0,5 1
NGP Concentration (% wt.)
(c)

Figure 3: Variation of peak height, valley height, and tooth pitch with (a) feed rate, (b) cutting speed, and (c)
nanographene concentration
In Figure 3, the peak height, valley height and tooth spacing determined for chip morphology are shown
according to cutting speed, feed rate and nanographene concentration. When the figure was examined, it was
observed that the most important effect on chip morphology was the cutting speed. It is seen that the peak
height increases as the feed rate increases, and the peak height decreases as the cutting speed increases. While
changes were observed between the values in the feed rate, it showed less variation in nanographene
concentration than other parameters. Increasing the cutting speed causes high heat generation and shear
instability during the cutting process. This high temperature causes a decrease in peak height. A decrease is
observed due to shear instability as the valley height changes in shear rate. When all values are examined, it is

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possible to say that the minimum values were obtained at a feed rate of 0.12 mm/rev. Image of the chip with
0.12 mm/rev feed rate and 80 m/min cutting speed is given in figure 4.

Figure 4: Optical microscope image of chips at 0.12 mm/rev feed rate and 80 m/min cutting speed (x50) (200
µm)

Conclusions
In this study, machinability experiments were carried out on a Ti-6Al-4V alloy CNC lathe at different
concentrations (pure MQL, NFMQL (0.5% wt.) and NFMQL (1.0% wt.) to the base cutting fluid. The effects
on surface roughness, tool wear and chip morphology were investigated. The results of the current research
are listed below:
1. The addition of nanographene to cutting fluids used in MQL processes is one of the new solutions to
conventional cutting fluids for better cooling capabilities for sustainable machinability during turning.
2. In Taguchi S/N analysis, it was determined that the optimal parameters of the surface roughness tests were
Level 1 for cutting speed (80 m/min), Level 2 (0.18 mm/rev) for feed rate and Level 2 (0.5% NGP) for
concentration ratio.
3. Surface roughness values when machining with pure MQL during turning operation are higher than when
turning with NFMQL (0.5% wt.) It has been observed that nanographene particles reduce the temperature in
the cutting zone during processing, as improvements in thermal conductivity are observed with the addition of
nanoparticles, and it gives better surface roughness results.

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4. In the examinations made with the help of optical microscope, it was determined that the lowest side flank
wear was in NFMQL (0.5% wt.) With the addition of nanographene particles to the cutting fluid, it was
observed that the wear was reduced by creating easier machining and sliding motion in the cutting zone.
5. When the chips were examined, it was observed that the peak height was directly proportional to the increase
in the feed rate. The high heat generated during cutting decreased the peak height with the increase in cutting
speed, and it was concluded that there was a decrease in the valley height with the shear instability.
6. In Taguchi S/N analysis, the optimal parameters in flank wear tests were determined to be Level 1 for cutting
speed (80 m/min) and Level 2 (0.5% NGP) for concentration ratio.
7. When the chips were examined, it was observed that the peak height was directly proportional to the increase
in the feed rate. The high heat generated during cutting decreased the peak height with the increase in cutting
speed, and it was concluded that there was a decrease in the valley height with the shear instability.
8. Machining with Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) significantly reduces the amount of cutting fluid
required. This reduction minimizes the negative impacts on operator health, environmental health, and
processing costs associated with traditional cutting fluids. Additionally, incorporating graphene nanoparticles
into cutting fluids, up to certain concentrations, is believed to enhance sustainability and improve cooling
capabilities.

References
[1] Yücel, A., et al. 2021 Influence of MoS2 based nanofluid-MQL on tribological and machining
characteristics in turning of AA 2024 T3 aluminum alloy. Journal of Materials Research and Technology, Vol.
15, Pages 1688-1704.
[2] Li, N. Chen, Y. Kong, D. 2019. multi-response optimization of Ti-6Al-4V turning operations using Taguchi-
based grey relational analysis coupled with kernel principal component analysis. Advances in Manufacturing.
Vol. 7.2 Pages 142-154.
[3] Singh, R., Dureja, J.S., Dogra, M. and Randhawa, J.S. 2019, "Optimization of machining parameters under
MQL turning of Ti-6Al-4V alloy with textured tool using multi-attribute decision-making methods", World
Journal of Engineering, Vol. 16, Pages. 648-59
[4] Gaurav, G., Sharma, A., Dangayach, G. S., & Meena, M. L. 2020. Assessment of jojoba as a pure and nano-
fluid base oil in minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) hard-turning of Ti–6Al–4V: A step towards sustainable
machining. Journal of Cleaner Production, Vol. 272, Pages 122-553
[5] Boswell, B., Islam, M., Davies, I.J. et al. 2017 A review identifying the effectiveness of minimum quantity
lubrication (MQL) during conventional machining. Int J Adv Manuf. Technol. Vol. 92, Pages 321–340.
[6] Ramanathan, A., et al. 2021. Development of a Low-Cost Eco-Friendly Minimum Quantity Lubrication
System for Machining Processes. Journal of Modern Mechanical Engineering and Technology, Vol. 8: 37-47.
[7] Rewatkar, S. Hemane, P. Singh, M. Shambharkar, P. (2020). Review On Turning Operation Using Nano
Coolant and Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL). International Journal of Engineering Applied Sciences
and Technology. Vol. 11 Pages 263-66
[8] Srikant, R. Krishna, V. Syed, I. Paliwal, U. 2018. Development of finite element-based model for
performance evaluation of nano cutting fluids in minimum quantity lubrication. CIRP Journal of
Manufacturing Science and Technology.
[9] Prasad MMS, Srikant RR. 2013. Performance evaluation of nano graphite inclusion in cutting fluids with
MQL technique in turning of AISI 1040 steel. InternationaL Journal of Research in Engineering and
Technology. Vol. 11 Pages 381–93.
[10] Yan J, Zhang Z, Kuriyagawa T. 2011. Effect of nanoparticle lubrication in diamond turning of reaction
bonded SiC. International Journal of Automation Technology. Vol. 5 Pages 307–12.
[11] Rahmati B, Sarhan AAD, Sayuti M. 2013 Morphology of surface generated by end milling AL6061-T6
using molybdenum disulfide (MoS2) nanolubrication in end milling machining. Journal of Cleaner Production.
Vol. 66 Pages 685–91.

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[12] Jamil M, Khan AM, Hegab H, Gong L, Mia M, Gupta MK, et al. 2019 Effects of hybrid Al2O3-CNT
nanofluids and cryogenic cooling on machining of Ti-6Al-4V. Int J Adv Manuf Tech 201. Vol. 102 Pages 3895–
3909.
[13] Thakur Archana, Manna Alakesh, Samir Sushant. M. 2020 multi-response optimization of turning
parameters during machining of EN-24 steel with SiC nanofluids based minimum quantity lubrication. Silicon.
Vol. 12 Pages 71–85.
[14] Li B, Li C, Zhang Y, Wang Y, Jia D, Yang M, et al. 2017 Heat transfer performance of MQL grinding with
different nanofluids for Ni-based alloys using vegetable oil. Journal of Cleaner Production. Vol.154 Pages1–
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[15] Kalita P, Malshe AP, Kumar S Arun, Yoganath VG. 2012. Study of specific energy and friction coefficient
in minimum quantity lubrication grinding using oil-based nano lubricants. Journal of Manufacturing Processes.
Vol. 18 Pages.1–9.
[16] Sinha MK, Ghosh RMS, Rao PV. 2017. Application of eco-friendly nanofluids during grinding of Inconel
718 through small quantity lubrication. Journal of Cleaner Production. Vol. 141, Pages 1359–75.
[17] Nam JS, Lee PH, Lee SW. 2011 Experimental characterization of micro-drilling process using nanofluid
minimum quantity lubrication. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture. Vol.51, Pages 649–
52.

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LAZER TORNALAMA OPERASYONUNDA KESME HIZININ TALAŞ

DERİNLİĞİNE OLAN ETKİSİ
Emin Orhun Baştekelia, Hacı Abdullah Taşdemirb, Buse Ortaç Baştekelic

a, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Makine Fakültesi Makine Mühendisliği, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, bastekeli@itu.edu.tr

b, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Makine Fakültesi Makine Mühendisliği, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, tasdemirh@itu.edu.tr
c, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Makine Fakültesi Makine Mühendisliği, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, ortac18@itu.edu.tr

Özet
İmalat teknolojileri günümüz yaşam koşullarına uygun olarak her geçen gün gelişim göstermektedir. Özellikle
son günlerde oldukça sık konuşulan, ülkemizde yakın gelecek zamanda işletmelere yasal zorunluluk olarak
getirilmesi planlanan karbon ayak izi azaltma politikalarına uyum sağlayabilecek, işletme ve ilk yatırım
maliyetlerini düşürecek teknolojilerin daha iyi anlaşılabilmesi için çalışmaların yapılması çok önemlidir. Bu
çalışmada, 2 mm altında çapa sahip çubuk formundaki malzemelerin çap küçültme işlemlerinde 6 eksen
taşlama robotu ve kayar otomat tezgahına alternatif olabilecek, son yıllarda popülerliği artan doğrudan lazer
ışını ile tornalama deneyleri gerçekleştirilmiştir. Deneylerde 50W güce sahip fiber lazer makinesi kullanılmış,
farklı lazer kesme hızlarında tornalanmış numunelerin çaplarının ne kadar küçüldüğüne dair ölçümler
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Tornalama yüzeylerine ait dijital mikroskop görüntüleri çekilmiş ve çıkarımlar yapılmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Lazer tornalama, kesme hızı, talaş derinliği.

Manufacturing technologies are developing every day in accordance with today's living conditions. It is very
important to carry out studies in order to better understand the technologies that can adapt to the carbon
footprint reduction policies, which are planned to be introduced as a legal obligation to enterprises in the near
future, and to reduce operating and initial investment costs, especially in recent days, which have been
discussed quite often in our country. In this study, turning experiments were carried out with a direct laser
beam, which can be an alternative to a 6-axis grinding robot and a swiss type automatic lathe in the diameter
reduction operations of rod-shaped materials with a diameter of less than 2 mm, and which has increased in
popularity in recent years. A fiber laser machine with a power of 50W was used in the experiments,
measurements were made on how much the diameters of the samples were reduced at different laser scanning
speeds. Digital microscope images of the turning surfaces were taken and inferences were made.
Keywords: Laser turning, scanning speed, chip thickness.

Giriş
Günümüzde 2 mm altında çapa sahip çubuk formundaki malzemelerin hassas olarak işlenmesi, 6 eksen taşlama
robotu ya da kayar otomat tezgahı ile yapılmaktadır. Bu makinelerin kapladıkları yerin ve enerji tüketimlerinin
fazla oluşu ve geometrik tolerans hassasiyetlerinin nispeten 3-4 mikron seviyelerinde seyretmesi, bilim
insanlarını daha az yer kaplayan, enerji tüketimi daha az olup karbon ayakizini azaltan ve daha hassas olan
makineler ile yapılacak yeni imalat teknolojileri üzerinde araştırma yapmaya sevk etmektedir. Gelişen lazer
teknolojileri, özellikle lazer atım sürelerinin giderek küçülmesine ve 1 mikron altı geometrik hassasiyetin
başarı ile uygulanabilmesine olanak sağlamıştır. Lazer teknolojileri, üretim ve boyutsal hassasiyet avantajı ile
biyomalzeme ve mikro ölçekli sensör alanında [1] [2] [3], işleme stabilitesinin sağlanması avantajı ile
işlenmesi zor malzemelerin işlenmesinde kullanım alanı bulmaktadır [4] [5] [6] [7] [8].
Bu çalışmada yapılan işlem, lazer ışınlarının doğrudan parça üzerine yansıtılarak iş parçasından malzeme
kaldırılması üzerinedir. ‘Lazer Tornalama’ olarak anılabileceği gibi ‘Doğrudan Lazer Işınları İle Tornalama’
ya da ‘Direkt Lazer Işınları İle Tornalama’ şeklinde de karşımıza çıkabilir. Yapılan çalışmada, literatürdeki

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ismi ile ‘Laser Turning’ olarak adlandırılan İngilizce terimin çevirisi olan ‘Lazer Tornalama’ şeklinde
kullanılmıştır.
Literatürde daha sık karşımıza çıkan Lazer Destekli Tornalama (Laser Assisted Turning) ile Lazer Tornalama
(Laser Turning) birbirinden farklı uygulamalardır. Lazer destekli tornalamada, iş parçasından kesici uç
vasıtasıyla talaş kaldırılmadan önce, iş parçası bir lazer kaynağı vasıtasıyla ısıtılmaktadır. Bu ön ısıtma işlemi
sayesinde iş parçasının sertliği, pekleşme eğilimi ve akma dayanımı düşeceğinden işlenmesi zor
malzemelerden daha düşük kesme kuvvetlerinde talaş kaldırılabilmesi mümkün olmaktadır. Ayrıca yapılan
çalışmalar, lazer destekli tornalama işleminin yüzey kalitesini iyileştirdiğini ve soğutma sıvısı kullanımını
azalttığını göstermektedir [9]. Lazer tornalama işleminde ise, kesici takım vasıtasıyla talaş kaldırma
operasyonu bulunmamaktadır, iş parçası üzerinden malzeme doğrudan lazer ışınlarının parçaya gönderilmesi
ile kaldırılmaktadır. Literatürde lazer destekli tornalama operayonu ile ilgili bir çok kaynak olmasına rağmen
[10] [11] [12] [13], lazer tornalama ile ilgili az sayıda çalışma mevcuttur [14] [15] [16].
Bu çalışmada, yeni bir araştırma alanı olan doğrudan lazer ışınları ile tornalama operasyonunda, kesme hızının
talaş derinliğine olan etkisi üzerine çalışılmıştır.

Materyal ve Yöntem
Fiber lazer makinesinde tornalama operasyonuna tabi tutulacak malzeme AISI 308L paslanmaz çelik
malzemedir. Boy kesilmiş çubuk malzeme boyutları Ø1.6 mm*22 mm olup düz silindirik bir yapıya sahiptir.
İşlem görecek numuneye ait görsel Şekil 1’de görülmektedir.

Şekil 1: Lazer tornalama operasyonu öncesi 308L paslanmaz çelik çubuk.

308L paslanmaz çelik malzemeye ait kimyasal kompozisyon Tablo 1’de, malzemenin fiziksel özellikleri ise
Tablo 2’de verildiği gibidir.

Elementler Fe Cr Ni Mn Si C P S
Min. (%) 63,8 19,5 9 1 0,25 - - -
Max. (%) 70,5 22 11 2,5 0,6 0,080 0,030 0,030

Tablo 1: AISI 308L malzeme kimyasal bileşenleri [17].

Çekme Muk. Akma Muk. Elastisite Modülü

Poisson Oranı Uzama (%)
(MPa) (MPa) (GPa)
593 207 190-210 0,27-0,30 48

Tablo 2: AISI 308L malzeme fiziksel özellikleri [18].

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Tornalama işlemini gerçekleştirecek fiber lazer makinesi Raycus QB50 tip atımlı Nd:YAG lazer olup makineye
ait devre şeması Şekil 2’de gösterildiği gibidir. Lazer dalga boyu 1064 nm, atım süresi nanosaniye
mertebesindedir. Lazer kaynağına ait özellikler Tablo 3’te verilmiştir. Ayrıca deney sırasında kullanılan servo
motor 2 d/dk sabit hız ile dönmektedir. Lazerin ortalama çıkış gücü 50 W’tır. Deneyler esnasında, güç değeri
%100 olarak ayarlanmıştır. Frekans değeri 20 kHz olarak seçilmiştir.

Şekil 2: Fiber lazer makinesinin şematik devresi.

Nd:YAG Fiber Lazer Makinesi Teknik Özellikleri

Lazer Tipi Nanosaniye Lazeri
Ortalama Çıkış Gücü (W) 50
Dalga boyu (nm) 1060~1085
Darbe süresi (ns) 120~150@50 kHz

Tablo 3: Fiber lazer makinesinin teknik özellikleri.

Lazer tornalama işlemi sonrası numuneler 1, 2, 3, 4 ve 5 olarak numaralandırılmıştır. İşlem sonrası paslanmaz
çelik çubuklar Şekil 3’te verilmiştir. Silindirik formdaki malzemelerin lazer ile tornalanması esnasında seçilen
kesme hızlarına ait bilgiler Tablo 4’te yer almaktadır.

Şekil 3: Tornalama sonrası sırasıyla numune 5, 4, 3, 2 ve 1.

Numune Numarası 1 2 3 4 5
Kesme Hızı (mm/s) 800 1600 3200 6400 12800

Tablo 4: Numune numarası & kesme hızı (mm/s).

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Deneysel Çıktılar
İşlem sonrasında çubuk numunelerin çaplarının küçülme oranının belirlenmesi için mikrometre ile ölçümler
yapılmış, dijital mikroskopta görüntüler alınmıştır.

Şekil 4’te 12800 mm/s kesme hızı ile lazer tornalanmış numune 5 ile 800 mm/s kesme hızı ile lazer tornalanmış
numune 1’e ait dijital mikroskop görüntüleri verilmiştir. Şekilden de görülebileceği gibi 12800 mm/s ile
işlenen parça parlak bir yüzey oluşturmuş ancak 800 mm/s ile işlenmiş parçada yanık yüzeyler meydana
gelmiştir.

Şekil 4: Numune 5 ve numune 1’in lazer tornalama işlemi sonrası görüntüleri.

Şekil 5’te numune 5’in detaylı görüntüsü verilmiştir. Burada da, parça işlendikten sonra ortaya çıkan yüzeyin
parlak bir yüzey olduğu net olarak görülebilir. İşlenmiş yüzey ile işlenmemiş yüzeyi birbirinden ayıran çizgide
bazı yanık oluşumları gözlemlenmiştir.

Şekil 5: Numune 5’in dijital mikroskop görüntüsü.

Şekil 6’da ise numune 1’in detaylı görüntüsüne yer verilmiştir. Paylaşılan bu görüntüde de, lazer kesme hızının
azalması ile yanık yüzeylerin oluşumunun artması durumu net olarak görülmektedir. Ayrıca görselde,
malzemede oluşan çap küçülmesi de gözlemlenmektedir.

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Şekil 6: Numune 1’in dijital mikroskop görüntüsü.

Mikrometre ölçümlerinde elde edilen sonuçlar, lazer kesme hızı (mm/s) ve talaş derinliği (mm) olarak Şekil
7’de grafiğe yansıtılmıştır. Lazer kesme hızı ile talaş derinliği arasındaki ilişkiyi gösteren eğrinin;

y=569,81x-1,476 denklemine R2=0,9954 ile uyduğu görülmektedir.

0,035

0,03

0,025
Talaş Derinliği (mm)

0,02

0,015

0,01

0,005

0
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000
y = 569,81x-1,476 Lazer Kesme Hızı (mm/s)
R² = 0,9954

Şekil 7: Lazer kesme hızı - talaş derinliği diyagramı.

Sonuç
Literatürde henüz yeni bir çalışma alanı olan lazer tornalama operasyonu ile ilgili deneyler gerçekleştirilmiştir.
Elde edilen deneysel sonuçlara göre, 2 mm çapın altındaki silindirik formdaki malzemeye lazer ile kontrollü
talaş kaldırma/malzeme kaldırma işlemi uygulanabilir ve başarılı sonuçların elde edilebilir olduğu
görülmüştür. Lazer kesme hızları ile talaş derinliği arasında ters orantı bulunduğu belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca, 12800
mm/s lazer kesme hızında gerçekleştirilen operasyon sonrasında ortaya çıkan yüzeyin parlak bir yüzey olduğu,
800 mm/s hız ile gerçekleştirilen operasyon sonrasında ortaya çıkan yüzeyde yanıkların oluştuğu
gözlemlenmiştir.

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Elde edilen lazer kesme hızı-talaş derinliği grafiği ve türetilen formül ile 308L paslanmaz çelik silindirik
malzeme için talaş kaldırma operasyonu kontrol edilebilir hale gelmiştir. Malzemelerin makro geometrisini
şekillendirmek için 800 mm/s ve altındaki kesme hızları ile talaş kaldırma operasyonu gerçekleştirmek
gerekirken, malzeme üzerine performans arttırıcı tekstür benzeri mikro yapıların açılması için 800-1600 mm/s
hızların kullanılabileceği anlaşılmıştır. Ayrıca, paslanmaz çelik üzerinde talaş alma operasyonundan ziyade
farklı renk dokularının oluşturabilmesi 6400 mm/s lazer kesme hızı civarında mümkün olmaktadır.
Sonraki çalışmalarda, lazer tornalama operasyonunun farklı lazer parametrelerinden nasıl etkilendiği,
tornalama sonucu oluşan yüzeylerin topoğrafyasının ve yüzey sertliğinin farklı lazer parametreleri ile nasıl
değiştiği, farklı lazer parametrelerinde malzemenin mikroskobik boyutta geçirdiği dönüşümler incelenecektir.

Teşekkür
Yazarlar, deneylerin yapılmasında malzeme ve cihaz tedariğini sağlayan Buse Dental San. ve Tic. Ltd. Şti.
firmasına teşekkür ederler.

Referanslar
[1] Razeghi, M., Slivken, S., Tahraoui, A., Matlis, A., & Park, Y. S. 2001. “High power 3–12μm infra-red
lasers: recent improvements and future trends”. Physica E: Low-dimensional Systems and Nanostructures,
11(2-3), 233-239.

[2] Pitts, W. K., & Martin, M. D. 2001. “Experience with laser microfabricated detectors at the University of
Louisville”. Nuclear Instruments and Methods in Physics Research Section A: Accelerators, Spectrometers,
Detectors and Associated Equipment, 471(1-2), 268-271.

[3] Lu, L., Zhao, Y., Lin, N., & Xie, Y. 2024. “Skin-inspired flexible pressure sensor with hierarchical
interlocked spinosum microstructure by laser direct writing for high sensitivity and large linearity”. Sensors
and Actuators A: Physical, 366, 114988.

[4] Zhao, F., Bernstein, W. Z., Naik, G., & Cheng, G. J. 2010. “Environmental assessment of laser assisted
manufacturing: case studies on laser shock peening and laser assisted turning”. Journal of Cleaner Production,
18(13), 1311-1319.

[5] Przestacki, D. 2014. “Conventional and laser assisted machining of composite A359/20SiCp”. Procedia
Cirp, 14, 229-233.

[6] Khatir, F. A., Sadeghi, M. H., & Akar, S. 2021. “Investigation of surface roughness in laser-assisted hard
turning of AISI 4340”. Materials Today: Proceedings, 38, 3085-3090.

[7] You, K., Liu, G., Wang, W., & Fang, F. 2023. “Laser assisted diamond turning of silicon freeform surface”.
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 322, 118172.

[8] Naresh, C., Bose, P. S. C., Rao, C. S., & Selvaraj, N. 2021. “Prediction of cutting force of AISI 304 stainless
steel during laser-assisted turning process using ANFIS”. Materials Today: Proceedings, 38, 2366-2371.

[9] Uğraş, A., & Kafkas, F. 2020. Sertleştirilmiş AISI 4340 “Çeliğin Isı-Destekli İşlenmesinde TIG Tekniğinin
Uygulanabilirliği”. İmalat Teknolojileri ve Uygulamaları, 1(2), 40-48.

[10] Deswal, N., & Kant, R. 2023. “Machinability and surface integrity analysis of magnesium AZ31B alloy
during laser assisted turning”. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 101, 527-545.

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[11] Wei, C., Guo, W., Gao, B., Wang, Y., Sun, Z., & Li, L. 2021. “Understanding the behaviour of workpieces'
bulk temperature during laser-assisted turning of Ti6Al4V alloy and heating of Al-SiC metal-matrix composite
rods”. Optics & Laser Technology, 139, 106951.

[12] Abedinzadeh, R., Norouzi, E., & Toghraie, D. 2022. “Study on machining characteristics of SiC–Al2O3
reinforced aluminum hybrid nanocomposite in conventional and laser-assisted turning”. Ceramics
International, 48(19), 29205-29216.

[13] Wei, Y., Park, C., & Park, S. S. 2017. “Experimental evaluation of direct laser assisted turning through a
sapphire tool”. Procedia Manufacturing, 10, 546-556.

[14] Zettl, J., Klar, M., Rung, S., Esen, C., & Hellmann, R. 2021. “Laser turning with ultrashort laser pulses”.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 68, 1562-1568.

[15] Sriram, D., Jayaprakash, G., Arulkirubakaran, D., Prabu, M., & Ajithkumar, A. 2021. “Laser turning of
alumina (Al2O3) ceramic by Nd: YAG laser technique”. Materials Today: Proceedings, 39, 731-735.

[16] Dhupal, D., Doloi, B., & Bhattacharyya, B. 2008. “Pulsed Nd: YAG laser turning of micro-groove on
aluminum oxide ceramic (Al2O3)”. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 48(2), 236-248.

[17] https://m4metals.com/stainless-steel/austenitic/aisi-308l-chemical-composition.php,
Erişim tarihi:02.05.2024

[18] https://www.azom.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=8205,
Erişim tarihi:02.05.2024

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LAZER KESME HIZININ TUNGSTEN KARBÜR MALZEMEDE KESME

DERİNLİĞİ ÜZERİNE OLAN ETKİSİ
Buse Ortaç Baştekelia, Hacı Abdullah Taşdemirb, Emin Orhun Baştekelic,
Batu Yüzbaşıgil d, Seyfullah Hatipoğlue

a, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Makine Fakültesi Makine Mühendisliği, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, ortac18@itu.edu.tr

b, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Makine Fakültesi Makine Mühendisliği, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, tasdemirh@itu.edu.tr
c, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Makine Fakültesi Makine Mühendisliği, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, bastekeli@itu.edu.tr
d, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Makine Fakültesi Makine Mühendisliği, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, yuzbasigil17@itu.edu.tr
e, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi Makine Fakültesi Makine Mühendisliği, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, hatipoglu18@itu.edu.tr

Özet
Talaşlı imalat malzemelere uygulanan en yaygın imalat yöntemlerinden biridir. Talaşlı imalatta talaş kaldırma
işlemi genellikle bir kesici uç vasıtasıyla gerçekleştirilmektedir. Kesici uçlar, işlenen malzemeden kayma
deformasyonu ile malzeme kaldırarak yeni bir yüzey oluştururlar. Bu işlem neticesinde kesici uç zamanla aşınır
ve kullanılamaz hale gelir. Kesici uç performansının iyileştirilmesi ve kesici takım ömrünün artırılması ile
ilgili çalışmalar son yıllarda lazer ışınları ile tekstür oluşturma üzerine yoğunlaştırılmıştır. Yüzeylere lazer
ışınları ile tekstür açma işlemlerinde malzemeye çeşitli gravürler açılarak bu gravürlerin bir desen oluşturması
ve malzemelerin tribolojik özelliklerini iyileştirmesi beklenmektedir. Yüzeylerde lazer ışınları ile tekstür
oluşturma işlemlerinin mekanizmasının anlaşılabilmesi için lazer ile işleme parametrelerinin malzeme
üzerinde bıraktığı etkilerin irdelenmesi gerekmektedir. Bu çalışmada da, en çok kullanılan kesici uç
malzemelerinden biri olan tungsten karbür malzemenin üzerine farklı lazer kesme hızları ile gravürler açılmış
ve lazer kesme hızı ile kesme derinliği arasındaki ilişki gözlemlenmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Lazer ışınları ile tekstür oluşturma, lazer kesme hızı, tungsten karbür.

Abstract
Machining is one of the most common manufacturing methods applied to materials. In machining
manufacturing, chip removal is usually performed by means of an insert. The inserts create a new surface by
removing the material from the processed material by sliding deformation. As a result of this process, the insert
wears out over time and becomes unusable. Studies related to improving the performance of the insert and
increasing the life of the cutting tool have been focused on texturing with laser beams in recent years. In the
processes of texturing surfaces with laser beams, various engravings are opened to the material and it is
expected that these engravings will create a pattern and improve the tribological properties of the materials. In
order to understand the mechanism of texturing processes with laser beams on surfaces, it is necessary to
examine the effects of laser processing parameters on the material. In this study, engravings were made with
different laser scanning speed on tungsten carbide material, one of the most commonly used insert materials,
and the relationship between laser scanning speed and cutting depth was observed.

Keywords: Laser surface texturing, laser scanning speed, tungsten carbide.

Giriş
Son yıllarda yüzey tekstürü oluşturma çalışmaları oldukça hız kazanmıştır [1]. Yüzeylerde tekstür oluşturma
işlemlerinin amacı adhezyonu ve sürtünen yüzeylerin temas alanını azaltmak, sürtünme katsayısını azaltmak
ve aşınma sonucu olan partikülleri toplamaktır [2]. Tribolojik özellikleri iyileştirmesi sebebi ile birbiri ile
temas halinde çalışan sistemlerde kullanım yeri bulmuştur. Kullanım alanlarına örnek olarak; piston-silindir
sistemleri, kesici takımlar, yataklar, hidrolik motorlar, protezler ve diş implantları verilebilir. Yüzey tekstürü
oluşturma tekniklerinin arasında lazer ışınlarından yararlanma, elektroerozyon ile işleme, kimyasal dağlama,
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kumlama, mikro taşlama ve mikro döküm gibi yöntemler yer almaktadır [3]. Bu yöntemler arasında lazer
ışınları ile tekstür oluşturma işlemi, sahip olduğu yüksek doğruluk, hızlı işlem kabiliyeti ve karmaşık
yüzeylerin oluşturulabilmesine imkan verme özellikleri sebebi ile tercih sebebi olmaktadır [4]. Lazer ışınları
yardımıyla yüzey tekstürü oluşturma işlemi çeşitli kesici uçlara uygulanabilmektedir. Literatürde matkap
uçlarına [5] [6], torna plaketlerine [7] ve freze çakılarına [8] uygulanmış çalışmalar mevcuttur.
Malzeme yüzeyine açılan tekstürler farklı şekil ve geometride olabilmektedir. Tekstürler; noktalar şeklinde [9]
[10], parallel ya da dik çizgiler şeklinde [11] [12], çeşitli geometrik şekillerin ya da harflerin oluşturduğu
gravürler şeklinde [13] [14] olabileceği gibi biyomimetik şekillerde [15] [16] oluşturulabilir.
Lazer makineleri ile yapılan malzeme yüzeyinden talaş kaldırma işlemlerinde, çok kısa sürelerde çok yüksek
sıcaklık değerlerine ulaşıldığından malzeme özelinde lazer işleme parametrelerinin iyi analiz edilmesi
gerekmektedir. Lazer gücü, lazer kesme hızı, frekans ve spot çapı gibi lazer parametrelerinin seçilmesi gereken
optimum değerleri malzemeden malzemeye değişiklik gösterebilmektedir. Uygun lazer parametrelerinin tam
olarak malzeme üzerinde etkisinin bilinmemesi halinde, lazer ile işleme sonrası elde edilen yüzey pürüzlülüğü,
metalürjik yapı ve mekanik özelliklerinin istenmeyen değer aralıklarında olması kaçınılmazdır. Lazer ışınları
ile malzemenin üzerinde açılan gravürler bir araya gelerek yüzey tekstürünü oluştururlar. Her oluşturulan
tekstür kendi içinde bulunduğu ortam ve çalışma koşullarına göre performans göstermektedir. Yüzey
tekstürlerinin istenilen boyutlarda ve boyut hassasiyetlerinde, malzemenin kimyasal özelliklerini
değiştirmeden açılabilmesi için öncelikli olarak lazer parametrelerinin malzemeye olan etkilerinin belirlenmesi
gerekir. Bu çalışmanın amacı da tungsten karbür malzeme üzerinde lazer ışınlarının etkisini farklı kesme hızları
ile belirlemektir. Çalışma kapsamında malzemeye farklı lazer kesme hızlarında açılan gravürlerin derinlikleri
ölçülmüştür. Yapılan çalışmanın, ileride gerçekleştirilmesi planlanan kesici takım üzerine lazer ışınları ile
tekstür oluşturma çalışmalarına girdi oluşturması hedeflenmiştir.
Bertolete ve ark. [17] gerçekleştirdikleri çalışmada, tungsten karbür kesici takımların üzerine mikro kanallar
şeklinde gravürler açarak yüzeyinde tekstür oluşturulmuş bu kesici takımların martenzitik paslanmaz çelik
işleme performansına olan etkisini incelemişlerdir. İşlem sırasında 785 nm dalga boyuna sahip lazer
makinesinde 15 μJ enerji ve 4 kHz frekans değerinde çalışmışlardır. Gravürlerin açılmasında 3 mm/s lazer
kesme hızı tercih etmişler ve sonuç olarak ortalama 32 mikron derinliğe sahip gravürler elde etmişlerdir. Sonuç
olarak işleme veriminin arttığı ve tribolojik özelliklerin iyileştiği gözlemlenmiştir. Schwanekamp ve ark. [18]
gerçekleştirdikleri çalışmada, güç yoğunluk dağılımı Gauss eğrisine uyan, odak çapı 70 μm olan Nd-YAG
lazer makinesi kullanmışlardır. Deneylerde lazer gücü 50 W ile 200 W arasında, lazer kesme hızı ise 25 mm/s
ile 200 mm/s arasında seçilmiştir. Bunun sonucunda, tungsten karbür malzemede gravür açmak için gerekli
olan kritik P/Vs (Lazer gücü/Lazer kesme hızı) değerinin 0,25-8 J/mm aralığında olması gerektiği sonucuna
varmışlardır. P/Vs oranının bu değer aralığında olmadığı lazer işleme operasyonlarının malzeme üzerinde
herhangi bir etki oluşturmadığı görülmüştür.
Marimuthu ve ark. [19] yaptıkları çalışmada, pikosaniye lazeri ve tungsten karbür blokları üzerinde
çalışmışlardır. Lazer parametresi olarak, lazer gücü maksimum 300 W ve frekans 0,6-40 MHz değerlerini
tercih etmişlerdir. Çalışmanın sonunda, kesme derinliği ile kesme hızları arasındaki ilişki hakkında yorum
yapmışlardır. 2.30-9.6 mm/s aralığında seçilen lazer kesme hızlarının, kesme derinliği üzerinde düşük bir
etkisinin olduğu ancak malzemeden talaş kaldırma konusunda etkili hız aralığı olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Teicher
ve ark. [20] yaptıkları çalışmada, yüzeylere direkt lazer ışını interferansı ile tekstür açma yöntemini
kullanmışlardır. Tungsten karbür ile yapılan çalışmalarda frekans değeri 20 kHz seçilmiş olup gravürler 2,46
J/ cm2 enerji yoğunluğu ile açılmıştır. 2,2 mikron derinliğe ve 5 mikron aralığa sahip gravürler malzemenin
tekstür yapısını oluşturmuştur. Bu araştırmada, tekstürleme için gerekli kesme hızı değeri paylaşılmamış olsa
da sabit bir enerji yoğunluğu değeri ile işlemin stabil olarak gerçekleştirilmiş olması, sabit güce sahip lazer
makinasının sabit bir kesme hız değerinde çalıştırıldığını göstermektedir.
Shin ve ark. [21] gerçekleştirdikleri çalışmada, femtosaniye lazeri ile %10 Co içeren tungsten karbür
malzemede delik açabilmek için gerekli olan eşik enerji yoğunluk değerini araştırmışlardır. 1026 nm dalga
boyunda ve 100 kHz frekans değerinde gerçekleştirdikleri deneylerde karbür plakalarda delik delme/talaşlı

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işleme yapabilmek için gerekli eşik enerji yoğunluğu değerini 0.33 J/cm2 olarak tespit etmişlerdir. Ding ve
ark. [22] yaptıkları araştırmada, femtosaniye lazeri vasıtasıyla 50-200 mm/s kesme hızı aralığında, 1,92-11,20
W ortalama lazer güç çıkışı değerlerinde, WC-Co malzemeye çeşitli boyutlarda gravürler açmışlar ve yüzeyin
kesme derinlikleri ile pürüzlülük değerlerini incelemişlerdir. Sonuç olarak lazer tarama hızları ile kaldırılan
talaş miktarı arasındaki ilişkiyi grafiğe çevirerek gelecek çalışmalar için anlamlı hale getirmişlerdir.

Materyal ve Yöntem
Deneylerde 2,18 mm kalınlığa, 20,3 mm ve 21,5 mm kenar uzunluklarına sahip, %8,82 kobalt içeren Şekil
1’de görülen tungsten karbür plaka kullanılmıştır. Plaka, standart üretim prosedürlerine göre, 5 eksen taşlama
operasyonundan sonra kesici uç (insert) olarak piyasaya sunulması planlanan yarı mamül malzemedir.

Şekil 1: Tungsten karbür plaka.

Plakanın üzerine Şekil 2’de görüldüğü gibi numaralandırma yapılmıştır. Her numara alanına farklı lazer kesme
hızı ile gravür açma işlemi gerçekleştirilmiştir.

Şekil 2: Numaralandırılmış ve farklı lazer ilerleme hızlarında işlenmiş tungsten karbür plaka.

Lazer ile yüzey gravürü oluşturma işlemlerinde 1064 nm dalga boyuna sahip darbe modlu-QB anahtarlamalı
50 W Nd:YAG lazer kaynağı (Wuhan Raycus Fiber Laser Technologies Co., Ltd.) kullanılmıştır. Lazer
makinesinin güç yoğunluk dağılımı Gauss eğrisine (TEM 00) uymaktadır. Lazer ile işleme esnasında herhangi
bir soğutma işlemi uygulanmamış işlemler atmosferik koşullarda gerçekleştirilmiştir. Deneylerde kullanılan
Nd:YAG fiber lazer makinesinin teknik özellikleri Tablo 1’de, makineye ait alt bileşenlerin gösterildiği şematik
çizim ise Şekil 3’te görülmektedir.

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Nd:YAG Fiber Lazer Makinesi Teknik Özellikleri

Lazer Tipi Nanosaniye Lazeri
Ortalama Çıkış Gücü (W) 50
Dalga boyu (nm) 1060~1085
Darbe süresi (ns) 120~150@50 kHz

Tablo 1: Fiber lazer makinesinin özellikleri.

Şekil 3: Fiber lazer makinesinin alt bileşenlerinin şematik gösterimi.

Tungsten karbür plakanın numaralandırılmış bölümlerine etki ettirilen lazer parametreleri Tablo 2’de
görüldüğü gibidir. Kesme derinliği üzerinde lazer kesme hızının etkisini görebilmek için lazer gücü, frekans
ve spot çapı değerleri sabit tutulmuş sadece lazer kesim hızı değerleri değiştirilmiştir. Yapılan deneylerde lazer
gücü 50 W, frekans 50 kHz ve spot çapı 0,05 mm olarak seçilmiştir.
Gravür
Güç (%) Frekans (kHz) Spot Çapı (mm) Hız (mm/s)
Numarası
1 100 50 0,05 1
2 100 50 0,05 2
3 100 50 0,05 4
4 100 50 0,05 8
5 100 50 0,05 16
6 100 50 0,05 32
7 100 50 0,05 64
8 100 50 0,05 128

Tablo 2: Deneylerde seçilen lazer parametre değerleri.

Deneysel Çıktılar
Tungsten karbür plaka üzerinde gerçekleştirilen çalışmalar sonucunda, açılan 8 adet gravüre ait lazer kesme
hızına bağlı olarak değişen kesme derinlikleri Tablo 3’te belirtildiği gibi ölçülmüştür. Ölçülen değerlerin
grafiğe yansımış şekli Şekil 3’te görülmektedir. Grafikten de görüldüğü üzere, lazer kesme hızı azaldıkça
açılan gravür derinliği artmaktadır. Lazer kesme hızı ve kesme derinliği değerlerine göre çizdirilen grafikte 3
ana bölgenin oluşumundan bahsedilebilir. 7 ve 8 numaralı gravür değerlerini kapsayan 1. bölgede kesme
derinliklerinin 50 mikron ve altında olduğu, 5 ve 6 numaralı gravür değerlerini kapsayan 2. bölgede kesme
derinliklerinin 50 ve 100 mikron arasında seyrettiği, 1, 2, 3 ve 4 numaralı gravür değerlerini kapsayan bölgede
ise kesme derinliklerinin 100 mikron ve üzeri olduğu yorumu yapılabilir.

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Gravür Numarası 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Kesme Hızı (mm/s) 1 2 4 8 16 32 64 128
Kesme Derinliği (mm) 0,220 0,192 0,171 0,119 0,088 0,053 0,045 0,041

Tablo 3: Lazer kesme hızına bağlı olarak kesme derinliği ölçümleri.

140

120
Lazer Kesme Hızı (mm/s)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0,025 0,05 0,075 0,1 0,125 0,15 0,175 0,2 0,225 0,25

Kesme Derinliği (mm)

Şekil 4: 2 mm/s, 32 mm/s ve 64 mm/s ilerleme hızları ile açılmış gravür derinlikleri

1000x dijital mikroskop ile büyütülerek incelenen gravür bölgelerine ait fotoğraf Şekil 5’te görüldüğü gibidir.
Fotoğraftan da görüleceği gibi 2 mm/s lazer kesme hızı ile açılan gravüre ait bu görüntüde gravür bölgesinin
kaynak dikişi bölgesine benzeyen bir görüntüde olduğu gözlemlenmiştir. V şekline benzeyen bu görüntü lazer
makinesinin gönderdiği ışınların gauss eğrisi ile uyumlu olmasının bir sonucudur. Isıdan etkilenen bölge V
şeklini çevreleyen bölge boyunca belirginleşmiş durumdadır. 2 mm/s, 32 mm/s ve 128 mm/s lazer kesme
hızları ile açılmış kesme derinlikleri ise sağlıklı bir karşılaştırma yapılabilmesi için Şekil 6’da yanyana
verilmiştir. Lazer kesme hızının artması ile derinliğin azaldığı ve gravür bölgesinin ‘V’ şeklinden ‘U’ şekline
doğru bir görünüm oluşturduğu gözlemlenmiştir.

Şekil 5: Gravür bölgesi ve ısıdan etkilenen bölge.

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Şekil 6: 2 mm/s, 32 mm/s ve 128 mm/s lazer kesme hızları ile açılmış kesme derinlikleri.

Sonuç
Son yıllarda popülerliği oldukça artan yüzeylere lazer ışınları ile tekstür açma işlemlerinde, lazer
parametrelerinin malzeme üzerinde oluşturduğu etkileri gözlemlemek için tungsten karbür plaka üzerinde
farklı lazer kesme hızlarında gravür açma çalışmaları gerçekleştirilmiştir. Numaralandırılmış 8 bölgede farklı
lazer kesme hızları ile gravür açılan tungsten karbür plakada kesme derinlikleri ölçülmüş ve 1000x dijital
mikroskop görüntüleri yorumlanmıştır.
Literatür ile uyumlu sonuçlar elde edilen bu çalışmada, ortalama indike güç sabit kalmak kaydı ile kesme
derinliği ile ilerleme hızı arasında ters orantı olduğu gözlemlenmiştir. Ayrıca, lazer kesme hızının artması ile
birlikte oluşan gravür bölgesinin açılan kanal şeklinin de değiştiği tespit edilmiştir. Yine literatür ile uyumlu
olarak artan lazer kesme hızlarında gravür derinliğinin hız değerinden etkilenme oranın azaldığı sonucuna
varılmıştır. Yapılan bu çıkarımların, kesici takımlar üzerine yapılacak çalışmalarda bir girdi olarak kullanılması
planlanmaktadır.

Teşekkür
Bu çalışma İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi BAP Birimi tarafından MGA-2023-45222 numaralı genel araştırma
projesi ile desteklenmektedir. Yazarlar, deneylerin yapılmasında malzeme ve cihaz tedariğini sağlayan Buse
Dental San. ve Tic. Ltd. Şti. ve Moncarb Kesici Takımlar San. ve Tic. Ltd. Şti. firmalarına, ayrıca projenin
fonlanmasını sağlayan İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi BAP Birimi’ne teşekkür ederler.

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[4] Mao, B., Siddaiah, A., Liao, Y., & Menezes, P. L. 2020. “Laser surface texturing and related techniques
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[7] Kawasegi, N., Sugimori, H., Morimoto, H., Morita, N., & Hori, I. 2009. “Development of cutting tools
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[11] Baumann, R., Bouraoui, Y., Teicher, U., Selbmann, E., Ihlenfeldt, S., & Lasagni, A. F. 2023. “Tailored
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[12] Bhaduri, D., Dimov, S., & Soo, S. L. 2016. “Laser texturing of tungsten carbide tools: the effects on
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[21] Shin, Young-Gwan & Ji, Seok-Young & Choi, Junha & Cho, Sung-Hak. 2022. “Morphologies of
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[22] Li, Guangxian & Li, Xuanang & He, Guichao & Fan, Ruiguang & Li, Feiyuan & Ding, Songlin. 2023.
“Surface Quality and Material Removal Rate in Fabricating Microtexture on Tungsten Carbide via
Femtosecond Laser”. Micromachines. 14. 1143. 10.3390/mi14061143.

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EĞRİ YÜZEYLİ KOMPOZİT MALZEMELERİN DELİNMESİNDE

PÜRÜZLÜLÜK VE DELAMİNASYONUN İNCELENMESİ
Erkan Bahçea , Burak Özdemirb , Ender Emirc, Erol Kılıçkapd and Ahmet Yardımedene

a,İnonu University Enginering Faculty Mechanical Engineering, Malatya/TURKEY, erkan.bahce@inonu.edu.tr

b, Malatya Turgut Ozal University Hekimhan MES Vocational School, , Malatya, Turkey, burak.ozdemir@ozal.edu.tr
c, Elbistan Vocational School, İstiklal University, Kahramanmaraş, Turkey, enderemir44@ gmail.com
d, Dicle University, Enginering Faculty Mechanical Engineering, Diyarbakır/TURKEY, ekilickap@dicle.edu.tr
e, Dicle University, Enginering Faculty Mechanical Engineering, Diyarbakır/TURKEY, yrdahmet@gmail.com

Özet
Günümüzde gelişen teknoloji ile birlikte farklı üretim koşullarının ortaya çıkması kaçınılmaz bir hale gelmiştir.
Özellikle sağladığı üstün mekanik özellikler ve hafiflik nedeni ile cam fiber takviyeli polimer (GFRP) ve
karbon fiber takviyeli polimer (CFRP) kompozitler oldukça ilgi görmektedir. Ancak teknolojik gelişmeler ile
birlikte özellikle havacılık alanında ihtiyaç duyulan kompozit malzemelerin talaşlı imalatında yüzeye dik
olarak deliklerin açılmasının yanı sıra eğimli yüzeylerde de delik açma gereksinimi duyulmaktadır. Bu
çalışmada B-spline eğri ile oluşturulan eğimli yüzey cam ve karbon fiber takviyeli polimer malzemeler ile
üretilmiştir. Yüzeyin 45° eğimli bölgesinde üç farklı ilerleme değeri kullanılarak delikler açılmış ve pürüzlülük
ile delaminasyon ölçümü yapılmıştır. Genel olarak her iki malzemede ilerlemenin artışının pürüzlülük ve
delaminasyonu artırdığı ve bu artışın GFRP malzemede daha yüksek olduğu görülmüştür.
Anahtar Kelimeler: FRP, Eğimli Yüzey, Delme.

INVESTIGATION OF ROUGHNESS AND DELAMINATION IN DRILLING

CURVE SURFACE COMPOSITE MATERIALS

Abstract
Today, it has become inevitable that different production conditions have emerged with the developing
technology. Glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP) and carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites
have attracted a lot of attention, especially due to their superior mechanical properties and light weight.
However, with technological developments, there is a need to drill holes perpendicular to the surface as well
as on inclined surfaces in the machining of composite materials, which are needed especially in the field of
aviation. In this study, the inclined surface created by the B-spline curve was produced with glass and carbon
fiber reinforced polymer materials. Holes were drilled in the 45° inclined region of the surface using three
different feed values and roughness and delamination measurements were made. In general, it has been
observed that increasing the feed rate in both materials increases roughness and delamination, and this increase
is higher in the GFRP material.

Keywords: FRP, Inclined Surface, Drilling.

Giriş
Fiber takviyeli polimer (FTP) sağladığı hafiflik, iyi korozyon direnci, yüksek sertlik ve düşük termal genleşme
gibi üstün özelliklere sahiptir [1,2]. Bu nedenle FTP kompozit malzemeler teknoloji endüsrisinin gelişmesi ile
birlikte yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır [3,4]. FTP kompozit malzemeler içerisinde cam fiber takviyeli polimer
(GFRP) ve carbon fiber takviyeli polimer (CFRP) kompozitler düşük maliyet ve sağladığı üstün mekanik
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özellikler nedeni ile endüstride tercih edilmektedir [2]. Ayrıca üstün özellikli bu kompozitler kullanım
alanlarına bağlı olarak belirli bir gometride üretilmiş olasalarda, montaj işlemleri için talaşlı imalat yöntemleri
ile şekillendirilmesi gerekmektedir [3,5]. Ancak GFRP ve CFRP kompozitler homojen olmayan iç yapılarından
dolayı talaşlı imalat esnasında şekillendirilmesi zor malzemelerdir [6]. Özellikle talaşlı imalat esnasında
delaminasyon, çapak, elyaf yırtılması gibi kompozit malzemelerde görülen hasarlar meydana gelmektedir
[7,8]. Bu nedenle talaşlı imalat işlemleri sırasında uygun işleme parametrelerinin seçimi kompozit
malzemelerin mukavemetini doğrudan etkilemesinden dolayı kompozit malzemelerin delinmesinde meydana
gelen delaminasyonun belirlenmesi için çalışmalar yapılmıştır. Engin ve Yaka (2023) GFRP kompozit
malzemelerin delinmesinde delme paramtrelerinin delik kalitesine etkilerini araştırmışlardır. Elde ettikleri
sonuçlarda ilerleme oranın artmasının delaminasyon faktörünün artışı üzerinde belirgin bir etkiye sahip
olduğunu ve kesme hızının artması ile birlikte delaminasyon faktörünün azaldığını belirtmişlerdir [9]. Mahrous
(2023) FTP kompozitlerin delinmesinden donra delaminasyon hasarının oluşumun tespiti için istatistiksel
analizler ile destekleyici deneysel bir çalışma gerçekleştirmişlerdir. Bulgularında ANOVA analizine göre
delaminasyon oluşumuna en fazla katkının iş mili hızından kaynaklı olduğunu söylemişlerdir [10]. Aadepu
(2023) CFRP kompozitlerde delme nedenli delaminasyon hasarını en aza indirmek için kesme parametrelerini
optimize etmeyi amaçlayan bie çalışma gerçekleştirmişleridr. İşleme parametreleri arasında lif yönelimi en
önemli etkiye sahip olup bunu ilerleme ve hızın takip ettiğini ortaya koymuşlardır [11]. Lukács ve ark. (2023)
yeni bir dijital görüntü işleme algoritması kullanılarak delme kaynaklı delaminasyonun ölçümü üzerine bir
çalışma gerçekleştirmişlerdir. Geliştirdikleri yöntem ile delme kaynaklı delaminasyonun büyüklüğünü
otomatik olarak ölçülebileceğini kanıtlamışlardır [12]. Mahesh ve Kandasamy (2023) ANOVA yaklaşımını
kullanarak hibrit GFRP/Al2O3 kompozitlerin delaminasyonunu ve konikliğini en aza indirmek için delme
parametreleri üzerinde deneysel araştırma yapmışlardır. Sonuçlarında iş mili hızının ve ilerleme hızının
delaminasyon üzerinde önemli bir etkiye sahip olduğunu göstermişlerdir [1].
FTP kompozitler kullanılarak özellikle havacılık ve otomotiv alanında kullanılması planlanan parçalarda
eğimli deliklerin açılması gerekmektedir [13,14]. Literatürde eğimli deliklerin açılması üzerine yapılan
çalışmaların sınırlı olduğu görülmektedir. Kannan ve Pervaiz (2020) kriyojenik ortamda CFRP kompozitlere
eğimli deliklerin açılması sonucunda yüzey morfolojinin araştırmışlardır Çalışmalarında CFRP kompozit
yüzeyine 30˚, 60˚ ve 90˚’de delik delme işlemi yapmışlardır [13]. Pervaiz ve ark (2020) CFRP kompozitlerin
eğimli delinmesini araştırmışlardır. Kuru kesme koşullarında, 90° geleneksel eğim açısıyla karşılaştırıldığında
30° eğimde itme kuvvetleri 2,38 kat daha yüksek bulunmuştur [14].
Bu çalışmada eğimli GFRP ve CFRP malzemelerin delinmesinde ilerlemenin pürüzlülük ve delaminasyona
etkisi araştırılmıştır. B-Spline eğri ile oluşturulan eğimli yüzey, cam ve karbon fiber takviyeli polimer malzeme
ile üretilmiş ve delinerek, delik içi pürüzlülüğü ve delaminasyonu ölçülmüştür. İstatistiksel analiz ile
ilerlemenin etkisi tartışılmıştır.

Materyal ve Metot
Deneyde kullanılan kompozit malzemenin yüzey şekli, serbest şekilli yüzeylerde geometrik hesaplama
kolaylığı sağlayan B-Spline eğri ile tasarlanmıştır. Eşitlik 1’de verilen matematiksel formül yardımıyla, eşitlik
2’de gösterilen B-Spline eğri formülü elde edilmiştir [15].
𝑛

𝑟(𝑡) = ∑ 𝑑𝑖 𝑁𝑖,𝑘 (𝑡) (1)

𝑖=0

𝑥 = 10𝑡 − 80
𝑦 = 3.125(𝑡 2 − 18𝑡 + 81)
(2)

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Eşitlik 2 kullanılarak elde edilen eğri ve serbest şekilli yüzeyin CAD görüntüsü Şekil 1’de görülmektedir.
Numune boyutları 5x28x100 mm’dir.

B (10𝑡 − 80, 3.125(𝑡 2 − 18𝑡 + 81)

Şekil 1: B-Spline eğri ve serbest şekilli yüzeyin CAD görüntüsü.

GFRP ve CFRP fiber takviyeli serbest formlu kompozit plakalar, matris olarak LR300 epoksi reçine ve LH300
sertleştirici kullanılarak üretildi. Epoksi reçine ve sertleştiricinin karışım oranı ağırlıkça 100:50±2gr'dır. LR300
epoksi reçinenin yoğunluğu 1,15 g/cm3, LH300 sertleştiricinin yoğunluğu ise 1,05 g/cm3'tür. El yatırması
yöntemiyle üretilen kompozit levhalarda kullanılan cam elyaf ve karbon elyaf kumaşların ağırlıkları sırasıyla
200 gr/m2 ve 245 gr/m2'dir. GFRP ve CFRP kompozitler 10 katman halinde üretildi.
Delme işlemi Brother marka Speedio S500X1 model CNC Dik İşleme Merkezi kullanılarak yapılmıştır.
Tezgâh maksimum 10.000 dev/dak hıza ve 9,5 kW iş mili gücüne sahiptir. Deneyler, uç açısı 118° ve çapı 10
mm olan DIN338 HSS matkaplar kullanılarak gerçekleştirildi. Açılı yüzey etkisini incelemek amacıyla her iki
plaka da yüzeyin 45° eğimli olduğu bölgede delinmiştir. İlerlemenin etkisinin incelenmesi amacıyla delme
işlemi sabit devir (1500 dev/dak) ve 3 farklı ilerleme değeri (0.15, 0.25, 0.35 mm/dev) kullanılarak uygulandı.
Her delik üç kez tekrarlandı. Delme parametrelerinin delaminasyon ve pürüzlülük üzerindeki etkisini
incelemek için ANOVA analizi kullanıldı. İstatistiksel analizler Minitab paket programında yapıldı.

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GFRP ve CFRP plakaların delik yüzey pürüzlülüğü Mitutoyo SJ210 cihazı ile ölçüldü. Alet probu 6 mm
çapındadır ve her ölçüm 0,25 mm örnekleme uzunluğunda yapılmıştır. Deneysel stabilitenin sağlanması
amacıyla delik merkez eksenden 90°'lik parçalara bölünerek her delikten 4'er ölçüm alınarak değerlerin
ortalaması kullanıldı.
FRP malzemelerin delinmesi sırasında delik çıkışlarında delaminasyon adı verilen hasarlar meydana gelir. Bu
hasarlar delik etrafındaki fiber yapısını bozarak malzemenin mekanik olarak zayıflamasına ve erken
yorulmasına neden olur. Delaminasyon ölçümü için parçanın delik giriş ve çıkışından Dino-Lite dijital
mikroskop ile görüntüler alındı. Delaminasyon ve delik alanı görüntü işleme yöntemleri kullanılarak
ölçülmüştür (Şekil 2).

Şekil 2: Delik çevresinde oluşan delaminasyon alanı.

Delik etrafındaki bu hasarın belirlenmesi için delaminasyon alanının (Adel) delik alanına (Ao) oranıyla
hesaplanan delaminasyon faktörü (fd) denklemi kullanılır (Eşitlik 3) [16].

𝐴𝑑𝑒𝑙
𝒇𝒅 = (3)
𝐴0

Tartışma ve Sonuçlar
Delme işlemleri sonrasında delaminasyon ve pürüzlülük ölçümleri yapılmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlar Tablo 1’de
sunulmuştur.

GFRP CFRP
Deney Yüzey Devir İlerleme Pürüzlülük Delaminasyon Pürüzlülük Delaminasyon
No açısı (°) (dev/dak) (mm/dev) (µm) (fd) (µm) (fd)
0.15 1.013 0.147 0.680 0.079
1 0.25 1.028 0.191 0.821 0.186
0.35 1.877 0.240 1.418 0.215
0.15 1.223 0.168 0.604 0.141
2 45 1500 0.25 1.460 0.181 0.608 0.171
0.35 2.855 0.230 0.801 0.196
0.15 0.767 0.193 0.620 0.105
3 0.25 1.151 0.230 0.677 0.115
0.35 1.907 0.355 1.059 0.314

Tablo 1: Delaminasyon ve pürüzlülük sonuçları.

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İlerleme değerlerinin pürüzlülük ve delaminasyona etkisinin anlamlılığı ANOVA analizi ile araştırılmıştır.
GFRP numunenin ilerleme değerlerine göre pürüzlülük değişimi p=0.08<0.05 değeri ile anlamlıdır (Tablo 2).
CFRP numunede benzer şekilde p=0.025<0.05 değeri ile ilerlemenin pürüzlülük üzerindeki etkisi anlamlıdır
(Tablo 3). Her iki numunede ilerleme arttıkça pürüzlülük değeri artış göstermiştir (Şekil 3). GFRP
numunelerde, CFRP’ye göre pürüzlülük daha fazladır. Bunun sebebi, CFRP malzemenin daha sert olması ve
ilerleme arttıkça takımın katmanları kesmeden itme eğilimine daha fazla direnç göstermesidir [17]. İlerleme
artışına oranla pürüzlülük artış miktarı CFRP malzemede daha düşüktür. Daha yumuşak olan GFRP katmanları
takımın itme kuvvetinin ilerleme ile artması sonucu liflerin kesilmeden kopmasına ve pürüzlülüğe neden
olmaktadır [18].

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value

İlerleme 1 2.2034 2.2034 13.62 0.008
Error 7 1.1324 0.1618
Total 8 3.3358

Tablo 2: GFRP numune pürüzlülük ANOVA sonuçları.

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value

İlerleme 1 0.31465 0.31465 8.12 0.025
Error 7 0.27115 0.03874
Total 8 0.5858

Tablo 3: CFRP numune pürüzlülük ANOVA sonuçları.

Şekil 3: İlerleme-pürüzlülük değişim grafiği.

Şekil 4’de GFRP ve CFRP numunelerin delik çıkışındaki delaminasyon alanları görülmektedir. Delaminasyon
değerlerinin ANOVA analizi incelendiğinde, GFRP numune için p=0.02<0.05 değeri ile ilerleme etkisinin
anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir (Tablo 4). CFRP numunede de benzer şekilde p=0.007<0.05 değeri ile
ilerlemenin delaminasyon üzerindeki etkisi anlamlıdır (Tablo 6).

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GFRP CFRP

0.15 mm/dev

0.25 mm/dev
10 mm

0.35 mm/dev

10 mm 10 mm

Şekil 4: Deliklerin delaminasyon alanları.

Her iki numunede ilerleme arttıkça delaminasyon değerinin arttığı ve bu artışın GFRP malzemede daha fazla
olduğu görülmektedir (Şekil 5). Ortalama delaminasyon değerlerine bakıldığında, GFRP’nin CFRP’ye göre
daha fazla olduğu görülmektedir. Delik çıkışının açılı olması ve cam fiber liflerinin, karbon fibere göre daha
zayıf olması nedeni ile, GFRP numunede takımın çıkış noktasından başlayarak dışa doğru daha büyük
kopmalar gerçekleşmektedir [19]. CFRP numunede karbon liflerin nispeten daha sert olması dayanımı
artırmakta ve takımın daha verimli bir kesimle çıkış yüzey deformasyonunu azalttığı görülmektedir [20].

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value

İlerleme 1 0.0167 0.0167 9.0400 0.02
Error 7 0.0130 0.0019
Total 8 0.0297

Tablo 4: GFRP numune delaminasyon ANOVA sonuçları.

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Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value

İlerleme 1 0.0267 0.0267 13.9400 0.0070
Error 7 0.0134 0.0019
Total 8 0.0401

Tablo 5: CFRP numune delaminasyon ANOVA sonuçları.

Şekil 5: İlerleme-delaminasyon değişim grafiği.

Sonuçlar
Bu çalışmada GFRP ve CFRP malzeme ile üretilmiş, 45° yüzey eğimli malzemeler, 1500 dev/dak ve 3 farklı
(0.15,0.25,0.35 mm/dev) ilerleme değeri ile delinerek pürüzlülük ve delaminasyon değişimi incelenmiştir.
Çalışmada ulaşılan sonuçlar şu şekildedir;
-İki malzemede de ilerlemenin artması ile pürüzlülüğün arttığı görülmüştür. GFRP malzemenin daha yumuşak
olması, takımın katmanları kesmeden ilerlemesine ve CFRP malzemeye göre daha fazla pürüzlülük oluşmasına
neden olmuştur. 0.15, 0.25 ve 0.35 mm/dev ilerleme için GFRP malzemede sırasıyla ortalama 1.001, 1.213,
2.214 μm, CFRP malzemede 0.6347, 0.7020 ve 1.0927 μm pürüzlülük oluşmuştur.
-Delik çıkışında meydana gelen delaminasyon ilerlemenin artışı ile artmıştır. CFRP malzemede GFRP
malzemeye göre daha az delaminasyon oluşmuştur. 0.15, 0.25 ve 0.35 mm/dev ilerleme için GFRP malzemede
sırasıyla ortalama 0.1693, 0.2007, 0.2750, CFRP malzemede ise 0.1083, 0.1573 ve 0.2417 değerinde
delaminasyon ölçülmüştür.
GFRP malzemenin, CFRP’ye göre daha yumuşak bir yapıya sahip olması nedeni ile pürüzlülük ve
delaminasyon değerleri daha yüksek gözlemlenmiştir. Bu özelliği düz yüzeyde yapılan deneylerin sonuçları
ile benzerlik göstermektedir. Yüzeyin eğimli olması her iki malzeme için pürüzlülük ve delaminasyon
değerlerini artırmıştır. Çalışma GFRP ve CFRP malzemelerin delinmesinde eğrisel yüzeyin delik kalitesini
gözlemleme ve düz yüzey ile karşılaştırma açısından literatüre katkı sağlamaktadır.

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References

[1] Gadhamsetty, G.M., Jayakrishna, K. 2023. “Experimental investigations on the drilling parameters to
minimize delamination and taperness of hybrid GFRP/Al2O3 composites by using ANOVA approach”, World
Journal of Engineering, Volume 20/2, Pages 376-386.
[2] Ozdemir, B., Kilickap, E., Bahce, E., Yardimeden, A., Emir, E. 2024. “Optimization of parameters for
drilling composite materials with freeform surfaces”, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Volume 39/1,
Pages 55-68.
[3] Lukacs, T., Pereszlai, C., Geier, N. 2023. “Delamination measurement in glass fibre reinforced polymer
(GFRP) composite based on image differencing”, Composites Part B, Volume 248, 110381.
[4] Geier, N., Paulo, D.J., Szalay, T. 2019. “Advanced cutting tools and technologies for drilling carbon fibre
reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites: a review”, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing,
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[5] Istvan, P. D., Geier, N., Pereszlai, C., Xu, J. 2021. “A critical review of the drilling of CFRP composites:
burr formation, characterisation and challenges”. Composites Part B: Engineering, Volume 223, 109155.
[6] Hegedus, G., Sarkadi, T., Czigany, T. 2020. “Self-sensing composite: reinforcing fiberglass bundle for
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[7] Kumar, P.K., Vamsi, K.J.N., Sharma, P.J. 2022. “Prediction of drilling induced delamination and circularity
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[8] Monoranu, M., Mitchell, R.L., Kerrigan, K., Fairclough, J.P.A., Ghadbeigi, H. 2022. “The effect of particle
reinforcements on chip formation and machining induced damage of modified epoxy carbon fibre reinforced
polymers (CFRPs)”, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, Volume 154, 106793.
[9] Engin, K.E., Yaka, H. 2023. “Effect of drilling parameters on hole quality in drilling of pultruded GFRP
composite material: Surface roughness, thrust force and delamination factor”, Niğde Ömer Halisdemir
University Journal of Engineering Sciences, Volume 12(4), Pages 1573-1580.
[10] Mahrous, A.B. 2023. “An Experimental Study of the Surface Roughness and Delamination Damage after
Drilling Fiber Reinforced Polymeric Composites”, Engineering Research Journal, Volume 46, Pages 457-469.
[11] Aadepu, S., Lachiram, Ramesh, B. 2023. “Optimizing Cutting Parameters for Minimizing Drilling-
Induced Delamination Damage in CFRP Composites”, ICETE 2023, Pages 1125–1137.
[12] Tamás, L., Csongor, P., Gergely, M., Norbert, G. 2023. “Drilling-induced delamination measurement
using a novel digital image processing algorithm”, 16th CIRP Conference on Intelligent Computation in
Manufacturing Engineering, CIRP ICME ‘22, Italy, Pages 828-832.
[13] Sathish, K., Salman, P. 2020. “Surface morphology of inclined CFRP holes when machined under
cryogenic environment”, Materials and Manufacturing Processes, Volume 35, Pages 1228-1239.
[14] Salman, P., Sathish, K., Dehong, H., Ramulu, M. 2020. “Ecofriendly inclined drilling of carbon fiber
reinforced polymers (CFRP)”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Volume
111, Pages 2127–2153.
[15] Prautzsch, H., Boehm, W., & Paluszny, M. 2002. Bézier and B-spline techniques (Vol. 6). Berlin:
Springer.
[16] Özdemir, B., Yardimeden, A., Bahce, E., Kilickap, E., & Emir, E. 2023. Analysis of drilling behaviour in
jute fibres reinforced natural composites. Journal of Natural Fibers, 20(1), 2159608.
[17] Xu, J., Geier, N., Shen, J., Krishnaraj, V., & Samsudeensadham, S. 2023. A review on CFRP drilling:
fundamental mechanisms, damage issues, and approaches toward high-quality drilling. Journal of Materials
Research and Technology.
[18] Yazman S‚ 2021. The effects of back-up on drilling machinability of filament wound GFRP composite
pipes: mechanical characterization and drilling tests. J Manuf Process 2021;68:1535e52.
[19] Ünüvar, A., & Öztürk, O. (2023). Machinability analysis of delamination and thrust force in drilling of
pure and added GFRP composites. Journal of Composite Materials, 57(1), 3-21.
[20] Li, Y., Wang, B., & Zhou, L. 2023. Study on the effect of delamination defects on the mechanical
properties of CFRP composites. Engineering Failure Analysis, 153, 107576.

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YÜKSEK PERFORMANSLI METAL KOMPOZİT İSTİF MALZEMELERİN

DELME İŞLEMLERİ İÇİN PROSES TASARIMI
Mete KAYIHANa , Umut KARAGÜZELb , ve Mustafa BAKKALa

a, Istanbul Technical University Mechanical Engineering Faculty Mechanical Engineering Department,

Istanbul/TURKEY, kayihanm@itu.edu.tr
b, Yıldız Technical University Mechanical Engineering Faculty Mechatronic Engineering Department,
Istanbul/TURKEY

Abstract
Composite materials have been increasingly used in many fields such as aviation and automotive sectors since
the day they were discovered. Although these materials come to the fore with their high mechanical properties,
metal alloys have been added to these materials in order to achieve higher rigidity and better fatigue resistance.
In addition to CFRP, aluminum and titanium alloys, which offer high strength and lightness, are also used
extensively in the aviation industry. As a result of the tests, it was seen that the parameter that most affects the
force increase is the feed rate. While the temperatures were measured higher in the Al/CFRP/Ti stack, the
highest tool wear obtained in the Al/CFRP/Ti stack was measured as 336.55 μm at a feed rate of 0.1 mm/rev.
The lowest values were measured as 125.72 μm at a feed rate of 0.05 mm/rev in the Ti/CFRP/Al stack. Also,
delamination is higher in the Ti/CFRP/Al stack.
Keywords: Hybrid composite, delamination, drilling temperatures
Özet
Kompozit malzemeler keşfedildiği günden bu yana havacılık ve otomotiv sektörü gibi birçok alanda giderek
artan bir şekilde kullanılmaktadır. Bu malzemeler yüksek mekanik özellikleriyle ön plana çıksa da daha yüksek
sertlik ve daha iyi yorulma direnci elde edebilmek amacıyla bu malzemelere metal alaşımları da eklenmiştir.
CFRP'nin yanı sıra yüksek mukavemet ve hafiflik sunan alüminyum ve titanyum alaşımları da havacılık
sektöründe yoğun olarak kullanılmaktadır. Testler sonucunda kuvvet artışını en çok etkileyen parametrenin
ilerleme hızı olduğu görülmüştür. Al/CFRP/Ti istifinde sıcaklıklar daha yüksek ölçülürken Al/CFRP/Ti
istifinde elde edilen en yüksek takım aşınmaları 0.1 mm/dev ilerleme hızında 336.55 μm olarak ölçülmüştür.
En düşük değerler Ti/CFRP/Al yığınında 0.05 mm/dev ilerleme hızında 125.72 μm olarak ölçülmüştür. Aynı
zamanda Ti/CFRP/Al istif sırasında delaminasyon oranı Al/CFRP/Ti istifine göre daha yüksektir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Hibrit kompozit, delaminasyon, delik delme sıcaklığı

Giriş
Kompozit malzemeler son yıllarda üstün mekanik özelliklerinden dolayı havacılık, tıp teknolojisi ve
motorsporları gibi çok çeşitli endüstrilerde yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır [1-2]. Zamanla, yüksek mukavemet
ile yakıt tüketimini azaltmayı amaçlayan ekolojik hususlar arasında bir denge kurmak için polimerler ve
metaller gibi çeşitli malzeme kombinasyonlarını birleştiren kompozit malzeme kavramı gelişti. Bu
kompozitlere genel olarak hibrit kompozitler adı verilmektedir [3]. Bu tür daha fazla malzeme iş birlikleri ile
malzemelerin dezavantajlı özellikleri azaltılabilir veya bazı malzeme gruplarının avantajları, çalışma sektörüne
uygun olarak ve aynı zamanda üretken yaşam döngüsü maliyeti açısından ön plana çıkarılabilir [4,5]. Örneğin,
karbon elyaf takviyeli polimer kompozit malzemeler (CFRP), tek başına CFRP'ye kıyasla alüminyum ve/veya
titanyum alaşımlarıyla daha yüksek dayanıma sahip olabilir. Ayrıca hem alüminyum hem de titanyum
alaşımları yüksek özgül mukavemete, düşük elastik modüle ve düşük ısıl iletkenliğe sahip olduğundan, uzun
bakım döngüsü ve düşük işletme maliyetleri elde etmek amacıyla özellikle havacılık endüstrisinde düşük
ağırlıklı malzeme çalışmalarında sıklıkla tercih edilmektedir [6].
Her ne kadar 3 boyutlu baskı tüm endüstriyel operasyonlarda popülaritesini arttırsa da işleme hala net veya net
şekle yakın nihai üründe en çok tercih edilen üretim prosesidir [7]. Özellikle havacılık/uzay endüstrisinde delik
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delme, her iki işleme operasyonundan birini kapsayarak amiral gemisi olmaya devam ediyor [8]. Öte yandan
bu tür endüstrilerde delik delme işleminin hassas toleransla yapılması gerekir çünkü hatalı ürünlerin
reddedilmesi ve uzun işletme maliyetleri büyük şirketler için büyük ekonomik zararlara neden olur [9].
Saf alüminyumun işlenmesi nispeten kolay olmasına rağmen, düşük ve orta kesme hızlarında sürekli talaş
oluşumu ve kenarlarda oluşan birikmeler nedeniyle yüzey kalitesi problemli bir durum oluşturmaktadır [10].
Bu nedenle iş parçasının yüzey kalitesini arttırmak için en uygun alüminyum alaşımlarının seçilmesi
gerekmektedir. Ayrıca titanyum alaşımları, kimyasal afinitesi, düşük ısıl iletkenliği ve malzeme yüzeyinde
çapak oluşumu nedeniyle işlenmesi en zor metalik malzemelerden biri olarak kabul edilmektedir [11].
Tüm bu zorluklara rağmen bu malzemelerin bir arada kullanılması, malzemeye korozyon ve darbe dayanımının
artışı, yüksek sıcaklıklarda mükemmel çalışabilmesi gibi üstün özellikler katmaktadır [12]. Bu nedenle hibrit
malzemelerin istiflenmesi üzerine bazı talaşlı imalat çalışmaları yapılmıştır. Ancak mükemmel bir delme
işleminin tamamlanması, yalnızca istiflenmiş kompozitler için değil aynı zamanda kesici takımlar için de halen
zorlu bir işlemdir. Kompozit malzemelerde delaminasyon, elyaf kırılması ve çeşitli geometrik kusurlar,
titanyumda çapak oluşumu ve alüminyumda boyut toleransları gibi problemler nedeniyle proses
parametrelerinin dikkatli bir şekilde belirlenmesi gerekmektedir [13]. Ayrıca takım aşınmasını azaltacak kesici
takım seçilmeli ve her delme işleminden sonra kontrol yapılmalıdır.
Sıcaklık, hibrit kompozitlerin delinmesinde karşılaşılan en büyük zorluklardan biridir. Yüksek sıcaklık,
takımın daha hızlı aşınmasına neden olduğu için delme işlemi daha büyük kuvvetler altında gerçekleşir [14].
Ayrıca aşırı takım aşınması nedeniyle istenen tolerans değerleri, açılan delikler için amaçlanan değerlerden
sapar. Bunlara ek olarak yüksek sıcaklık, CFRP malzemenin delik çıkışlarında yanıklara neden olmakta ve
mekanik özelliklerini değiştirmektedir [14]. Ayrıca, yeni havacılık komponentleri, anizotropik doğası
nedeniyle özellikle karbon fiber takviyeli kompozitler üzerinde yüksek termomekanik gerilmelere maruz
kalmaktadır [15]. İlaveten, titanyum alaşımının talaş tahliyesindeki yüksek sıcaklıktaki talaşlar, kompozit
malzemenin yüzeyinde ek hasarlara neden olur [16].
Bu çalışmada iş parçası, ağırlıklı olarak havacılık endüstrisinde, uçak kanat-gövde bağlantılarında kullanılan,
Al6061, Ti6Al4V ve CFRP katmanlarından oluşan hibrit bir kompozittir. Bu hibrit kompozitlerin endüstrideki
bağlantısı için tek bir delik açma işlemi gerçekleştirilmektedir. Bu nedenle asıl amaç, tüm katmanların farklı
mekanik özelliklere sahip olması nedeniyle optimum delme parametrelerini bulmaktır. Hibrit kompozit için
optimum parametre setini bulmak amacıyla, bu istiflenmiş malzemeler, kapsamlı literatür araştırması amacıyla
üç farklı ilerleme hızında, üç farklı kesme hızında ve iki farklı istifleme düzeninde delinmiştir [14-16]. İlerleme
değerleri ve kesme hızları önceki çalışmalar incelenerek seçilmiştir. Havacılık endüstrisindeki pratik
uygulamada olduğu gibi, CFRP, titanyum ve alüminyum katmanların arasına yerleştirildi. Çalışmanın yeniliği,
iki farklı istifleme düzenini incelemesi nedeniyle açıkça ortaya çıkmaktadır. Bir istif sırası endüstride yaygın
olarak kullanılırken, diğer istif sırası Al/Ti/CFRP daha önceki çalışmamızda en az kuvvet/tork, enerji ve yüzey
pürüzlülüğü yarattığı için en üstün istif sırasıdır [10]. Bu çalışma, titanyum alaşımlarının yüksek sıcaklık
değerlerinin CFRP katmanlarının hem giriş hem de çıkış yüzeylerine potansiyel olarak zarar verebileceğinden,
sıcaklıkla ilgili en uygun istifleme sırasını belirlemeyi amaçlamaktadır. Ayrıca deliklerdeki CFRP
katmanlarının yüzey kalitesi ve delaminasyon dikkatle takip edildi.

Malzeme ve Metot
Bilhassa uçakların gövde-kanat bağlantılarında kullanılan Al6061, Ti6Al4V, CFRP hibrit kompozit malzemenin
delme işlemi incelenmiştir. International Journal of Soft Computing and Engineering'e göre hibrit kompozitler,
istenmeyen özelliklerin ortadan kaldırılması ve istenen özelliklerin birleştirilmesiyle üst düzey bir malzeme
elde edilmesi amacıyla iki veya daha fazla fiberin tek bir reçine içerisine yerleştirilmesiyle elde edilen
malzemeler olarak tanımlanmaktadır. Hibrit kompozitler, elyafların birbirine geçirilmesiyle elde edilebildiği
gibi plakaların istiflenmesiyle de elde edilebilir [1].

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CFRP, yüksek çekme mukavemeti/ağırlık oranına, düşük yoğunluğa, düşük termal genleşme katsayısına,
yüksek yorulma mukavemetine ve termal iletkenliğe sahip bir malzemedir.
Ti6Al4V alaşımı, %90 Titanyum, %6 Alüminyum ve %4 Vanadyum, maksimum %0.25 demir ve maksimum
%0.2 oksijenden oluşur. Yüksek mukavemete, yüksek korozyon direncine, iyi kaynaklanabilirliğe ve düşük
elastiklik modülüne sahiptir. Ti6Al4V'nin mekanik özellikleri Tablo 1'de verilmiştir [10].
Tablo 1: Ti6Al4V malzemesinin mekanik özellikleri

Akma Çekme Elastik

Sertlik Erime Yoğunluk
Malzeme dayanımı Dayanımı Modül
[HV] Sıcaklığı [C˚] [g/cm3]
[MPa] [MPa] [GPa]
Ti6Al4V 300-400 800-1100 900-1200 110-140 1660 4.43
Alüminyum, dikkate değer mukavemet/yoğunluk oranı nedeniyle endüstride çok kullanılan bir malzemedir.
Aynı zamanda elektrik ve ısı iletkenliği yüksek bir malzemedir. Yüzeyinde oluşan ince oksit tabakası nedeniyle
korozyon oluşumuna karşı oldukça dirençli bir malzemedir. Alüminyum aynı zamanda yumuşak bir malzeme
olması nedeniyle şekillendirme uygulamalarında kullanılabilecek harika bir metaldir. Al6061'in mekanik
özellikleri Tablo 2'de verilmiştir [11].
Tablo 2: Al6061 malzemesinin mekanik özellikleri

Akma Çekme Elastik

Sertlik Erime Sıcaklığı Yoğunluk
Malzeme dayanımı Dayanımı Modül
[HV] [˚C] [g/cm3]
[MPa] [MPa] [GPa]
Al6061 107 55-276 124-310 69 585 2.7

Öncelikle 300 x 300 mm titanyum, CFRP ve alüminyum plakalar güvenli bağlantı için uygun ölçülerde su
jetiyle hazırlandı. Ardından CNC dik işleme merkeziyle termokupl delikleri oluşturuldu. Termokupl delikleri
1.2 mm çapında TiCN takımla delindi. Operasyon sırasında oluşan kuvvetler Kistler 9272 dinamometreyle
ölçüldü. Kuvvet ve tork ölçümünde daha doğru sonuçlar elde etmek için 5070 yük amplifikatörü ve ölçüm
verilerinin saklanması için National Instrument 6024E DAQ PCMCIA veri toplama kartı kullanılmıştır.
Kesme işleminde ortaya çıkan sıcaklığın delik kalitesine ve takım aşınmasına etkisinin daha iyi anlaşılabilmesi
için işlem sırasında her bir plakada oluşan sıcaklık değerinin ölçüldü. Sonuç olarak giriş ve çıkış olarak CFRP
plakadan 2 adet, titanyum plakadan 1 adet ve alüminyum plakadan 1 adet sıcaklık ölçümü alınması hedeflendi.
Daha sonra plakalara açılacak delikler delik duvarından 1 mm uzaklıkta olacak şekilde termokupl kanalları
açıldı. Üç boyutlu görünümü Şekil 1’de verilmiştir.

Şekil 1: Delik delinen malzemenin üç boyutlu görseli.

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Delik delme işleminde Karcan marka KDF5F100103 kodlu, 138° uç açılı titanyum alüminyum nitrür (TiAlN)
kaplı karbür takım kullanıldı. TiAlN kaplamanın iyi bir ısı iletkenlik katsayısına sahip olması, delik delme
operasyonlarında talaş tahliyesi ile ısının büyük bir kısmını uzaklaştırma özelliğine sahiptir.
Hatayı en aza indirmek ve en doğru sonuçları elde etmek için bir parametre seti her deney iki kez tekrarlandı.
Takım aşınmasının sonuçlara etkisini azaltmak amacıyla her 6 işlemde 1 kez takım değiştirilir. Testler kesici
takım aşındıkça aşınma sonucunun en aza indirilmesini sağlayacak şekilde tasarlanmıştır.

Sonuçlar ve Değerlendirme
Şekil 2’de malzemenin delik delinmesi sonucunda oluşturulmuş bir adet örnek kuvvet zaman grafiği
verilmiştir. Şekil 3’te ise malzemenin delik delinmesi sonucunda oluşturulmuş bir adet örnek sıcaklık zaman
grafiği sunulmuştur.

Şekil 2: Kuvvet-zaman grafiği.

Şekil 3: Al-CFRP-Ti istifi sıcaklık grafiği.

Al/CFRP/Ti yığınında meydana gelen kuvvet, sıcaklık ve delaminasyon faktörü tabloları sırasıyla Tablo 3,4
ve 5’te verilmiştir.

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Tablo 3: Al/CFRP/Ti kuvvet tablosu.

İlerleme Değeri Kesme hızı Alüminyum CFRP Titanyum

[mm/dev] [min-1] [N] [N] [N]
0.05 1500 532.5 263.5 1120
0.05 2250 506 287 1162
0.05 3000 530 349.5 1202
0.05 3000 578 346 1283
0.05 2250 522 325.5 1175.5
0.05 1500 640 346.5 1438
0.075 1500 598.5 298.6 1183
0.075 2250 568 293 1160
0.075 3000 625 404 1193
0.075 3000 618 426.5 1212.5
0.075 2250 654 327.5 1248.5
0.075 1500 655 328 1246.5
0.1 1500 706.5 333 1314
0.1 2250 653.5 333 1301
0.1 3000 701 424.5 1339
0.1 3000 747 483.5 1369
0.1 2250 740.5 414 1344
0.1 1500 693.5 393.5 1436

Tablo 4: Al/CFRP/Ti sıcaklık tablosu.

İlerleme
Kesme hızı Alüminyum CFRP Giriş Titanyum
Değeri CFRP Çıkış [°C]
[min-1] [°C] [°C] [°C]
[mm/dev]
0.05 1500 62.5 60 108 217
0.05 2250 59 64 123 193
0.05 3000 80 67 103 146.5
0.075 1500 57.5 88 93.5 191.5
0.075 2250 69.5 78 102.5 196.5
0.075 3000 69 87 112.5 148
0.1 1500 57.5 84.5 100.5 163
0.1 2250 59 76.5 91 152
0.1 3000 63 81 104.5 173.5

Delme işleminin ardından CFRP levha üzerindeki giriş ve çıkış delik çapları da ölçülerek delaminasyon faktörü
hesaplandı. Delaminasyon faktörüne ek olarak takım aşınma değerleri de hesaplandı. Görüntüleme için Nikon
SMZ800 marka stereo optik mikroskop kullanıldı. Delaminasyon hasarı, istenen delik çapından daha büyük
deliklerle sonuçlanır. Delaminasyon faktörü, elde edilen delik çapının istenilen nominal delik çapına
bölünmesiyle kolayca hesaplanabilir. Delaminasyon faktörü Denklem 1 [17] kullanılarak hesaplanır.
Fd = Dmax /Dnom (1)

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Tablo 5: Delaminasyon faktörü.

İlerleme Değeri Delaminasyon Faktörü Delaminasyon Faktörü

Kesme hızı [min-1]
[mm/dev] (Giriş) (Çıkış)
0.05 1500 1 1.007
0.05 2250 1 1.0421
0.05 3000 1.0373 1.0334
0.05 3000 1.0171 1.0773
0.05 2250 1.0231 1.1164
0.05 1500 1.0308 1.1448
0.075 1500 1.0153 1.029
0.075 2250 1.0195 1.0394
0.075 3000 1.0095 1.0452
0.075 3000 1.0104 1.0501
0.075 2250 1.0082 1.0573
0.075 1500 1.01 1.05
0.1 1500 1.0149 1.0805
0.1 2250 1.0252 1.0587
0.1 3000 1.03 1.103
0.1 3000 1.021 1.1214
0.1 2250 1.1261 1.2026
0.1 1500 1.0446 1.1018

Ti/CFRP/Al istifinde meydana gelen kuvvet, sıcaklık ve delaminasyon faktörü tabloları sırasıyla Tablo 6, 7 ve
8’de verilmiştir.
Tablo 6. Ti/CFRP/Al istif sırası için kuvvet değerleri.

İlerleme Değeri Kesme hızı Titanyum CFRP Alüminyum

[mm/dev] [min-1] [N] [N] [N]
0.05 1500 953 302 597
0.05 2250 957 305 542.5
0.05 3000 973 277 609
0.05 3000 1004 285.5 606.5
0.05 2250 1035 326.5 633
0.05 1500 1044 310 604.5
0.075 1500 1097 381 636
0.075 2250 1111 324 710
0.075 3000 1139 332 1166
0.075 3000 1129 324 1066
0.075 2250 1156 318 932.5
0.075 1500 1156 334.5 806
0.1 1500 1202 350 805
0.1 2250 1216 381 953
0.1 3000 1238 343 948.5
0.1 3000 1252 358 1050
0.1 2250 1251 334 1010
0.1 1500 1287 337 902

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Tablo 7. Ti/CFRP/Al istif sırası sıcaklık sonuçları.

İlerleme
Kesme hızı Alüminyum CFRP Giriş Titanyum
değeri CFRP Çıkış [°C]
[min-1] [°C] [°C] [°C]
[mm/dev]
0.05 1500 137 101.5 79 59
0.05 2250 176.5 110 101.5 98.5
0.05 3000 153 114 101 105.5
0.075 1500 137.5 96 74 67.5
0.075 2250 144 107 87.5 100
0.075 3000 126.5 101 95.5 118.5
0.1 1500 143.5 94 83.5 82
0.1 2250 169 140 95 161
0.1 3000 189.5 109 104.5 152.5

Tablo 8: Ti/CFRP/Al istif sırası için delaminasyon faktörü.

İlerleme Değeri Delaminasyon Faktörü Delaminasyon Faktörü

Kesme hızı [min-1]
[mm/dev] (Giriş) (Çıkış)
0.05 1500 1 1.1825
0.05 2250 1 1.2032
0.05 3000 1.0555 1.2599
0.05 3000 1 1.2571
0.05 2250 1 1.3752
0.05 1500 1.0767 1.2252
0.075 1500 1 1.0735
0.075 2250 1.0425 1.1176
0.075 3000 1.1203 1.1288
0.075 3000 1.0765 1.0997
0.075 2250 1.0791 1.1355
0.075 1500 1.0733 1.2319
0.1 1500 1 1.0853
0.1 2250 1 1.1313
0.1 3000 1 1.1057
0.1 3000 1.0594 1.1024
0.1 2250 1.0515 1.1212
0.1 1500 1.0524 1.1515

Aşınma durumunu incelemek için her setin sonunda kesme işini yapan matkabın kesici ucu mikroskop altında
incelendi. Her sette 6 delik açılmakta ve ilerleme hızı değişmektedir. İlk 3 set Al/CFRP/Ti istifleme sırasına
sahipken geri kalan 3 set Ti/CFRP/Al'dir. Delme işlemleri 0.05, 0.075 ve 0.1 mm/dev olmak üzere 3 farklı
ilerleme hızıyla gerçekleştirildi. Takım aşınma çalışması sonucunda ilerleme ve istifleme sırasının takım
aşınması üzerinde net etkisi olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır. 6 delikli takım aşınma değerleri mikrometre
cinsinden Tablo 9’da verilmiştir.

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Tablo 9: Ti/CFRP/Al istif sırası için delaminasyon faktörü.

İlerleme Değeri
İstif Sırası Takım aşınması [μm]
[mm/rev]
Al-CFRP-Ti 0.05 137.68
Al-CFRP-Ti 0.075 183.54
Al-CFRP-Ti 0.1 336.55
Ti-CFRP-Al 0.05 125.72
Ti-CFRP-Al 0.075 138.06
Ti-CFRP-Al 0.1 164.94

Elde edilen verilerin doğru yorumlanabilmesi için Minitab programı ile sıcaklık, delaminasyon ve kuvvete
ilişkin etkileşim tabloları oluşturulmuştur. Böylece kesme parametrelerinin ve istifleme sırasının bu değerler
üzerindeki etkisi anlaşılmıştır. Şekil 4’te Minitab programı ile elde edilen bir etkileşim grafiği örneği
verilmiştir.

Şekil 4. CFRP delik giriş sıcaklığının etkileşimi.

Sonuç
Etkileşim tablolarının dikkatli bir şekilde incelenmesinden sonra aşağıdaki sonuçlara ulaşıldı:
1. Ti/CFRP/Al istif sırasında delaminasyon daha yüksektir. Bunun nedeni Al/CFRP/Ti istifinde kesme işlemi
sırasında CFRP katmanının Ti katmanı tarafından desteklenmesi ve katman ayrılmasını engellemesidir.
2. Kesme hızı arttıkça her iki istifleme sırasında delaminasyon miktarı da artar. Yüksek kesme hızı aynı
zamanda sıcaklığın yükselmesine neden olarak CFRP levhadaki delik duvarlarının yanmasına neden oldu.
3. Kuvvet artışını en çok etkileyen parametre ilerleme hızıdır. Ti/CFRP/Al yığınında hızın artması kuvveti
azaltmıştır. Al/CFRP/Ti istifinde 1500 ve 2250 devirde kuvvette önemli bir fark olmazken, 3000 devirde
kuvvet büyük ölçüde arttı. Bu durumun temel nedeni, alüminyum plaka üstteyken yüksek kesme hızlarında
alüminyum talaşlarının takıma yapışma eğiliminin artması ve kesici takıma yapışan talaşların delme
işlemindeki kuvvetleri arttırması olarak açıklanabilir.

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4. Kuvveti en az etkileyen parametrenin kesme hızı olduğu görülmüştür.

5. Her iki istif sırasında da genel olarak ilerleme değeri arttıkça sıcaklıklar düşmektedir. Al/CFRP/Ti istifinde
sıcaklıklar daha yüksek ölçüldü. Bunun nedeni ise titanyumun ısıl iletkenliğinin düşük olması nedeniyle delik
çevresindeki sıcaklıkların çok yüksek seviyelere çıkması ve titanyumdan talaşların uzaklaştırılması için
gereken enerjinin daha fazla olması olarak belirlendi.
6. Al/CFRP/Ti istifinde 6 delik delme işlemi sonrasında elde edilen en yüksek takım aşınmaları 0.1 mm/dev
ilerleme hızında 336.55 μm olarak ölçülmüştür. En düşük değerler Ti/CFRP/Al yığınında 0.05 mm/dev
ilerleme hızında 125.72 μm olarak ölçülmüştür. Her iki istiflemede de ilerleme hızının artmasıyla birlikte
aşınmanın arttığı gözlenmiştir.

Referenslar

[1] Gururaja, M. N., & Rao, A. H. (2012). A review on recent applications and future prospectus of hybrid
composites. International Journal of Soft Computing and Engineering, 1(6), 352-355.
[2] Brinksmeier, E., Janssen, R., & Koch, T. (2002). Drilling of Multi-Layer Composite Materials consisting
of Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastics (CFRP), Titanium and Aluminum Alloys. CIRP Annals.
[3] Shyha, I., Soo, S. L., Aspinwall, D. K., Bradley, S., Dawson, S., & Pretorius, C. J. (2010). Drilling of
Titanium/CFRP/Aluminium Stacks. Key Engineering Materials.
[4] Xu, J., Chao Lia, M. C., Mansori, M. E., & Davim, J. (2020). On the analysis of temperatures, surface
morphologies and tool wear in drilling CFRP/Ti6Al4V stacks under different cutting sequence strategies.
Composite Structures.
[5] An, Q., Dang, J., Li, J., Wang, C., & Chen, M. (2020). Investigation on the cutting responses of CFRP/Ti
stacks: With special emphasis on the effects of drilling sequences. Composite Structures.
[6] Qiu, X. Y., Yu, Z., Li, C. p., Niu, Q. L., Li, S. J., Li, P. N., & JoKo, T. (2021). Influence of main cutting
edge structure on hole defects in CFRP/titanium alloy stacks drilling. Journal of Manufacturing Processes.
[7] USTA, M., & KAYIR, Y. (2017). GGG40 Malzemesinin CNC Torna Tezgahında Karbür aletlarla
Delinmesinde Sıcaklık ve Delme Kuvvetlerinin Araştırılması. The Journal of Graduate School of Natural and
Applied Sciences of Mehmet Akif Ersoy University.
[8] Pecat, O., & Brinksmeier, E. (2014). Low Damage Drilling of CFRP/Titanium Compound Materials for
Fastening. Procedia CIRP.
[9] Karpat, Y., Karagüzel, U., & Bahtiyar, O. (2020). A thermo-mechanical model of drill margin-borehole
surface interface. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture.
[10] Kayihan, M., Karaguzel, U., & Bakkal, M. (2020). Experimental analysis on drilling of Al/Ti/CFRP
hybrid composites. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 36(2), 215–222.
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[11] Jr., W. C. D., & Rethwisch, D. G. (2020). Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction (10th ed.).
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[12] Piquet R., Ferret B., Lachaud F. and Swider P. (2000) “Experimental analysis of drilling damage in
thin carbon/epoxy plate using special drills”, Composites A, 31, pp 1107-1115,
[13] Dahnel, A., Ascroft, H. L., & Barnes, S. (2020). An investigation of hole quality during drilling of carbon
fibre reinforced plastic and titanium (Ti6Al4V) using tungsten carbide drills. Materials Today: Proceedings

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[2] W. T. Harris, Chemical Milling, Belfast: Clarendon Press Oxford, 1976.

[3] O. ÇAKIR, «Chemical etching of aluminium,» cilt 199, 2008.

[4] A. HANNAH, «Aluminium etching composition and method». USA Patent: US2,942,955, 1960.

[5] N. K. Walter, D. C. Atkins Jr. ve G. S. Douglas, «Process for etching aluminum alloy surfaces». US
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[6] R. T. Grah, «Chemical Milling of Aluminum Alloys: Choosing the Latest Technology to Achieve a
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[10] B. Chatterjee, R. W. Thomas ve G. R. Dunstan, «Factors Affecting the Matt Etching of Aluminium
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[11] P. Rath, J. Chai, H. Zeng, Y. Lam ve V. Murukeshan, «approach, Modelling two-dimensional

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Bipolar Material,» %1 içinde IHTEC2024, Diyarbakır, 2024.

[14] G. H. Kissin, The finishing of aluminium, New York: Reinhold publishing, 1963.

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A NOVEL APPROACH FOR DEVELOPMENT AND SIMULATION OF A

VIBRATION RESISTANT BORING BAR
Ekrem Oezkayaa*, Kubilay Aslantasb, Adem Çiçekc, Hüseyin Alp Cetindagd

a, Turkish-German University, Faculty of Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/TURKEY,

ekrem.oezkaya@tau.edu.tr
b, University of Afyon Kocatepe, Faculty of Technology, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Afyonkarahisar
/TURKEY, aslantas@aku.edu.tr
c, Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Department of Mechanical
Engineering Istanbul/TURKEY, acicek@aybu.edu.tr
d, Ankara Yıldırım Beyazıt University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Department of Mechanical
Engineering Istanbul/TURKEY, h.a.cetindag@outlook.com

Abstract
Machining operations are frequently exposed to vibrations and these vibrations are absolutely undesirable due
to their significant effects on tool life, workpiece quality and production performance. Among the machining
techniques, boring is one of the most vulnerable to vibration due to its nature. To reduce vibrations, a boring
bar was modelled by creating an ideal hollow in the boring bar and filling it with 3D lattice structure. The
hollow was performed with a FEM simulation. For modelling, parametric modelling tool was developed in the
Computer Aided Design (CAD) environment. Moreover, a simulation model was also developed for predicting
the dynamic behavior of the improved boring bar. Verified simulations showed that the modifications reduced
the vibrations up to 59.11%. The FEM simulation model and the CAD parametric modelling tool can be used
for further research work.
Keywords: Boring bar, vibration, FEM simulation

Introduction
Vibration is one of the most important factors that can directly affect the performance of machining. Among
the vibration types, free and forced vibrations are generally ignored or easily restricted due to their
discontinuous and passive behavior. On the other hand, self-excited vibrations, also known as chatter, can be
destructive for machining operations by dramatically limiting the productivity [1]. Chatter has a significant
influence on the quality of the workpieces and the tool life, as well as on the machine components [2]. This
problem arises in the machining of high-tech and high-hardness materials [3] and reaches its extreme levels in
the boring process. As an example, machining of titanium [4] and nickel-based alloys [3] are associated with
high costs, since relatively low cutting speeds are possible with short tool life. These materials therefore
increasingly lead to chatter since their hardness and strength require higher cutting forces. Boring bars are
subjected to vibration with large amplitudes due to their long, slender and cantilever geometry and their
inherently low structural damping capability [5].
During the metal cutting process, significant forces develop between the workpiece and the cutting tool. Due
to these forces, the cutting tool and the boring bar start to vibrate. As a result of these vibrations, wave patterns
are generated on the workpiece which reflects the relative motion of the tool and the workpiece. These
irregularities cause variations in chip thickness, which affects the cutting force and causes further vibrations
[6]. This phenomenon has been studied by researchers since the 1950s [7]. Therefore, there are many studies
performed on detection, modeling, simulation and suppression of chatter [2] [8-15].
Various approaches have been implemented both in industry and academia to reduce the effect of chatter and
prevent chatter formation. These methods are basically classified as active and passive [16]. While active
methods require the use of complex devices and equipment, passive methods provide an easier and more
applicable solutions. In the passive damping, the impact and friction dampening properties of additional
materials in forms of simple mass [17], laminar [5] and liquid [18] are used. In addition, chatter can
bedampened by changing material [19] or adjusting structural features [20] [21] of the boring bar.
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Considering the boring bars used in the machining of deep holes with relatively small diameters, it is not
possible to increase the diameter of the boring bar, reduce its length or add supporting features on the outer
surfaces of boring bar in order to sustain the machining capacity. Therefore, applying modifications inside the
boring bar is an appropriate approach. While the cross-sectional area and moment of inertia are optimal for a
solid boring bar, this changes when a hollow is introduced inside the boring bar during modification. For the
boring bars with hollow, static stiffness decreases with the increase in hollow length. On the other hand, natural
frequency increases where the larger hollow diameters are selected. Therefore, both factors must be
coordinated in order to optimize the hollow.
In order to provide damping ability to the created hollow, additional features need to be placed into the hollow.
There are various features that can be utilized in this step such as lightweight cellular matrix. Although cellular
matrices and the 3D lattice structures are suitable for this approach, these cells need to be modeled. With
conventional CAD software, this type of modeling is limited. In order to create a complete cellular matrix, all
individual 3D lattice structures must be generated in such a way that each element receives an input and can
send this back to the other element as feedback for generation. The design of a single 3D lattice structure is
already difficult due to the struts and nodes and the sharp edges, whereas the combination of several 3D lattice
structures to form a matrix structure reaches a level of complexity that can no longer be solved with
conventional CAD software.
In this paper, a parametric modeling tool is created to design the cellular matrix so it can be inserted into the
hollow. Then a simulation model is developed to determine a maximum hollow that is introduced into the
boring bar and to predict the vibrational behavior.

Experimental analysis
The experimental tests were carried out on a Spinner TC400 CNC lathe using a boring bar made of chrome-
vanadium alloyed spring steel (51CrV4) with a diameter of d = 25 mm. Machining tests are conducted with a
workpiece which has an inner diameter of d = 20 mm and it was enlarged up to d = 30 mm with a reference
boring bar under wet cutting condition. During the study, a conventional boring bar with 250 mm length were
utilized. Boring bar was fixed to the machining center with an overhang distance of 195 mm. The chemical
composition and material properties of the boring bar material are given in Table 1.

Table 1: Chemical and physical properties of the boring bar material

C% Si % Mn % P% S% Cr % V%
Chemical
MIN 0.47 - 0.70 - - 0.90 0.10
properties
MAX 0.55 0.40 1.10 0.025 0.025 1.20 0.25
Tensile strength Rm: 1000-1200 MPa
Yield point Re: >550 MPa
Elongation > 10 %
Physical Contraction > 45 %
properties Impact resistance > 30 J
Elasticity Modulus 210∙103 MPa
Density 7.7 kg/dm3
Poisson's Ratio 0.29

Cutting parameters were selected as 75 m/min cutting speed (Vc), 0.1 mm/rev feed (f) and 2 mm depth of cut
(ap). The cutting forces are measured and collected by using a Kistler 9119A dynamometer. Natural frequencies
of the reference tool were measured with an accelerometer that was placed onto the tooltip. A hammer (Dytran
brand model number 5800B4) was used to measure the dynamic characteristics. A four-channel data
acquisition system (Novian brand, model number S04) was used in combination with CutPRO's® Tap Testing
measurement module. The amplitude value of the tool holder was obtained by applying the hammer test in the

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X and Y directions of the cartesian coordinate system (Figure 1). The boring bar resulted the same dynamic
characteristics in both axes. The data collected from the tests were considered in the simulative tests.

Figure 1: Experimental setup

Development of the simulation model for hollow determination

The objective of developing the simulation model was to determine an appropriate diameter to length ratio for
integrating the hollow into the shaft of the boring bar. At this step, the critical bending stress that 51CrV4 can
be exposed to is an important limitation and this value should not be exceeded during the integration and
modifications. The existing bending stresses were calculated analytically and validated with the simulated
values of the reference model. Based on this validation, a cylindrical hollow was first selected and the
allowable bending stress was calculated analytically. This value was found to be far below the permissible
limit. The reference model of full material was simulated and the available bending stress was validated with
the analytical value, which demonstrated a satisfactory degree of agreement. On this basis, the cylindrical
hollow was simulated. In the subsequent step different lengths and diameters for the cylindrical hollow were
selected and simulated. The optimal diameter and length of the cylindrical hollow was obtained as 18 mm and
130 mm respectively.
In order to modify the ellipsoidal hollow, the same dimensions are employed as for the cylindrical hollow
model, d = 18 mm and l = 130 mm. The experimental data obtained from the impulse hammer test are used to
validate the reference model (full). Then, a harmonic response analysis (HRA) is performed with the ANSYS
software, and the resulting amplitude and frequency are compared. For the simulations, the cutting forces
measured from the test were taken into account and the damping ratio was selected as 0.02. Subsequently, the
HRA is also carried out with the two modified 3D hollows. Therefore, this will enable to decide which
geometry (elliptical or cylindrical) has the lower vibration amplitude. The fundamental premise of HRA is
modal analysis, which is employed to determine the natural frequencies and natural oscillations. The vibration
modes are investigated without excitation or loading (non-linear changes or influences). Instead, based on the
reference model (full), the two modified 3D hollows are considered in the idealization and discretization using
the Finite Element Method (FEM).
The modal analysis yielded six rigid body eigenmodes for each boring bar. It can be observed that the
respective frequencies of the reference model (full) are higher than those of the modified boring bars. The
frequencies of the cylindrical hollow are lower than those of the ellipsoidal hollow. Based on the modal analysis
and the experimentally determined loads, the HRA was initially carried out with the reference model (full).
The largest deflection, i.e. oscillation, occurs in both the experiment and the simulation at an amplitude of

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y0=11 μm/N and a frequency at T = 410 Hz. This excellent agreement between the experimental and simulated
results demonstrates that the reference model (full) meets the required validation criteria and can be used for
predictive approaches.
The HRA was conducted with the two modified boring bars; cylindrical hollow and ellipsoidal hollow. The
values presented in Figure 2 were employed to assess the cutting forces. As anticipated, the stiffness of the
two boring bars in with 3D hollow was deteriorated resulting in higher deflections than observed in the
experiment and in the reference model (full). It is noteworthy that the ellipsoidal hollow exhibits a significantly
lower vibration amplitude in comparison to the cylindrical hollow. The development of the simulation model
has not only permitted the determination of a suitable hollow with a weighting according to the two variables,
diameter and length, but also a more suitable hollow shape.

Figure 2: HRA results of the two modified boring bars

Development of the tool for creating 3D lattice structure

In order to improve the dynamic characteristics of the boring bar, ellipsoidal hollow was filled with a cellular
matrix consisting of individual cube lattices with side cross supports (CLWSCS). This 3D lattice structure
basically consists of a cube-shaped frame and six cross supports intersecting at the midpoint of the surfaces. It
is very difficult to recalculate and remodel the 3D lattice structures to be placed inside the ellipsoidal hollow
at each simulation attempt. Therefore, a tool is needed that can create 3D lattice structures in desired
dimensions by entering the necessary input parameters by the user and manipulate these 3D lattice structures
to create a cellular matrix suitable for the ellipsoidal hollow. In this study, a parametric modelling tool was
developed by using SolidWorks software and its Application Programming Interface (API) which offers a
number of functions that can be called from Visual Basic for Applications (VBA). In addition, a user interface
was designed so that the modeling tool can be used more effectively, and parameters can be changed without
interfering with the source code (Figure 3).

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Figure 3: User interface of lattice structure generation tool

In the first part of the interface, the rectangular prism or ellipsoid hollow can be selected. After selecting the
hollow type, dimensions of the hollow can be determined through the textboxes that become available. After
assigning the hollow dimensions, the desired cellular matrix can be created by entering two values of the 3D
lattice structure in the second part of the interface; diameter of supports (DColumn) and the number of 3D lattice
structures to be located on the z axis (Numz). Thus, the desired cellular matrix can be created automatically
and parametrically with minimal user intervention. During modeling, the developed software creates the
cellular matrix on a turnkey basis by making the necessary adjustments to eliminate topology errors and taking
precautions to prevent user-related errors. In this context, additional rows of 3D lattice structures are created
on the x and y axes to prevent any gap between the created cellular matrix and the hollow. Then, the excess
parts are trimmed and a model perfectly suitable for the hollow is obtained. In addition, to prevent loss of 3D
lattice structure particles that may break off from the main body and to preserve the integrity of the cellular
matrix, the structure is placed in a shell of insignificant thickness after the trimming step. As a result, by using
this software and interface, the CLWSCS 3D lattice structure was automatically modeled with the parameters
specified by the user and made ready to be placed in the ellipsoid hollow. As the created cellular matrix is
suitable for the desired hollow dimensions, the cellular matrix and boring bar can be easily merged. At this
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step, ANSYS software was used and then HRA could be applied directly. As a result of this merger, during the
simulations, the cellular matrix and hollow boring bar were fused into a single body and the same material was
defined for these two sections of the developed boring bar.

Results and Discussion

In this study, the filled model was also subjected to an HRA with the same approach previously described. The
meshing of the cellular matrix, situated within the ellipsoidal hollow of the boring bar, proved to be a
significant challenge. The physical properties of the vibration behavior to be analyzed are strongly dependent
on the degree of meshing. The meshes are tetrahedral-independent meshes, which means that the element size
is independent of the local geometry.
In comparison to the modes of the reference model the modes of the modified model exhibit a more balanced
behavior. In particular, the vibration characteristics, especially in modes 3 and 4, are markedly more balanced
than those of the reference model. Overall, it can be observed that the vibrations effectively suppressed by the
collective damping ability of 3D lattice structures throughout cellular matrix in the modified boring bar.
Figure 4 shows the final results of the HRA. While the amplitude in the ellipsoidal hollow model was still
higher than in the reference model, it was rapidly decreased significantly with the assistance of cellular matrix.
The frequency range between the ellipsoidal hollow model and the modified boring bar is almost identical,
and the vibration process takes place at 410 Hz on the one hand and 450 Hz on the other. Compared to the
reference model (full), the amplitude decreases from y0=11.3 μm/N to y0= 4.62 μm/N with the cellular matrix.
With the modified boring bar, the vibrations of the boring bar are significantly reduced by 59.11% compared
to the reference model (full).

Figure 4: HRA of modified boring bar in comparison with other models

Conclusion
This paper enriches the literature of machining especially for boring operations by presenting a new and
effective chatter suppression approach. Through the 3D lattice structure and cellular matrices constructed by
parametric modelling tool, the modified boring bar significantly damped the chatter and its effects. The
selection of the hollow type was carried out based on the HRA results, while the verification of the dynamic
model was determined through experiments. The effectiveness of the modified boring bar is measured through
the validated dynamic model. Within the light of these results the following conclusions were obtained;
The parametric modeling tool can provide great convenience to the user in creating 3D lattice structures and
constructing a cellular matrix. By providing only four parameters via the user interface, the ellipsoid hollow
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with the desired dimensions can be filled with custom CLWSCS 3D lattice structures. This software provides
an infrastructure where other hollow geometries and 3D lattice structure types can be added. Therefore, it is a
suitable and promising tool for subsequent studies.
Dynamic modeling studies on the standard boring bar was verified by experimental tests. As a result, it was
observed that both hammer test and HRA resulted similar maximum amplitudes around 11 µm/N at
T = 400 Hz.
When cylindrical and ellipsoid hollows were examined, it was seen that both hollows negatively affected the
boring bar dynamics if these hollows were applied without adding cellular matrix. On the other hand, when
these two hollows are compared, it was seen that the ellipsoid hollow reduces the maximum amplitude value
from 16.7 µm/N to 14.3 µm/N which corresponds to about 14.4% improvement.
Ellipsoid hollow, which presents better dynamic properties, was chosen for the use of the cellular matrix. As a
result of the combination of hollow and cellular matrix, vibration was significantly damped and a 59.11%
improvement was achieved in amplitude with respect to conventional boring bar.
Considering the obtained results, verified simulations proved that the boring bar modifications can
significantly contribute to the dynamic performance. In the following stages of the study, it is aimed to verify
these simulations with experimental tests. Therefore, the modified boring bar must be manufactured. Since the
cellular matrix was created inside the boring bar, it is predicted that the manufacturing process can be
completed with additive manufacturing methods such as selective laser melting. Research studies revealed that
the selective laser melting can be utilized for manufacturing of various parts supported with cellular matrix
such as cantilever beams [22,23]. Cantilever beams have similar features with boring bars in terms of small
cross-sectional area and an extended body. Based on these similarities in structural features, it is evaluated that
additive manufacturing can be applied to modified boring bars similar to cantilever beams, and thus dynamic
performance can be measured experimentally. For obtaining the best results during the production, the boring
bar structure and cellular matrix properties must be determined in accordance with the production method [24].
Although manufacturability issues such as dimensional restrictions and tolerances were considered during the
design phase of this study, minor changes (creating holes to drain the powder) will be needed to produce a
feasible design.

References
[1] Azvar, M., Budak, E., 2017, “Multi-dimensional chatter stability for enhanced productivity in different
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[2] Basovich, S., Arogeti, S., 2021, “Identification and robust control for regenerative chatter in internal turning
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[3] Saleh, M.K.A., Nejatpour, M., Yagci Acar, H., Lazoglu, I., 2021, “A new magnetorheological damper for
chatter stability of boring tools” Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Volume 289, Pages116931
[4] Li, W., Feng, Y., Huang, S., 2023, “Optimization of cutting parameters for deep hole boring of Ti-6Al-4V
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[5] Lee, D.G., Hwang, H.Y., Kim, J.K., 2003, “Design and manufacture of a carbon fiber epoxy rotating boring
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[6] Katiyar, S., Jaiswal, M., Pratap Narain, R., Singh, S., Shrivastava, Y., 2021, “A short review on
investigation and suppression of tool chatter in turning operation” Materialstoday Proceedings, Volume 51,
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[7] Quintana, G., Ciurana, J., 2011, “Chatter in machining processes: A review” International Journal of
Machine Tools and Manufacture, Volume 51, Pages 363–76.
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[8] Nityananda, R.H., Srivatsa, S.R., Somaskanda, S., Taj, A.P., 2020, “Finite element model updating of
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[10] Rigal, J.F., Pupaza, C., Bedrin, C., 1998, “A model for simulation of vibrations during boring operations
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[13] Ahmadi, K., 2022, “Bayesian updating of modal parameters for modeling chatter in turning” CIRP Journal
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[14] Hirose, M., Hayasaka, T., Shamoto, E., 2021 Unique regenerative chatter in wiper-turning operation with
burnishing process Part 1: Prediction and analytical investigation of generation mechanism, critical stability,
and characteristics. Precision Engineering, Volume 71, Pages 304–12
[15] Hirose M, Hayasaka T, Shamoto E. Unique regenerative chatter in wiper-turning operation with
burnishing process Part 2: Experimental verification of predicted generation mechanism, critical stability, and
characteristics. Precision Engineering, Volume 71, Pages 313–23
[16] Munoa, J., Beudaert, X., Dombovari, Z., Altintas, Y., Budak, E., Brecher, C., Stepan, G., 2016, “Chatter
suppression techniques in metal cutting” CIRP Annals, Volume 65, Pages 785–808
[17] Paramasivam, B., 2020, “Investigation on the effects of damping over the temperature distribution on
internal turning bar using Infrared fusion thermal imager analysis via SmartView software” Measurement,
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[18] Alammari, Y., Sanati, M., Freiheit, T., Park, S.S., 2015, “Investigation of Boring Bar Dynamics for
Chatter Suppression” Procedia Manufacturing, Volume 1, Pages 768–78
[19] Lee, D.G., Suh, N.P., 1988, “Manufacturing and Testing of Chatter Free Boring Bars” CIRP Annals,
Volume 37, Pages 365–8.
[20] Takahashi, W., Suzuki, N., Shamoto, E., 2021, “Development of a novel boring tool with anisotropic
dynamic stiffness to avoid chatter vibration in cutting: Part 2: Analytical and experimental verification of the
proposed method” Precision Engineering, Volume 68, Pages 20–34
[21] Takahashi, W., Suzuki, N., Shamoto, E., 2021, “Development of a novel boring tool with anisotropic
dynamic stiffness to avoid chatter vibration in cutting: Part 1: Design of anisotropic structure to attain infinite
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[22] Scalzo F, Totis G, Sortino M., 2023, “Influence of the Experimental Setup on the Damping Properties of
SLM Lattice Structures”. Experimental Mechanics, Volume 63, Pages 15–28.
[23] Scalzo F, Totis G, Vaglio E, Sortino M., 2020, “Passive chatter suppression of thin-walled parts by means
of high-damping lattice structures obtained from selective laser melting.” Journal of Manufacturing and
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[24] Scalzo F, Totis G, Vaglio E, Sortino M., 2021, “Experimental study on the high-damping properties of
metallic lattice structures obtained from SLM”, Precision Engineering Volume 71, Pages 63-77

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XML ALGORİTMALARI İLE AA7075 ALIN FREZELEMESİNDE YÜZEY

PÜRÜZLÜLÜĞÜ TAHMİNİ

Ammar Tarık Dinçera, Mustafa Bakkalb

a, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Makina Mühendisliği Bölümü, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, ammar.dincer@itu.edu.tr

b, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Makina Mühendisliği Bölümü, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, bakkalmu@itu.edu.tr

Abstract
Surface roughness is a common quality criterion and measurement of it is a required procedure for the most of
the manufacturing applications. To avoid an additional measurement step and any delays in the production,
predictive quality tools and methods are utilized. Explainable machine learning (XML) algorithms are such
effective tools in this respect. In this study, XML algorithms are utilized and tested for predicting surface
roughness in milling process. To propose an effective model, an experimental dataset is generated by milling
of AA7075 and acquiring cutting force data during cutting. Then various XML models are trained, optimized
and compared. During the feature engineering phase, time, frequency and time-frequency domain analysis
have been made, various features in different domains are extracted and final features are evaluated through
the model performances. Predictive quality approach for surface roughness resulted in acceptable accuracy
despite the very small size of the dataset.

Özet
Yüzey pürüzlülüğü, imalat yöntemlerinin çoğunda ürün kalitesini ifade eden önemli kriterlerden biridir.
Dolayısıyla ölçümü, yine çoğu imalat sürecinde, kritik önem arz eder. Yüzey pürüzlülüğü de dahil olmak üzere
çeşitli kalite kriterlerinin nicelenmesi ve tespiti konusunda, imalata ek bir takım ölçüm işlemlerinden ve
dolayısıyla bunların getireceği kayıplardan kaçınmak için kestirimci kalite araç ve metotları geliştirilmektedir.
Bu çalışmada yüzey pürüzlülüğünün tespiti için, temaslı veya optik ölçüm yöntemleri yerine bir kestirimci
metot olarak XML (açıklanabilir makine öğrenmesi) algoritmaları kullanılmıştır. İlave bir ölçüm aşaması
yerine, AA7075’in alın frezelemesi esnasında anlık olarak sensör verileri elde edilmiş, bu verilerden çeşitli
öznitelikler türetilmiş ve farklı XML modellerine beslenerek model performansları mukayese edilmiştir.
Konuyla ilgili yaygın uygulamaların aksine açıklanabilir modeller kullanılmış, bu sayede geriye dönük fiziksel
saptamalarda bulunmanın imkânı incelenmiş ve derin öğrenme uygulamalarının aksine düşük hesaplama
maliyeti hedeflenmiştir. Netice itibarıyla, küçük bir veri setinin hazırlanması ile gerçekleştirilen bu deneysel
çalışmada, farklı uzaylardaki öznitelikler üzerinden çeşitli saptamalar yapılmış, pürüzlülük tahmin performansı
%6 seviyelerinde bir hata oranına kadar geliştirilebilmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Kestirimci kalite, yüzey pürüzlülüğü, makine öğrenmesi, frezeleme

Giriş
İmalatta kalite kontrol uygulamaları, imalat yöntemine göre çeşitlilik gösterse de imalata ek ve genel bir aşama
olarak değerlendirilir. Talaşlı imalat gibi pek çok yöntem için yüzey pürüzlülüğü, ölçümü gerekli ve yaygın
kalite kriterlerinden biridir. Yüzey pürüzlülüğünün ölçümünde geleneksel olarak kullanılagelen temaslı ve
optik yöntemler mevcuttur. Bu yöntem ve ekipmanların zamanla gelişmesi ile işlem hızlanmış ve kolaylaşmış
olsa da pürüzlülük ölçümü, ana imalat sürecinden ayrıca gerçekleştirilen bir ilave işlem olarak uygulanmakta
ve üretim zincirinde fazladan bir halka, ekipman ve zaman olarak varlığını muhafaza etmektedir.
Gelişmekte olan Endüstri 4.0 çağında, tüm üretim süreçleri veri-tabanlı teknolojilerin uyarlanması ile
iyileştirilmektedir. İmalat metodunun kendisinin yanı sıra kalite kontrol uygulamaları da yapay zeka ve veri
bilimi ekseninde gelişmekte, çeşitli alternatif yöntemler geliştirilmektedir. Bu gelişmeleri ve çalışma alanını
ifade etmek için genel kabul görmüş bir ifade olarak kestirimci kalite ibaresi kullanılmaktadır.
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Bu bağlamda yüzey pürüzlülüğünün tespitine ilişkin kestirimci kalite çalışmaları 1990’ların başında başlamış,
yapay zekâ ve ölçüm teknolojileri ile birlikte gelişmiştir. Erken dönem çalışmalarından birinde Okafur, alın
frezelemede yüzey pürüzlülüğünün tahmini için yapay sinir ağlarını kullanmıştır [1]. Öğrenme hızını en düşük
seviyeye indirdikleri durumda dahi hata oranının, bugünkü derin öğrenme modellerine nazaran çok yüksek
kaldığı görülmektedir. Günümüze kadar geçen yaklaşık otuz sene içerisinde sinir ağları [1], [2] bulanık mantık
entegreli derin öğrenme algoritması [3] ve genetik algoritma optimizasyonu [4] gibi çeşitli metotlarla, farklı
tipte malzemelerde alın frezeleme sonucu oluşan yüzey pürüzlülüğü tahmin edilmeye çalışılmıştır. Kullanılan
derin öğrenme algoritmaları yüksek tahmin performansı dolayısıyla tercih edilegelmiştir. Fakat yapay zekanın
boy gösterdiği pek çok sahada olduğu gibi, bu çalışmaların ekseriyetinde de açıklanabilirlik sorunu bir eksiklik
olarak görülmektedir. Bununla birlikte, derin öğrenme modellerinin yıllar geçtikçe karmaşıklaşan yapısı,
çevrimiçi ve gerçek zamanlı uygulamalara uzanması gereken bu sahayı zorlamaktadır.
Metodolojiyle ilgili olarak Tercan & Meisen, sistematik derleme makalelerinde, kestirimci kalite kavramının
dört aşamadan meydana geldiğini belirtmiştir: Üretim sürecinin kendisi, süreç ve kalite kriteriyle ilgili verilerin
toplanması, ML/DL (makine öğrenmesi/derin öğrenme) modelinin kurulması ve eğitilmesi, yüksek doğruluklu
tahmin hedeflenerek öğrenme modelinin kullanılması [5]. Konuyla ilgili araştırma odaklı çalışmaların
çoğunda, gerçek veriler kullanılmasından bağımsız olarak, öğrenme modellerinin eğitimi, değerlendirilmesi
ve hatta kullanımı çevrimdışı olarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Schmitt ve diğ. [6] ile Essien & Giannetti [7]
tarafından yapılan kestirimci kalite çalışmaları, çevrimdışı yöntemler kapsamında örnek verilebilir.
Yukarıda açıklanan gerekçelerle bu çalışmada, açıklanabilir makine öğrenmesi modellerinin, AA7075 gibi
yaygın kullanılan bir havacılık alaşımında yüzey pürüzlülüğü tahmininde nasıl bir performans sergileyeceği
incelemeye değer bulunmuştur. XML modellerinin bu şekilde sınanması ile çevrimiçi, gerçek zamanlı ve
yüksek doğruluklu modellerin geliştirilmesi yolunda bir katkı amaçlanmıştır. Bu doğrultuda, AA7075 alın
frezelemesi esnasında farklı eksenlerden kuvvet verileri toplanmış, sensör sinyalleri üzerinde öznitelik
çıkarımı ve analizleri yapılmış, modeller oluşturulmuş, optimize edilmiş ve nihai tahmin performansları
mukayeseli olarak verilmiştir.

Deneysel Çalışmalar
Gerekli fiziksel verilerin toplanması, bu çalışmanın ilk kısmını teşkil etmektedir. Çalışmanın deneysel
safhasında; frezeleme işlemi esnasında farklı eksenlerden kuvvet verilerinin toplanması, farklı işleme bölgeleri
için yüzey pürüzlülüğü değerlerinin tespit ve kaydedilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bu doğrultuda, gerekli verilerin
toplanacağı kesme işlemlerini ifade eden bir deney matrisi tasarlanmıştır. Kesme işlemi esnasında AA7075
malzemesi kullanılmıştır. Yüzey pürüzlülüğü, kesme parametrelerine bağlı bir özellik olduğundan, deney
matrisi hazırlanırken parametrelerde yüksek varyasyon olmasına dikkat edilmiştir. Bu sayede, elde edilen
pürüzlülük değerlerinin de yüksek çeşitlilik içermesi hedeflenmiştir. İş mili hızı, ilerleme hızı ve kesme
derinliğinin parametre olarak dahil edildiği deney matrisi, Tablo-1’de verilmiştir.

Kesit No.
#1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6 #7 #8
N 2000 3000 3500 1500 2000 3500 1500 2000
f 300 450 450 400 300 500 500 600
h 1.5 1.5 2 2 2.5 2.5 3 3
N: İş mili hızı (dev/dk); f: İlerleme hızı (mm/dk); h: Kesme derinliği(mm)

Tablo 4: Frezeleme işlemi için kesme parametreleri.

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Kesme işlemlerinde HSS (yüksek hız çeliği) malzemeden mamul, 2 ağızlı M10 kesici takımlar kullanılmıştır.
Kesme esnasında x (ilerleme yönü), y (kesme düzleminde ilerlemeye dik yön) ve z (düşey eksen) yönünde
oluşan kuvvet değerleri Kistler Type 9272 dinamometre ve Kistler Type 5070 amfi ile ölçülmüştür. Ölçümler
esnasında örnekleme frekansı 12.8 kHz olarak belirlenmiştir. 140 mm uzunluğundaki şeritler halinde
gerçekleştirilen kesme işlemi, verilen deney parametrelerine göre 8 kere tekrar edilmiştir. İstenilen veriler
toplandıktan sonra her bir şerit ve eldeki her bir zaman serisi, 14 eş parçaya bölünmüştür. Bu parçaların her
biri kendine özgü kuvvet verisi bulunan örnekler olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Bu çalışmada kullanılan tüm
modeller gözetimli öğrenme modelleri olduğu için bu veri setindeki her bir örneğin/veri kesitinin, çıktı
büyüklüğü olan yüzey pürüzlülüğü ile etiketlenmesi gerekir. Bu doğrultuda, verilerin etiketlenmesi için de her
bir kesitten 4 defa yüzey pürüzlülüğü ölçülmüş ve ölçümlerin ortalaması alınarak kaydedilmiştir. Ölçümler
için Mitutoyo SJ-201 profilometre cihazı kullanılmıştır. Böylece 112 (14*8) farklı freze kesiti için kesme
kuvvetleri ve yüzey pürüzlülüğü değerlerinden oluşan küçük bir veri seti hazırlanmış olur.

Veri İşleme
Veri işleme operasyonları, aşamalı olarak; ön-işleme, eğitim-optimizasyon ve art-işleme şeklinde
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu akış içerisinde öncelikle detaylı bir Fourier analizi yapılmıştır. Bu analiz sonuçları
doğrultusunda hem zaman uzayında hem de frekans uzayında çeşitli öznitelikler türetilmiştir. Eğitim ve
optimizasyon safhasında çeşitli regresyon algoritmaları ham halleri ile eğitilmiş ve ilk performans metrikleri
kıyaslanmıştır. Ardından hiperparametre optimizasyonu ve öznitelik seçimi uygulanmış, optimize edilen
modellerin sonuçları verilmiştir. Nihai modelin performans metrikleri Sonuç bölümünde verilmiştir.

Öznitelik Çıkarımı
Daha önceki çalışmalarda, farklı hasar mekanizmaları ve kalite kriterlerinin tahmini için küçük veri setlerinden
istatistiksel özniteliklerin verimli şekilde kullanılabildiği gösterilmişti [8]. Bu çalışmada, MATLAB
kullanılarak detaylı bir Fourier analizi yapılmış, zaman uzayındaki istatistiksel özniteliklere ilaveten frekans
uzayında da çeşitli öznitelikler türetilmiş ve yüzey pürüzlülüğü tahmini üzerindeki tesiri incelenmiştir.
Öznitelikler haricinde zaman, frekans ve zaman-frekans uzayları incelenerek çeşitli saptamalar yapılmıştır.
Öncelikle 𝐹𝑥 , 𝐹𝑦 ve 𝐹𝑧 sinyallerinin her birinin karakteristik biçimleri tespit edilmiştir. Farklı sinyal kesitleri
için genlik değerleri doğal olarak değişiklik gösterse de sinyalin şekli ve dalgalanma formu, kendi içinde
sürekli tekrarlayan bir örüntüyü gösterir. Bu aynı yönde, takım-iş parçası ikilisinin tekrarlı olarak benzer bir
ilişkiye girmesinden kaynaklanır. Zaman uzayındaki davranışın genel bir gösterimi amacıyla örnek bir kesitin
sinyal grafiği Şekil-1’de verilmiştir.
Zaman serileri öğrenme modellerinde doğrudan kullanılmayacağı için bu serilerden, temsil kabiliyeti en
yüksek özniteliklerin türetilmesi ve girdi setinin oluşturulması gereklidir. Bu nedenle zaman uzayında 4 farklı
istatistiksel öznitelik türetilmiştir: Birincisi her bir takım çevriminde açığa çıkan azami kuvvet değerlerinin
ortalaması (T1), ikincisi her bir takım çevriminde açığa çıkan asgari kuvvet değerlerinin ortalaması (T2),
üçüncüsü her bir çevrim sinyalindeki standart sapma değerlerinin ortalaması (T3) ve dördüncüsü de her bir
çevrimde açığa çıkan azami kuvvet değerlerinin standart sapmasıdır (T4). Bu 4 öznitelik her bir kesit ve her
bir eksen için türetilmiştir (3 eksen * 4 öznitelik = 12 öznitelik). Şekil-1’de tek bir çevrimin davranışı ve birkaç
tekrarlı hali gösterilmiştir.
Ardından verilerin frekans uzayındaki davranışını görebilmek için ayrık Fourier dönüşümü uygulanmıştır.
Frekans uzayı incelendiğinde görülmüştür ki her bir sinyal için 1. ve 2. harmonik frekansına denk gelen atımlar
en baskın atımlar olup, sinyalin genel karakterini belirlemektedir. Buradaki 1. harmonik frekansı, saniyedeki
çevrim sayısına (İş mili hızı/ 60) eşittir. 2. harmonik frekansı ise bunun iki katıdır. Bu iki frekans değerinin
büyüklükleri her bir örnek için ayrı birer öznitelik olarak türetilmiştir (FQ1 & FQ2). Bununla birlikte Fourier
grafiğinde gözlenen 3. bir tepe noktası daha bulunmaktadır ki bu atım daha yüksek bir frekans bölgesinde
görülmektedir (~250 Hz). Bunun zamana bağlı bir gürültü olup olmadığının kesinleştirilmesi için kısa-zamanlı
Fourier analizi ile spektrogram görüntüsü elde edilmiş, incelenmiş ve bunun genel karakteristik bir atım olduğu

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görülmüştür. Fakat tüm sinyallerde 250 Hz bölgesinde sabitlenmiş böyle bir atımın bulunması, kesici takım-iş
parçası etkileşimi ile değil çevresel faktörlerin tesiri veya CNC tezgahın titreşim karakteri ile ilintili olarak
değerlendirilirmiştir. Fakat test etmek için bu atım da 3. bir frekans-uzayı özniteliği olarak türetilmiştir (FQ3).
Örnek bir zaman serisi için spektrogram görüntüsü ve bahsi geçen 3 farklı frekanstaki yoğunluk bölgeleri
Şekil-2’de verilmiştir. Böylelikle frekans uzayında örnek başına 9 öznitelik (3 eksen * 3 öznitelik) türetilmiş
olur. Nihai olarak elde edilen 21 özniteliğin tamamı Tablo-2’de verilmiştir.
Son olarak öznitelikler ve yüzey pürüzlülüğü değerleri öğrenme modellerine beslenmek üzere .csv dosyasında
düzenlenmiş, kaydedilmiştir. Ön-işleme operasyonlarının tamamı MATLAB üzerinden gerçekleştirilmiştir.

Şekil 5: Tüm eksenelerde kuvvet verisinin zaman uzayında gösterimi. Detay kesitlerde tek bir çevrim süresince
oluşan kuvvet davranışı gösterilmiştir.

No. Öznitelik Uzay (Kod) No. Öznitelik Uzay (Kod)

En büyüklerin
1 Zaman uzayı (T1) 5 1. Harmonik atımı Frekans uzayı (FQ1)
ortalaması

En küçüklerin
2 Zaman uzayı (T2) 6 2. Harmonik atımı Frekans uzayı (FQ2)
ortalaması

Bir çevrimde
3 Zaman uzayı (T3) 7 Yüksek frekans atımı Frekans uzayı (FQ3)
STD

En büyükler için
4 Zaman uzayı (T4)
STD

Tablo 5: Türetilmiş öznitelikler ve tanımlı oldukları uzaylar. Bu özniteliklerin her biri x, y ve z eksenlerindeki
kuvvet verileri için türetilmiştir (toplam 21 öznitelik).
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Şekil 6: Örnek bir sinyal için spectrogram (x: zaman, y: frekans, z: şiddet).

Modellerin Eğtilmesi ve Hiperparametre Optimizasyonu

Ön-işlemenin ardından tüm veri işleme operasyonlarında Python kullanılmıştır. Temel olarak pandas [9] ve
scikit-learn [10] kütüphanelerinden yararlanılmıştır.
Çalışmada bazı karar ağacı tabanlı algoritmalar ve destek vektör makinaları regresyon amaçlı test edilmiştir.
Öncelikle belirlenen karar ağacı tabanlı modeller oluşturulup, hazırlanan eğitim veri seti ile eğitilmiştir. Burada
kullanılan algoritmalar Karar Ağacı Regresyonu (DTR / Decision Tree Regressor), Random Forest Regresyonu
(RFR) ve Gradyan Güçlendirmeli Regresyonudur (GBR / Gradient Boosting Regressor). İlk eğitim ve tahmin
denemesinin ardından sonuçlar incelendiğinde beklendik bulgular edinilmiştir. DTR en yüksek hata oranı ve
GBR en yüksek hesaplama süresi/maliyeti ile sonuçlanmıştır. RFR hata oranı ve hesaplama maliyeti itibarıyla
optimum davranış sergilemiştir. Eldeki örneklem alışılagelen makine öğrenmesi çalışmaları için oldukça küçük
olduğundan ve verilerden azami düzeyde faydalanılması gerekli olduğundan ötürü leave-one-out çapraz
doğrulama (LOOCV / leave-one-out cross validation) yöntemi kullanılmıştır. LOOCV ile yeniden modelleme
yapıldığından performans metriklerinin genel olarak iyileştiği fakat RFR’nin hala GBR ile eşit düzeyde ve
nispeten düşük hata oranı ile sonuçlandığı fakat daha hızlı sonuç verdiği görülmüştür. Küçük veri setleri ile
çalışırken iyi sonuç verdiği genel bir değerlendirme olarak bilinen Destek Vektör Regresyonu (SVR/ Support
Vector Regressor) da karar ağacı tabanlı algoritmalara alternatif olarak denenmiş, ilk sonuçlar itibarıyla diğer
modellerden daha yüksek doğrulukla tahmin üretmiştir.
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Şekil 7: İş akışı şeması.

Daha sonra tüm modeller için bağımsız olarak Grid Search algoritması ile hiperparametre optimizasyonu
yapılmıştır. Algoritmanın matematik altyapısına göre değişiklik arz etse de optimize edilen hiperparametreler
şu şekildedir: Öğrenme hızı, tahminci sayısı, maksimum ağaç derinliği, C ve ε katsayıları. Optimizasyonun
ardından sonuçların ciddi düzeyde iyileştiği görülmüştür. Modelleme ve optimizasyon safhasında
değerlendirilmesi için MSE (ortalama kare hatası / mean-squared error), MAPE (ortalama mutlak yüzde hatası
/ mean absolute percentage error) ve T (koşturma süresi) ölçütleri performans kriterleri olarak kullanılmıştır.
Bunların yanı sıra her aşamada öğrenme eğrileri çizdirilmiş, modellerin eğitimi esnasında verilerin kullanımına
ilişkin bir sorun (aşırı öğrenme veya eksik öğrenme) olup olmadığı kontrol ediliştir.

Öznitelik Seçimi ve Yorumlama

Daha önce açıklandığı üzere 21 öznitelik türetilmişti. Bu çalışmada; model karmaşıklığını azaltmak, toplam
işlem maliyetini düşürmek ve az da olsa aşırı öğrenme riski azaltmak için öznitelik seçimi uygulanmıştır.
Bununla birlikte seçim sonucunda özniteliklerin önem faktörlerinin tespiti ve bunlar üzerinden imalat sürecine
dair fiziksel yorumlar yapılması, hangi özniteliklerin daha belirleyici olduğunun tespit edilmesi amaçlanmıştır.
Bu çalışmada esas teşkil eden XML modellerinin sağladığı temel avantajlardan biri, model girdileri ve çıktıları
arasında bu şekilde ilişki kurulabilmesidir.
En yüksek korelasyona sahip özniteliklerin seçimi için çeşitli yöntemler mevcuttur. Burada permütasyon önem
metodu kullanılmıştır. Bu metot ile modellerde her bir özniteliğin tahmin yapmadaki baskınlığı nicelenmiştir.
Daha önce kısaca değinildiği üzere SVR, en yüksek doğrulukta sonuç verdiğinden ötürü öznitelik seçimi de
bu model üzerinden gerçekleştirilmiştir. Çalışmanın veri işleme kısmına ilişkin iş akışı şeması, Şekil-3’te
verilmiştir.

Sonuçlar ve Tartışma
Permütasyon önem faktörü değerleri kıyaslanınca bazı saptamaları yapılmıştır. Öncelikle frekans uzayındaki
özniteliklerin zaman uzayındakilere nazaran genel olarak daha az önemli olduğu görülmüştür. En baskın
değerlerin zaman uzayında olduğu görülmektedir. Yüksek frekans özniteliğinin (3. atım), tahmin edildiği üzere
her üç eksende de önemsiz olduğu ve sonucu neredeyse hiç etkilemediği görülmüştür. Buna karşın en baskın
özniteliklerin y yönündeki (işleme yüzeyi düzleminde, ilerlemeye dik) kuvvet sinyalinden türetilen öznitelikler
olduğu görülmüştür. Düşey yöndeki (z) kuvvetlerden alınan girdilerin ise nispeten az tesiri olduğu görülmüştür.
Öznitelik seçiminde birkaç denemeden sonra, önem sıralamasındaki son 10 özniteliğin toplam 0’a yakın etkisi
olduğu görülmüş ve bunlar girdi setinden çıkarılmıştır. Tahmine yönelik anlamlı bir bilgi sağlamayan bu
girdiler, aynı zamanda modelin işlem yükünü artırmakta daha yavaş ve kompleks bir hale getirmektedir. Netice
itibarıyla tüm özniteliklerin ve ayrıca seçilenlerin önem faktörleri Şekil-4’te verilmiştir.

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(a) (b)
Şekil 8: Permütasyon önem faktörleri; (a) Tüm öznitelikler için, (b) seçilen en
baskın öznitelikler için (sıralı).

Son modellerle ilgili olarak; basit doğası ile bilinen bir zayıf öğrenici olarak DTR modeli, tahmin edildiği
üzere en yüksek hata oranını ve en düşük koşturma süresini sağlamıştır. Fakat DTR modelinin dahi %10’un
altında hata oranlarına inebilmiş olması önemli bir göstergedir. GBR modeli, gradyan güçlendirme
algoritmasını karar ağaçları ile birlikte kullandığı için iteratif bir yapıya sahip olup daha geniş veri kümelerinde
DTR’ye kıyasla daha karmaşık ilişkileri çözümleyebilmekte ve çok daha yüksek doğrulukta sonuçlar
sağlayabilmektedir. Fakat burada küçük bir veri seti ile çalışıldığından tahmin performansı %9.8’den %7.7’ye
iyileştirilebilmiştir. Buna karşın iterasyonlardan ötürü işlem süresinin çok ciddi seviyede arttığı görülmektedir.
RFR modelinde DTR’ye nazaran daha doğru sonuçlar elde edilmiştir. GBR’deki kadar yüksek iyileşme
görülmese de RFR farklı karar ağaçlarının bağımsız ve paralel kullanımı ile çalıştığından GBR’ye kıyasla daha
hızlı ve yaklaşık doğrulukta sonuçlar sağlamaktadır.

SVR ise %6.2 MAPE ile mevcut en iyi tahmin performansını sergilemiştir. Hesaplanan bu hata değerleri,
yaklaşık [0.6 µm – 7 µm] arasındaki yüzey pürüzlülüğü değerleri üzerinden hesaplanmıştır. SVR modelinin
eğitim performansını ölçmek ve aşırı/eksik öğrenme sorunlarından kaçınmak için çizilen öğrenme eğrisi Şekil-
5’te verilmiştir. Buradaki değerlerin yalnızca 112 elemanlı bir örneklem üzerinden gerçekleştirildiği
düşünüldüğünde kabul edilebilir ve geliştirilmeye değer bir metot olduğu görülür. Tüm modeller için
performans değerleri Tablo-3’te verilmiştir. Ayrıca SVR modelinin, modele hiç tanıtılmamış test kümesi
üzerindeki tahmin değerleri Şekil-5’te ölçülen pürüzlülük değerleri ile birlikte gösterilmiştir.

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Şekil 9: SVR modelinin eğitiminde elde edilen öğrenme eğrisi.

Algoritma MSE MAPE (%) T (s)

DTR 0.0831 9.8 0.25

GBR 0.0565 7.7 14.4

RFR 0.0682 8.7 2.75

SVR 0.0445 6.2 0.5

Tablo 6: Tüm regresyon modelleri için performans ölçütleri.

Sonuç olarak, bu çalışmada AA7075 kütük malzemesi üzerinde yapılan frezeleme işleminde, anlık toplanan
kuvvet verileri kullanılarak yüzey pürüzlülüğü değerleri yaklaşık %6 hata oranıyla tahmin edilmiştir. Bir dizi
çalışmanın ilk aşaması olarak düşülen bu deney ve modelleme, istenilen performansı sağlamıştır. Örneklemin
büyütülmesi, optik profilometre ile daha hızlı ve kapsamlı bir etiketleme yapılması, geniş veri tabanlarının
kullanılması ve kesme bölgesinden alınan anlık görüntüler ile CNN modellerinden gerçek zamanlı pürüzlülük
tahmini gibi konularda bu çalışmanın ilerletilmesi ve geliştirilmesi hedeflenmektedir.

Şekil 10: Test kümesi için SVR modeli ile pürüzlülük tahmini.

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SERAMIK KESICI TAKIM ILE FREZELENEN INCONEL 625

ALAŞIMINDA YÜZEY BÜTÜNLÜĞÜ ANALIZI
Umut Koçaka, Kubilay Aslantaşb, and Abdülcelil Bayarc
a
Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Teknoloji Fakültesi, Makine Mühendisliği Bölümü, Afyonkarahisar/TÜRKİYE,
umutkock@gmail.com
b
Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi, Teknoloji Fakültesi, Makine Mühendisliği Bölümü,, Afyonkarahisar/TÜRKİYE,
aslantas@aku.edu.tr
c
Türk Havacılık ve Uzay Sanayii AŞ, Ankara/TÜRKİYE, abdulcelil.bayar@tai.com.tr

Özet
Nikel bazlı süper alaşım Inconel 625, kapsamlı uygulamalarına (havacılık, petrol ve gaz, denizcilik, kimyasal
işleme ve benzeri endüstrilerde) rağmen belirgin termal ve fiziksel özellikleri nedeniyle kesilmesi zor malzeme
olarak sınıflandırılır. Bu çalışmada, SiAlON seramik kesici takım kullanılarak yüksek hızlarda frezeleme
işlemi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Kuru kesme koşulları altında gerçekleştirilen deneylerde, kesme parametrelerinin
yüzey pürüzlülüğüne ve yüzey altı tane yapısına etkisi deneysel olarak araştırılmıştır. Elde edilen sonuçlara
göre, artan kesme hızına bağlı olarak tane yapısında belirgin bir yönelim gözlemlenmiştir. Yine artan kesme
hızının, deforme olmuş tabaka kalınlığının da artmasına neden olduğu gözlemlenmiştir. İşlenmiş yüzeyin
altında, yaklaşık 250 µm derinliğe ulaşan bir deformasyon sertleşmesi gözlemlenmiştir. Yüzeye yakın
noktalarda sertlik değeri artmakta ve artan kesme hızı ile bu sertlik değeri de azalma eğilimi göstermektedir.
Ayrıca artan kesme hızı ile birlikte deforme olan tabaka kalınlığının da arttığı net olarak gözlemlenmiştir.
Keywords: Inconel 625, SiAlON, Frezeleme.

Abstract
Despite its extensive applications in a number of industries, including aerospace, oil and gas, marine, chemical
processing and similar fields, the nickel-based superalloy Inconel 625 is classified as a difficult-to-cut material
due to its pronounced thermal and physical properties. In this study, high-speed milling was conducted using
a SiAlON ceramic cutting tool. In order to ascertain the impact of cutting parameters on surface roughness and
subsurface grain structure, an experimental investigation was conducted under dry cutting conditions. The
results demonstrated a notable orientation in the grain structure with elevated cutting speeds. Additionally, an
increase in cutting speed was associated with a rise in the thickness of the deformed layer. A deformation
hardening reaching a depth of approximately 250 µm was observed beneath the machined surface. The
hardness value exhibited an increase in proximity to the surface, whereas it demonstrated a decline with rising
cutting speeds. It was also clearly observed that the thickness of the deformed layer increased as the cutting
speed increased.
Keywords: Inconel 625, SiAlON, Milling.

Giriş
Nikel bazlı süper alaşımlar, düşük ısıl iletkenlik , düşük ısıl yayılım , yüksek sıcaklık dayanımı ve yoğun
deformasyon sertleşmesin maruz kalma eğilimi gibi birçok farklı özellik ile karakterize edilen bir malzemedir
[1]. Nikel bazlı alaşımlar grubunda yer alan Inconel 625 alaşımı özellikle havacılık ve savunma sanayinde üst
düzey mühendislik uygulamalarında kullanılmaktadır. Üst düzey mühendislik uygulamalarında kullanılıyor
olmasının yanısıra oldukça zor işlenen malzeme olarak bilinmektedir [1]. Son yıllarda birçok araştırmacı
Inconel 625 alaşımlarını çeşitli işleme senaryolarına tabi tutmuş ve ana odak noktası iş parçası kalitesi ve takım
ömrü/aşınma olmak üzere işleme performansının farklı yönleri hakkında rapor etmişlerdir. Ancak, Inconel

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625'in işlenmesi, düşük termal iletkenliği, yüksek sertliği ve işlenebilirliğinin zorluğu nedeniyle önemli teknik
zorluklar içermektedir [2].
Seramik ve karbür kesici takımlar, Inconel 625 gibi zorlu malzemelerin işlenmesinde yaygın olarak
kullanılmaktadır. Seramik takımlar, yüksek sıcaklıklarda bile sertliklerini koruyabilmeleri ve aşınmaya karşı
dirençli olmaları nedeniyle tercih edilmektedir. Bununla birlikte, seramik takımlar kırılgan olup, yüksek hızda
kesme işlemlerinde çeşitli zorluklar ortaya çıkarabilir [3]. Karbür takımlar ise daha yüksek tokluk ve darbe
dayanımı sunmakta, bu da onların daha geniş bir uygulama alanında kullanılmasını sağlamaktadır [4]. Ancak,
karbür takımların aşınma direnci seramiklere göre daha düşüktür ve yüksek sıcaklıklarda performansları
önemli ölçüde düşmektedir.
Inconel 625'in işlenebilirliği üzerine yapılan mevcut literatürde, araştırmacıların genellikle kaplamalı karbür,
kübik bor nitrür (CBN), kaplamalı CBN ve polikristalin kübik bor nitrür (PCBN) gibi çeşitli takım
malzemelerini kullandıklarını göstermektedir. Yapılan çalışmaları ağılıklı olarak tornalama ve frezeleme
operasyonlarını kapsamaktadır. Özellikle havacılık ve savunma sektöründe frezeleme uygulamaları ağırlık
kazandığından bu yönde yapılan çalışmalar daha geniş yer tutmaktadır. Farklı kalitelerde kaplamalı ve
kaplamasız semente karbür kesici uçlar kullanarak yapılan bir çalışmada Inconel 625'in yüzey frezelemesi için
en iyi koşulları belirlemişlerdir [5]. Araştırmalarında, aşağı frezeleme yaklaşımının takım ömrü açısından
yukarı frezelemeden daha uygun olduğunu bulmuşlardır. Bu, aşağı frezeleme yaklaşımının kesme işlemi
sırasında karşılaşılan darbe yüklerine karşı daha büyük bir şok direnci sağladığı için kesici uçların daha uzun
ömürlü olmasına bağlanmaktadır.
Inconel grubundaki alaşımların işlenmesi sırasında meydana gelen yüksek ısı takım kaplamasının ayrılmasına
ve talaşların kesici kenara yapışmasına neden olduğunu literatürde sıklıkla vurgulanmaktadır. Singh ve
arkadaşları [8], kaplamalı karbür uçlarla Inconel 625'in frezelenmesinde farklı yağlama stratejilerini
incelemişlerdir. Minimum miktarda yağlamanın, kuru ve bor yağı katlı kesme sıvısı ile frezelemeye kıyasla
takım ömrü ve yüzey kalitesi açısından daha iyi performans sağladığını tespit etmişlerdir. Kesme derinliği ve
ilerleme hızının takım aşınması üzerinde en önemli parametreler olduğu, yüzey pürüzlülüğünün ise kesme hızı
ve kesme derinliğinden etkilendiği belirlenmiştir. Ezugwu ve arkadaşları [9], nikel bazlı süper alaşımların
işlenebilirliği üzerine yaptıkları incelemede, bu alaşımların yüksek kesme derinliklerinde çentik aşınmasına
duyarlı hale geldiğini ve aşırı ısının kesme sıvısı ile dengelenerek takım ömrünün uzatılabileceğini
belirtmişlerdir. Ayrıca, daha yüksek köşe açısı ve uç açısı gibi takım geometrik özelliklerinin takım
mukavemetini artırabileceğini ifade etmişlerdir.
İşleme operasyonlarının verimliliğini belirlemek için iş parçasının yüzey ve alt yüzey kalitesi önemli bir rol
oynar. Yüzey bütünlüğü özelliklerinin iyileştirilmesiyle ürünün kalitesi de artar. Bu nedenle, yüzey kalitesinin
ve yüzey altı tane yapısının incelenmesinin işleme operasyonunda önemli bir etkisi vardır. Dolayısıyla, iş
parçasından bir üretim prosesi (örneğin işleme) yoluyla elde edilen çeşitli yüzey özelliklerinin basit bir şekilde
incelenmesine yüzey bütünlüğü denir. Yüzey bütünlüğü en çok kesme hızı, kesme derinliği, ilerleme, takım
geometrisinden ve kesme ortamından etkilenir [10]. Araştırmacılar tarafından yapılan bir çalışmada, farklı
kalitedeki nikel süper alaşımlarında kesme hızının artmasıyla yüzey pürüzlülüğünde azalma olduğunu
belirtmektedir [11]. Aksine, bazı çalışmalar işleme sırasında kesme hızının artmasına bağlı olarak yüzey
pürüzlülüğünün de arttığını ortaya koymaktadır [12,13,14]. Bu nedenle istenen yüzey kalitesini elde etmek
için kesme hızı değerlerinin uygun aralıkta seçilmesi önemlidir. Reddy ve William [15], kesme kuvvetlerini
azaltmak ve yüzey kalitesini iyileştirmek amacıyla düşük talaş derinliği ve ilerleme hızları ile yüksek kesme
hızlarının kullanılmasını önermişlerdir.
Frezeleme işlemi sırasında Inconel 625'in mikro yapısında belirgin değişiklikler meydana gelir. Özellikle,
yüksek sıcaklık ve kesme kuvvetleri, malzeme yüzeyinde plastik deformasyon ve tane büyümesi gibi mikro
yapısal değişikliklere neden olabilir. Ji ve arkadaşları [16], Inconel 625'in selektif lazer eritme (SLM) ile
üretilmiş versiyonunda, mikro frezeleme işlemi sonrasında tane yapısında hafif bir kaba taneli yapı ve
kristalografik doku zayıflaması gözlemlemişlerdir. Bu değişiklikler, malzemenin mekanik özelliklerinde ve
işlenebilirlikte farklılıklara yol açmıştır. Frezeleme işlemi, Inconel 625'in mekanik özellikleri ve sertliği

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üzerinde doğrudan etkilidir. Çalışmalar, kesme hızının ve ilerleme oranının yüzey sertliği ve kalıntı gerilme
üzerinde önemli etkileri olduğunu göstermektedir. Wang ve arkadaşları [17], farklı kesme hızları ve ilerleme
oranları ile yapılan frezeleme işlemlerinde yüzey sertliğinin arttığını ve yüzeyde çekme kalıntı gerilmeleri
oluştuğunu rapor etmişlerdir. Ayrıca, yüksek ilerleme oranlarının yüzey pürüzlülüğünü artırarak yorulma
ömrünü olumsuz etkilediği belirtilmiştir. Frezeleme işlemi sırasında kullanılan kesme parametreleri, Inconel
625'in sertliğini etkileyebilir. Akhtar ve arkadaşları [18], yüksek hızda yapılan frezeleme işlemlerinde seramik
kesici takımların çok yüksek yüzey çekme gerilmeleri ve kötü yüzey finişi oluşturduğunu, buna karşın karbür
takımların daha iyi yüzey bütünlüğü sağladığını belirtmişlerdir. Ayrıca, Halim ve arkadaşları [19], kriyojenik
koşullar altında yapılan frezeleme işlemlerinde Inconel 625 yüzeyinin sertliğinde belirgin bir artış
gözlemlendiğini bildirmişlerdir. Bu artış, özellikle yüksek ilerleme hızı ve talaş derinliği ile ilişkilendirilmiştir.
Bu çalışmada seramik kesici takım kullanılarak Inconel 625 süper alaşımının frezelenmesi sırasında yüzey
altında meydana gelen tane değişimi, mikro yapı değişiklikleri, yüzey kalitesi ve sertlik değişimleri detaylı bir
şekilde incelenecektir.

Materyal ve Metod
Bu çalışmada, iş malzemesi olarak Inconel 625 nikel bazlı süper alaşım kullanılmıştır. Frezeleme işlemi kuru
kesme yöntemi ile gerçekleştirilmiş olup, kesme sıvısı kullanılmamıştır. Kesme deneylerinde kullanılan deney
düzeneğinin şematik diyagramı Şekil 1’de verilmektedir. Deneylerde 2.2 kW güç kapasitesine sahip bir CNC
router kullanılmıştır. Kullanılan iş parçası Türk Uçak Sanayii Anonim Ortaklığı (TUSAŞ) dan tedarik
edilmiştir. Seco firmasından tedarik edilen kesici takım kaplamasız olup, takım kodu
JCG790100E2R100.0Z6’dur. Kesici takıma ait geometrik özellikler ve takımın kimyasal bileşimi Şekil 2’de
verilmiştir.

Şekil 1 Kesme İşleminin Şematik Gösterimi

Şekil 2 a) Kullanılan SiAlON kesici takım ve geometrik özellikleri ve b) Kimyasal bileşimi

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Kesme deneyleri, çeşitlendirilmiş koşullar altında gerçekleştirilmiştir. Toplamda 13 farklı kesme deneyi
yapılmış olup, bu testlerde 5 farklı kesme hızı, 3 farklı kesme derinliği ve 3 farklı ilerleme hızı kullanılmıştır.
Bu parametrelerin tamamı, Tablo 1'de detaylı olarak listelenmiştir. Kesim işleminden sonra yüzey pürüzlülüğü
ölçümleri, Nanovea ST400 3D profilometre kullanılarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. Yüzey pürüzlülüğü ölçümleri üç
farklı noktadan yapılmış ve ortalaması alınmıştır. Metalografik analizler için, numuneler öncelikle kesilmiş,
ardından bakalite alma işlemi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Uygun zımparalama süreci sonrasında, tane sınırlarındaki
değişimi gözlemlemek adına numuneler 60s süreyle 15 mL HCl+5 mL HNO3 solüsyonu ile dağlanmıştır.
Tablo 1. Frezelemede Kullanılan Kesme Parametreleri

Kesme parametresi Değer

Kesme hızı, Vc (m/dak) 450-475-500-525-550

Ağız başına ilerleme fz (mm/ağız) 0,01-0,02-0,03-0,04

Kesme derinliği, ap (mm) 1-1,25-1,5

Bu çalışmada, ölçümler numunelerin yan yüzeyinden alınmıştır. Frezelenmiş kısımdan başlayarak yüzey altına
doğru yapılmıştır. Vickers mikrosertlik testleri, ASTM E384-11 [20] standardına uygun olarak
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu testler için, entegre optik mikroskopa (40× büyütme) sahip Vickers mikroindentatör
kullanılmış olup, uygulanan yük 300 gram ve bekleme süresi 15 saniye olarak ayarlanmıştır. Numune, düzgün
bir yüzeye sahip olacak şekilde ve ASTM E384-11 standartlarına uygun olarak hazırlanmıştır. Mikrosertlik
ölçümleri, numunenin frezelenmiş yüzeyinden itibaren belirli derinliklerde yapılmıştır. Ölçümler, işlenmiş
yüzeyden başlayıp, yüzey altı boyunca 50 m ile 600 m arasındaki derinliklere yönelik olarak düzenlenmiştir.
Her derinlik için beş tekrar ölçüm yapılmış ve bu ölçümler ortalama alınarak değerlendirilmiştir. Ölçüm
sonuçları, ize ait köşegen boyutları ASTM E384-11 kriterlerine uygun olmadığı takdirde veya köşegenler
arasındaki fark %5'ten fazla olduğunda geçersiz sayılmıştır. Bu şekilde elde edilen veriler, işlem sonrası
yüzeyin ve altındaki malzemenin mikro yapısal değişimlerini değerlendirmek için kullanılmıştır.

Sonuçlar ve Tartışma
3.1 Yüzey pürüzlülüğü
Analiz edilen veriler, kesme hızı, diş başına ilerleme ve kesme derinliği gibi parametrelerin yüzey kalitesi
üzerinde belirgin etkilere sahip olduğunu göstermiştir. Kesme hızının artmasıyla yüzey pürüzlülüğü değerleri
olan Ra ve Rz'de genel bir azalma gözlenmiştir (Şekil 3a). Bu durum özellikle 550 m/dak hızında Ra'nın 0,31
µm'ye düşmesi ve Rz'nin 1,38 µm'ye düşmesi ile dikkat çekicidir. Upadhyay ve arkadaşlarının yaptığı
çalışmada, Inconel 617 alaşımının frezeleme işleminde kesme hızının artırılmasıyla yüzey pürüzlülüğünde
belirgin bir azalma gözlemlenmiştir. Bu çalışmada, 50 m/dk'dan 150 m/dk'ya çıkarılan kesme hızı, yüzey
pürüzlülüğünde önemli bir iyileşme sağlamıştır [21]. Diğer bir çalışmada, benzer şekilde, Inconel 625
alaşımının frezelenmesinde, kesme hızının 150 m/dk'dan 250 m/dk'ya çıkarılmasıyla yüzey pürüzlülüğünde
%40'a varan bir iyileşme sağlandığı rapor edilmiştir [22]. Bu durum, artan kesme hızına bağlı olarak kesme
sıcaklığının artmasına ve takıma talaş yapışma riskinin azalması ile de ilişkilendirilmektedir [21]. Ağız başına
düşen ilerleme değerinin değişmesine bağlı olarak Ra ve Rz nin değişimi Şekil 3b’de verilmektedir. Genellikle
ağız başına düşen ilerleme değerinin artması yüzey pürüzlülüğünün de artmasına neden olur. Başlangıçta artan
ilerleme değeri ile birlikte Ra ve Rz değerleri artmaktadır. Elde edilen sonuçları doğrulamak adına üçten fazla
ölçüm yapılmış ve grafiğe hata çubukları da dahil edilmiştir. Buna rağmen fz=0,03 mm/ağız için elde edilen
Ra ve Rz değerleri minimum elde edilmiştir. Bu durum kesici takımın kenar radüsünün fz değerinden küçük
veya eşit olması ile açıklanabilir. Bu durum frezeleme sırasında kazınmaya neden olur ki bu durum mikro
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frezelemede çok daha sıklıkla karşılaşılan bir durumdur [23, 24, 25]. Fakat geleneksel frezelemede de ağız
başına düşen ilerleme değeri ve eksenel kesme derinliği kesici takımın köşe ve kenar radüsü ile kıyaslanacak
kadar küçükse de kazınma meydana gelebilmektedir. Bu durum doğal olarak yüzey pürüzlülüğünün artmasına
neden olmaktadır.

Şekil 3 a)Kesme hızının, b)Ağız başına ilerlemenin, c)Kesme derinliğinin Ra ve Rz değerleri üzerindeki etkisi,
d)işlenen yüzeyin optik profilometre ve mikroskop görüntüsü

Kesme derinliği ile yüzey pürüzlülüğü arasındaki ilişki Şekil 3c de verilmektedir. Kesme derinliğinin artışıyla
birlikte pürüzlülük değerlerinde belirgin bir düşüş gözlemlenmektedir. Özellikle, 1,5 mm kesme derinliğinde
Ra değeri 0,19 µm'ye düşmüştür, bu da derin kesmelerde yüzey kalitesinin önemli ölçüde iyileştiğini
göstermektedir. Kullanılan kesici takımın köşe radüsü 1mm olduğu düşünüldüğünde bu değerin altındaki
kesme derinliklerinde kazınma olasılığı oldukça yüksektir [26]. Kesme derinliği 1 ve 1,25mm olduğu kesme
şartlarında Ra ve Rz değerleri birbirine yakın elde edilmiştir. Kesme derinliği 1,5mm olduğunda takım köşe
radüsünün üzerinde bir derinlikte frezeleme işlemi gerçekleştirilmektedir. Bu da frezeleme sırasında işlenen
yüzeye mikro talaşların sıvanma riskini azaltarak kazınma olasılığını minimuma indirmektedir. Lu ve
arkadaşlarının yaptığı çalışmada, Inconel 718 malzemesinin mikro frezeleme işleminde kesme derinliğinin
artırılmasıyla yüzey pürüzlülüğünde %35 oranında iyileşme sağlandığı tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca, kesme
derinliği, yüzey pürüzlülüğünü en çok etkileyen parametre olarak belirlenmiştir [27]. Şekil 3d’de 3 boyutlu
yapılan bir yüzey profilinin görüntüsü ve bu yüzeyden alınan mikroskop görüntüsü verilmektedir. 3 boyutlu
profil görüntüsünde yüzeyde talaş sıvanmasının olduğu net olarak görünmekle birlikte, optik görüntüde de
yüzeye yapışan mikro talaşlar göze çarpmaktadır. Bu yüzey görüntüleri kazınma olasılığını
kuvvetlendirmektedir.

Mikro Yapı
Nikel-krom bazlı bir süper alaşım olan Inconel 625'in mikroyapısı, katı çözelti güçlendirme ve çökelme
sertleştirme mekanizmaları ile karakterize edilir. Tavlanmış durumda, mikroyapı esas olarak, alaşımın
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olağanüstü mukavemetine ve termal stabilitesine katkıda bulunan NbC ve TiC gibi düzgün dağılmış karbürler
ve karbonitrürler içeren bir yüz merkezli kübik (FCC) matristen oluşur [28, 29]. Ek olarak, molibden ve
niyobyum gibi elementlerin varlığı alaşımın sürünme ve gerilme korozyonu çatlamasına karşı direncini artırır.
Bu çalışmada frezeleme sonrasında tane yapısındaki değişimi gözlemlemek adına talaşlı imalat prosedürüne
maruz kalmamış İnconel 625 alaşımının mikro yapı analizi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Şekil 4 de İnconel 625
alaşımına ait mikro yapının optik görüntüsü verilmektedir.

Şekil 4 İnconel 625 alaşımının mikro yapısına ait optik mikroskop görüntüsü
Kesme hızı, ilerleme hızı ve kesme derinliği gibi parametrelerin tane sınırlarındaki değişikliklere etkileri
detaylı olarak değerlendirilmiştir. Yapılan deneylerde, kesme hızı 450 m/dakika ile başladığında deformasyona
uğrayan tabaka kalınlığı 24,8 μm olarak ölçülmüştür. Kesme hızının 475 m/dak' ya çıkarılmasıyla,
deformasyona uğrayan tabaka kalınlığı %5,16 oranında artarak 26,08 μm'ye yükselmiştir. Son olarak, kesme
hızının 525 m/dak' ya ulaştığında, deformasyona uğrayan tabaka kalınlığının %41,79 oranında önemli bir artış
gösterdiği ve 36,98 μm olarak kaydedildiği görülmüştür. Toplamda, kesme hızının 450 m/dakika'dan 525
m/dakika'ya çıkarılmasıyla, deformasyona uğrayan tabaka kalınlığı %49,11 oranında artmıştır. Bu değişimi
gösteren grafik Şekil 5'te verilmiştir.

Şekil 5 Kesme Hızının Deformasyona Uğrayan Tabaka Kalınlığı Üzerindeki Etkisi

Bu çalışmanın bulguları, Şekil 6'da sunulan örnek mikro yapı resmi ile görsel olarak desteklenmekte ve kesme
koşullarının malzemenin mikroyapısal özellikleri üzerindeki etkilerini göstermektedir. İşlenmesi zor alaşım
olarak nitelendirilen Nikel bazlı malzemelerin frezelenmesinde düşük kesme hızları kullanılsa dahi kesme
sıcaklıkları yüksek olduğu bilinmektedir. Bunun temel nedenlerinden biri de alaşımın özgül ısısı ve termal
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iletkenlik katsayısıdır. Bu çalışmada, seramik kesici takım kullanıldığı için kesme hızları karbür takımlara
kıyasla çok yüksektir. Bunun bir sonucu olarak ta 200m/dak kesme hızından bile kesme sıcaklıkları 700C
[30] leri aşabilmektedir. Yüksek sıcaklık ve plastik deformasyonun etkisi ile birlikte yüzeyde meydana gelen
termomekanik yükler sonucu ortaya çıkan sertleşmiş katman kalınlığının da değişmesine neden olmaktadır
[31]. Şekil 6 da görüldüğü üzere artan kesme hızı ile birlikte deformasyona uğrayan tabaka kalınlığı da arttığı
açıkça görülmektedir. Bu sonuca paralel olarak Li ve arkadaşları [32], sertleştirilmiş AISI H13 çeliği için
benzer bir sonuç elde ettiklerini ifade etmektedirler.

Şekil 6 Farklı Kesme Hızlarında Frezelenmiş Inconel 625 Yüzeyinin Mikro Yapısal Değişiklikleri

3.3 Mikro Sertlik Değişimi

Elde edilen veriler, kesme hızının (Vc) artışının, yüzeyden derinlere doğru sertlik profilinde önemli
değişiklikler yarattığını ortaya koymaktadır.
25 µm derinlikte, 450 m/dakika kesme hızında ölçülen mikro sertlik değeri 427 HV'dir. Kesme hızı 475
m/dakika'ya çıkarıldığında, sertlik değeri %9,13 azalarak 388 HV'ye düşmektedir. Hızın 525 m/dakika
seviyesine çıkarılması durumunda, sertlik değeri %8,51 daha azalarak 355 HV'ye kadar düşmektedir. 450
m/dakika hızdan 525 m/dakika hıza geçildiğinde sertlikte %16,86'lık bir azalma gözlemlenmiştir. Kesme
hızının artışıyla birlikte, sertlik değerlerinde gözlenen bu düşüş, artan hızın malzemede daha yüksek termal
etkilere neden olduğunu ve bu etkilerin deformasyon sertleşmesini azaltarak sertlik değerlerini düşürdüğünü
ortaya koymaktadır. Literatürde benzer şekilde, kesme hızının artışıyla malzeme yüzeyinde meydana gelen
yüksek termal etkilerin deformasyon sertleşmesini azalttığı ve bu durumun sertlik değerlerinde düşüşe neden
olduğu belirtilmiştir. Baig ve arkadaşlarının yaptığı çalışmada, kesme hızının artmasıyla birlikte Inconel 600
malzemesinin mikrosertlik değerlerinde belirgin bir azalma gözlemlenmiştir. Özellikle, kesme hızı 75
m/dak'dan 125 m/dak'ya yükseldiğinde, yüzey altı mikrosertlik değerlerinin ortalama 361 HV'den 290 HV'ye
düştüğü rapor edilmiştir [33]. Şekil 7'de, kesme hızlarının (Vc) yüzeyden itibaren derinliğe göre sertlik
değişimlerine olan etkisi gösterilmiştir.

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Şekil 7 Kesme Hızlarının Etkisine Göre Sertlik Değişimleri

4. Sonuç
Bu çalışmada, Inconel 625 süper alaşımının farklı kesme hızlarında işlenmesiyle elde edilen yüzey pürüzlülüğü
ve mikro sertlik değerlerinin deneysel analizi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Kesme hızı, diş başına ilerleme ve kesme
derinliği gibi parametrelerin, malzemenin yüzey kalitesi ve alt yüzey mikro yapısına etkileri incelenmiştir.

• Kesme hızının artışı, yüzey pürüzlülüğünde genel bir iyileşme sağlamıştır. Bu iyileşme, kesme
sırasında yüksek sıcaklıkların yüzeyde birikinti kenarını azaltması ve malzemenin daha homojen bir
yapıya kavuşmasını sağlamasıyla ilişkilendirilmiştir.
• Diş başına ilerlemenin artırılması, yüzey pürüzlülüğü üzerinde dalgalı bir değişime neden olmaktadır.
Ancak, ilerleme miktarının artmasıyla pürüzlülüğün arttığı da gözlemlenmiştir.
• Kesme derinliğinin artışı, yüzey pürüzlülüğünde belirgin bir düşüş sağlamıştır. Bu durum, kesme
derinliğinin arttırılmasının yüzeydeki ve alt yüzeylerdeki mekanik stresleri azaltarak yüzey kalitesini
artırabileceğini göstermektedir.
• İşlenen yüzeyde bir deformasyon sertleşmesi gözlemlenmiş olup derinlere inildikçe bu sertlik
azalmaktadır.
• Kesme hızının artmasıyla birlikte yüzey altında deforme olan tabaka kalınlığının da artığı tespit
edilmiştir.

5 Teşekkür
Bu çalışma Lift-Up projesi kapsamında yapılmış olup, desteklerinden dolayı TUSAŞ’ a teşekkürlerimizi
sunarız

Kaynaklar
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based superalloys. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 110(7-8), 2863-2879.

[2] Chen, Y., Milner, J. L., Bunget, C., Mears, L., & Kurfess, T. (2013). Investigations on performance of
various ceramic tooling while milling nickel-based superalloy. Journal of Materials Processing Technology.

[3] Khan, M., & Gupta, K. (2020). A study on machinability of nickel-based superalloy using micro-textured
tungsten carbide cutting tools. Materials Research Express, 7(1).
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[4] Tian, X., Yan, K., Wang, Z., Xie, F., Liu, Y., Wang, L., Chen, X., Yuan, J., & Liu, H. (2021). Performance
of carbide tools in high-speed dry turning iron-based superalloys. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 236(3), 427-439.

[5] M.A. Rodrigues, A. Hassui, R.H.L. da Silva, D. Loureiro Tool life and wear mechanisms during Alloy 625
face milling The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 85 (2016), pp. 1439-1448.

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[7] Tian, X., Yan, K., Wang, Z., Xie, F., Liu, Y., Wang, L., Chen, X., Yuan, J., & Liu, H. (2021). Performance
of carbide tools in high-speed dry turning iron-based superalloys. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 236(3), 427-439.

[8] P. Singh, J. Singh, J. Dureja, T. Singh, M. Dogra, M.S. Bhatti Performance Evaluation of Milling of
Inconel-625 Under Minimum Quantity Lubrication Journal for Manufacturing Science and
Production, 16 (2016), pp. 61-68

[9] E. Ezugwu, Z. Wang, A. Machado The machinability of nickel-based alloys: a review Journal of Materials
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[10] Singh, Y., Vyas, D., Kumar, N., Rastogi, P. M., Sharma, A., & Singla, A. (2018). Experimental evaluation
on the tribological properties of cassia tora oil by the addition of copper nanoparticles. International Journal of
Ambient Energy, 42

[11] O. Fergani, F. Berto, T. Welo, S.Y. Liang Analytical modelling of residual stress in additive
manufacturing Fatigue Fract. Eng. Mater. Struct., 40 (6) (2017), pp. 971-978.

[12] B.A. Khidhir, B. Mohamed Study of cutting speed on surface roughness and chip formation when
machining nickel-based alloy Mach. Sci. Technol., 24 (5) (2010), pp. 1053-1059.

[13] S.J. Zhang, S. Tob, S.J. Wang, Z.W. Zhu A review of surface roughness generation in ultra-precision
machining Int. J. Mach Tool. Manuf., 91 (2015), pp. 76-95

[14] A.R. Motorcu, A. Kus, I. Durgun The evaluation of the effects of control factors on surface roughness in
the drilling of Waspaloy superalloy Measurement, 58 (2014), pp. 394-408

[15] Reddy, M. M., & William, L. C. S. (2020). Finite Element analysis: Predicting cutting force in turning of
Inconel 625 using ceramic tools. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, 943, 012019.

[16] Ji, H., Gupta, M., Song, Q., Cai, W., Zheng, T., Zhao, Y., Liu, Z., & Pimenov, D. (2021). Microstructure
and machinability evaluation in micro milling of selective laser melted Inconel 718 alloy. Journal of materials
research and technology, 14, 348-362.

[17] Wang, X., Huang, C., Zou, B., Liu, G., Zhu, H., & Wang, J. (2017). Experimental study of surface integrity
and fatigue life in the face milling of inconel 718. Frontiers of Mechanical Engineering, 13, 243-250.

[18] Akhtar, W., Sun, J., & Chen, W. (2016). Effect of Machining Parameters on Surface Integrity in High
Speed Milling of Super Alloy GH4169/Inconel 718. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 31, 620-627.

[19] Halim, N. H. A., Badroush, N., Che Haron, C. H., Abdul Ghani, J., & Azhar, M. (2021). Microstructure
and Microhardness Alterations of Inconel 718 under Cryogenic Cutting. Journal of Mechanical Engineering.

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[20] STM (2012) E384: standard test method for Knoop and Vickers hardness of materials. ASTM Stand, pp
1–43

[21] Upadhyay, C., Rajput, S., Kumar, C. S., Gangopadhyay, S., & Sahoo, S. (2024). Performance evaluation
of WC, SiAlON and SiCw + Al2O3 tools in dry machining of Inconel 617. Journal of Manufacturing
Processes, 72, Article 12.

[22] da Silva, R. H. L., Schoop, J., Hassui, A., & Jawahir, I. (2024). Inconel 625 sustainable milling surface
integrity and the dependence on alloy processing route. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technology.

[23] Erçetin, A., Aslantaş, K., Özgün, Ö., Perçin, M., & Chandrashekarappa, M. (2023). Optimization of
machining parameters to minimize cutting forces and surface roughness in micro-milling of Mg13Sn alloy.
Micromachines, 14(8), 1590.

[24] Karakılınç, U., Ergene, B., Yalçın, B., Aslantaş, K., & Erçetin, A. (2023). Comparative analysis of
minimum chip thickness, surface quality and burr formation in micro-milling of wrought and selective laser
melted Ti64. Micromachines, 14(6), 1160.

[25] Aslantaş, K., Hasçelik, A., & Çiçek, A. (2022). Performance evaluation of DLC and NCD coatings in
micro-milling of Al7075-T6 alloy. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 80, 421-433.

[26] Aslantaş, K., Alatrushi, L. K., Bedir, F., Kaynak, Y., & Yilmaz, N. (2020). An experimental analysis of
minimum chip thickness in micro-milling of two different titanium alloys. Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 234(9), 1240-1251.

[27] Lu, X., Wang, F., Wang, X., & Si, L. (2018). Modelling and optimisation of cutting parameters on surface
roughness in micro-milling Inconel 718 using response surface methodology and genetic algorithm.
International Journal of Nanomanufacturing, 14(1), 67-83.

[28] Karmuhilan, M., & Kumanan, S. (2021). A review on additive manufacturing processes of Inconel 625.
Journal of Materials Engineering and Performance, 31(1), 1211-1232.

[29] Ferreira, A. A., Reis, A. R., Amaral, R. L., Cruz, J. M., Romio, P. C., Seabra, J. H. O., & Vieira, M. F.
(2022). Mechanical and microstructural characterisation of bulk Inconel 625 produced by direct laser
deposition. Materials Science and Engineering: A, 832, 142777.

[30] Zhang, H., Dang, J., An, Q., Ming, W., Chen, M., & Zhang, J. (2021). Investigation of machinability in
milling of Inconel 718 with solid Sialon ceramic tool using supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2)-based cooling
conditions. Ceramics International.

[31] Molaiekiya, F., Khoei, A. A., Aramesh, M., & Veldhuis, S. C. (2021). Machined surface integrity of
inconel 718 in high-speed dry milling using SiAlON ceramic tools. The International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, 112(7-8), 1941-1950.
[32] Li, B., Zhang, S., & Zhang, J. (2018). Plastic deformation and grain refinement in surface layer induced
by thermo-mechanical loads for hard milling process. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers,
Part B: Journal of Engineering Manufacture, 233(1), 1-14.
[33] Baig, A., Jaffery, S. H. I., Khan, M. A., & Alruqi, M. (2023). Statistical analysis of surface roughness,
burr formation, and tool wear in high-speed micro milling of Inconel 600 alloy under cryogenic, wet, and dry
conditions. Micromachines, 14(1), 13.

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ADVANCED TECHNIQUES IN MILLING PROCESS MONITORING

Arash Ebrahimi Araghizada , Faraz Tehranizadehb , Farzad Pashmforooshc and Erhan Budakd

a, Manufacturing Research Laboratory, Sabanci University, Istanbul/Turkey, aebrahimi@sabanciuniv.edu

b, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, KHAS University, Istanbul/Turkey, faraz.tehranizadeh@khas.edu.tr
c, Manufacturing Research Laboratory, Sabanci University, Istanbul/Turkey, fpashmforoosh@sabanciuniv.edu
d, a, Manufacturing Research Laboratory, Sabanci University, Istanbul/Turkey, ebudak@sabanciuniv.edu

Abstract
This paper presents an advanced methodology for monitoring of milling process through a hybrid Physics-
Based Machine Learning (PBML) approach. The proposed method integrates mechanistic force models with
machine learning algorithms to predict cutting forces with high accuracy. By utilizing accurate simulated data
to train machine learning models, the study addresses the challenges of high costs and extensive time
requirements associated with real experiments. The PBML model demonstrates over 97% prediction accuracy
across various materials, including unseen datasets. Additionally, in the second layer of machine learning,
trained using enhanced simulations, process parameters are identified from cutting forces for use in monitoring
and fault detection. the model's real-time fault detection capabilities are validated through experimental testing
on complex geometries, confirming its effectiveness in identifying process deviations and enhancing
manufacturing efficiency. This approach is poised to significantly enhance unmanned manufacturing
environments by enabling precise process monitoring, fault detection, and parameter optimization,
demonstrating strong potential for industrial deployment.

Keywords: Milling, Process Monitoring, Machine Learning, Fault Detection, Physics-Based ML

Introduction
The demand for enhancing manufacturing efficiency and achieving unsupervised operations has driven
significant research in real-time process monitoring [1,2]. The presented study addresses critical challenges in
detecting anomalies, optimizing process parameters, and implementing fault detection mechanisms. These
methods are particularly relevant in the context of unmanned manufacturing, which has gained prominence
due to workforce availability issues highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic[3].
To design effective machining systems, it is crucial to obtain accurate predictions of cutting force components
in milling operations. By understanding the forces involved, engineers can ensure that the power supply to the
machine is sufficient, preventing unexpected downtimes or equipment failures. Additionally, predicting
geometrical errors helps in maintaining the precision and quality of the machined components, which is vital
in industries where high tolerances are required [4–6]. Furthermore, knowing the strength requirements of
cutting tools, jigs, and fixtures ensures that these components can withstand the forces they will
encounter [7,8], thus prolonging their lifespan and reducing costs. Therefore, the accurate Prediction of cutting
forces predictions form the backbone for determining various critical aspects such as power requirements,
geometrical errors or deviations in machined components, stability and chatter vibration characteristics, and
the strength requirements of cutting tools, jigs, and fixtures.
The monitoring of milling processes can be categorized into three primary approaches: experimental,
simulation-based, and data-driven machine learning (ML) systems [9]. Traditional process monitoring relies
heavily on sensory data, such as cutting forces or acoustic emissions, to detect deviations from set margins.
However, establishing these margins is time-consuming and often specific to particular tools and conditions,
making it challenging to generalize across different scenarios. Furthermore, such systems typically indicate
issues like tool wear but fail to identify the root causes of faults, which are influenced by factors beyond just
tool sharpness, such as material properties and machine or process conditions. Simulation-based monitoring,
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while less explored, offers a promising alternative. For instance, Altintas and Aslan's method, which uses
predicted and measured forces, accurately detects tool failures but may misattribute force peaks to tool issues
alone. Data-driven systems, on the other hand, require extensive datasets collected over long periods, delaying
their practical application.
To address these challenges, this study proposes a hybrid physics-based machine learning (PBML) algorithm
which is one the most significant applications of accurate simulations and their use in training machine learning
(ML) systems for real-time process monitoring and control. As discussed, training ML models to monitor
machining systems using real experiments is often impractical due to the high costs and time-consuming nature
of such experiments. Real-world experimentation requires extensive use of materials, machine time, and labor,
all of which can become prohibitively expensive. Additionally, setting up and conducting these experiments,
as well as processing and analysing the resulting data, can be incredibly time intensive. Simulations, on the
other hand, provide a cost-effective and efficient alternative. By using accurate simulations to generate the data
needed for training ML models, we can circumvent the logistical and financial challenges associated with real
experiments. Simulated data can be generated quickly and in large quantities, ensuring that the ML models are
trained on a comprehensive dataset that encompasses a wide range of possible scenarios. This approach not
only accelerates the development and deployment of intelligent machining systems but also enhances their
reliability and performance.
This approach enhances prediction accuracy using a limited set of measured cutting forces, significantly
reducing the need for extensive testing. By quickly generating a large and precise database of cutting
parameters through simulations, the method enables real-time parameter identification and fault detection with
high accuracy. Experimental validation on complex geometries shows strong agreement between predicted and
actual values, demonstrating the method's effectiveness for real-time fault detection and milling process
optimization in industrial environments.

Advanced Methodology for Hybrid Milling Force Prediction

As outlined in previous sections, the primary goal of this study is to enhance the accuracy of mechanistic
milling models. To achieve this, machine learning (ML) algorithms were trained using a dataset that
incorporated various cutting parameters and corresponding simulation data as inputs, with actual measured
data serving as the target values. The trained ML models were then used to generate more accurate cutting
force predictions. Several ML algorithms, including Random Forest, LSBoost, and Support Vector Regression,
were employed in this study. Their prediction accuracy was assessed using metrics such as Root Mean Square
Error (RMSE) and R² values. Prior to conducting the regression analysis, hyperparameter optimization was
performed using the Bayesian optimization method to ensure the best possible performance of the models [10].
Additionally, the developed ML models were applied to enhance the simulation accuracy for a completely
different material than those used in the training phase. Specifically, the models were trained on datasets from
Aluminum 7075-T6, Steel 1050, and Ti6Al4V, and then used to predict the cutting forces for Inconel 625, a
material that was not included in the training set. This approach demonstrates the versatility of the ML models
in handling unseen datasets. A schematic of the proposed ML model and its application in improving cutting
force predictions is illustrated in Figure 1.

Data Preparation
The cutting forces used for training the machine learning (ML) model were simulated using a linear edge force
model. The cutting force coefficients, 𝐾𝑟𝑐 , 𝐾𝑡𝑐 and 𝐾𝑎𝑐 , utilized in the calculation of cutting forces, are
determined by applying orthogonal cutting data and employing the oblique cutting transformation method
described by [11].

Additionally, conducting experiments is crucial for accurately obtaining cutting forces, which can then be
compared to simulation results to improve their precision. Milling process experiments for measuring of
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cutting forces were conducted using a Piezo-electric Dynamometer (Kistler 9257BA), connected to an
amplifier, and recorded through the NI USB-6259 data acquisition system. These experiments were performed
on various materials, including Aluminum 7075-T6, Steel 1050, Ti6Al4V, and Inconel 625, serving as the
workpieces. By comparing the experimental data with simulation outputs, the accuracy and reliability of the
simulation models can be significantly enhanced, leading to more robust predictions and insights into the
milling process.

Figure 5. A schematic of the proposed ML model.

The accuracy of a machine learning model heavily depends on the quality of the input data used to train it.
Data preparation is a critical initial step in the machine learning process. The raw data collected from the
dynamometer must first be filtered to ensure its quality. In the preliminary stage, any air-cutting segments of
the data are removed. Following this, the cutting force data must be synchronized between the simulation and
the measured data, aligning them to the same angular position.

To achieve this synchronization, the starting point for each dataset—both simulated and measured—is
identified by the peak force observed in one full revolution across all axes (X, Y, and Z). The machine learning
algorithms are trained using data from just one revolution of both measured and simulated data for each cutting
condition in the milling process. Finally, the dataset undergoes feature scaling, adjusting it to have zero mean
and unit variance. This step ensures that all features are on a comparable scale, which is essential for the
effective processing of data by machine learning algorithm.

By integrating simulated cutting forces derived from this model and experimental results, the ML system can
effectively learn and predict cutting forces in various milling scenarios. The hybrid nature of the model allows
it to combine the applicability and repeatability of analytical force predictions with the precision of real
experiments using machine learning. Enhancing simulations accuracy and performance make them capable for
using to train the second layer ML for parameter identification and monitoring purpose.

Results of ML for enhancing simulation accuracy

The simulated cutting forces, prior to enhancement using machine learning (ML), were calculated and
compared with experimental results for three different materials: Steel 1050, Al7075-T6, and Ti6Al4V. As
summarized in Table 1, the accuracy of these simulations ranged between 86.57% and 89.57% for Fx, 83.22%
and 87.40% for Fy, and 83.21% and 89.83% for Fz during the machining of these materials.

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To improve the accuracy of these predictions, further ML algorithms was conducted using MATLAB® and
Python environments with three different ML models: Random Forest (RF) [12], Gradient Boosting (LSBoost)
[13], and Support Vector Regression (SVR) [14]. Initially, a Bayesian optimization algorithm was utilized to
fine-tune the hyperparameters of these ML models. To prevent overfitting, a five-fold cross-validation error
was employed as the objective function during the Bayesian optimization process.
Following the optimization of hyperparameters, regression analysis was carried out for each ML algorithm.
The results are summarized in Table 1. All ML models demonstrated a high coefficient of determination (R²
exceeding 97%) with low Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) values, ranging between 3.32 and 6.11. RMSE is
a crucial performance metric in machine learning, as it quantifies the average magnitude of prediction errors;
lower RMSE values indicate better model performance. Among the evaluated models, the LSBoost model
exhibited the highest performance, characterized by the lowest RMSE and highest R² values on the unseen test
dataset, followed by SVR and RF. Notably, the SVR model required significantly longer training times
compared to LSBoost and RF. This analysis underscores the effectiveness of the LSBoost model in accurately
predicting cutting forces across various materials, making it a superior choice for enhancing the accuracy of
simulations in the milling process.
Simulation without ML SVR LSBoost Random Forest
Material
Fx (N) Fy (N) Fz (N) Fx (N) Fy (N) Fz (N) Fx (N) Fy (N) Fz (N) Fx (N) Fy (N) Fz (N)

Aluminum R2 (%) 88.3 87.40 83.21 97.28 98.92 98.45 97.32 98.9 98.51 97.09 98.89 98.29
7075-T6 RMSE 8.04 11.18 6.31 5.97 5.95 3.52 5.94 5.76 3.54 6.07 6.01 3.62
R2 (%) 86.57 83.22 89.07 97.79 98.52 98.77 98.11 98.83 99.1 97.82 98.16 98.44
Steel 1050
RMSE 10.07 15.22 6.06 5.73 5.92 4.47 5.66 5.17 3.62 6.02 5.87 4.56
R2 (%) 89.53 73.69 89.83 97.96 97.81 98.11 98.1 98.48 98.94 97.81 97.23 98.02
Ti6Al4V
RMSE 6.27 7.84 4.35 5.87 6.11 4.64 5.1 5.23 3.32 6.11 5.92 3.77

Table 1: ML models performance vs. simulation results without enhancement.

The figure illustrates a comparative analysis between the measured cutting forces and those obtained through
both standard simulations and enhanced simulations utilizing Physics-Based Machine Learning (PBML). The
parameters for the milling process include a tool diameter of 16 mm, four cutting teeth, an axial and radial
depth of cut set at 4 mm, a feed rate of 0.2 mm per revolution per tooth, and a spindle speed of 2000 rpm. This
comparison highlights the accuracy and effectiveness of PBML-enhanced simulations in predicting cutting
forces under the given machining conditions.

Figure 6. Comparison of measured cutting forces with simulations and enhanced simulations using PBML.
Tool diameter: 16 mm; Number of teeth: 4; Axial and radial depth of cuts: 4 mm; Feed rate: 0.2 mm/rev per
tooth; Spindle speed: 2000 rpm.
Figure 3 illustrates the correlation between the predicted and actual cutting forces for both the training and test
datasets.

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Figure 7. Regression curves of the LSBoost model for cutting forces: (a) X-direction - Training data, (b) X-
direction - Test data, (c) Y-direction - Training data, (d) Y-direction - Test data.

The physics-based machine learning models in this study accurately predicted cutting forces across various
materials, including Aluminum 7075-T6, Steel 1050, and Ti6Al4V. With these materials characterized by their
thermo-mechanical properties, the model can predict cutting forces for untrained materials. To evaluate its
accuracy and generality, the hybrid model was tested on the unseen Inconel 625 superalloy.
The RMSE values are 5.47, 6.15, and 3.51 for Fx, Fy, and Fz, respectively. The adjusted R² values are 96.43%,
95.76%, and 97.02% for Fx, Fy, and Fz, respectively. These results indicate that the developed physics-based
ML model can accurately predict cutting forces for entirely different materials using the properties of the three
trained materials. Figure 4 illustrates the prediction accuracy of the utilized method for predicting cutting
forces in milling of Inconel 625 alloy.

Figure 4. Machine learning-based prediction of cutting forces for Inconel 625.

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Parameter identification using PBML algorithms

To identify milling process conditions and status in real time, machine learning (ML) algorithms are used to
extract relevant process parameters from the cutting forces collected during operation. This process involves
two closely linked steps, as depicted in Figure 5. The first step is the development of a physics-based machine
learning (PBML) model aimed at improving the accuracy of milling force predictions (Section 2). As discussed
before, significant challenge in training ML models is the creation of a comprehensive dataset, which can be
both time-intensive and costly due to the necessity of extensive experimental data. Moreover, traditional
simulation models often fall short in providing the accuracy needed for effective ML training. To tackle these
issues, a hybrid PBML model which introduced in previous section, which not only enhances the precision of
simulation results but also streamlines the dataset preparation process, making it more efficient and reliable.
In the seconde step, the second-layer ML model is trained using the accurate milling force simulations from
the previous step. A reverse procedure is then applied to predict cutting parameters based on real-time cutting
forces and the trained ML model. Three different ML algorithms (support vector machine (SVM), random
forest (RF), and least square boosting (LSBoost)) were used for training. Bayesian optimization was employed
to select the optimal hyperparameters, ensuring maximum accuracy by efficiently exploring the parameter
space and identifying the best configurations.

Figure 5. Schematic of the parameter identification process.

Results of ML for parameter identification

After enhancing the accuracy of the mechanistic model, it was used to generate a comprehensive training
dataset, which is essential for the subsequent parameter identification process. The low computation time of
these simulations enables the exploration of a broad range of conditions in a short period, a feat that would be
impractical using experimental data alone due to cost and time limitations. This expanded dataset significantly
improved the model's ability to accurately identify parameters. The model's output included predictions for
various milling conditions such as feed rate, axial/radial depth of cut, tool diameter, and the number of teeth.
Additionally, spindle speed was determined by applying Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) to the cutting force
signals, using the number of teeth identified by the ML model.
The proposed model achieved highly accurate results, with predicted parameters closely matching the actual
values. The accuracy of predictions exceeds 95% for all machining parameters using the developed PBML
model, demonstrating its superior performance in parameter identification. These results underscore the
effectiveness of PBML in achieving high accuracy for parameter identification in milling processes.
To assess the precision of the results, a statistical error analysis was performed to evaluate the differences
between the actual and predicted machining parameters. As shown in Figure 3, the error distribution is tightly
concentrated within a narrow range, with most deviations falling between -5% and 5%, covering 90% of the
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observations. This tight error range highlights the model's effectiveness in accurately capturing and minimizing
errors, reinforcing the robustness of the parameter identification process. It also underscores the value of the
developed ML approach in achieving high accuracy in complex machining scenarios.

Figure 6. Statistical error analysis for the identification of (a) axial depth of cut and (b) radial depth of cut. The
percentage error between predicted and measured milling forces was calculated for over 50 different unseen
data points.

Experimental validation
To experimentally verify the proposed method, the accuracy of the algorithm was tested on milling of a
complex part geometry. For this purpose, the test workpiece illustrated in Figure 7 was prepared to include
continuous variations in both axial and radial depth of cuts on the AL7075-T6 block. Furthermore, the feed
rate was altered in three steps over the cutting length.
To identify varying process parameters, the real-time measured cutting forces by dynamometer were fed to the
trained ML model (as the input features) in each 0.3 second. The sampling rate of the system is determined
based on the computation time of the ML model. Subsequently the model predicted the cutting parameters in
different cutter locations. Comparison of actual and identified process parameters are shown in Figure 5 and
Figure 6 (Case 1). Comparison of the actual cutting parameters with predicted values (through real-time cutting
forces) reveals a high level of precision, where the prediction accuracy for axial depth of cut is 97.9%, for
radial depth of cut is 98.7%, and for feed rate is 97.3%. The highest RMS error is 0.14, illustrating the
effectiveness of the proposed methodology in capturing the intricate variations in cutting conditions throughout
different regions of the specimens (see Figurs 8 and 9, case 1).

Figure 7. a) Setup for experimental validation b) 3D perspective, and c) top and side views of the test
workpiece.

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Figure 8. Comparison of identified & actual axial depth of cut and feed rate.

Figure 9. Comparison of identified and actual radial depth of cut and feed rate.
The exceptional precision achieved across various parameters demonstrates the effectiveness of the proposed
model in accurately understanding and predicting complex patterns in the cutting process. The results indicate
that this approach is a reliable and adaptable tool for accurately identifying machining parameters using real-
time cutting forces. Additionally, this method can be viewed as a step towards the digitalization of existing
machining processes, to use in different purposes such as monitoring of process.

Monitoring and fault detection

As previously discussed, the primary advantage of the proposed method, compared to traditional monitoring
systems, lies in its ability to accurately identify cutting parameters for detecting various faults and pinpointing
their sources. These faults can arise from multiple issues, such as errors in workpiece clamping, tool definition
offsets, incorrect fixture positions or offsets, and inaccuracies in workpiece and machine tool coordinate
transformations. The real-time detection of such discrepancies is critical for ensuring the precision and quality
of machining operations, and this capability was thoroughly investigated in a case study.
In this case study, the workpiece was intentionally clamped with angular displacements around both the X and
Z axes, leading to deviations in the axial and radial depths of cut from their intended values. These deviations
were introduced to simulate a fixturing error, a common problem that can significantly impact the accuracy of
the machining process. The cutting forces generated during the machining operation were measured using a
dynamometer and then analyzed using the proposed physics-based machine learning (PBML) model, as
detailed in the previous sections.

The results, illustrated in Figures 8 and 9 (case 2), clearly demonstrate the model's ability to detect these
discrepancies, specifically identifying angular deviations of 1.5° in the axial direction and 1° in the radial
direction. This level of precision underscores the effectiveness of the developed approach in accurately
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identifying and diagnosing workpiece-clamping faults in real-time. The ability to detect such subtle
discrepancies not only enhances the reliability of the machining process but also contributes to reducing
downtime and improving overall production efficiency by allowing for immediate corrective actions. The
successful application of the PBML model in this case study highlights its potential as a powerful tool for
enhancing fault detection and process optimization in complex machining operations [15].

Conclusion
Obtaining accurate quantitative predictions of cutting force components is indispensable for designing efficient
and effective machining systems. These predictions aid in optimizing power requirements, ensuring precision
in machined components, maintaining stability and mitigating vibrations, and determining the strength
requirements of critical tools and fixtures. Moreover, the use of these accurate simulations in training ML
systems presents a feasible and cost-effective solution to the challenges posed by real-world experimentation,
ultimately leading to more advanced and intelligent machining operations.
In this study, a physics-based machine learning (ML) model was developed to enhance the accuracy of cutting
force predictions in milling processes across various materials, tools, and cutting conditions. The results
showed that the hybrid model significantly improved prediction accuracy, achieving over 97% accuracy even
for unseen datasets, with LSBoost model. The model effectively captured the complex relationships between
cutting forces and machining parameters, allowing accurate predictions for seen and unseen materials and
conditions. Moreover, the model maintained high accuracy even with out-of-range input parameters,
demonstrating its robustness
This study also, focuses on developing an intelligent monitoring system for real-time fault detection using a
novel machine learning (ML) approach based on a hybrid method. The ML model is trained with highly
accurate simulation results generated by the PBML method, instead of relying on experimental data. The
proposed approach demonstrates exceptional accuracy, with real-time predictions of machining parameters
exceeding 96%, and a statistical error analysis revealing a tightly confined error distribution. The method's
accuracy has been validated through the machining of a complex free-form workpiece, confirming its
effectiveness in real-time conditions. This approach is versatile and applicable to various unmanned
manufacturing applications, such as process monitoring and fault detection.

References
[1] Y. Altintas, D. Aslan, Integration of virtual and on-line machining process control and monitoring, CIRP
Ann. 66 (2017) 349–352.
[2] R. Teti, D. Mourtzis, D.M. D’Addona, A. Caggiano, Process monitoring of machining, CIRP Ann. 71
(2022) 529–552.
[3] G. Ambrogio, L. Filice, F. Longo, A. Padovano, Workforce and supply chain disruption as a digital and
technological innovation opportunity for resilient manufacturing systems in the COVID-19 pandemic,
Comput. Ind. Eng. 169 (2022) 108158.
[4] W.A. Kline, R.E. DeVor, J.R. Lindberg, The prediction of cutting forces in end milling with application
to cornering cuts, Int. J. Mach. Tool Des. Res. 22 (1982) 7–22.
[5] J.W. Sutherland, R. Devor, An improved method for cutting force and surface error prediction in
flexible end milling systems, (1986).
[6] E. Budak, Flexible Miling Force Model for Improved Surface Error Predictions, Proc. 1992 Eng. Syst.
Des. Anal. 47 (1992) 89–94.
[7] E.J.A. Armarego, N.P. Deshpande, Computerized end-milling force predictions with cutting models
allowing for eccentricity and cutter deflections, CIRP Ann. 40 (1991) 25–29.

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[8] E. Budak, Analytical models for high performance milling. Part I: Cutting forces, structural
deformations and tolerance integrity, Int. J. Mach. Tools Manuf. 46 (2006) 1478–1488.
[9] A.E. Araghizad, F. Tehranizadeh, K. Kilic, E. Budak, Smart Tool-Related Faults Monitoring System
Using Process Simulation-Based Machine Learning Algorithms, J. Mach. Eng. 23 (2023).
[10] A.E. Araghizad, F. Pashmforoush, F. Tehranizadeh, K. Kilic, E. Budak, Improving milling force
predictions: A hybrid approach integrating physics-based simulation and machine learning for
remarkable accuracy across diverse unseen materials and tool types, J. Manuf. Process. 114 (2024) 92–
107.
[11] E. Budak, Y. Altintaş, E.J.A. Armarego, Prediction of milling force coefficients from orthogonal cutting
data, J. Manuf. Sci. Eng. Trans. ASME. 118 (1996) 216–224. https://doi.org/10.1115/1.2831014.
[12] L. Breiman, Random forests, Mach. Learn. 45 (2001) 5–32.
[13] T. Chen, C. Guestrin, Xgboost: A scalable tree boosting system, in: Proc. 22nd Acm Sigkdd Int. Conf.
Knowl. Discov. Data Min., 2016: pp. 785–794.
[14] B. Scholkopf, A.J. Smola, Learning with kernels: support vector machines, regularization,
optimization, and beyond, MIT press, 2018.
[15] A.E. Araghizad, F. Tehranizadeh, F. Pashmforoush, E. Budak, Milling process monitoring based on
intelligent real-time parameter identification for unmanned manufacturing, CIRP Ann. (2024).

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FREZELEME İŞLEMİNDE EKSENEL KULLANIM YOĞUNLUĞUNA

BAĞLI OLARAK TİTREŞİMLERİNİN KESME ÜZERİNDEKİ ETKİSİ
Mehmet Kubilay ASKERDENa , Fatih KARPATb, M. Cemal ÇAKIRc

a, Bursa Uludag University, Engineering Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Bursa/TURKEY,

mkaskerden@gmail.com
c, Bursa Uludag University, Engineering Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Bursa/TURKEY,
karpat@uludag.edu.tr
b, Bursa Uludag University, Engineering Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Bursa/TURKEY,
cemal@uludag.edu.tr

Abstract
This study collected diverse data using mechanical and dynamic health assessments, which involved many
evaluations of spindle health. Following the tests, it was noted that the bearing vibration values exhibited
significant disparities between the X and Y axes of the machines operating within a certain speed range and
on the same CNC table axis. Chatter and runout issues have been identified during the cutting process on CNC
milling machines, especially when chip removal is carried out in this manner. Chatter and run-out cause
deteriorations in cutting tool life, surface roughness, and dimensional accuracy. Consequently, a milling
machine exhibiting significant vibration was chosen from the available options. The CNC spindle was then
serviced on the chosen workbench, and the resulting values for various machining operations, including lateral
milling, face milling, and pocket milling, were compared before and after the maintenance. Following the
maintenance, it was noted that the cutting tool's lifespan, surface roughness, and dimensional accuracy showed
improvement due to the adjusted vibration values. The enhancements were quantified as a 40% augmentation
in the lifespan of the cutting tool, a 35% amelioration in the roughness of the surface, and an average reduction
of 20% in the burden placed on the machine. According to this study, performing work consistently on the
same axis and at the same speeds has a detrimental impact on the machine's health and diminishes production
quality. Future research will prioritize enhancing machine health by improving load distribution and speed
controls in milling processes. This will lead to higher production efficiency through the integration of
optimization add-ons that can be customized for CAM programs.

Keywords: Vibration, Chatter, Tool Runout

Özet
Bu çalışmada birçok iş mili sağlık ölçümüne bianen, mekanik ve dinamik sağlık kontrollerinin sonucunda
çeşitli veriler elde edilmiştir. Yapılan ölçümlerden sonra yoğunlukla sürekli belirli bir devir aralığında ve
sürekli aynı CNC tabla ekseninde kullanılan tezgahlarda X ve Y eksenlerinde, rulman titreşim değerlerinin
birbirlerinden çok farklı olduğu gözlemlenmiştir. Bu şekilde talaş kaldırma işlemi yapılan CNC freze
tezgahlarında kesme esnasında tırlama ve salgı şikayetleri saptanmıştır. Bu tırlama ve salgılara bağlı kesici
takım ömrü, yüzey pürüzlülüğü ve ölçüsel doğruluk noktasında hatalar mevcuttur. Buradan yola çıkarak bu
tezgahlar içerisinden yüksek titreşime sahip bir tezgah seçilmiş, bu seçilen tezgahta CNC iş miline bakım
yapılmış ve bakım öncesi ve bakım sonrası gerçekleştirilen yanal frezeleme, alın frezeleme, havuz boşaltma
gibi bazı talaş kaldırma işlemleri için elde edilen değerler karşılaştırılmıştır. Bakım sonrasında optimize edilen
ttireşim değerleri ile kesici takım ömrü, yüzey pürüzlülüğü ve ölçüsel doğruluk iyileştiği gözlemlenmiştir. Bu
iyileşmeler kesici takım ömründe %40 artış, yüzey pürüzlülüğünde %35 iyileşme ve tezgah yüklenmesinde
ortalama %20 azalma olarak belirlenmiştir. Bu çalışmadan anlaşılacağı gibi sürekli aynı eksende ve devirlerde
yapılan çalışmalar tezgah sağlığını olumsuz etkilemekte ve üretim kalitesini düşürmektedir. İlerleyen
çalışmalarda frezeleme operasyonlarında daha homojen yük dağılımı ve devir kontrolleri ile tezgah sağlığının
artırılması üzerinde durulacak, CAM programlarına adapte edilebilecek bazı optimizasyon eklentileri ile
üretim verimliliği de artırılacaktır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Titreşim, Tırlama, Takım Salgısı

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Giriş
Havacılık, otomotiv, savunma sanayi gibi endüstrilerde kullanılan çeşitli malzeme türleri için talaşlı imalat
operasyonlarında frezeleme operasyonları çok yaygın olarak kullanılan kesme operasyonlarından birisidir. [1]
Frezelemede çok ağızlı takımlarla gerçekleştirilen işlemlerde, kesici takımda meydana gelen titreşime bağlı
salgı kesici takımın talaş kaldırma performansını, kesici takım performansını, talaş yükünü ve kesme
parametrelerini etkilemektedir. Bunun sonucunda oluşan, vuruntular sürtünme ve yüksek ısı sonucunda kesici
takım da deformasyonlar meydana gelmektedir [2, 3, 4, 5]. Özellikle frezeleme operasyonlarında verimlilik,
üretim süresi, işlenen parça kalitesi gibi etmenlerle doğrudan ilişklilidir. Burada oluşacak istenmeyen
titreşimler, verimlilik açısından en büyük sınırlamalardan birisidir [6].
İstenmeyen titreşim olarak adlandırılan tırlama titreşimleri kesici takım ve iş parçası arasındaki dinamik
etkileşimler sonucu meydana gelmektedir. Bunun ile alakalı Tlusty ve Tobias, takım tezgahının yapısal
dinamiği ve kesme esnasındaki geri bildirimlerle birlikte oluşan uyarımların kaynağını tespit etmek amaçlı çok
fazla çalışmalar yapmıştır. Çalışmalarla birlikte belirli koşullarda titreşimlerin genliği artmakta ve kesme
kararsız hale gelmektedir. [7, 8]. Belirli bir frezeleme işleminde, kullanılan kesme hızı ve kesme genisliği için
sistemin tırlama noktasında kararsız hale geldiği sınırlayıcı kesme parametreleri mevcuttur [6]. Bu titreşimler
salgılara neden olmaktadır. Salgılar dönme ekseni boyunca bir sapma oluşturacaktır. Burada oluşacak takım
salgısı gerçek kesme çapını etkilemektedir [9]. Kesme paremetrelerine bağlı kesme mekaniği ve dinamiğini
etkileyen tırlama titreşimleri için mekanik ve dinamik modellemeler noktasında birçok çalışma yapılmıştır.
Burada takımın hatalı bağlanmasından salgılı dönmeye dek birçok konu üzerine durulmuş ve bu bağlamlarda
modeller ortaya çıkarılmıştır. Bu modellemelerle tırlamanın kontrol altına alınması amaçlanmıştır [10, 11, 12].
Ardışık kesici uçların ürettiği yörüngeler ile titreşim ve titreşime bağlı oluşabilecek salgıların matematiksel
olarak ilişkisi analiz edilmiştir. Bu bağlamda tırlamanın önüne geçebilmek amaçlı değişken hatve ve diş açılı
kesici takımları geliştirimiştir. Bu geliştirilen kesici takımlar ve modellemer tırlamanın sönümlenmesi
noktasında başarılı sonuçlar göstermektedir.[13]. Aynı zamanda tezgah frekansı çekiç testi ile belirlenerek
modal analizlerle birlikte iş parçası, takım tutucu ve takım tezgahı ile ilgili, kesme esnasındaki titreşimlere
bağlı olarak, kararlılık diyagramlarının çıkarılması, tırlamanın söz konusu olduğu bölgelerin ve kararlı
bölgelerin tanımlanması, kesme parametresi optimizasyonu ile tırlamanın önlenerek verimlililiğin arttırılması
ile alakalı birçok çalışma mevcuttur [14].
Frezeleme işleminde titreşim ve titreşime bağlı oluşabilecek salgıları aynı zamanda CNC iş mili üzerinde
bulunan komponentlerin rijitliği ve rulman sağlığı ile doğrudan ilişkilidir. Bu noktada yapılacak periyodik
kontrol ve iş mili sağlık ölçümleri titreşim ve salgıların kontrol altında tutulmasına katkı sağlayacaktır. İş mili
sağlığınn kontrol altında tutulması tırlama ve salgı gibi istenmeyen durumları ortadan kaldırmada çok büyük
fayda sağlamaktadır [15]. Frezeleme işlemi esnasında tezgah sağlığının bozulmasına bağlı takım tezgahı, takım
tutucu, kesici takım ve iş parçası malzemesinden oluşan bileşenlerin rijitliği etkilenmektedir. Bu durumların
tespiti için bahsedilenlerle doğrudan ilişkili olacak şekilde çeşitli sensörler geliştirilmiş ölçümler yapılarak
değerler analiz edilmeye başlanmıştır [16].
Bu çalışmada farklı bir bakış açısı olarak, frezeleme işlemlerinde, tezgah tablasında sürekli aynı eksende ve
yakın devirlerde talaş kaldırma işleminin yapılması durumunda, iş mili titreşim değerlerinin yoğunlukla
kullanılan eksende değişmeye ve bozulmaya başlaması ve bunun sonucunda oluşan tırlama ve iş mili sağlığının
bozulması konu edilecektir. Bu durumun kesme işleminin verimliliği üzerindeki etkilerini minimize etmek
için, ilerleyen dönemlerde, CAD/CAM programlarının kesme yönleri noktasında optimizasyonu amacıyla
çeşitli çalışmalar yapılacaktır.

Materyel ve Method
Çalışmada frezeleme işlemi yapan CNC tezgahlarda, iş mili üzerinde X ve Y ekseninde titreşim verilerini
almak amacıyla GTech Vpod titreşim ölçer cihazı kullanılmıştır. Bu titreşim verileri ivme (G) ve hız (mm/sn)
cinsinden kayıt edilmiştir. Burada G iş mili rulman ömrü, hız ise iş mili balansı hakkında bizlere bilgi

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vermektedir. CNC tabla eksenleri ve Vpod’un iş mili üzerindeki ölçüm konumu ile ilgili görseller Şekil 1’de
gösterilmiştir.

a b

Şekil 1. a) eksenler, b) Vpod ile x ekseninde yapılan ölçüm

Deneysel çalışmada kalıp imalatında kullanılan ve teknik özellikleri bakımından en çok tercih edilen 1.2379
kodlu çelik kullanılmıştır. Çeliğe ait teknik özellikler Tablo 1’de verilmiştir.
Tablo 1. 1.2379 çeliğine ait teknik özellikler
Karbon (C) Krom (Cr) Molibden (Mo) Vanadyum (V) Sertlik (HRC)
1.55 12.00 0.80 0.90 55

Ölçüsel doğruluğun ölçülmesi için Alpha marka bir CMM (koordinat ölçme cihazı) cihazı kullanılmıştır.
Yüzey pürüzlülüğünü ölçmek için ise Mahr Marka MarSurf PS1 model pürüzlülük cihazı kullanılmıştır.
İşlemde kullanılan HAAS VM3 CNC dik işlem merkezine ait iş mili teknik özellikleri Tablo 2’te verilmiştir.
Yine HAAS tezgahına ait değerlendirilmiş titreşim ölçüm değerleri ise Şekil 2’de verilmiştir. Titreşim
değerleri yüksek olduğu için 5000 devir/dk üzerinde ölçüm alınmamıştır.

Tablo 2. HAAS VM3 tezgahının iş mili teknik özelikleri

İş mili Metrik
Maksimum Hız 12000 rpm
Maksimum Tork 122.0 Nm @ 2000 rpm
Konik Tipi CT / BT40

Şekil 2. CNC tezgaha ait X ve Y ekseninden alınmış ölçüm raporu

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Talaşlı imalat deneylerinde kullanılacak kesici takım, takım tutucu ve işleme parametreleri Tablo 3’te
verilmiştir. Kesme parametreleri ürün kataloğundaki değerlere bağlı kalma şartı ile optimum değerlerde
seçilmiştir.
Titreşim değerlerinin oluşturduğu tırlama ve salgının talaş kaldırma işlemi üzerindeki etkisini araştırılması için
deneyler yapılmış ve sonuçlar karşılaştırılmıştır. Kesici takım ömrüne etkisinin incelenmesi amacıyla yüzey
frezeleme işlemi, ölçüsel doğruluğa etkisinin incelenmesi için iç ve dış konturların işleneceği cep boşaltma ve
yanal frezeleme işlemleri yapılmıştır. Yüzey pürüzlülüğü noktasında yanal frezeleme ve cep içinden alınan
yüzey pürüzlülüğü ölçümleri değerlendirilmiştir.
Tablo 3. Kesme parametreleri
Operasyon f ap Vc Takım Takım Tutucu
(mm/dk) (mm) (m/dk) Kodu
Yüzey işleme 1250 1 150 RYMX 1205-M Ø40 Bilyalı
Dış kontur 1000 0.5 125 APKT 1705 PER-EM Ø32 Bilyalı
İç kontur 2000 0.5 125 4NKT 060308R-M Ø20 Bilyalı
Deneysel çalışma esnasında gerçekleştirilen yüzey işleme, dış kontur ve iç kontur işlemleri Şekil 3’te
gösterilmiştir. Çalışma esnasında kullanılan takım ve tutucular Şekil 4’te verilmiştir.

Şekil 3. Talaş kaldırma işlemleri (a) yüzey işleme (b) İç kontur ve dış kontur işleme

Şekil 4. Kesici uç ve tutucular (a) İç kontur (b) Dış kontur (c) Yüzey işleme

Bulgular ve Tartışma
Yapılan birçok iş mili sağlık ölçümü ve müşteri kullanımı değerlendirildiğinde, takım tezgahında X ekseninin
uzun ve kullanışlı olması nedeniyle, işleme yönü olarak ağırlığın X eksenine verildiği görülmüştür. Buna
binaen iş mili üzerinde titreşim ölçümü ile alınan sonuçlarda, tezgah en çok hangi devir ve eksende
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kullanılıyorsa rulman titreşim değerlerinin, o devir aralığı ve eksende, çok kısa sürede nominal değerlerin
üzerine çıkarak rulman ömrünün tamamlandığı saptanmıştır. Rulmanların ömrünü tamamlaması ve titreşimlere
sebebiyet vermesi müşterilerin nihai ürün verimliliği noktasında şikayetlerini de beraberinde getirmektedir,
çünkü bu belli devir ve eksenlerdeki zorlanmalar salgıları ve tırlamaları oluşturmaktadır. Bakım sonrası
titreşim ölçüm değerleri Tablo 4’te görülmektedir.

Tablo 4. Ön ve arka rulmanlara ait bakım sonrası titreşim değerleri

Hız (mm/sn) (rms) İvme (G) (rms)
Devir (rpm)
Ön Arka Ön Arka
1000 0,07 0,14 0,06 0,05
2000 0,14 0,18 0,09 0,08
3000 0,22 0,28 0,11 0,18
4000 0,35 0,32 0,30 0,24
5000 0,46 0,43 0,21 0,18

Bunlar göz önüne alınarak titreşim değerleri yüksek bir tezgah için deneysel bir çalışma yapılmış, bakım öncesi
ve bakım sonrasında talaş kaldırma işlemleri uygulanmıştır. Bu işlemlerde kesici takım ömrü, yüzey
pürüzlülüğü ve ölçüsel doğruluğun nasıl değiştiği izlenmiştir. Daha sonra bu sonuçlara göre çıkarım yapılarak
titreşimin etkisi ve titreşimin salgıyla birlikte nihai ürüne olan zararları değerlendirilmiştir.
Deneyler sonucunda iş mili bakımı ve rulman değişimi öncesinde ve sonrasında takım ömürleri, 5 deneme
ortalaması olarak, Tablo 5’te verilmiştir. Ömür testi için yüzey frezeleme işlemi yapılmış ve sonuçlar yüzey
frezelemeye göre yorumlanmıştır.
Tablo 5. Kesici takım ömrü sonuçları
Bakım öncesi kesici takım Bakım sonrası kesici takım ömrü % Fark
ömrü (m3 / takım ömrü) (m3 / takım ömrü)
HAAS VM3 0,000131 m3/takım ömrü 0,0001834 m3 / takım ömrü %40

Kalıp imalatında iç frezeleme yani cep boşaltma ve dış frezeleme yada yanal frezeleme olarak adlandırılan
işlemlerde, titreşim değerleri yüksek takım tezgahında, bakım öncesi ve bakım sonrası ölçüsel doğruluğun
kontrolü, CMM yardımıyla yapılmış ve verilen ölçüden olan sapmalar değerlendirilmiştir. Tablo 6’da bakım
öncesi ve bakım sonrası ölçüsel saplamalar görülmektedir.
Tablo 6. Salgının ölçüsel doğruluğa etkisi
Bakım öncesi ölçüm aralığı (mm) Bakım sonrası ölçüm aralığı (mm)
Dış Kontur + 0,25 + 0,05
+ 0,20 + 0,00
Iç Kontur - 0,10 + 0,05
- 0,15 + 0,00
Kontur operasyonlarından sonra dış ve iç kontur yüzeyinden 5 farklı noktadan alınan yüzey pürüzlülüğü
ölçümleri Şekil 5’te görülmektedir. Burada yüzey pürüzlülüğü son finish operasyonunun tekrarlanmaması veya
el tesviyesi yapılmaması noktasnda çok büyük önem arz etmektedir. Bu durumun dişi ve erkek kalıp diye
adlandırılan kalıp parçalarının birbiri ile uyumlu çalışması noktasında önemi büyüktür. Bu noktada titreşim
değerlerine bağlı oluşan salgı ve tırlamalar operasyon verimliliğini olumsuz yönde etkilemekte ve üretim
verimliliğini düşürmektedir.

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Ölçüm Sayısı
.
Şekil 5. Yüzey pürürüzlülük değerleri (mavi titreşim mevcut, turuncu titreşim değerleri optimum)
Sonuç olarak tırlama ve salgıya neden olan belli eksen ve devir aralarındaki işlemlerin rulman titreşimlerini
arttırdığı ve rulman ömrünü azaltarak kesme operasyonunun sonucu olan nihai ürünü ve buna ek olarak sarf
giderler olarak adlandırılan kesici takım ömrünü ciddi bir şekilde etkilediği saptanmıştır. Yapılan deneylerde
titreşim değerlerinin optimum seviyeye getirilmesiyle ilk haline göre kesici takım ömründe %40 bir artış
gözlemlenmiştir. Yüzey pürüzlülüğünde yaklaşık %35 bir iyileşme gerçekleşmiştir. Takım tezgahının kesme
işlemi sırasında yüklenmelere bağlı zorlanmaları %50-55 lerden %40 lara gerileyerek kesme esnasında tezgaha
binen yüklenmeler azalmıştır. Ölçüsel olarak istenen değerlere tek seferde yapılan finish operasyonu ile
ulaşılabilir hale gelmiştir ve max 0,25 mm olan sapmalar 0,05 olarak düşmüştür. Tablo 7’de deneysel çalışma
sonrasında bakım sonrası elde edilen gelişmeler gösterilmiştir.
Tablo 7. Deneysel çalışma sonucu elde edilen kazançlar
Elde Edilen Sonuçlar
Kesici Takım Ömrü ~ %40 artış
Yüzey Pürüzlülüğü ~ %35 iyileşme
Tezgah Yüklenmesi ~ %20 azalma
Ölçüsel Doğruluk Istenilen nihahi ölçüde
maximum 0,25 mm sapma yerine 0,05 mm sapma

Sonuç
Burada tartışılması ve gelecekte optimize edilmesi gereken nokta, frezeleme işlemlerinde, CAD/CAM ile
yapılan işler veya el ile yazılan programlar noktasında, yapılan işe bağlı olacak şekilde tablada takım yolunun
X ve Y ekseninde mümkün olduğunda homojen bir şekilde dağıtılmalıdır. Buna ek olarak, kesme
operasyonunun bu şekilde gerçekleşmesi belli devir aralıklarında ve eksenlerde titreşim değerlerinin
bozulmaması için önem arz etmektedir. Burada operatörlerin en sık yaptığı hatalardan biri, kolay ve
uygulanabilir olması sebebiyle, genelde tablalarda X eksenin daha uzun olması göz önüne alınarak sürekli o
eksende yoğunluklu iş miline yük binmektedir. İlerleyen dönemlerde CAM programlarının takım yolu
seçerken eksen hareketlerini eşit şekilde dağıtabilmesi tezgah sağlığı, kesici takım ömrü, yüzey pürüzülüğü ve
üretim verimliliğini geliştirecektir. Parçalar el verdiği sürece yapılacak CAM optimizasyonunda homojen
şekilde dağıtılan yük ve devirler nihai ürünün oluşması aynı zamnda tezgahı uzun yıllar sağlıklı kullanılarak
bakım maliyetlerinin azaltılması noktasında kritik önem taşımaktadır.

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Kaynaklar
[1] Altintas, Y., & Ber, A. A. 2001. “Manufacturing automation: metal cutting mechanics, machine tool
vibrations, and CNC design”, Appl. Mech. Rev., 54(5), B84-B84.
[2] Aydın, M. 2022. “Parmak frezeleme sırasında takım salgısının etkisi dahil edilerek kesme kuvvetlerinin
tahmini ve analizi”, Politeknik Dergisi, 25(1), 157-167.
[3] Kline, W. A., & DeVor, R. E. 1983. “The effect of runout on cutting geometry and forces in end milling”,
International Journal of Machine Tool Design and Research, 23(2-3), 123-140.
[4] Kuş, A. 2013. “AISI 52100 rulman çeliğinin tornalanmasında uygun kesici takım ve kesme
parametrelerinin belirlenmesi”, Master's thesis, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
[5] Sarikaya, M. 2014. “Kobalt esaslı haynes 25 süper alaşımın işlenebilirliğinin incelenmesi”, Doktora Tezi,
Gazi Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Ankara, 53-56.
[6] Budak, E., & Tekeli, A. 2005. “Maximizing chatter free material removal rate in milling through optimal
selection of axial and radial depth of cut pairs”, CIRP annals, 54(1), 353-356.
[7] Tlusty, J. and Polacek, M. 1963. “The Stability of Machine Tools against Self Excited Vibrations”, ASME
Int. Research in Production Eng., 465-474.
[8] Tobias, S. A. 1965, “Machine-tool vibration”, Blakie and Sons Ltd.
[9] Caixu, Y. U. E., Haining, G. A. O., Xianli, L. I. U., Liang, S. Y., & Lihui, W. A. N. G. 2019. “A review of
chatter vibration research in milling”, Chinese Journal of Aeronautics, 32(2), 215-242.
[10] Özdemir, E., & Güllü, A. 2022. “Talaşli İmalat İşleminde Kuramsal Temeller Ve İşlenebilirlik.
Yenilenebilir Kaynaklardan”, 65.
[11] Zhang, X., Zhang, J., Zhang, W., Li, J., & Zhao, W. 2018. “A non-contact calibration method for cutter
runout with iş mili speed dependent effect and analysis of its influence on milling process”, Precision
Engineering, 51, 280-290.
[12] Soshi, M., Ishii, S., & Yamazaki, K. 2012. “A study on the effect of rotational dynamic characteristics of
a machine tool iş mili drive on milling processes”, Procedia CIRP, 1, 319-324.
[13] Altintas, Y., Stepan, G., Budak, E., Schmitz, T., & Kilic, Z. M. 2020. “Chatter stability of machining
operations”, Journal of Manufacturing Science and Engineering, 142(11), 110801.
[14] Iglesias, A., Tunç, L. T., Özsahin, O., Franco, O., Munoa, J., & Budak, E. 2022. “Alternative experimental
methods for machine tool dynamics identification: A review”, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing,
170, 108837.
[15] Morales Méndez, J. D., & Rodriguez, R. S. 2017. “Total productive maintenance (TPM) as a tool for
improving productivity: a case study of application in the bottleneck of an auto-parts machining line”, The
International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 92, 1013-1026.
[16] Quintana, G., & Ciurana, J. 2011. “Chatter in machining processes: A review”, International Journal of
Machine Tools and Manufacture, 51(5), 363-376.

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MATKAP UÇ GEOMETRİSİNİ OLUŞTURAN UNSURLARIN INCONEL

718’in DELİNMESİNDEKİ ETKİSİNİN SAYISAL ANALİZİ
Tuncer Demirela,b, Kutay Aydınc, Levent Uğurd, Abdullah Kurte

a, Gazi Üniversitesi Teknoloji Fakültesi İmalat Mühendisliği Bölümü, Ankara/TÜRKİYE, tuncer.demirel@gazi.edu.tr

b, Başkent Üniversitesi Kahramankazan Meslek Yüksekokulu Makine Bölümü, Ankara/TÜRKİYE,
tuncerdemirel@baskent.edu.tr
c, Amasya Üniversitesi Makine Mühendisliği Bölümü, Amasya/TÜRKİYE, kutay.aydin@amasya.edu.tr
d, Amasya Üniversitesi Makine Mühendisliği Bölümü, Amasya/TÜRKİYE, leventozge@gmail.com
e, Gazi Üniversitesi Teknoloji Fakültesi İmalat Mühendisliği Bölümü, Ankara/TÜRKİYE, akurt@gazi.edu.tr

Özet
Bu çalışmada, matkap uç geometrisini oluşturan unsurların Inconel 718 süper alaşımının kuru kesme
şartlarında delinmesine olan etkileri sonlu elemanlar destekli simülasyonlarla analiz edilmiştir. Matkap uç
geometrisini oluşturan giriş açısı, öz kalınlığı ve batma açısı çeşitlendirilirken diğer geometrik özellikleri aynı
olan takım modellerinin delme performansı sırasında oluşan itme kuvveti, tork ve sıcaklık çıktılarıyla
değerlendirilmiştir. Delme simülasyonları ve analizler ThirdWave Advantedge programında
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Simülasyonlarda; giriş açısı (120°,135°,150°), öz kalınlığı (0,5;1,0;1,5 mm) ve batma açısı
(30°,45°,60°) olan 10 mm çapında, iki ağızlı, helisel, split uçlu, yekpare karbür matkap modelleri
kullanılmıştır. Sonuç olarak; giriş açısı ve öz kalınlığı arttıkça itme kuvveti artmış, aksine batma açısı arttıkça
itme kuvvetinde azalma olduğu görülmüştür. Torka bakıldığında; giriş açısı 120°‘den 135°’ye çıktığında tork
artmış, 150°‘ye çıktığında azalmaya başlamış olup, öz kalınlığı arttıkça da tork da artmıştır. Öte yandan, batma
açısı 30°‘den 45°‘ye çıktığında tork azalmış, 60°‘ye çıktığında ise torkta tekrar artış gözlemlenmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Delme, İnconel 718, Matkap Uç Geometrisi, Giriş Açısı, Öz Kalınlığı, Batma
Açısı

Abstract
In this study, the effects of the elements forming the drill bit geometry on the drilling of Inconel 718 superalloy
under dry cutting conditions were analysed by finite element aided simulations. While the web thickness,
splitting angle and notch angle of the drill bit geometry were varied, the drilling performance of the tool models
with the same geometric characteristics was evaluated with the outputs of thrust force, torque and temperature
generated during drilling. Drilling simulations and analyses were performed in ThirdWave Advantedge
software. In the simulations; 10 mm diameter, two-flute, helical, split-tip, solid carbide drill models with web
thickness (0.5;1.0;1.5 mm), splitting angle (120°,135°,150°) and notch angle (30°,45°,60°) were used. As a
result, it was observed that the thrust force increased as the splitting angle and web thickness increased, on the
contrary, the thrust force decreased as the notch angle increased. When the torque is analysed; the torque
increased when the splitting angle increased from 120° to 135° and started to decrease when it increased to
150°, and the torque increased as the web thickness increased. On the other hand, the torque decreased when
the notch angle increased from 30° to 45° and increased again when the angle increased to 60°.

Key Words: Drilling, Inconel 718, Drill Bit Geometry, Splitting Angle, Web Thickness, Notch Angle

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Giriş
Süper alaşımların temel hedefi, zorlu çalışma koşullarında gerekli mekanik ve fiziksel niteliklere sahip bir
alaşımın oluşturulmasıdır. Bu alaşımlar, yüksek sıcaklıklarda mükemmel performans sergileyerek özellikle
havacılık sektöründe istenen servis performansını sağlarlar [1-2]. Nikel bazlı süper alaşımlar, en yüksek
sıcaklık dayanımıyla bilinen tüm süper alaşımlar arasında öne çıkar. Bu olağanüstü nitelikleri, özellikle türbin
kanatları gibi son derece zorlu uygulamalar için Inconel 718’i ideal malzeme haline getirir [3]. Inconel 718,
nikel bazlı en yaygın süper alaşımlardan biridir [4]. Gaz türbin motorlarının yüksek sıcaklıklı bölgelerinde
havacılık endüstrisinde sıkça kullanıldığı gibi, üstün mekanik ve fiziksel özelliklerinden dolayı otomotiv,
kimya, ve medikal gibi çeşitli endüstrilerde de tercih edilen bir malzemedir [4-5]. Inconel 718'in kullanım
alanları göz önüne alındığında, yüksek kaliteli yüzeyler ve dar toleranslar gerektirir. Bu malzeme, kesimi zor
olanlardan biridir ve işlenebilirlik oranı düşük karbonlu çelik olan AISI 1018'e göre yaklaşık %14 daha
düşüktür [6]. Üstün özellikleri aynı zamanda işlenebilirliğini zorlaştırır. Özellikle Inconel 718'in sertleşme
eğilimi, düşük ısı iletkenliği, yüksek sıcaklıklarda mekanik özelliklerini koruyabilmesi ve bazı kesici takım
malzemelerine olan kimyasal etkisi gibi özellikler, takım performansının yetersizliğine, kötü iş parçası
kalitesine ve dolayısıyla yüksek üretim maliyetlerine sebep olabilir [1,5-7].
Günümüzde, Inconel 718'in işlenebilirliği ve kritik uygulama alanlarıyla ilgili zorluklar, araştırmacılar için
önemli bir odak noktası haline gelmiştir. Bu ileri mühendislik malzemesinin tornalanması ve frezelenmesi
hakkında birçok çalışma yapılmış olsa da, delme işlemiyle ilgili çalışmalar oldukça sınırlıdır. Mevcut ticari
matkaplar, havacılık ve uzay endüstrisinin istediği ürün kalitesini sağlamakta yetersiz kalmaktadır.
Dolayısıyla, yüksek ürün kalitesi elde etmek için raybalama ve/veya taşlama gibi ek işlemlere ihtiyaç
duyulmaktadır [5]. Inconel 718'ın delinme özelliklerini artırmak için çeşitli işleme koşulları ve yenilikçi
tekniklerin kullanılması gerekmektedir. Helisel matkap geometrisinin değiştirilmesi [8], minimum miktar
yağlama (MQL) [9], kriyojenik soğutma [10] ve hibrit soğutma gibi çeşitli soğutma ve/veya yağlama
yöntemlerinin Inconel 718'in delinme özellikleri üzerindeki etkileri, günümüzdeki araştırma odakları
arasındadır.
Matkap geometrik unsurları, delme sırasında matkabın işlenecek malzeme yüzeyine yerleşmesi ve ağızlaması,
talaşın kırılması, kesme kuvvetlerinin düşürülmesi, matkabın delik ekseni boyunca hareketi, talaşın
uzaklaştırılması, titreşimler ve matkabın toplam kesme süresi ve benzeri parametrelerde kritik bir rol oynar
[11]. Matkap ucu, işlenecek malzemeyle ilk temasta bulunan ve operasyon sırasında talaşı kaldıran bölümdür,
bu sebeple matkap geometrik unsurları ve matkap uç açıları oldukça önemlidir. Fakat yeterince uzun olmayan
bir öz kalınlığına sahip matkapların, işlem esnasında parça yüzeyine yerleştirilmesi oldukça zor olabilir. Bu
zorluğu gidermek için matkap uçlarına ek yüzeyler eklenir; genellikle bu ek yüzeylere matkap yarığı
(split/gash) adı verilir. Bu ek yüzeylerin eklenmesinin sebebi, öz kalınlığının işlenecek malzemeye temas
bölgesinin kısalmasını sağlamak ve ikincil kesme kenarını pozitif talaş açısıyla meydana getirmektir [12].
Bir diğer sorun da, elverişsiz yarık talaş açısı sebebiyle, matkap ucunda talaşın sıkışması ve yüksek kesme
kuvvetleri oluşmasıdır ki bu da matkapta hızlı aşınmaya ve delik kalitesinde kötüleşme gibi sorunlara yol açar.
Öz kalınlığının kaldırdığı talaşı helis kanalına yönlendirmede önemli bir rol oynayan yarık talaş açısı, talaşın
yarık yüzeyine sürtünme süresini belirlemede de etkilidir. Kesme işleminin kapalı bir alanda gerçekleşmesi,
kesme esnasındaki sıcaklığının büyük çoğunluğunun delik içinde dağılmasına ve kesme esnasındaki
sıcaklığının neredeyse %70-80'inin talaşla birlikte atılmasına neden olduğu için, yarık talaş açısının talaş
birikmesini önleme ve matkap ucu kısmından talaşın boşaltılmasında kritik bir rol oynadığını göstermektedir
[13,14].
Kesici takımlar, talaşlı imalat işlemlerinde maliyetin önemli bir kısmını oluşturur. Dolayısıyla, iş parçası
malzemesine ve uygulanacak işleme uygun kesici geometrisi ve malzeme tercihi oldukça önemlidir. Son
yıllarda sonlu elemanlar analizleri ile yapılan kesme simülasyonları ve deneyler neticesinde elde edilen verileri
kullanarak oluşturulan matematik temelli modellerden, uygun kesici geometrisinin seçilmesi, istenilen kalitede
ürün elde edilmesi ve kesici takım ile malzeme israfının azaltılması gibi konularda sıkça yararlanılmaktadır
[15-16].

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Delik delme işlemlerinde; işleme performansını etkileyen faktörler arasında uç geometrisi ve kesici takım
cinsi, delik çapı, iş parçası malzemesi, soğutma sıvısı, kesme hızı, tezgâh rijitliği ve ilerleme gibi çeşitli kesme
parametreleri üzerine birçok araştırma yapılmıştır. Bu çalışmalar, genellikle takım ömrü ve matkap uç
geometrisi gibi konulara odaklanmıştır [12,25]. Bu çalışmalar genellikle matkap uç geometrisindeki
değişiklikleri inceleyerek matkap uç geometrik unsurlarının kesme kuvvetine etkisini ortaya koymaya ve ideal
kesme koşullarını belirlemeye yöneliktir. Matkap uç geometrisine özel olarak yapılan bazı çalışmalar, moment
ve kesme kuvvetiyle ilgili çeşitli matematik temelli modellerin geliştirilmesini sağlamıştır [12,18]. Kesme
esnasında oluşan moment ve kesme kuvvetleriyle ilgili yapılan çalışmalarda, matkap uç geometrisi dışında
ilerleme miktarı, kesme hızı, delik çapı, soğutma sıvısı ve tezgâh rijitliği gibi faktörlerin de takım ömrü ile
aşınma üzerindeki etkileri farklı deneysel ve teorik incelemelerle araştırılmıştır [18-25]. Bu çalışmalar,
matkabın aşınması üzerinde en belirgin etkiye sahip parametrelerin kaplama uygulaması ve matkap uç
geometrisindeki modifikasyonlar olduğunu tespit etmiştir [17, 20, 26].
Literatür araştırmasında; delme işleminde, geometrik unsurların rolü ayrıntılı bir şekilde araştırılmış ve matkap
geometrisine yönelik çalışılırken; giriş açısı, öz kalınlığı ve batma açısının çeşitli kombinasyonları ile takım
modeli oluşturulmasının göz ardı edildiği tespit edilmiştir. Gerçekleştirilen bu çalışma ile, talaşlı üretimde
kritik öneme sahip delme işlemlerinde, matkap uç geometrisini oluşturan unsurlardan giriş açısı, öz kalınlığı
ve batma açısının, Inconel 718 süper alaşımının delme işlemleri için optimizasyonu hedeflenmiştir.

Malzeme ve Yöntem
Bu araştırma çalışmasında, iş parçası malzemesi olarak 14x14x6 mm boyutlarında işlenmesi zor malzemeler
sınıfında yer alan Inconel 718 süper alaşımı kullanılmıştır. İşleme simülasyonlarında sıklıkla kullanılan
Johnson-Cook malzeme modeli, Eşitlik 1'de açıklanmaktadır [27]. Bu malzeme modeli, özellikle yüksek stres
seviyelerine maruz kalan metallerin deformasyon davranışını incelemek için idealdir. Ek olarak bu malzeme
modelinde sertleşme, akma gerilmesinin σ0 olarak esas alındığı spesifik izotropik sertleşme çeşididir [28].
𝜀̇ 𝑃 𝑇−𝑇𝑟 𝑚
𝜎 0 = (𝐴 + 𝐵(𝜀 𝑃 )𝑛 )(1 + 𝐶 log ( 𝜀̇ ))(1 − (𝑇 ) ) (1)
0 𝑚 −𝑇𝑟

Mekanik testler sonucunda elde edilebilen ve Eşitlik 1'de yer alan A, B, C, n ve m parametreleri sırasıyla oda
sıcaklığındaki akma gerilmesi, gerinim sertleşme katsayısı, gerinim hızı sabiti, gerinim sertleşme sabiti ve ısıl
yumuşama sabitidir. Inconel 718 süper alaşımı için Johnson-Cook parametreleri ve diğer malzeme
parametreleri Advantedge yazılımında bulunmaktadır. Bu parametreler şunlardır: Johnson-Cook parametreleri:
A, B, C, n ve m. Diğer malzeme parametreleri: plastik gerinme oranı (𝜀̇ 𝑃 ), eşdeğer plastik gerinim (𝜀 𝑃 ),
referans gerinim oranı (𝜀̇0 ), erime sıcaklığı (Tm), oda sıcaklığı (Tr) ve referans sıcaklığı (T) olup, bu
parametreler Tablo 1 ve Tablo 2' de detaylı olarak verilmiştir [29].

Table 1: Inconel 718 süper alaşımının Johnson-Cook parametreleri.

A (MPa) B (MPa) C (-) n (-) m (-) Tr (°C) Tm (°C) 𝜺̇ 𝟎 (s-1)
1241 622 0.0134 0.6522 1.3 30 1297 1.0

Table 2: Inconel süper alaşımı için diğer malzeme parametreleri.

Yoğunluk Poisson Elastikiyet Termal Özgül
(kg/m3) oranı Modulü iletkenlik Isı
(GPa) (W/m.K) (J/kg°C)
8200 0,26 190 11.3 226

Simülasyon çalışmaları için; çapı 10 mm olan, 138° uç açılı, kaplamasız yekpare karbür matkaplar
kullanılmıştır. Bu matkaplar iki ağızlı helisel ve split uçlu özelliktedir. Matkap uç geometrisini oluşturan

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unsurların nitelikleri Tablo 3'te sunulmuştur. Şekil 1'de de AdvantEdge programında takım modellemelerinin
yapılabildiği girdiler penceresi gösterilmektedir.

Şekil 1: AdvantEdge programı takım modelleme penceresi.

Tablo 3. Modellenen takımların geometrik özellikleri.

Takım
Matkap çapı Uç açısı
Geometrisi Giriş açısı (°) Öz kalınlığı (mm) Batma açısı (°)
(mm) (o)
Kodu
Geom1 120 0,5 30
Geom2 120 0,5 45
Geom3 120 0,5 60
Geom4 120 1,0 30
Geom5 120 1,0 45
Geom6 120 1,0 60
Geom7 120 1,5 30
Geom8 120 1,5 45
Geom9 120 1,5 60
Geom10 135 0,5 30
Geom11 135 0,5 45
Geom12 135 0,5 60
Geom13 135 1,0 30
Geom14 10 138 135 1,0 45
Geom15 135 1,0 60
Geom16 135 1,5 30
Geom17 135 1,5 45
Geom18 135 1,5 60
Geom19 150 0,5 30
Geom20 150 0,5 45
Geom21 150 0,5 60
Geom22 150 1,0 30
Geom23 150 1,0 45
Geom24 150 1,0 60
Geom25 150 1,5 30
Geom26 150 1,5 45
Geom27 150 1,5 60

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Bu çalışmada özgün olarak tasarlanmış üç farklı; giriş açısı/splitting angle (120°,135°,150°), öz kalınlığı/web
thickness (0,5;1,0;1,5 mm) ve batma açısı/notch angle (30°,45°,60°) olan kesici takımlar ile sabit kesme hızı
(20 m/dak) ve ilerleme miktarı (0,1 mm/dev) değerleri kullanılmıştır.

Delme sırasında oluşan itme kuvveti (Fz), delme momenti (Mz) ve sıcaklık (°C) sonuçlarını deney yapmadan
önce tahmin edebilmek amacıyla, talaş kaldırma modellerine odaklanan sonlu elemanlar modeli destekli sanal
simülasyon yazılımı Third Wave AdvantEdge kullanılarak sayısal analizler gerçekleştirilmiştir. AdvantEdge
yazılımı, adaptif yeniden ağ örme tekniklerini kullanarak güncellenmiş Lagrangian eşitliklerinden
yararlanmaktadır. Sonlu elemanlar modeli destekli sanal simülasyon çalışmaları için, iş parçası malzemesi
olarak seçilen Inconel 718 süper alaşımının Johnson-Cook parametreleri ve 14x14x6 mm boyutları yazılıma
girilmiştir. Kesici takım malzemesi için, AdvantEdge yazılımının malzeme kütüphanesinde mevcut veriler
kullanılmıştır.

Doğru sonuçlar elde edebilmek için minimum eleman boyutu, yazılımın tavsiyesine ve literatür incelemesine
göre belirlenmiş olup, Tablo 4’te verilmiştir.

Tablo 4. Ağ yapısı parametreleri.

Matkap Mesh (Ağ) ve Diğer Değer
Parametreleri
En küçük eleman boyutu 0,025 mm
En büyük eleman boyutu 1,0 mm
Matkap tur açısı 360°
İşlenecek Malzeme Mesh (Ağ) Değer
ve Diğer Parametreleri
İşlenecek malzeme boyutları 14x14x6 mm
En küçük eleman boyutu 0,075 mm
En büyük eleman boyutu 2 mm
İşleme başlangıç sıcaklığı 20 °C

Analizler neticesinde, Fx, Fy ve Fz kesme kuvvetleri (N) ile Mz dönme momenti (Nm) verileri her üç eksende
kaydedilmiştir. Veriler, *.txt dosyası formatında alınmıştır ve MATLAB yazılımı kullanılarak, delinebilirliğin
tespitinde önemli olan delme momenti (Mz) ve itme kuvveti (Fz) verilerinin ortalamaları belirlenmiştir.

Bulgular ve Tartışma
Bu araştırmada, giriş açıları (120°, 135°, 150°), öz kalınlığı (0,5 mm; 1,0 mm; 1,5 mm) ve batma açıları (30°,
45°, 60°) olan matkaplar kullanılarak Inconel 718 süper alaşımının delinmesi sırasında kesme parametreleri
ve matkap geometrik unsurlarının delme sırsınd oluşan itme kuvveti, delme momenti ve sıcaklık üzerindeki
etkileri sonlu elemanlar modelini kullanan AdventEdge yazılımındaki simülasyonlar ile analiz edilmiştir.

İtme Kuvvetlerinin Değerlendirilmesi

FEM (Sonlu Elemanlar Metodu) destekli simülasyon çalışmaları sonucunda elde edilen itme kuvveti sonuçları
Şekil 2’de sunulmuştur. Şekil 2’deki grafik incelendiğinde, giriş açısının büyümesi ve öz kalınlığının
artmasıyla itme kuvvetinde (Fz) artış görülürken, batma açısının büyümesiyle itme kuvvetinin (Fz) azaldığı
görülmektedir. Bu sonuçlar, literatürle uyumlu olduğunu göstererek sayısal analiz çalışmalarının geçerli
olduğunu kanıtlar niteliktedir [30-31]. İtme kuvvetlerinin en yüksek ve en düşük çıktığı eş değer gerilme (von
Mises) görüntüleri Tablo 5’te verilmiştir.

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Şekil 2: Geometrik unsurlara bağlı İtme kuvvetlerindeki değişim

Tablo 5. En yüksek ve en düşük eş değer gerilmenin gözlendiği takımlar.

Geom3 (En düşük eş değer gerilme görülen takımın Geom27 (En yüksek eş değer gerilme görülen
giriş açısı: 120°, öz kalınlığı: 0.5 mm ve batma açısı: takımın giriş açısı: 150°, öz kalınlığı: 1,5 mm ve
60°) batma açısı: 60°)

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Delme Momentinin (Torkun) Değerlendirilmesi

Sonlu elemanlar metodu kullanılarak yapılan analizler sonucunda elde edilen delme momenti (tork) değerleri
Şekil 3’te verilmiştir. Şekil 3’teki grafikte görüldüğü üzere, en düşük tork değerleri giriş açısının 120°, öz
kalınlığının 0.5 mm ve batma açısının 30° olduğu Geom1 kodlu takımda 5,80 (Nm); en yüksek tork değerleri
giriş açısının 150°, öz kalınlığının 1.5 mm ve batma açısının 30° olduğu Geom25 kodlu takımda 8,09 (Nm)
olarak gerçekleşmiştir. Geom1 ve Geom25 kodlu takımlara ait görseller Tablo 6’da sunulmuştur.

Şekil 3: Geometrik unsurlara bağlı Tork değerlerindeki değişim.

Tablo 6. En yüksek ve en düşük Tork değerlerinin gözlendiği takımlar.

Geom1 (En düşük Tork değerleri görülen takımın Geom25 (En yüksek Tork değerleri görülen takımın
giriş açısı: 120°, öz kalınlığı: 0.5 mm ve batma açısı: giriş açısı: 150°, öz kalınlığı:1.5 mm ve batma açısı:
30°) 30°)

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Sıcaklık Verilerinin Değerlendirilmesi

Inconel 718 süper alaşımının delinebilirliğinin simülasyonu sonucu elde edilen veriler Şekil 4’te
görülmektedir. Şekil 4’teki grafiğe bakıldığında, en düşük sıcaklık değerleri giriş açısının 150°, öz kalınlığının
1.0 mm ve batma açısının 30° olduğu Geom22 kodlu takımda 466,91 (°C); en yüksek sıcaklık değerleri giriş
açısının 135°, öz kalınlığının 1.5 mm ve batma açısının 60° olduğu Geom18 kodlu takımda 904,60 (°C) olarak
elde edilmiştir. Geom18 ve Geom22 kodlu takımlara ait görseller Tablo 7’de sunulmuştur.

Şekil 4: Geometrik unsurlara bağlı Sıcaklık değerlerindeki değişim.

Tablo 7. En yüksek ve en düşük sıcaklık değerleri görülen takımlar.

Geom22 (En düşük sıcaklık değerleri görülen Geom18 (En yüksek sıcaklık değerleri görülen
takımın giriş açısı: 150°, öz kalınlığı:1.0 mm ve takımın giriş açısı: 135°, öz kalınlığı:1.5 mm ve
batma açısı: 30°) batma açısı: 60°)

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Sonuç

Bu çalışmada, matkap uç geometrisini oluşturan unsurlarından giriş açısının, öz kalınlığının ve batma açısının
modifikasyonu ile yapılan simülasyon çalışmalarında bu unsurların delme sırasında oluşan itme kuvveti (thrust
force), delme momenti ve sıcaklık, üzerindeki etkileri araştırılmış olup simülasyonlar ve analizler sonucunda
elde edilen veriler aşağıda özetlenmiştir;
• İtme kuvveti (Fz) üzerinde en etkili parametrelerin sırasıyla giriş açısı ve öz kalınlığı,
• Delme momenti (Mz) üzerinde en etkili parametrenin öz kalınlığı ve
• Delme sırasında oluşan Sıcaklık (°C) üzerinde en etkili parametrelerin sırasıyla batma açısı ve öz
kalınlığı olduğu tespit edilmiştir.

Gerçekleştirilen simülasyonlar ve analizler sonucunda edilen verilerin, deneysel çalışmalarından önce fikir
verici olduğu düşünülürken bu sonuçların deneysel çalışmalarla doğrulanması için çalışma sürdürülmektedir.

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DEVELOPMENT AND PERFORMANCE EVALUATION OF MQL OILS FOR

THE MACHINING OF INCONEL 718
Ramazan Hakkı Namlua, Ertan Atamanb, Okan Deniz Yılmazc, Kübra Kavutd1, Hanife Gülen Tomd2

a,Atılım University, Engineering Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Ankara/TURKEY,

ramazan.namlu@atilim.edu.tr
b,Atılım University, Graduate School of Natural and Applied Sciences, Mechanical Engineering Department,
Ankara/TURKEY, ataman.ertan@student.atilim.edu.tr
c, TRMotor Inc., Structural Integrity Department, Ankara/TURKEY,
d1, Belgin Oil Company, R&D Department, Kocaeli/TURKEY, kubra.kavut@belginoil.com
d2, Belgin Oil Company, R&D Department, Kocaeli/TURKEY, hanife.gulen@belginoil.com

Abstract
Inconel 718 is highly suitable for high-temperature applications due to its exceptional corrosion and oxidation
resistance, along with its high strength at elevated temperatures. However, its high hardness, wear resistance,
and significant work hardening rate make its machining challenging. Conventional Cutting Fluids (CCFs) are
inadequate for addressing these challenges and are not sustainable due to their high consumption and harmful
effects on human health and the environment. Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL) has emerged as an
effective alternative to conventional cutting fluids, especially for challenging materials like Inconel 718.
However, the oils used in MQL applications directly affect machining performance, making it crucial to
develop oils specific to the material being machined. In this study, MQL oils developed to enhance the
machining performance of Inconel 718 were first tested for their physical characteristics and performance.
Subsequently, their performance during slot milling experiments was evaluated in terms of cutting force and
surface quality.
Keywords: Inconel 718, Minimum Quantity Lubrication, Milling

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COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF VIBRATION AXIS EFFECTS ON

ULTRASONIC VIBRATION-ASSISTED MACHINING OF INCONEL 718
Ramazan Hakkı Namlua

a, Atılım University, Engineering Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Ankara/TURKIYE,

ramazan.namlu@atilim.edu.tr

Abstract
Inconel 718 is widely utilized in various critical industries, particularly in the aerospace sector, due to its
characteristics such as creep and corrosion resistance, and the ability to maintain strength even at high
temperatures. However, its high wear resistance, low thermal conductivity, and high work hardening rate
reduce machining processes particularly challenging, often classifying it as "difficult-to-cut." Ultrasonic
Vibration-Assisted Machining (UVAM) is a machining method that employs high-frequency and low-
amplitude vibrations to the process to overcome the difficulties encountered in Conventional Machining (CM).
In UVAM, ultrasonic vibrations can be applied along different axes, resulting in varying outcomes depending
on the axis of application. This study examines the effects of UVAM techniques applied along different axes
on the machining of Inconel 718. According to the results obtained, multi-axial UVAM has yielded the most
efficient outcomes in terms of cutting forces, surface roughness and topography, and burr formation.

Keywords: Ultrasonic Vibration-Assisted Machining, Inconel 718, Cutting Force, Surface Quality

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EXPERIMENTAL CHARACTERIZATION OF TOOLHOLDER-MAIN

SPINDLE CONTACT
Gábor Csernáka,b, Bálint Magyara, Roland Zanaa, Richárd Wohlfarta, Gábor Hénapa,
Ákos Miklósa, and Gabor Stepana,b

a, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Applied
Mechanics, Budapest/HUNGARY, stepan@mm.bme.hu
b, HUN-REN–BME Dynamics of Machines Research Group, Budapest University of Technology and Economics,
BUDAPEST/HUNGARY, csernak@mm.bme.hu

Abstract
A non-destructive method is proposed for the evaluation of mechanical contacts to monitor the correct
assembly of frequently exchanged machine parts. Constant current is led through the contact area and voltages
are determined between the bodies at several point-pairs along the contact perimeter. The contact conductivity
distribution – which is in monotonous relationship with the pressure distribution – is determined by a neural
network trained by a large set of finite element simulations. The applicability of this procedure is checked
numerically and experimentally for the characterization of the toolholder-main spindle connection to ensure
their repeatable fixing. The method can be used to analyse a wide range of contacts, e.g., the proper clamping
of the workpieces during cutting.

Keywords: Condition monitoring, Machine tool, Monitoring of mechanical contact.

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OPTIMIZATION OF MACHINING AND MQL PARAMETERS IN MILLING

OF AUSTEMPERED DUCTILE IRON
Mevlüt Aydına, Enes Çavuşlarb, Mevlüt Türközc

a, Konya Technical University, Mechanical Engineering Department, Konya/TURKIYE, maydin@ktun.edu.tr

b, Konya Technical University, Mechanical Engineering Department, Konya/TURKIYE, enescavuslarr@gmail.com
c, Konya Technical University, Mechanical Engineering Department, Konya/TURKIYE, mturkoz@ktun.edu.tr

Abstract
The presented study investigated the milling performance of austempered ductile iron (GGG-70) under various
cutting speeds, feeds, cooling environments, and minimum quantity lubricant (MQL) pulse rates. The results
of cutting temperature, surface roughness, and total machining cost were obtained using a Taguchi L9
experimental design. Under the %10 wt. cutting fluid-added MQL cutting conditions, the cutting temperature
improved by 90.4%, and the most effective parameter for cutting temperature out was the cooling conditions
with an 81.6% contribution ratio. Also, feed had the strongest effect on surface roughness, with a 69.9%
contribution ratio. The response surface method optimized the milling and MQL parameters and cooling
conditions regarding output parameters. The optimum cutting conditions, cutting speed, feed values, and MQL
pulse rate levels are 218.7 m/min, 0.114 mm/rev, %10 wt. added-MQL and 2 pulse/sec MQL pulse rate,
respectively.

Keywords: Austempered Ductile Iron, MQL, Response Surface Method

Introduction
For many years, the demand for new engineering materials has increased across various industries, such as
automotive, defense, and energy. This need is addressed by discovering new materials or alloying and heat
treatment of conventional materials [1,2]. Different cast irons have been developed using alloying and heat
treatment methods in this context. One notable example is austempered ductile iron (ADI), produced by
applying a spheroidization process to cast iron, resulting in significantly enhanced mechanical properties. ADI
has gained widespread use in the automotive, defense, and railway industries due to its superior characteristics,
including high strength, ductility, fracture toughness, fatigue resistance, and wear resistance [3-10]. According
to the DIN standard, ADI is classified into grades GGG40, 50, 60, 70, and 80. The mechanical properties of
ADI vary depending on the alloying elements added during casting, as well as the austenitizing and
austempering temperatures and times [8,10-14].
Structural components made of ADI, such as transmission gears, cracked shafts, train car wheels, etc., are
subjected to extensive machining [2,15]. Therefore, it is crucial to understand the influence of both machining
parameters and the cutting environment on the machinability of ADI materials. Many studies in the literature
investigate the machinability of GGG-70. Kumar et al. studied the impact of machining parameters on cutting
force and surface roughness while turning the above work material with cubic boron nitride and tungsten
carbide inserts. They used a response surface methodology to design the experiments and optimize the cutting
parameters [4]. The optimal parameters for turning austempered ductile iron with a cubic boron nitride insert
were a cutting speed of 174 m/min, a feed value of 0.102 mm/rev, and a depth of cut of 0.5 mm. Erarslan et al.
examined the machinability characteristics of cast steel (CS) and ADI during milling operations. In milling
experiments, three conditions were used: dry, conventional cutting fluid, and minimum quantity lubrication.
They found that the conventional cutting fluid (CCF) conditions deteriorated the tool life for ADI and CS due
to the effect of thermal cycling on cutting tools. This resulted in the formation of thermal cracks on cutting
edges when machining ADI [13]. Similarly, in the literature, cutting speed [4,6,9,12,16-22], feed rate
[4,6,9,12,19,21,23], depth of cut [4,9,11,16,21-23], material condition [5-7,10-13,18,24-26], cutting
environment [6,13,19,22], cutting length [17,18], tool geometry or material [12,21], were used for input
parameters in the machinability of ADI. Using these parameters, surface roughness [4, 5, 7, 9-13,16-19, 21-
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25], cutting force [4-7,9-13,20,21,23-25], tool wear and life [5,13,17,20,23,25,26] were characterized as
machinability criteria.
In this study, the effects of milling and MQL parameters on the machinability of GGG-70 ADI were considered
in detail. The process variables considered include cutting speed, feed, cooling condition, and MQL pulse rate,
each examined at three levels. The effects of the input parameters on cutting temperature and surface roughness
were investigated in detail using a Taguchi L9 orthogonal array. Variance and regression analyses were used to
investigate the effects of the input parameters on the performance criteria. Finally, the optimum values of the
input parameters were determined using multi-objective weighted optimization.

Material and Method

Material
In the milling experiments, the workpiece was GGG-70 spheroidal graphite ADI, widely used in the
automotive industry. The workpieces were manufactured as rectangular prisms with dimensions of 300x50x50
mm by sand mold casting method. The chemical composition analysis of the specimens was obtained using an
OBLF RS1000-162 model optical emission spectrometer. The chemical composition of GGG-70 is given in
Table 1. The austempering of GGG70 spheroidal graphite cast iron material aims to provide high strength,
toughness, and ductility. Rockwell C Hardness was measured using an Affri 206 RTD Hardness Tester. The
values were converted to Brinell Hardness using the ASTM E140 standard, and the hardness values in the
samples were between 252 and 300 HRB. Yield stress, tensile stress, and elongation percent are 807 MPa,
1010 MPa, and 9.2%, respectively.

Table 1: Chemical composition of DIN 1.2738 mold steel.

Elements C Si Mn Cu Mg Ni Mo Fe
Wt. (%) 3.56 2.33 0.086 0.826 0.033 0.599 0.191 Rest

Methodology
The experiments were carried out on the Agma EA-300 CNC milling machine. In all experiments, APKT-16
cutting pieces were used. The new piece was used in each experiment. The surface roughness measurements
were performed using the Mitutoyo SJ-301 digital roughness tester. The average roughness of the 3
measurements is presented in the results section. Measurements were made by ISO 4287:1997. The diamond-
tipped probe moves at a speed of 0.5 mm/s, and the cut-off length (λc) is set to 0.8 mm for the measurements.
In this study, cutting temperatures were measured using a Flir P65 thermal camera. The camera was fixed with
the help of a tripod with a distance of 70 cm from the workpiece. The maximum temperature in the region
between the cutting tool and the workpiece was used during milling. The experimental setup was given in
Figure 1.

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Figure 1: Experimental setup

Input parameters, design of experiment, and performance criteria

This study's input parameters are cutting speed (m/min), feed value (mm/rev), cutting condition, and MQL
pulse rate (pulse/sec). Each parameter has three levels, and a Taguchi L 9 experimental design was used. The
parameters and their levels are shown in Table 2. The experimental design table is given in the 3rd section with
the results. Depth of cut (1 mm), nozzle angle (45°), and nozzle distance (40 mm) were kept constant in the
experiments. The performance criteria of this study are cutting temperature and average surface roughness.

Table 2: Input parameters and their levels.

Level/Parameter Cutting condition Cutting Speed Feed (mm/rev) MQL Pulse
(m/min) rate
1 Dry 100 0.09 0.1
2 %5 wt. added - MQL 160 0.12 1
3 %10 wt. added - MQL 220 0.15 2

Statistical analysis and mathematical modeling

In this study, statistical analyses were performed regarding cutting temperature and average surface roughness.
First, variance analysis (ANOVA) was applied to the output parameters. The p-value and the contribution of
the parameters to the results were interpreted in the ANOVA table. Regression analysis obtained mathematical
models for all performance criteria. These models were used to optimize the process. The response surface
method optimized the milling and MQL parameters and cooling conditions regarding output parameters.
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Results and discussions

Experimental results
The experimental design table and the results are shown in Table 3. Considering the cooling conditions, the
lowest cutting temperature was 141°C, and the highest was 171°C in dry conditions. Using the MQL cooling
system, this range decreased to a minimum of 43°C and a maximum of 116°C. MQL (10% wt. cutting fluid
added) decreased the cutting temperature by up to 74.8% compared to dry conditions. Generally, milling
parameters are also expected to affect the temperature besides the cooling condition. However, in this study,
no appreciable effect of other parameters could be observed due to the predominant effect of the cooling
environment on the cutting temperature. The effects of all input parameters on the results and their significance
values are explained in section 3.2.

Table 3: Experimental table, and results of cutting temperature and surface roughness
Cutting Cutting Surface
Exp. Feed Cooling MQL Pulse rate
Speed Temperature Roughness
No (mm/rev) Condition (pulse/sec)
(m/min) (°C) (µm)
1 100 0.09 Dry - 141 0.22
%5 cutting oil
2 100 0.12 1 106 0.24
added-MQL
%10 cutting oil
3 100 0.15 2 106 0.28
added-MQL
%5 cutting oil
4 160 0.09 2 116 0.11
added-MQL
%10 cutting oil
5 160 0.12 0.1 43 0.18
added-MQL
6 160 0.15 Dry - 163 0.28
%10 cutting oil
7 220 0.09 1 55 0.18
added-MQL
8 220 0.12 Dry - 171 0.19
%5 cutting oil
9 220 0.15 0.1 94 0.36
added-MQL

Figure 4 graphically shows the surface roughness results for different cooling conditions and cutting
parameters. The lowest surface roughness was obtained at 160 mm/min cutting speed, 0.09 mm/rev feed value,
%5 wt. cutting fluid added-MQL, and 2 pulse/sec pulse rate. In contrast, the highest surface roughness was
obtained at 160 mm/min cutting speed, 0.15 mm/rev feed value, %5 wt. cutting fluid added-MQL, and 0.1
pulse/sec pulse rate. Similar to the literature, the surface roughness increased with increasing feed value for all
cooling conditions [31]. The lowest Ra values were 0.19 µm, 0.11 µm, and 0.18 µm in dry, 5% wt. added-
MQL, and 10% wt. added MQL conditions, respectively. The highest Ra values were 0.28 µm, 0.36 µm, and
0.28 µm, respectively.

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0,35

0,30
Surface Roughness (µm)

0,25

5% MQL
0,20

Dry condition
10% MQL

0,15
Dry condition

5% MQL

Dry condition
10% MQL
10% MQL
0,10
%5 MQL

0,05

0,00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Experiment No
Figure 4: Surface roughness results.

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

The ANOVA table for the cutting temperature is given in Table 4. The p-value of all input parameters in the
table is less than 0.05. This result shows that the input parameters significantly affect the cutting temperature.
The parameter with the highest contribution to cutting temperature was the cooling condition. The contribution
ratio of the cooling condition on the cutting temperature was calculated as 90.36%. The effect of feed value
was almost nonexistent. The effects of MQL pulse rate and cutting speed were 5.14% and 3.57%, respectively.
The ANOVA results for surface roughness are given in Table 4. The p-value of all input parameters is less than
0.05. The cooling condition, like the cutting temperature, is the most effective input parameter for surface
roughness. On the contrary, feed was the most effective parameter here. Feed, with a contribution rate of
69.87%, was the most effective parameter for average surface roughness. Cutting speed, MQL pulse rate , and
cooling condition came second, third, and fourth with 14.37%, 13.66%, and 2.10% contribution rates,
respectively.

Table 4: ANOVA table for cutting temperature.

Source SS DF P-value Cont.% Remarks
Cutting Temperature

Cutting Speed (m/min) 584.7 2 < 0.0001 3.57 Significant

Feed (mm/rev) 152.7 2 < 0.0001 0.93 Significant
Cooling Condition 14792.0 2 < 0.0001 90.36 Significant
MQL Pulse rate 840.7 < 0.0001 5.14 Significant
2
(pulse/s)
Total 16370.1 8 100.00
SS: Sum of squares, DF: Degree of freedom, P-value: Probability, Cont.%: Percentage contribution.

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Table 5: ANOVA table for surface roughness.

Source SS DF P-value Cont.% Remarks
Cutting Speed (m/min) 0.006299 2 < 0.0001 14.37 Significant
Surface Roughness

Feed (mm/rev) 0.030625 2 < 0.0001 69.87 Significant

Cutting Condition 0.000921 2 < 0.0001 2.10 Significant
MQL Pulse rate 0.005988 < 0.0001 13.66 Significant
2
(pulse/sec)
Total 0.043832 8 100.00
SS: Sum of squares, DF: Degree of freedom, P-value: Probability, Cont.%: Percentage contribution.

Mathematical models of performance criteria and optimization by Grey

Wolf Algorithm
In this study, regression analysis was performed using the experimental results. Regression analysis created a
mathematical model of each output parameter. Regression models are shown in Eqs. (1) and (2). The total
machining cost equation is given in Eq. (4). Using all models, the optimum cutting and cooling conditions
were determined using the response surface method.

Cutting temperature (°C) = −160.6 + 0.5208 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 + 2333 ∗ 𝑓 + 121.8 ∗ 𝐶1 + 26 ∗ 𝐶2 + 54.68 ∗ 𝐹𝑅 − 0.001875 ∗

𝑉𝑐 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 − 8333 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑓 − 18.39 ∗ 𝐹𝑅 ∗ 𝐹𝑅 (1)

Surface Roughness (µm) = 1.313 − 0.004634 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 − 14.53 ∗ 𝑓 − 0.02073 ∗ 𝐶1 + 0.02333 ∗ 𝐶2 − 0.005263 ∗ 𝐹𝑅 +

0.000014 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 ∗ 𝑉𝑐 + 69.44 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑓 − 0.02047 ∗ 𝐹𝑅 ∗ 𝐹𝑅 (2)

Machining Cost
The cost per hour for milling was assumed to be 30 dollars (30$/h).
𝐿 𝐿
𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 (𝑇𝑚 ) = 𝑓 = 𝑓∗𝑛∗𝑁 (3)
𝑟

L: milling length (50 mm), f: feed (mm/rev), n: number of tooth, N (rev/min): spindle speed
30$
𝑀𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 (𝐶𝑚 ) =
ℎ
∗ 𝑇𝑚 (ℎ) (4)

The optimum cutting conditions, cutting speed, feed values, and MQL pulse rate levels are 218.7 m/min, 0.114
mm/rev, %10 wt. added-MQL and 2 pulse/sec MQL pulse rate, respectively.

Conclusions
This study presents the milling performance of austempered ductile iron (GGG-70) using three different cutting
speeds, feed values, cooling conditions, and MQL pulse rates. Using the response surface method, a multi-
objective optimization was conducted to minimize the cutting temperature, surface roughness, and total
machining cost. The results obtained from the experimental study can be summarized as follows:
1) Compared to the dry cutting condition, using the MQL with 10 wt% cutting oil condition reduced the
cutting temperature by a maximum of 74.8%.
2) The milling parameters, especially feed value, are highly effective in influencing surface roughness,
with a contribution ratio of 69.8%. Conversely, the cooling condition exhibits the highest effectiveness
in influencing cutting temperature with a contribution ratio of 90.36%.
3) The presented study has shown that using cutting oil added-MQL in the milling of GGG-70 is
significantly more effective in terms of performance criteria.

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4) The optimal cutting parameters obtained using the response surface method, cutting speed, feed values,
and MQL pulse rate levels are 218.7 m/min, 0.114 mm/rev, %10 wt. added-MQL and 2 pulse/sec,
respectively.

References
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[18] Aslantas, K., Ucun, I., 2009, “The performance of ceramic and cermet cutting tools for the machining
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INTELLIGENT CNC SYSTEM FOR CHATTER SUPPRESSION IN

TURNING FOR THE MACHINING OF FLEXIBLE WORKPIECES USING
EKF AND SPINDLE SPEED VARIATION
Orkun Özşahina , and Hakan Çalışkana

a Middle East Technical University, Mechanical Engineering. Department, Ankara/TURKEY, ozsahin@metu.edu.tr

a Middle East Technical University, Mechanical Engineering. Department, Ankara/TURKEY, caliskan@metu.edu.tr

1. Introduction

Chatter is an important problem in machining operations which causes unacceptable surface finish, increased
tool wear, excessive noise and failure of tool and spindle. Thus, chatter vibrations adversely affect productivity.
These vibrations can be eliminated using stability lobe diagrams and chatter-free spindle speed and depth of
cut combinations can be obtained. To calculate the stability diagrams, process and structural dynamics should
be determined accurately. In addition to stability diagrams, chatter suppression techniques provide a further
increase in chatter stability. Delay between inner and outer modulation is the reason of the chatter and
disturbing the delay provides an efficient way of chatter suppression. However, during machining operations,
dynamics of the machine changes due to dynamic effects such as centrifugal forces and gyroscopic moments.
In addition, during machining of flexible workpieces, dynamics of the workpiece changes as the cutting tool
removes material. Cutting force coefficients might also change depending on the machining conditions and
tool wear. These deviations in the dynamics results with the variations in the tool point FRFs and predicted
stability diagrams. Therefore, unexpected chatter often occurs during machining operations and chatter
suppression technique might lose its effectiveness.
On the contrary to stability diagrams and offline approaches, real time applications provide an efficient way
for chatter suppression and eliminates the uncertainties in the chatter stability. In real time intelligent systems,
detection of chatter is the first step. In classical chatter tests, chatter can be detected using FFT (Fast Fourier
Transform) of the sensor data which is often a microphone or an accelerometer. However, in real time
applications, FFT does not satisfy the reaction time of the system and become relatively slow to detect the
onset of chatter. Therefore, rather than frequency domain solutions, frequency-time domain methods and
Kalman filter approaches are developed in the literature. Then, second step of the intelligent systems is the
disturbing the chatter. In that stage, spindle speed variation can be applied by the CNC. Main advantage of
SSV is that it does not require additional equipment and it can be easily applied by the CNC.
In this study, an intelligent CNC system is developed for the turning operations of flexible workpieces (Figure
8). For the controller, Beckhoff PC and Beckhoff Analog input module is integrated into CNC turning machine
as shown in Figure 11. Developed chatter detection algorithm and SSV algorithms are implemented in
Beckhoff PC. Developed intelligent systems can detect chatter in real time and sends SSV parameters to CNC
controller. Thus, chatter can detected and suppressed in real time without causing any damage or surface defect
on the workpiece.

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Figure 8 Turning operations of flexible workpiece

2. Proposed Algorithm

The proposed algorithm is given in Figure 9.. The acceleration measurements is made by Beckhoff Analog
input module. In a stable process since the cutting force is not constant a dominant harmonic signal is not
expected, however, once chatter starts the vibrations are dominated with a single chatter frequency. In order
to increase the accuracy of the frequency estimation, the desired frequency range f interest is divided into finite
number of regions, and for each region a band pass filter is utilized. For example. If it is desired to detect
chatter frequencies up to 2kHz.4 band pass filters are utilized each having a 500Hz band width. Each BPF
output is supplied through an Extended Kalman Filter (EKF). EKF calculates the dominant frequency in each
band.

Together with the frequency, the amplitudes and phases of the harmonics are also estimated. The decision for
selecting the chatter signal is a challenging task. Although the chatter signal has the highest amplitude, it is
observed that the amplitudes are highly varying quantities. Therefore, a novel indicator is utilized which is the
frequency estimation variance. No extra calculation is required for the variance, since it is inherently available
in the EKF. The finite state machine selects the chatter frequency and determines the SSV enable. Once SSV
is on, offline calculated SSV parameters are set. The real-time analysis is done in the Beckhoff PC and the
communication with the CNC interface is done with EtherCAT master. The EKF algorithm reads the current
spindle speed and outputs the override command to the CNC controller.

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Figure 9 The Schematic View of the Proposed Algorithm.

3. Test Setup

Developed systems is applied on a CNC lathe manufactured by SMB technics (Figure 10) . Integrated Beckhoff
PC and Beckhoff Analog input module are also shown in Figure 11. For the chatter detection purpose, a
microphone is located inside the machine and microphone data is collected via the input module. Once the
chatter is detected by EKF, SSV parameters are sent to CNC by spindle speed overwrite.

Figure 10 SMB Technics TT350 CNC

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Figure 11 Integrated Bckhoff PC and Siemens system.

4. Results

Developed system is applied during the machining of 28 mm diameter workpiece made of 1050 steel.
Workpiece is clamped to chuck and supported by tailstock. For a classical machining operation at 2000 rpm
spindle speed, machined surface is shown in Figure 12. As seen from Figure 12, turning operation first starts
with a stable region. As the cutting tool moves in the feed direction, flexibility of the workpiece increases and
chatter starts at the critical location.

Figure 12 Workpiece surface with chatter.

The performance of the EKF is tested with varying spindle speed. Figure 16-a shows the raw acceleration data,
with 2000 ± 200𝑟𝑝𝑚 spindle speed. It is seen that the acceleration amplitudes tens to increase at 20s
corresponding to chatter onset. Figure 6-b is the estimated frequencies of each band. It is seen that once the
chatter starts the 2nd and 3rd estimates gets closer to each other. This is an expected behavior, since the chatter
has effects on the neighboring filter outputs. The chatter onset is clearly detected from the frequency variance
shown in Figure 6-c, at the chatter onset, the variance of the estimation decreases, this means that the EKF
estimates the frequency with a higher accuracy. The other important property of the variance is seen when the
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operation turns to stable. Since there exists no dominant chatter frequency, the estimation variance again
increases at time 35 second. This property enables frequency variance to be a robust indicator to decide SSV
ON and OFF times.
Figure 6-d is the detailed view of the frequency estimates, it is seen that chattering frequencies are varying
with the spindle speed.

Figure 13 The Performance Evaluation of EKF for Real Time Open Loop SSV control

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OTOMATİK FİBER SERME YÖNTEMİ İLE ÜRETİLEN EPOKSİ

REÇİNELİ KARBON FİBER KOMPOZİT MALZEMENİN VAKUM
SİSTEMLİ CNC İŞ MERKEZİNDE KESME PARAMETRELERİNİN
İNCELENMESİ
Elvan Ateş1,2, Hakan Zafer Kızılkaya1,2, Mustafa Olgun1,3, Bahadır Canbazlar1, Abdulmecit Güldaş 2
1
TUSAŞ- Türk Havacılık ve Uzay Sanayii A.Ş., Ankara/ TÜRKİYE
2
Gazi Üniversitesi, Teknoloji Fakültesi, İmalat Mühendisliği Bölümü, Ankara/Türkiye
3
Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Makine Mühendisliği Anabilim Dalı, İstanbul/Türkiye

Öz: Kompozitler, farklı malzemelerin birleşimi ile yüksek mukavemet ve düşük yoğunluk elde etmek amacıyla
üretilen yapısal malzemelerdir. Bu malzemeler, hafiflik ve yüksek mukavemetin yanı sıra, dayanıklılık ve
termal mukavemet gibi avantajlar da sunmaktadır. Geleneksel monolitik metaller, yüksek teknoloji taleplerini
karşılamakta zorlandığı için, havacılık gibi alanlarda karbon/epoksi (K/F) kompozitler, alüminyum ve
titanyum alaşımlara göre daha fazla tercih edilmektedir. Bu tür malzemelerin üretim yöntemleri, malzemenin
mekanik özelliklerini etkileyen önemli faktörlerdir. Geleneksel el ile serim yöntemine nazaran otomatik fiber
serme (OFS) yöntemi, optimal serim açıları sağlayarak kompozitlerin performansını arttırmaktadır. Üretilen
parçanın net profil kesimi ve delik delme işlemleri, malzemenin mukavemetsel özelliklerine göre optimize
edilmiş kesme parametreler gerektirmektedir. Kesici takım seçimi ve kesme şartları, yüzey kalitesi ve malzeme
aşınmasını doğrudan etkilemektedir. Bu çalışmada, OFS tezgahında optimum şartlarda serimi tamamlanmış
K/F malzemesinin kesme parametreleri, vakum destekli iş merkezinde titreşim analizi ile belirlenmiştir.
Belirlenen kesme parametreleri ile farklı test plakaları üretilmiş, yüzey kaliteleri ve çalışma performansları
optik mikroskop ile incelenmiştir. İncelemeler neticesinde, iş mili devrinin yüksek, ilerlemenin düşük, eksenel
paso miktarının tam kesim yerine kademeli şekilde kesilmesi sonuçları elde edilmiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: KF/Epoksi, frezeleme, optik mikroskop.

INVESTIGATION OF CUTTING PARAMETERS OF EPOXY-RESIN CARBON FIBER

COMPOSITE MATERIAL MANUFACTURED BY AUTOMATIC FIBER LAYING
METHOD IN VACUUM SYSTEM CNC MACHINING CENTER
Abstract: Composites are structural materials manufactured by combining different materials to achieve high
strength and low density. In addition to light weight and high strength, these materials also offer advantages
such as durability and thermal resistance. As traditional monolithic metals are challenged to satisfy high-tech
demands, carbon/epoxy (C/F) composites are preferred over aluminum and titanium alloys in areas such as
aerospace. The manufacturing methods of such materials are important factors affecting the mechanical
properties of the material. Compared to the traditional manual lay-up method, the automatic fiber lay-up (AFP)
method improves the performance of composites by providing optimal lay-up angles. Net profile cutting and
hole drilling of the manufactured part require optimized cutting parameters according to the strength properties
of the material. Cutting tool selection and cutting conditions directly affect surface quality and material wear.
In this study, the cutting parameters of the C/F material, which was laid under optimum conditions on the AFP
machine, were determined by vibration analysis in a vacuum assisted machining center. Different test plates
were produced with the determined cutting parameters and their surface quality and machining performance
were examined with an optical microscope. As a result of the analysis, high spindle speed, low feed rate and
gradual cutting of the axial depth of cut instead of full cutting were obtained.

Keywords: CF/Epoxy, milling, optical microscopy.

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1 Giriş

Kompozit malzeme; aynı veya farklı gruptan iki ya da daha fazla malzemenin, üstün özelliklerini tek bir
malzemede toplamak amacıyla, makro düzeyde (birbiri içerisinde çözünmeyecek şekilde) birleştirilmesiyle
oluşturulan malzemedir [1].

Kompozit malzemeler, artan mukavemet, sertlik, hafiflik, gelişmiş dayanıklılık ve tasarım esnekliği gibi
avantajlı yönleri ile gelişmiş mühendislik malzemeleri olarak sınıflandırılmaktadır. Günümüzde kullanılan
monolitik metaller ve alaşımları, ileri teknoloji isterlerini karşılamakta zorlanmaktadır. İstenilen yüksek
performans değerleri, monolitik metaller yerine birkaç malzemenin birleşmesiyle karşılanabilmektedir. Bu
duruma en iyi örnek uydularda kullanılan kafes kirişleridir. Uzayda -160°C ile 94°C dereceler arasında, stabil
genleşmenin sabit olması istenmektedir, ancak geleneksel mühendislik malzemeleri ile bu isterlerin sağlanması
imkansızdır. Termal genleşme katsayısı problemi ve yüksek gerilim mukavemet sebebi ile, monolitik metaller
yerine, daha verimli bir mühendislik malzemesi olan grafit/epoksi (GF/Epoksi) veya karbon/epoksi
(KF/Epoksi) malzemeleri kullanılmaktadır [2,3]. Yüksek mekanik ve termal özelliklerinin yanı sıra, kompozit
malzemelerin üretim basamaklarının zor ve maliyetli olması, hammadde/gram fiyatının yüksek olması, isteğe
bağlı yüzey kalitesinin zor elde edilmesi ve işlenmesinin zor olması; kompozit malzemelerin araştırılması,
geliştirilmesi ve uygulamaları için sorunlar olarak önümüze çıkmaktadır [4]. Gelişmiş kompozit malzemeler,
genellikle havacılık yapısallarında kullanılan, yüksek performans isterlerini karşılamak amacı ile farklı fiber
ve matrislerden oluşan malzeme türleridir. Halatlar ve kablolar hariç, karbon veya cam liflerin kendi başlarına
kullanımı sınırlıdır. Bu nedenle elyaflar matrislere takviye olarak kullanılır. Matris fonksiyonları, fiberleri
birbirine bağlamayı, fiberleri çevresel hasarlardan korumayı ve yükü fiberlere dağıtmayı içerir. Her ne kadar
matrisler genellikle fiberlere kıyasla düşük mekanik özelliklere sahip olsalar da kompozitin birçok mekanik
özelliğini etkilemektedir. Bu özellikler arasında kesme modülü, basınç mukavemeti, tabakalar arası kayma
mukavemeti, termal genleşme katsayısı, termal direnç ve yorulma mukavemeti bulunmaktadır [5].
Kompozitlerin mekanik performanslarını sadece fiberler ve matrisler belirlememektedir. Lif yüzeyi ile matris
arasında oluşan kimyasal bağlarda kritik etki eden parametreler olarak tanımlanmaktadır.

Malzeme seçiminin yanı sıra, istenilen geometri ve toleranslarda üretim kapasitesi, üretim yöntemi ile paralel
olarak değişmektedir. El ile serim yöntemi veya püskürtme gibi üretim yöntemleri, formlu geometriler için
uygun olsa dahi, seri üretim için uygun olmayan kompozit üretim yöntemidir. Bu tarz malzemelerin işlenmesi
esnasında oluşan yüksek işleme sıcaklıkları hem karbon fiberin hem de reçinenin yapısını bozmakta, yüzey
kalitesini etkilemektedir.

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Şekil 1: Otomatik fiber serim mekanizması.

Otomatik Fiber Serme (OFS) yöntemi fiberlerin yönelmeli olarak çeşitli üretim sınırlamaları ile serildiği
yenilikçi bir fiber takviyeli kompozit üretim yöntemi olarak kullanılmaktadır. Bu yöntem fiber açılarının bir
lamina katmanında değiştirilerek serilmesine izin vererek, sabit rijitlikte kompozitlerde olduğu gibi istiflenme
dizilimlerinin belirlenmesine ilave olarak bir esneklik sağlamakta ve sabit rijitlikteki yapılara göre daha iyi
performans veren optimum çözümlere olanak sağlamaktadır [6].

OFS ile üretilen kompozit malzemelerde serim açıları daha optimum olmakla birlikte, frezelemede karşılaşılan
esnek serim açı sorunlarına da çözüm sağlamaktadır. Kompozitlerde serim yönünde oluşan hatalar,
frezelemede delaminasyon riskini arttırmaktadır. Lif yönleri ve oluşan kombinasyona bağlı olarak kullanılan
kesici takımda, bağlama aparatlarında değişikliğe gidilebilir. Liflerin yönü, kesim yüzeyindeki pürüzlülüğü
doğrudan etkilemektedir. Lif yönü ile paralel kesim yapmak daha kaliteli bir yüzey elde ettirmektedir. Paralel
olmayan kesimlerde, kesici takım aşınma hızı artmaktadır. Aşınma hızına bağlı olarak, kesim sırasında oluşan
ısı hem lifin hem de reçinenin kimyasal özelliklerini etkilemektedir [7].

Yapısal parçalarda malzeme seçimi ve kompozit üretim yöntemlerinin yanı sıra, istenen nihai geometri için,
dar tolerans değerleri ile birlikte kesim işlemleri incelenmesi ve optimize edilmesi gerekilen bir diğer alandır.
Kesim işlemlerinde kullanılan kesme parametreleri, verimliliği ve malzeme kalitesini doğrudan etkilemektedir.
Yüksek kesme hızı, düşük ilerleme ve yağlama ile soğutma, kompozit malzeme kesimlerinde vazgeçilmez
kesme parametreleridir. Bunun yanı sıra, kesme derinliği ilgili liflerin serim yönüne bağlı, optimize
edilmektedir [8].

2 Amaç

Karbon fiber, havacılık yapısal parçalarının %50’sinden fazlasında kullanılmakta olup, genel itibariyle
termoset reçineler ile birlikte bağ kurmaktadır [9]. Burada önem arz eden kritik nokta, kullanılan termoset
reçinenin tipi, fiber katmanlarının serim yönü ve malzeme üretim yöntemidir. Epoksi tipi termoset reçine,
kompozit yapısal parçalarında %60’ın üzerinde kullanım oranına sahiptir. Yüksek sıcaklıklara dayanıklılığı,
düşük büzülme oranı, kürlenme sırasında oluşan zararlı gazların az miktarda olması, çeşitli yollarla polimerize
edilişi, uzun vadede ultraviyole ışınıma karşı gösterdiği direnç, yoğunluğunun düşük olması ve çekme

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mukavemet değerlerinin yüksek olması kullanım oranının yüksek oranlarda olmasının başlıca sebeplerinden
bazılarıdır [10].

Üretilen kompozit parçaların, net geometriye getirilmesi ancak bir alt işleme takımının yardımıyla veya vakum
aparatlı dik işleme tezgâhları ile gerçekleşmektedir. Alt işleme takımı ve detay üretimi, yine oldukça maliyetli
olduğundan dolayı vakum aparatlı dik işleme tezgâhları bir devrim niteliği taşımaktadır. Bu tezgâhta, farklı
formlarda üretilen parçalar, aparatlar yardımı ile parça formunu vakumlar ve işlemenin gerçekleşmesini
sağlamaktadır. Kompozit malzemelerin işlenmesi; fiber tipi, reçine tipi, serim yönü ve kalınlık gibi özellikleri
ile değişim göstermektedir. Ancak, kritik olan en büyük konu kesici takım tipinin belirlenmesi ve kesme
parametrelerinin optimize edilmesi esasına dayanmaktadır [11].

Bu çalışmanın amacı, havacılık endüstrisinin en sık kullanım oranına sahip malzemesi olan KF/Epoksi’nin,
vakum aparatlı dik işleme merkezinde; frezeleme yöntemi ile net profil kesimi için iş mili devri ve eksenel
paso miktarı olan kesme parametrelerini, tezgâh titreşim analizi kullanarak optimize etmektir. Titreşim analizi
ile elde edilen farklı kesme parametreleri kullanılarak frezeleme işlemi tamamlanan net profillerde oluşan
delaminasyon tipleri, optik mikroskop ile incelenecek ve yorumlanacaktır.

3 Kapsam

Termoset reçineli karbon fiber malzemenin frezelenmesi, malzemenin karmaşık yapısı, tasarımdan gelen form
değişimi ve üretime bağlı tolerans değerlerine bağlı olarak farklı metotlar ile yapılmaktadır. Sert mukavemet
yapısına sahip olan kompozit malzemeler için genellikle karbür veya seramik kesici takımlar tercih
edilmektedir. Kesici takım malzemesinin yanı sıra, kesici takım geometrisi açığa çıkan ısıyı ve kuvveti
sönümlemede kritik bir diğer parametredir. Genellikle, yüksek iş mili devri ve düşük ilerleme ile kesimi
yapılan kompozit malzemelerde, kesim esnasında delaminasyonu önlemek için kesim yönü de dikkate
alınmaktadır. Bu çalışmada, polikristal elmas (PCD) kesici takıma çekiç testi yapılarak, optimize edilmiş
kesme parametreleri, vakumlu dik işleme merkezinde test edilecek; elde edilen yüzey pürüzlülüğü ve takım
aşınması incelenecektir.

4 Yöntem

Kapsam kısmında özellikleri belirtilen KF/Epoksi malzeme kullanılarak OFS tezgahında 4 ayrı test yöntemi
için 4 ayrı test plaka serimi yapılacaktır. Çalışmada Fives-Group firmasına ait CINCINNATI VIPER makinesi
kullanılacaktır. Bu makine, 7 ana eksen (X, Y, Z, I, J, K, C) ve 3 yardımcı eksen (fiber besleme, fiber tutma,
fiber kesme) olmak üzere toplamda 10 eksene sahiptir. Bu tezgâh her biri 1/8 inç genişliğinde olan 12 adet
fiber serebilmektedir. Serim kapsamında Hexcel firmasına ait “KF/Epoksi” kullanılacaktır. Kullanılan
malzeme kalınlığı her bir reçine emdirilmiş serim katmanı için 0.13 mm’dir. Birinci serim 8 katman 0° serim
yönünde olmak üzere 5 serim, 40 katmanlı 0°, 90°, 180°, 270° ve 360° açıları ile serim yapılacaktır.

Fiber serme kafa kısmında bulunan ısıtıcılar tarafından sıcak hava üflenmesi ile fiberlerin serim için uygun
sıcaklığa ve yapışkanlığa gelmesi sağlanır. Sonrasında ise serim kafasında bulunan silindir (roller) yardımı ile
fiberler üzerine gerekli basınç sağlanarak fiberlerin serim takımı üzerine yapışması sağlanmaktadır. Çekici adı
verilen (tow) kesici bölümü gelen fiberleri uygun mesafede keserek uygun serim işleminin gerçekleşmesine
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olanak sağlamaktadır. Serim yapılan plakalar otoklav istasyonunda 300 bar basınç ve 60° sıcaklıkta 6 saat
boyunca kür edilmekte ve kompozit parça haline bu aşamada gelmektedir.

Kompozit parçaların kesim işlemini Belotti firmasına ait MDL12036 model vakum sistemli dik işleme merkezi
kullanılacaktır. Bu işleme merkezinde parça kenarlarının kesilmesi işlemleri için Su Jeti ve kenar kesim, delik
delme, yuva açma gibi işlemler için iş mili bulunmaktadır. Bu çalışmada yuva kesim ve parça kenar kesim
çalışmaları yapılacaktır. Kesim işlemleri için Kennametal firmasına ait Ø10 mm kesici takım kullanılacaktır.
Bu takımın tezgâha uygun devir ve kesme hızı parametrelerini bulmak için çekiç testi yapılacaktır. Kesim
işlemlerinden alınan numuneler yüzey ve kesim toleransları yapılması için “Elektron mikroskobu” sistemi
kullanılacaktır. Burada numuneler hakkında kesit ve kenar bölgeleri detaylı olarak görüntülenerek analiz
edilecektir.

5 Bulgular

Yöntem kısmında belirtildiği üzere, CINCINNATI VIPER makinesinde 40 Katman; 0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, 360°
derece yönlerinde serilmiş ve otoklav istasyonunda 300 bar basınç ve 60° sıcaklıkta 6 saat boyunca kür edilerek
kompozit iş parçası üretilmiştir. Üretilen iş parçası, Belotti firmasına ait MDL12036 model vakumlu diş işleme
merkezinin freze başlığı kullanılarak, çekiç testinde tespit edilen 3 grup parametre ile her bir parametreyi 3
kere deneyecek şekilde 9 defa kesilmiştir.

Titreşim testi Belotti firmasına ait MDL12036 iş merkezinin freze başlığına bağlı,Tablo 1’de özellikleri verilen
10 mm çapında Kennametal firmasına ait balık sırtı geometriye sahip kesici takımla yapılmıştır. Tablo 1’de
değerleri verilen takıma X ve Y yönlerinde çekiç testi uygulanarak frekans cevap fonksiyonları elde edilmiş
ve buna göre iş mili devri, ilerleme ve eksenel kesme derinliği parametreleri optimize edilmiştir.

Çekiç testine ait kararlılık diyagramları, ilgili tezgâhın statik titreşimleri elde edilerek incelenmiştir. Titreşim
analizi sonucunda, kesici takıma ait iş mili devri ve eksenel kesme derinliği optimize edilmiştir (Tablo 2).
Optimize edilmiş kesme parametreleri kullanılarak, kesim işlemleri tamamlanan numuneler optik mikroskop
ile incelenmiş ve yorumlanmıştır.

Tablo 1. Kennametal marka kullanılan kesici takım bilgileri.

Parametreler Geometrik değerler

Kesici takım çapı 10 mm
Kesici takım tutucudan çıkan boyu 43 mm
Kesici takım kesme boyu 30 mm
Kesici takım ağız sayısı 4

Tablo 2’de verilen kesme parametreleri ile, Belotti firmasına ait MDL12036 vakumlu dik işleme merkezinde,
üretilen kompozit iş parçası (Şekil 2), 9 defa kesime tabii tutulmuş ve kesilen yüzeyler işaretlenmiştir. Kesme
deneyi sonrasında, işaretlenen yüzeyler optik mikroskop altında, 2 mm yakınlık altında delaminasyon durumu,

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katman ayrılması ve reçine yanması gibi deformasyon özelliklerine göre incelenmiştir. 9 kesme deneyine ait
optik mikroskop görüntüleri bulgular kısmında gösterilmiştir.

Tablo 2. Titreşim testi sonucunda elde edilen kesme parametreleri.

Parametreler Deney 1 Deney 2 Deney 3

İş mili devri 7465 rpm 10600 rpm 3800 rpm
İlerleme oranı 746.5 mmpm 1059.4 mmpm 372.2 mmpm
Kesme derinliği 4.9192 mm 0.5928 mm 2.7419 mm

Titreşim testinde, çekiç ve ivmeölçer ile birlikte, ilgili tezgah iş milinin statik titreşimi ölçülmüştür. Statik
titreşim girdileri, CutPro® yazılımı aracılığı ile cevap fonskiyon olarak, kesme parametrelerini içeren bir grafik
verisi oluşturmaktadır. Grafik verisinde, iş mili devrinin ilgili kuvvetlere göre maksimum frekans değerleri
saptanabilmektedir. Ancak, deney girdileri ve ilgili titreşim verileri, ortam şartlarının optimum olması nedeni
ile %5 olarak değişkenlik göstermektedir.

Şekil 2: OFS ile üretilen çok yönlü kompozit lamine (0°, 90°, 180°, 270°, 360°) ve 3 farklı optimize edilmiş
kesme parametreleri ile frezeleme işlemi tamamlanmış numune görüntüsü.

OFS ile üretimi gerçekleştirilen kompozit malzeme, iş merkezinde vakum aparatları ile birlikte; 3 değişken
verili olacak ve her bir veri en az 3 kez test edilecek şekilde kesilmiştir. Kesme parametre optimizasyonu
sonuçları:

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Şekil 3: Deney 1 çıktılarına ait ilgili optimizasyon grafiği.

İlk deney setinde kullanılan 7485 rpm iş mili devri, 746.5 mmpm ilerleme oranı ve 4.9192 mm eksenel paso
miktarı ile tam slot kesim işlemi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu deneyde, ilgili titreşim verilerinin maksimum optimize
edildiği eksenel kesme pasosunu kullanmak hedeflenmiştir. 3 tekrar sonucunda elde edilen net profil
görüntüleri, optik mikroskop ile incelenmiş ve ilgili görseller şekil 4’te belirtilmiştir.

Şekil 4: 7485 rpm, 746.5 mmpm, 4.9192 mm eksenel paso kesme parametreleri ile frezeleme işlemi
tamamlanmış numunelerin optik mikroskop görüntüleri.

İlgili kesim deneyi, iş milinin hem X, hem de Y yönünde stabil hareket ile kesim yapabileceği şekilde, numerik
kontrol program hazırlanarak gerçekleştirilmiştir. İkinci deney setinde kullanılan 10600 rpm iş mili devri,
746.5 mmpm ilerleme oranı ve 4.9192 mm eksenel paso miktarı ile düşük seviyeli slot kesim işlemi
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu deneyde, ilgili titreşim verilerinin maksimum optimize edildiği iş mili devrini
kullanmak hedeflenmiştir. 3 tekrar sonucunda elde edilen net profil görüntüleri, optik mikroskop ile incelenmiş
ve ilgili görseller şekil 6’da belirtilmiştir.

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Şekil 5: Deney 2 çıktılarına ait ilgili optimizasyon grafiği.

Şekil 6: 10060 rpm, 746.5 mmpm, 4.9192 mm eksenel paso kesme parametreleri ile frezeleme işlemi
tamamlanmış numunelerin optik mikroskop görüntüleri.

Son deney setinde kullanılan 3800 rpm iş mili devri, 372.2 mmpm ilerleme oranı ve 2.7419 mm eksenel paso
miktarı ile yarı seviyeli slot kesim işlemi gerçekleştirilmiştir. Bu deneyde, ilgili titreşim verilerinin minimize
edildiği iş mili devrini kullanmak hedeflenmiştir. 3 tekrar sonucunda elde edilen net profil görüntüleri, optik
mikroskop ile incelenmiş ve ilgili görseller şekil 8’de belirtilmiştir.

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Şekil 7: Deney 3 çıktılarına ait ilgili optimizasyon grafiği.

Şekil 8: 3800 rpm, 372.2 mmpm, 2.7419 mm eksenel paso kesme parametreleri ile frezeleme işlemi
tamamlanmış numunelerin optik mikroskop görüntüleri.

6 Sonuç

Şekil 4, 6 ve 8’de verilen görsellerde, titreşim testiyle optimize edilmiş parametrelere göre frezelenmiş
numunelerin optik mikroskop altındaki görüntüleri verilmiştir. Şekil 4’te 7465 rpm iş mili devri ve 746.5
mmpm ilerleme oranında 4.91 mm eksenel paso miktarında yapılan kesime ait optik mikroskop görüntüleri
bulunmaktadır. Şekil 6’da 10060 rpm iş mili devri ve 1059.4 mmpm ilerleme oranında 0.59 mm eksenel paso
miktarında yapılan kesime ait optik mikroskop görüntüleri ve son olarak Şekil 8’de 3800 rpm iş mili devri ve
372 mmpm ilerleme oranında 2.74 mm eksenel paso miktarında yapılan kesime ait optik mikroskop görüntüleri
bulunmaktadır. Bütün kesimlerin 3 defa tekrarlanarak incelendiği optik mikroskop görüntülerine göre eksenel
paso miktarının artması doğrudan yüzey karakteristiklerine etki etmiştir. En yüksek eksenel pasonun olduğu
Şekil 3’teki görüntülerde yüzeyde yanma ve katman ayrılmaları görülebilmekteyken, Şekil 5’deki en düşük
eksenel paso seçiminde yanma ve katman ayrılmaları daha az görülmektedir. Şekil 7’de kullanılan
parametrelerin oluşturduğu yanma ve katman ayrılmaları da yine Şekil 3’teki parametrelere göre daha iyi
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durumdadır. Ayrıca, yüksek eksenel kesme derinliği; iş parçası üzerinde kesici takımın temas yayının artmasına
sebep olmakta, bu temas ile birlikte iş parçası üzerine daha fazla kuvvet etki etmektedir. İlgili kuvvetler, net
profilde, kesim yönüne dik fiber oryantasyonlarında kopmalara sebep olmaktadır. Bu delaminasyonlara, daha
düşük seviyeli eksenel paso miktarlarında daha az rastlanmaktadır. Aynı kesme hızına eşitlenen 3 farklı kesme
parametrelerine sahip 3 deney setinde, net profildeki delaminasyonların üzerinde en etkili kesim
parametresinin eksenel paso miktarı olduğu kanısına varılmıştır. Kesme parametre değişimlerinin yüzey
yapısındaki delaminasyonları etkilediği ortaya konulduğu bu çalışmada, kalite ve maliyet isterlerine göre
parametrelerin optimize edilebileceği gösterilmiştir.

7 Kaynakça

[1] Chawla, K. (1989). Composite materials science and engineering. Composites, 20(3),
286. https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-4361(89)90346-7
[2] Xu, Y., & Van Hoa, S. (2008). Mechanical properties of carbon fiber reinforced epoxy/clay
nanocomposites. Composites Science and Technology, 68(3–4), 854–861.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2007.08.013
[3] Zhou, Y., Pervin, F., Jeelani, S., & Mallick, P. (2008). Improvement in mechanical properties of carbon
fabric–epoxy composite using carbon nanofibers. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 198(1–3),
445–453. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2007.07.028
[4] Curtis, P., Browne, M. (1994). Cost-effective high-performance composites. Composites, 25(4), 273–280.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0010-4361(94)90219-4
[5] Doan, T., Gao, S., & Mäder, E. (2006). Jute/polypropylene composites I. Effect of matrix modification.
Composites Science and Technology, 66(7–8), 952–963.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.compscitech.2005.08.009
[6] Janssen, H., Peters, T., & Brecher, C. (2017). Efficient production of tailored structural thermoplastic
composite parts by combining tape placement and 3D printing. Procedia CIRP, 66, 91–95.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2017.02.022
[7] Kumar, A. L., & Prakash, M. (2021). The effect of fiber orientation on mechanical properties and
machinability of GFRP composites by end milling using cutting force analysis. Polymers and Polymer
Composites, 29, S178–S187. https://doi.org/10.1177/0967391121991289
[8] Al, K. D. E. a. K. D. E. (2018). Influence of fiber orientation on the properties of composites. International
Journal of Mechanical and Production Engineering Research and Development, 8(1), 487–494.
https://doi.org/10.24247/ijmperdfeb201854
[9] Soutis, C. (2005). Carbon fiber reinforced plastics in aircraft construction. Materials Science and
Engineering. A, Structural Materials: Properties, Microstructures and Processing, 412(1–2), 171–176.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.msea.2005.08.064
[10] Rahman, M. M., & Islam, M. A. (2021). Application of epoxy resins in building materials: progress and
prospects. Polymer Bulletin, 79(3), 1949–1975. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00289-021-03577-1
[11] Rusinek, R. (2010). Cutting process of composite materials: An experimental study. International Journal
of Non-Linear Mechanics, 45(4), 458–462. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijnonlinmec.2010.01.004

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DATA USAGE IN THE INTERNET OF PRODUCTION:

DEVELOPMENT OF A PROCESS DATABASE FOR DATA-DRIVEN
MODELING
Christian Brechera, Vincent Lohrmanna, Paul Weilera, Martin Krömera, and Marcel Feya

a, Laboratory for Machine Tools and Production Engineering WZL of RWTH Aachen University, Aachen/GERMANY,
{c.brecher, v.lohrmann, p.weiler, m.kroemer, m.fey}@wzl.rwth-aachen.de

Abstract
In modern production plants, the data generated during production, is essential for optimizing products and
processes. Modern machine tools have numerous sensors capturing data at high sampling rates, resulting in
vast amounts of data. Storing this data is challenging due to hardware and software limitations, and creating
meaningful models to analyze it is a central issue. This challenge is evident in the “Internet of Production
(IoP)”, which aims to collect and use data from various sources across the value chain. This paper presents a
novel approach for storing and processing raw production data in an aggregated state in a central database. The
method enables the identification of data similarities and the derivation of new models from production data,
enhancing the understanding of complex relationships. The approach is demonstrated using cutting machine
tools as an example.
Keywords: Internet of Production, Machine Tools, Data-Driven Manufacturing

Introduction
To ensure the efficient use of production resources and maintain industry competitiveness in changing market
conditions, leveraging relevant data is crucial. Despite efforts in "digitalization" and "Industry 4.0,"
comprehensive data usage remains limited due to issues of inaccessibility, lack of interpretability, and
incompleteness. Data sharing between organizations is further hindered by security concerns and the fear of
losing core knowledge [1]. Additionally, data often lacks conceptual descriptions and relationships, making it
unusable. The Cluster of Excellence “Internet of Production (IoP)” aims to address these challenges by
connecting production sites and collecting and utilizing data from various sources throughout the value
chain [2]. Against this background, an approach based on the results from [3] is being developed for storing
production data and for automatically segmenting and thus contextualizing this data. Exemplary applications
of models for productivity optimization and predictive maintenance are presented for this approach. The focus
is on creating seamless connectivity within the IoP framework to enable data-driven model development and
improve data exchange between entities. Through contextualization and modeling, data can be significantly
condensed so that business-critical information can be omitted when sharing data.

State of the art

Database to store process data
Data is generated along the digital process chain from the design of a part, through manufacturing, all the way
to the point where it leaves the factory [4]. The relevant data sources include both a machine tool and external
sensors. To access data from machine tools standardized and proprietary protocols are available. Open Platform
Communications Unified Architecture (OPC UA) is the most widely used standarized protocol in the industry
to access data from a machine tool [5]. The acquired process data can be categorized into time series data and
event data depending on their recording interval [4]. In a technical environment, time series data describes a
discrete recording of a time-based signal. The temporal character of a time series is created by the ordered
sequence of data points, which are distributed equidistantly. A time-synchronous recording of several time

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series is referred to as a multidimensional time series [6]. Events characterize signals that are recorded
irregularly when a defined condition is reached.
Databases are used to persist the collected data. Traditionally the most common database type is the relational
database, which has tables with defined columns used to store data and model complex data by referencing
data in other tables. To enable flexible storage, most relational databases support the usage of JSON columns,
which allow any JSON serializable value to be stored [7]. Time series data allows for optimizations in data
compression and indexing, which resulted in the development of time series databases [8,9].

Data-driven models in context of production engineering

Raw data in production technology is highly abstract and requires preparation and contextualization to be
interpretable. In this context, the concept of Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) defines a framework
for efficient knowledge exploration in large data sets [8,10]. In the following, the process of KDD is explained
by focusing on production data.
Data preparation aims to ensure the completeness and cohesiveness of raw data for subsequent processing
steps [4]. This process includes data synchronization and data imputation. Data synchronization involves
integrating various data sources into a consistent dataset, which can be achieved using centralized system time
or the cross-correlation of ubiquitous signal characteristics [11,12]. To ensure dataset completeness, data
imputation methods are employed. Techniques like Expectation Maximization use probability distributions to
predict missing data, while other approaches may exclude sections with data gaps entirely [13]. The transition
from data preparation to subsequent data contextualization is finalized by converting the data into a defined
format. In the field of production technology, data contextualization includes data enrichment with higher-
level system information (metadata), semantic data segmentation, and data refinement using engineering
models [4]. Semantic segmentation of data refers to the automated division of time-series data into coherent,
homogeneous segments [14]. This segmentation follows the idea that transitions in system states manifest as
changes in values or patterns in the data. Numerous algorithms from the field of data mining exist to segment
time-series data, for example, using changes in statistical features (change point detection) [15] or recurring
patterns.To gain deeper insights into processes, data in production technology is refined using engineering
models. The modeling approaches are categorized into white-box and black-box models. White-box
approaches consider interactions between system components and require knowledge of system behavior [16].
For example, the friction torque of a feed axis can be calculated using an extended Lund-Grenoble model based
on motor current and feed speed [17]. In contrast, black-box approaches use statistical methods to represent
system behavior in a data-driven manner without requiring knowledge of system interactions. Thus, complex
system behaviors, such as quality prediction in metal-forming processes, can be efficiently modeled using
artificial neural networks [18]. The data preparation and contextualization culminate in the provision of
dedicated datasets that enable knowledge exploration through a high degree of informational content.
Knowledge exploration involves gaining insights through the analysis and interpretation of patterns or causal
relationships within a dataset [10]. By contextualizing the data, identified patterns can be linked with system
states, revealing interactions between system components and initiating the development of new models. Data-
driven approaches derive models based on the provided training data. Therefore, the predictive accuracy of
data-driven models depends on the quality of the training data, underscoring the critical role of providing
dedicated datasets [19].

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General Approach
The approach presented in this paper (Figure 14) is a framework for acquiring data from machines, storing it
in a database, automatically generating context information and models for this data through data processing,
and finally sharing it through visualization and using it in production applications.

Figure 14 – General Approach

Data acquisition
In the domain of production, a basic distinction can be made between two types of data when recording
machine data: Event data (events) and continuous time series data (measurements). While events are discrete
events that are characterized by the change of a status (e.g. machine door being opened) and only occur when
the status changes, measurements are continuously measurable variables that are provided by a sensor in a
specific time frequency. The association between time series and event data is achieved through the capture of
a timestamp. Edge devices, which communicate with the controller via proprietary interfaces, are commonly
used to record internal machine data (Figure 14, Acquisition). The role of the edge device is to process the
internal machine data received using internal buffers and provide it in a defined data format, such as a JSON
schema. The MQTT format represents a robust communication protocol for exchanging data between various
network participants. The MQTT architecture consists of a broker, which acts as a server and clients capable
of sending (publisher) or receiving (subscriber) messages under defined topics [20].

Structure of the database for raw data storage

The database to store raw process data from production machines is centered around the machine_object table,
as shown in Figure 15 (top). Within this table, all objects related to the production environment are stored
together with their names and other related information. In this context, objects range from the production
machine itself to the tools used or individual machine components, such as ball screw drives. To relate the
individual components to each other, the individual entries can reference other entries in the table. In this way,
a machine component can refer to the associated machine. In addition, the start of use and the end of service
life are assigned to each object. To identify the various objects, descriptions of their types are stored in the
table machine_type referenced with a foreign key to machine_object. Each type's possible meta-information is
described within a column as a JSON schema, enabling the automatic evaluation of the metadata in
machine_object. Various objects stored in machine_object are able to provide time series and event data via
various data sources (e.g. numerical control or external sensors). Therefore, each element in table
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machine_object can have multiple data sources providing raw machine data stored in the table
machine_data_source referenced by a foreign key relation. In addition, the MQTT topic via which the data is
made available is stored for each data source in machine_data_source.

Figure 15 – Schematic ORM of database structure for storing raw data and segmentation results
Using the approach to acquire events and measurements, data from a data source are delivered to a central
MQTT broker, from which the data is written to the database. The corresponding events are stored in the
event_data table with timestamp, name and content of the event as JSON as well as a reference to the data
source in machine_data_source. Measurements as frequent time series data from each data source are stored
in a separate measurement_data_x_y table, where x is the id of the object in machine_object and y the id of the
source in machine_data_source.

Segmentation and Contextualization

To build, store, and extend data-driven models for generating meaningful indicators, another section within
the database is implemented (Figure 15, bottom) to store segmentation or contextualization results based on
the time series data of events and measurements. Once added to the database, they run as services in the
background to automatically calculate various conditions or indicators within time ranges as time series
segments (Figure 14, Segmentation).
The overall definition of such a service to determine segments within the time series data is stored in the table
segmentation_service, which includes a name and a column specifying the possible structure of a calculation
result for this model as a JSON schema. These higher-level model definitions are instantiated within the
segmentation_service_instance table for objects and are therefore assigned a foreign key relationship to an
element in machine_object and segmentation_service. In addition, the instances are assigned a name, a
parameter set required for the calculation, and a timestamp indicating the last calculation time. The actual
calculation logic is not stored in the database but is executed as a program on a server or directly on an edge
device with appropriate database access. The key aspect here is the interface definition, which specifies the
structure of the query for input data (service definition and raw data as events and measurements from the
database) and the subsequent storage of the results back to the database. The segmentation_service defines the
results and stores them in the object_condition table. Each calculated segment contains a start_bound and an
end_bound for the validity period of the segment.

Building empirical models from the database

Based on the segments, a method for displaying one- or multidimensional dependencies between data records
within a segment or across segments using look-up tables (LUT) is presented. Modeling with a LUT is derived
from raw and segmentation data (Figure 14, Modeling), consisting of three steps: i) definition of input and
output parameters; ii) consolidation; and iii) modeling.
The definition of input and output parameters is analogous to machine learning methods and requires an
inherent relationship between the input and output parameters. The input parameters of an LUT consist of
selected segments and their results, representing a system state at a specific operating point. The input
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parameters are assigned output parameters, which can be interpreted as characteristics of a system state. Output
parameters can be raw data or results from other segments. In the subsequent consolidation, different
characteristics of a system state are merged into a resulting characteristic, so that each set of input parameters
is assigned to a set of output parameters. In the simplest scenario, this can be achieved by averaging the output
values or by calculating the minimum or maximum values. The modeling involves the representation of system
states that are not directly contained in the underlying data. Row entries in an LUT have a limited validity
range, allowing estimation of unknown interim states using adjacent row entries. This can be achieved using
interpolation methods or existing model knowledge. The results of an LUT will be stored in the
object_condition table in the database. The concept of data-driven modeling using an LUT takes advantage of
the high data availability of modern production plants to model system behavior, inspired by analogical
experiments. Due to its transparent modeling approach, this method offers advantages over black-box
approaches and can be applied to any time-series data.

Data Sharing and Model Usage

Since using the database directly is only feasible for experienced users, an interface implementation is
necessary. To facilitate easy access to the data, a dashboard in the form of a website and a corresponding
backend connecting to the database are implemented (Figure 14, Visualization & Sharing). The interface
presents data in both a high-level overview and an expert view. The high-level view provides a simple overview
of the current state of the manufacturing environment and key performance indicators (KPI), such as the
number of parts manufactured and the machine utilization rate. Users in the expert view can select relevant
KPIs and appropriate visualization methods. This expert view supports the development and validation of new
analysis algorithms and allows experienced users to freely visualize raw data and results from the services. In
addition to the visualization frontend, data sharing is facilitated via an Interface. Results from data processing
into segments or LUTs can be shared with other database instances or imported from other databases to extend
the contextualized data basis.

Use Case: Cutting machine tools

The approach for the IoP is demonstrated based on use cases from the field of cutting machine tools. Initially,
basic approaches to contextualization for general analyses are described, including machine on/off status and
the current NC program. Subsequently, more specific and in-depth aspects are addressed, particularly the
optimization of process parameters using process parameter maps (4.1) and the analysis of tool wear during
milling (4.2). The tests on a five-axis DMG DMU 65 and a Heller HF3500 milling machine involved recording
data from the Siemens Sinumerik 840d sl control system and a spindle force sensor system. Simultaneously, a
material removal simulation ran alongside the manufacturing of the workpieces to determine engagement
conditions of a milling tool, such as engagement width and depth. The data is transferred to a central MQTT
broker on a server and stored in the database. Application-specific analyses, including segmentation,
contextualization, and modeling, utilized this raw data to optimize process parameters and analyze tool wear,
as detailed below. In the first step, the basic services for segmentation and contextualization are defined. These
services, which are demonstrated using the milling machine use case, can be applied to other applications and
machines in production technology. First, time segments are identified to determine when the machine was
switched on or off. For the milling machine in question, the raw data from the control system is used in the
form of measured values and checked for closely spaced data points. The threshold value for the maximum
time interval is entered as a parameter in the service, which can be adjusted depending on the sampling rate
and data source. Another basic service is the determination of sections in which an NC program was active,
based on events that indicate that a program was started or stopped. To do this, the controller is monitored for
start and stop events and these periods are then marked as active sections in the data.

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Process parameter maps

A technology parameter map documents the cutting conditions of a tool for a machine-tool-material
combination during a milling process, characterized by the parameters cutting depth ap, cutting width ae, and
feed per tooth fz. Collectively, these three dimensions form the factors of the cutting volume per edge on a
technology parameter map, which serves as a key indicator of the productivity of a cutting process. A high
material removal rate not only indicates high productivity but also efficient resource use due to reduced process
times per part [21]. Due to the complexity, load collectives and wear mechanisms of a cutting edge can only
be modeled inadequately, making it difficult to conclusively determine optimum technology parameters.
Instead, the selection of technology parameters is based on implicit, cross-manufacturer expert knowledge of
a CAM programmer or machine operator. Manufacturer specifications often only address an optimal operating
point, leaving dynamically changing cutting conditions during a milling process uncovered. However, the
approach of selecting technology parameters leads to different feeds per tooth being used for the same depths
and widths of cut. In order to both obtain expert knowledge and design productive milling processes,
technology parameter maps offer the possibility of determining optimum technology parameters in a data-
driven manner by documenting the cutting conditions during process planning. Additionally, technology
parameters do not provide insights into the underlying milling process, making technology parameter maps
suitable for cross-company data exchange in the Internet of Production. Exchanging technology parameters
consolidates cross-company expert knowledge and enables efficient ramp-up phases as well as resource-
efficient production.

To determine the support points of a technology parameter map, described by the {ap,i, ae,i, fz,i}, a dexel-based
material removal simulation from [22] is used. The material removal simulation calculates the cutting
conditions of a tool based on internal machine data and attaches the calculation results to the underlying
internal machine data in a time-synchronized manner. Based on the data source and the NC program, the data
is assigned to a machine tool and a material. Initially, for each completed NC program, the process is segmented
into time ranges for each tool. The active tool number in the raw data is checked, and any changes are saved
in the object_condition table with corresponding start and end times, along with the tool number and the tool’s
ID from machine_object. The segmented areas of an active tool are subsequently divided into more granular
sections of constant ap, ae and fz using algorithms from the segmentation_service. To quickly identify these
constant ranges in the high-frequency time series data, change points are determined using binary segmentation
[23]. Once change points are identified, ranges are formed from one to the next. Within these segments, the
signal is evaluated using the standard deviation and the peak-to-peak values to determine if they are constant.
The support points of a technology parameter map result from the temporal overlay of the segmented constant
areas and are then stored in a LUT for a combination of machine tool and material. Three demonstrator parts
were machined on the DMU 65, where the same 16 mm diameter end mill was used to machine different part
features (Figure 16, left). The selection of technology parameters was based on the expert knowledge of a
CAM programmer. The cutting conditions of the end mill were determined using the method described above
(Figure 16, middle). Since ap and ae values are often dictated by the part contour, they are defined as input
parameters of an LUT, with fz values assigned as output parameters. Consolidation starts with the definition of
a valid range of ap-ae combinations, set to an interval of 0.5 mm for both ap and ae. To maximize productivity,
the maximum feeds per tooth within the defined valid ranges are selected and marked with crosses (Figure 16,
right). A polynomial interpolation is used to fit a plane through the consolidated a p, ae, fz values to estimate
unrecorded ap, ae, fz combinations. The more data available on the cutting conditions of a tool, the better the
optimal cutting conditions of a tool can be estimated, highlighting the importance of cross-company data
exchange in the sense of an Internet of Production.

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Figure 16 – Example technology parameter map for an end mill and various work pieces

Monitoring tool wear in milling

Determining tool wear during machining is of crucial importance for research and industry, as it has an impact
on production costs and the quality of the workpieces. There are two methods: direct (e.g. optical measurement)
and indirect (e.g. via the cutting torque). With indirect methods, transferability is difficult due to different
process conditions. This is especially problematic for milling applications, where geometric conditions, cutting
velocity, and feed per tooth can vary across different processes using the same milling tool. To address this,
[24] introduced an approach that combines process data with segments of validity for tool wear indicators,
enabling transferable determination of tool wear. This method extends and integrates into the previously
described framework by utilizing data from the control system and material removal simulation. The
segmentation and contextualization approach introduces condition and load indicators: condition indicators
describe the wear of the tool, while load indicators explain the stress that led to this wear. Two sets of cutting
inserts for a 20 mm diameter, three-tooth corner milling cutter were tested with varying geometric engagements
within 42CrMo4V material, up to a wear mark width of 200 micrometers or a total tool path of 60 meters. Both
experiments used a fz of 0.1 mm and a cutting velocity cv of 200 m/min. The first set of cutting inserts was
used in Experiment 1, which employed fixed geometric parameters: ae of 19 mm and ap of 2 mm. The second
set of cutting inserts was used in Experiment 2, where the ae and ap varied, occasionally matching the
parameters of Experiment 1. Each tool tested receives an entry in the machine_object table.
Initially, for each completed NC program, the process is segmented into time ranges for each tool, as described
above. Next, the torque-forming current of the main spindle is analyzed to identify periods of tool engagement
and these segments are stored in the database. Therefore, the data is divided into individual areas with constant
spindle speeds to exclude the effects of speed changes on the main spindle current. Then, these constant speed
ranges are segmented into engagement ranges. To achieve this, the zero level of the spindle current is
determined at the beginning of each speed range and segments with tool engagements are identified using a
threshold value method. In addition to identifying areas where the tool is engaged, the main spindle current is
segmented into areas where it remains constant, as for the process parameter maps. This approach accounts for
changes during the cutting process, such as entries and exits into the material. The segments are stored in the
object_condition table.

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Figure 17 – Wear mark width and condition indicator spindle current over time and cumulated spindle current
After dividing the main spindle current used for monitoring tool wear into segments of active tool, engagement,
and constant areas, condition indicators for tool wear can be determined from these segments and assigned to
the uniquely identified tools. Firstly, the approach of automatic data segmentation and contextualization for
monitoring tool wear is used for series production, which is demonstrated for experiment 1 of the tests carried
out. The condition indicator for the combination segments, where the tool is engaged in the material and the
spindle current is constant, as well as the corresponding wear mark width, are shown in Figure 17 (left) over
time. It is evident that the condition indicator, derived from the average spindle current, correlates with the
microscopically measured wear mark width. However, using time on the x-axis poses problems for the
evaluation. Different downtime periods due to shift changes or maintenance activities can distort the analysis
of wear progression. Additionally, multiple tools of the same type cannot be effectively compared, especially
when considering the wear mark results of Experiment 2 with varying process conditions. To address this, load
indicators are assigned to the tools in addition to the condition indicators. This allows for the determination of
time and path in the material through the engagement segments. However, these indicators do not consider the
conditions under which the tool was engaged. For instance, with a high feed rate, the tool may be in use for a
shorter overall period but might experience greater wear. Therefore, for each segment where the tool was
engaged, the main spindle current (and thus the cutting torque) is cumulated and assigned to the tool. The
condition indicator derived from the main spindle current, as well as the wear mark width, are shown in Figure
17 (right) over this accumulated main spindle current. The Pearson correlation of average spindle current with
the wear mark width is 0.9811 for experiment 1, validating it as a reliable condition indicator, that can be
automatically derived with the presented approach.To evaluate the transferability of the automated approach
for determining tool wear under different machining conditions, Experiment 2 varied the geometric conditions
to simulate the mixed production of various components. In addition to the machining conditions identical to
those in Experiment 1, which are shown in black, variations for Experiment 2 are depicted in light gray. The
varying engagement results in different process forces, reflected in a fluctuating spindle current, so the
condition indicators do not accurately represent the progression of the measured wear mark. To address this,
geometric engagements are determined during machining through a material removal simulation. These
engagements are associated with the condition indicator segments in the form of a LUT for each tool, including
cutting depth, cutting width, feed per tooth, and cutting speed on one side, and the average spindle current as
a wear condition indicator on the other side. By applying filters, only identical machining conditions can be
selected and used for wear monitoring. A Pearson correlation of 0.8742 between these filtered values and the
measured wear mark indicates the effectiveness of this approach as a condition indicator for tool wear.

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Automatically generating this information for different machines or production companies allows for the
creation of LUT models that account for various process conditions using real production data. By sharing
these models in the concept of the Internet of Production, comprehensive wear models can be developed and
applied without the need to exchange explicit process knowledge.

Conclusion and Outlook

Manufacturing companies are still in the early stages of strategically storing and utilizing data from production
processes. Although industrial solutions exist to record raw data during manufacturing at high frequencies
using common protocols like OPC UA or proprietary interfaces of specific control systems, there is often no
standardized storage of this raw data. Additionally, there is a lack of methods to contextualize the raw data to
derive meaningful insights. In this research, an approach is introduced to store raw data effectively and
automatically contextualize it through segmentation. This process is essential for targeted analysis of large data
sets, discovering new data-driven relationships, and developing empirical or AI-based models. The approach
is demonstrated using the application case of cutting machine tools. It shows how large amounts of raw data
can be automatically processed and data-driven models derived for optimizing process parameters or
monitoring tool wear in an industrial-like research environment. Aggregating the data also enables models and
their parameters to be shared and extended between entities, in the sense of an IoP. For further investigations,
the chosen approach will be applied to real industrial applications to generate large data sets that cannot be
produced in a research setting due to capacity limitations. In addition to the empirical models developed from
the automatically segmented data in the described use cases, AI models can also be developed based on this
foundation. The automated contextualization approach provides labels through context, which are essential for
developing AI algorithms and would otherwise require significant effort to generate.

Acknowledgments
Funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG, German Research Foundation) under Germany’s
Excellence Strategy – EXC-2023 Internet of Production – 390621612.

References
[1] Brecher, C., Padberg, M. et al., 2023, “The Internet of Production: Interdisciplinary Visions and Concepts
for the Production of Tomorrow”, in Internet of Production, Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp.
1–12.
[2] van der Aalst, W., Jarke, M. et al., 2024, “Digital Shadows: Infrastructuring the Internet of Production”,
in Internet of Production, Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp. 17–33.
[3] Brecher, C., Frenkel, N. et al., 2023, “Konzept zur selektiven Modelladaption durch Clustering von
Prozessdaten”, ZWF Zeitschrift für wirtschaftlichen Fabrikbetrieb, vol. 118, no. 3, pp. 138–143.
[4] Ochel, J., 2023-12-21, Datengetriebene Strukturierung von NC-Zerspanprozessen, Dissertation, RWTH
Aachen University.
[5] Strutzenberger, D., Kunz, M. et al., 2023, “An IoT architecture to integrate different machine tools into a
compound OPC UA interface”, it - Information Technology, vol. 65, no. 3, pp. 76–91.
[6] Aggarwal, C. C., 2015, Data mining: The textbook., ISBN 978-3-319-14142-8, Cham and Heidelberg
and New York and Dordrecht and London, Springer.
[7] Petković, D., 2017, “JSON Integration in Relational Database Systems”, International Journal of
Computer Applications, vol. 168, no. 5, pp. 14–19.
[8] D’Onofrio, S. and Meier, A., 2021, Big Data Analytics., ISBN 978-3-658-32235-9, Wiesbaden, Springer
Fachmedien Wiesbaden.
[9] Chiarot, G. and Silvestri, C., 2023, “Time Series Compression Survey”, ACM Computing Surveys, vol.
55, no. 10, pp. 1–32.

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[10] Düsing, R., 2006, “Knowledge Discovery in Databases”, in Analytische Informationssysteme, Springer
Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin, Heidelberg, pp. 241–262.
[11] Strobl, J., Zagel, B., Griesebner, G., et al., eds., 2021, e:connecting spatially: AGIT : Journal für
Angewandte Geoinformatik : 7-2021, Berlin, Wichmann.
[12] Macheiner, K., Woschitz, H. et al., 2009, “Test of Dynamic Properties of a Variety of Tiltmeters”, tm -
Technisches Messen, vol. 76, no. 11, pp. 509–516.
[13] Leke, C. A. and Marwala, T., 2019, Deep Learning and Missing Data in Engineering Systems., ISBN
978-3-030-01179-6, Cham, Springer International Publishing.
[14] Gharghabi, S., Ding, Y. et al., 2017, “Matrix Profile VIII: Domain Agnostic Online Semantic
Segmentation at Superhuman Performance Levels”, in 2017 IEEE International Conference on Data
Mining (ICDM), IEEE, pp. 117–126.
[15] Aminikhanghahi, S. and Cook, D. J., 2017, “A Survey of Methods for Time Series Change Point
Detection”, Knowledge and information systems, vol. 51, no. 2, pp. 339–367.
[16] Kasianiuk, K., 2016, “White box, black box and self-organization”, Kybernetes, vol. 45, no. 1, pp. 126–
140.
[17] Xi, T., Fujita, T. et al., 2022, “An extended LuGre model for estimating nonlinear frictions in feed drive
systems of machine tools”, Procedia CIRP, vol. 107, pp. 452–457.
[18] Liewald, M., Bergs, T. et al., 2022, “Perspectives on data-driven models and its potentials in metal
forming and blanking technologies”, Production Engineering, vol. 16, no. 5, pp. 607–625.
[19] Kim, P., 2017, MATLAB Deep Learning., ISBN 978-1-4842-2844-9, Berkeley, CA, Apress.
[20] Dietrich, M., 2021, Digitales Shopfloor Management in SAP-Systemumgebungen., ISBN 978-3-658-
31927-4, Wiesbaden, Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden.
[21] Brecher, C. and Weck, M., 2022, Machine tools production systems., ISBN 978-3658346249, Wiesbaden,
Heidelberg, Springer.
[22] Königs, M. and Brecher, C., 2018, “Process-parallel virtual quality evaluation for metal cutting in series
production”, Procedia Manufacturing, vol. 26, pp. 1087–1093.
[23] Fryzlewicz, P., 2014, “Wild binary segmentation for multiple change-point detection”, The Annals of
Statistics, vol. 42, no. 6, pp. 2243–2281.
[24] Brecher, C., Lohrmann, V. et al., 2022, “Clustering zur Bestimmung von Werkzeugverschleiß”, ZWF
Zeitschrift für wirtschaftlichen Fabrikbetrieb, vol. 117, no. 4, pp. 218–223.

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AN ANALYSIS OF MECHANICAL STRESS DISTRIBUTIONS ON A PCD

TOOL DURING CFRP DRILLING CONSIDERING THERMAL EFFECTS
Fahim Shariara, Umut Karagüzelb, and Yiğit Karpata,c

a, Bilkent University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ankara/TURKEY 06800, fahim.shariar@bilkent.edu.tr

b, Yıldız Technical University, Mechantronics Engineering Department, İstanbul/TURKEY,
umut.karaguzel@yildiz.edu.tr
c, Bilkent University, Department of Industrial Engineering, Ankara/TURKEY 06800, ykarpat@bilkent.edu.tr

Abstract
Drilling is employed as a machining method to meet the demands for producing functional CFRP structures
without compromising their unique and desirable material properties. Because of its intrinsic properties and
drill-induced damages, drilling CFRP remains an ambitious task. This paper investigates mechanical stress
distributions on a polycrystalline diamond (PCD) tool during dry drilling of CFRP. A better understanding of
pressure and tangential stress distribution along the cutting edge of drills is necessary for better selection of
process parameters. The drill margin region, which directly affects the hole wall quality, has been included in
the analysis. A finite element-based thermal model of the drill has been considered to evaluate the average
temperature distribution on the drill tip during machining. The hybrid analytical and computational model has
been used to analyze the variation of peak pressure and tangential stress distributions as a function of
temperature based on experimental measurements of thrust force, torque, and temperature.

Keywords: Drilling, Mechanical stress distributions, Polycrystalline diamond (PCD), Fiber reinforced
polymer (FRP)

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ESTIMATION OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS IN WATER JET CUTTING

USING FUZZY LOGIC METHOD
İsmail Tekaüt 1, Şükran Katmer 2, Onur Çavuşoğlu 2, Ömer Faruk Bay 3
1
Gazi University, Vocational School, Ostim, Ankara, Türkiye
2
Gazi University, Faculty of Technology, Department of Manufacturing Engineering, Ankara,
Türkiye
3
Gazi University, Faculty of Techanology, Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering,
Ankara, Türkiye

Abstract
Heat affected zone (HAZ) occurs in the cutting area in cutting operations carried out using
manufacturing methods (conventional or laser, plasma etc). Especially, HAZ is an undesirable
situation in parts used in industries such as aviation, space and automotive. Because HAZ formation
deteriorates the properties of the material and causes microcracks. In cases where negativities such
as HAZ formation are not desired, shaping machine parts with water jet is inevitable. In water jet
cutting, determining the optimum cutting parameters is very important. Many negative effects such
as kerf formation and poor surface quality occur in operations performed with inappropriate cutting
parameters. Determination of optimum cutting parameters in waterjet cutting processes is obtained
as a result of experimental studies, and experimental studies are quite costly. Therefore, the study of
Artificial Intelligence Systems developed based on the data obtained from the pilot experiments will
be useful in many aspects. Therefore, in this study, a Fuzzy Logic Estimator was developed in the
light of the data obtained from the experimental study conducted at three different cutting speeds and
three different depths. Thus, the surface roughness values to be obtained at each different cutting
speed and each different depth can be obtained using this developed Fuzzy Logic Estimator. Fuzzy
Logic Estimator is coded using the C# programming language. Three more experiments were
conducted to test the accuracy of the Fuzzy Logic Estimator model and the compatibility of the results
was observed. The experimental results were compared with the results obtained from the Fuzzy
Logic Estimator, and it was seen that the results obtained in the experimental study and the surface
roughness values obtained from the Fuzzy Logic Estimator overlapped.

Keywords: Abrasive Water Jet Machining, AA 7075, Cutting Speed, Fuzzy Logic Estimator

1.Introduction
Nowadays, the demand for lightweight and high-strength materials such as AA 7075 aluminum alloy
is increasing in industries such as aerospace, defense and automobile. Shaping these types of
materials, which are widely used, in the desired geometry and surface quality are very important.
Shaping the workpieces without changing their chemical and physical properties is one of the most
important factors in manufacturing. Abrasive Water Jet (ASJ) is the process of removing chip from
the workpiece by hitting micron-sized hard abrasive particles on the workpiece surface with high
pressure water [1-6]. In waterjet cutting, no heat is generated in the cutting zone. Therefore, there is
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no change in the chemical structure of the cutting material. Abrasive water jet cutting is preferred in
cases where heat generation in the cutting zone is not desired [7, 8]. For this reason, shaping many
materials with ASJ is a matter of interest to researchers. In studies on ASJ, studies have been carried
out on cutting parameters such as cutting speed, abrasive grain size, workpiece thickness, abrasive
water pressure. In the studies carried out; Surface roughness decreases with increasing abrasive
hardness [9], it is emphasized that increasing material thickness, increasing nozzle-to-workpiece
distance and increasing cutting speed worsen surface roughness. It is emphasized that increasing the
abrasive particle rate improves the surface quality [10-13]. In the study carried out by cutting AA7075
aluminum alloy of the same thickness with ASJ, it is emphasized that the surface roughness increases
as the cutting depth increases and it is recommended that a modeling study be carried out to predict
the roughness that will occur at the desired depth [14]. In water jet cutting processes Artificial Neural
Networks (ANN) are mostly used, but Fuzzy Logic Predictive system is not used much. In ASJ, micro
channels were opened in the SS304 material in various combinations of cutting speed, abrasive flow
rate, abrasive size and nozzle-to-workpiece distance parameters and the AWJM process was modeled
with ANN [15]. By comparing the model made with the Multi-Purpose Artificial Bee Colony
algorithm on the marble workpiece with the experimental results, it was announced that the model
and the experimental results were compatible [16]. Surface roughness was investigated by cutting
AA6060 aluminum alloy with different thicknesses at different traverse speeds in ASJ. It has been
determined that surface roughness values increase due to the increase in cutting depth. By modeling
the experimental data with the Hidden Single Layer Feed Forward Neural Network, it has been stated
that the model and experimental results match [17].
Fuzzy Logic Predictive system is used in many areas. Fuzzy logic predictive system has been used
for surface roughness estimation in grinding of metal workpiece and plasma cutting of metal parts
[18-19]. Fuzzy Logic Predictive has been used to predict the surface roughness in the metal shaping
process with milling and has been successful [20]. Fuzzy logic predictive system was used in the
process performed with ultrasonic sound waves and it was emphasized that successful predictions
were made [21]. Pandu R. Vundavilli and her colleagues studied the cutting depth prediction based
on water pressure, abrasive mass flow rate and cutting speed parameters in the waterjet cutting
process with a Fuzzy Logic Predictive system. In study, they tested the Fuzzy Logic Predictive system
with an experimental study and emphasized that the Fuzzy Logic Predictive system was successful
in estimating the cutting depth [22].

Studies show that cutting speed is among the most important cutting parameters in shaping machine
parts with abrasive water jet.It is understood that many studies have been carried out using Artificial
Intelligence systems. However, there have not been enough studies using the fuzzy logic predictive
system to estimate the surface roughness in waterjet cutting processes. For this reason, this study was
conducted to predict the surface quality that will occur in the abrasive water jet machining of AA7075
aluminum alloy. The results will be very useful to researchers and manufacturers.

2. Experimental Method
In this study, KMT SL VI STREAMLINE brand pressure pump producing 4000 bar pressure and
USEL INTERJET CNC WJ 2040 brand abrasive water jet (ASJ) bench with 2000x4000 mm working
table were used (Figure 4). In the experiments, 20 mm thick Al 7075 aluminum alloy material, which
is difficult to shape with traditional methods, was cut into 80x80 mm dimensions. Three different
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cutting speeds of 10, 55 and 110 m/min were selected based on the recommended cutting values of
the FAGOR brand software company, which created the automatic abrasive transfer system and CNC
control unit of the ASJ machine. In the study, except for the cutting speed change, other processing
parameters were kept constant for each experiment. The processing parameters used in the
experiments are given in Table 1. In the experimental study, garnet powder with an average grain size
of 80 mesh, which is widely used in the industry, was used and unused powder was filled into the
abrasive powder chamber each time for each different cutting speed. The reason for filling new
powder at each different cutting speed is that the powder size is the same in each batch. Surface
roughness measurement of the samples obtained as a result of the experimental study was carried out
as shown schematically in Figure 1. Fuzzy logic Predictive artificial intelligence system was
developed using the data obtained from experimental results. Surface roughness estimates depending
on the increase in cutting speed were obtained in the developed Fuzzy Logic predictive system. To
test the accuracy of the fuzzy logic predictive system, an experimental study was conducted at three
different cutting speeds (Table 2). The bench and its diagram on which the experimental study was
carried out are given in Figure 2.

Table 1. Waterjet cutting process Cutting parameters

Material Cutting Cutting Water Sand Sand Cutting Nozzle Orifice
AA 7075 Speed Time Pressure Ratio Thickness Height Diameter Diameter
mm/min
1.Test 10 48:31:60 3800 %50 80 2 mm 1.02 0.27
2.Test 55 08:05:03 3800 %50 80 2 mm 1.02 0.27
3.Test 110 04:55:07 3800 %50 80 2mm 1.02 0.27

Table 2. Fuzzy Logic Estimator System Validation Experimental parameters

Material Cutting Cutting Water Sand Sand Cutting Nozzle Orifice
AA 7075 Speed Time Pressure Ratio Thickness Height Diameter Diameter
mm/min
1.Test 25 20:26:53 3800 %50 80 2 mm 1.02 0.27
2.Test 65 07:58:08 3800 %50 80 2 mm 1.02 0.27
3.Test 90 05:54:09 3800 %50 80 2mm 1.02 0.27

Figure 1 . Ra measurement chart

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Figure 2. Experimental setup

Design of the Fuzzy Logic Estimator For Surface Roughness

Nowadays, there are many studies using BM algorithms in the fields of engineering, social issues,
economy, health and even education. Especially in studies related to engineering fields, the target of
high efficiency, in other words optimization, constitutes the aim of BM algorithm studies[1]. In this
study a fuzzy logic estimator for surface roughness have been developed.
The data used in the Fuzzy Logic Estimator application was obtained from experimental studies
conducted at three different speeds and three different depths. C# programming language was used
to code the Fuzzy Logic Estimator.
To estimate the surface roughness (SR ) by using fuzzy logic, the cutting speed ( CS ) and the cutting
depth (CD ) are employed. The fuzzy surface roughness estimator is designed to process fuzzy
quantities only. Therefore the crisp input values of cutting speed and cutting depth must be converted
to fuzzy sets before being used. This process is called fuzzification operation. Fuzzy input variables
are CS (cutting speed) and CD (cutting depth). Fuzzy output variable is SR (surface roughness). It
has chosen 10 linguistic levels for cutting speed, 5 linguistic levels for cutting depth and 16 linguistic
levels for surface roughness. The membership functions of the fuzzy variables (cutting speed, cutting
depth and surface roughness) are shown in Figure 3.

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Figure 3. The membership functions of CS, CD, SR variables.

The surface roughness is determined by using fired if-then rules of the fuzzy logic estimator. The
rules take the form ‘ If CS is 1Set1 and CD is 2Set1 then SR is OSet1’. The rule table is shown in
Table 3.
The fuzzy output is computed by using MAX-MIN composition method. Then crisp output of the
estimator, which is the actual surface roughness, is determined by Centroid defuzzification method.
The steps for surface roughness estimation are summarized as follows:
1. Input the values of cutting speed (CS ) and the cutting depth (CD).
2. Determine the fuzzy sets and membership degrees for cutting speed and cutting depth.
3. Determine the surface roughness (SR) according to the individual fuzzy rule.

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4. Calculate the actual surface roughness by centroid defuzzification operation.

To explore the effectiveness of the proposed modeling, comparison of the results obtained from fuzzy
logic based estimation and experimental data has been made. Figure 4 illustrates the fuzzy logic based
results and experimental results.
Table 3. Fuzzy rule base for surface roughness

Figure 4 shows the variation of surface roughness with respect to cutting speed and cutting depth.
These results have demonstrated the strong potential of the fuzzy logic applied surface roughness.

3.Discussion of The Results

20 mm thick AA 7075 aluminum alloy was cut into squares of 80x80 mm dimensions with abrasive
water jet at three different cutting speeds of 10, 55 and 110 m/min. On the surfaces of the samples cut
in square geometry, surface roughness was measured in 3 (three) regions in the cutting direction and
in 8 (eight) regions in the cutting depth direction (in the width direction of the part). Surface roughness
values were obtained by measuring 4 square surfaces with the same dimensions. The measurements
were made from the top point where the cutting process started to the cutting depth of 3, 5, 7, 9, 11,
13, 15 and 17 mm, and the arithmetic average of the data taken from each measuring surface of the
square surfaces was taken. For example, three measurements were made from a single area at a depth
of 3 mm and the arithmetic average was taken. Then, three measurements were made from each of
the three regions of the same surface, making a total of nine measurements and their arithmetic
averages were taken. This process was carried out on four surfaces and 36 measurements were made
from a square-cut sample and the arithmetic average was taken. This measurement was made at depths
of 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15 and 17 mm and 288 measurements were made from one sample. As a result of
the cutting processes, a total of 864 surface roughness measurements were made (10, 55 and 110
m/min). Measurement results: Surface roughness values depending on cutting speed were obtained
using the Fuzzy Logic Predictive artificial intelligence system. The obtained surface roughness values
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were interpreted by converting them into graphics. An experimental study conducted at three different
cutting speeds was compared to test the accuracy of the data obtained in the fuzzy logic predictive
artificial intelligence system. It has been determined that the experimental study and the data obtained
from the Fuzzy Logic Estimator overlap.

Figure 4. Fuzzy logic predictive data graph.

When the graph obtained by the fuzzy logic method is examined; The increase in cutting depth caused
the surface roughness values to increase. This situation; attributed to reduction in corrosive water
pressure and crumbling of abrasive powders. When the cutting process starts cutting at the upper edge
of the ASJ surface to be cut, the energy of the abrasive particles loses some of their energy in processes
such as impact, friction, and chip removal. This energy loss continues as the cutting depth increases
and causes the process pressure to decrease. After the first machining process, the particles become
dull and crumble, and as the depth of cut increases, the machining process becomes more difficult
and scratches occur on the surface [13,14]. The fact that increasing the depth of cut increases the
surface roughness values coincides with literature studies (Figure 5). For example, while the surface
roughness value obtained at a cutting depth of 3 mm at a cutting speed of 10 m/min was 1,261 µm, it
was 2,411 µm at a depth of 17 mm at the same cutting speed, an increase of approximately 192%.
The rate of increase in surface roughness increased as the cutting speed increased. For example, while
the surface roughness value obtained at a cutting depth of 3 mm at a cutting speed of 110 m/min was
2,293 µm, it became 5,217 µm at a depth of 17 mm at the same cutting speed, an increase of
approximately 230%. At a cutting speed of 10 m/min, the cutting process is completed in 48:31:60
seconds, while at a cutting speed of 110 m/min, the cutting process of the same length is completed
in 04:55:07 seconds (Table 1). While the surface roughness value obtained at a cutting depth of 3 mm
at a cutting speed of 110 m/min was 2,293 µm, it was 5,217 µm at a depth of 17 mm at the same
cutting speed, an increase of approximately 230%. This is due to the fact that as the cutting depth
increases, the abrasive water pressure decreases and the abrasive particles decrease, as less abrasive
particles fall per unit area with increasing cutting speed. This is due to the fact that as the cutting
depth increases, the abrasive water pressure decreases and the abrasive particles decrease, as a result
of less abrasive particles falling per unit area with increasing cutting speed (Figure 6). Therefore, as
the cutting speed increases and the cutting depth increases, the surface roughness increases.
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Figure 5. Surface quality classification[14]

Figure. 6. Abrasive particle dimensions before and after the use

When the graphs in Figure 4 are examined in terms of cutting speed increase; It is seen that increasing
the cutting speed increases the surface roughness. This situation; It is attributed to the decrease in the
amount of abrasive particles and abrasive water falling per unit area per unit time as the cutting speed
increases. While the nozzle moves at a constant speed, abrasive mixed water at a certain rate and
pressure is sent to the material. From the moment the nozzle starts the cutting process until the cutting
process is finished, it sends a certain and same amount of abrasive to each unit area and performs the
cutting process. However, as the cutting speed increases, the nozzle moves faster at the same cutting
length and finishes the cut area of the same length in a shorter time (Table 1). Therefore, the faster
movement of the nozzle causes a decrease in the amount of abrasive per unit area and the machining
process becomes difficult due to the decreasing amount of abrasive [10-14]. For example, while the
surface roughness obtained at a distance of 3 mm at a cutting speed of 10 m/min was 1,261 µm, for
the same measurement distance, when the cutting speed increased to 55 m/min, it increased by
approximately 50% to 1,893 µm, and when the cutting speed was 110 m/min, it increased by
approximately 80% to 2,293 µm. This situation is similar for other cutting speeds. In conclusion; The
best surface quality is obtained at the lowest cutting speed, the worst surface is obtained at the fastest
cutting speed. In terms of cutting depth, the best surface is obtained close to the cutting surface and
at the lowest cutting speed, while the worst surface is obtained at the highest cutting speed and deepest
cutting distance. When the data obtained in the literature and the experimental study are compared
with the values obtained by the Fuzzy logic method; It has been observed that the results of the studies
in the literature are compatible with the data obtained by the fuzzy logic method and the processing
logic.
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4. Conclusıon
In this study, AA7075 aluminium alloy was processed with abrasive water jet at three different cutting
speeds. Fuzzy Logic Predictive artificial intelligence system was developed using the data obtained
from experimental results. Then, an experimental study was conducted to test the accuracy of the
artificial intelligence system data.
• It has been observed that the Fuzzy Logic Estimator system is successful in predicting the surface
roughness values obtained in waterjet cutting.
• Fuzzy logic Predictive system has been found to provide approximately 99% success in predicting
surface roughness.
• It has been determined that the increase in cutting speed is an important parameter in increasing the
surface roughness in water jet cutting.
• It has been observed that the worst surface quality is obtained at the highest cutting speed and the
best surface quality is obtained at the lowest cutting speed. This situation was interpreted as a decrease
in the amount of abrasive per unit area due to increasing cutting speed.
• It has been observed that surface roughness increases as the depth of cut increases in waterjet cutting.
This situation was interpreted as a decrease in the abrasive water jet pressure due to the increase in
cutting depth and the crumbling of the abrasive particles. Additionally, as the cutting speed increases,
more surface roughness occurs at the depth of cut due to the decrease in abrasive per unit area.

REFERENCES
1.Steinhauser, T. J., “Abrasive water jets on the cutting edge of technology”, Flow Systems, USA,
(1989).
2. Hunziker, W., “Water-jet Cutting“ BQSTRONIC LASER AG., CH-3362Niederönz, Switzerlend,
January 1990., Richard, F., “Waterjet Machining in Relationship to Design Engineering for
Manufacturability“ Hydro – Abrasive Machining, 1992, California, U.S.A. ).
3.Cogun, C., “Computer-aided system for selection of nontraditional machining operations”
Computers in industry, 169-179 (1993).
4.Paul, S., Hoogstrate, A. M., Luttervelt Van, C. A. and Kals, H. J. J., “An experimental investigation
of rectangular pocket milling with abrasive water jet”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology,
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5.Nanduri, M., Taggart, D. G., Kim, T. J., “The effects of system and geometric parameters on
abrasive water jet nozzle wear”, International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, 615-623
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6.Jain, V. K., “Advanced machining processes”, Allied Publishers, (2009).
7.A.W. Momber, R. Kovacevic, Principles of abrasive water jet machining, Springer Science&
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8.Kovacevic, R., “Surface texture in abrasive waterjet cutting”, Journal of Manufacturing systems,
32-40 (1991).

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9.Azmir, M.A., Ahsan, A.K., “A study of abrasive water jet machining process on glass/epoxy
composite laminate”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 209: 6168-6173 (2009)
10.D. Begic-Hajdarevic, A. Cekic, M. Mehmedovic, A. Djelmic, Experimental study on surface
roughness in abrasive water jet cutting, Procedia Engineering 100 (2015) 394-399.
11.Limbachiya, V.J., Patel, D.M., ‘‘Parametric analysis of abrasive water jet machine of aluminium
material’’,Vol. 1, Issue 2, pp.282-286 (2011).
12.Reddy, D. S., Kumar, A. S. and Rao, M. S., “Parametric Optimization of Abrasive Water Jet
Machining of Inconel 800H Using Taguchi Methodology”, Universal Journal of Mechanical
Engineering, 158-162 (2014).
13. Maros, Z., “Energy Approach of the Taper at Abrasıve Waterjet Cuttıng” Production Processes
and Systems, vol. 6. (2013) No. 1. pp. 89-96.
14. Akkurt, A., “THE CHARACTERIZATION OF FRONT CUTTING GEOMETRY AND
SURFACE PROPERTIES IN ABRASIVE WATER JET CUTTING OF ALUMINUM ALLOY
MATERIALS” Journal of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mühendislik ve Fen Bilimleri Dergisi
Sigma 32,261-276,(2014).
15. Gupta, T V K., Ramkumar, J., Tandon, P., Vyas N S.,” Application of Artificial Neural Networks
in Abrasive Water Jet Milling”, CIRPe 2015 - Understanding the life cycle implications of
manufacturing, Procedia CIRP 37 ( 2015 ) 225 – 229, ScienceDirect
16. Pawar P. J., Umesh S. V., Khalkar M. Y.,” Improving the quality characteristics of abrasive water
jet machining of marble material using multi-objective artificial bee colony algorithm”, Journal of
Computational Design and Engineering 5 (2018) 319–328
17. Cojba, Z., r Petkovic, D., Shamshirband, S., Tongc, C. W., Chc S., Jankovic´ P., Duciˇ c´, N., ,
Baralic´, J., “Surface roughness prediction by extreme learning machine constructed with abrasive
water jet” Precision Engineering 43 (2016) 86–92,
18. Y.M. Ali, L.C. Zhang, “Surface roughness prediction of ground components using a fuzzy logic
approach”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology 89–90 (1999) 561–568
19. Cebeli Özek, Ulaş Çaydaş, and Engin Ünal” A Fuzzy Model for Predicting Surface Roughness in
Plasma Arc Cutting of AISI 4140 Steel” Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 27: 95–102, (2012).
20. Tzu-Liang (Bill)Tseng, UdayvarunKonada, Yongjin(James)Kwon, “A
novelapproachtopredictsurfaceroughnessinmachiningoperationsusing fuzzy set theory”, Journal of
Computational Design and Engineering, Volume 3, Issue 1, (2016), Pages 1–13
doi.org/10.1016/j.jcde.2015.04.002
21. Kensuke Iseri, Syoji Kobashi, Katsuya Kondo,Kazuharu Yamato, and Yutaka Hata, “A Fuzzy
Logic Approach for Estimating Roughness by 1MHz Ultrasonic System”, IEEE Xplore, 2024.
22. Omer Faruk Bay, Cetin Elmas, Modeling of The Inductance Variation and Control of The
Switched Reluctance Motor Based on Fuzzy Logic, Intelligent Automation & Soft Computing , 10-
3, (2004) 233-246

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MILLING FORCE ESTIMATION WITH KALMAN FILTER USING

ANGULAR DOMAIN HARMONICS AND ACCELERATION FEEDBACK
Mert İlmea , and Hakan Çalışkana , and Orkun Özşahina ,

a Middle East Technical University, Mechanical Engineering. Department, Ankara/TURKEY, ozsahin@metu.edu.tr

Abstract

In line with the industry 4.0 concept, today’s milling research focuses more on the control and
identification of the cutting process. To identify the cutting forces, this study proposes a novel method.
The method requires previous knowledge of the tool and workpiece engagement ge-ometry and tool
tip FRF. It utilizes an improvement of an angular domain convolution model for the forces, which is
expressed as explicit functions of cutting parameters and tool/workpiece geometry. Adapting the
improved force model to Kalman filter by relating it with acceleration, the cutting force is estimated
by controlling cutting coefficients based on the observed acceleration. The proposed method is
verified with experimental data.

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COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MACHINE LEARNING AND ENSEMBLE

LEARNING APPROACH ON TOOL WEAR CLASSIFICATION
Muhammet Ali Aykanata,b , Rifat Kurbanc

a, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Abdullah Gul

University, Kayseri, 38080, Turkey, muhammetali.aykanat@agu.edu.tr
b, Dener Group, Kayseri/Turkey, muhammet.aykanat@dener.com
c, Department of Computer Engineering, Abdullah Gul University,
Kayseri, 38080, Turkey, rifatkurban@agu.edu.tr

Abstract
This study investigates the application of machine learning algorithms for predicting tool wear in machining
operations, aiming to enhance production efficiency and reduce costs associated with tool maintenance. We
implemented five distinct algorithms: K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), Decision Trees, Random Forests,
LightGBM, and XGBoost. The results reveal that these models can accurately classify tool conditions as
"worn" or "unworn," with LightGBM and XGBoost showing solid performance. Notably, an ensemble
approach using a soft voting classifier combining KNN, Random Forest, and LightGBM achieved an accuracy
of 0.9968 and a ROC AUC of 0.9998. This research underscores the potential of machine learning to transform
traditional tool management practices, enabling proactive maintenance strategies that can significantly
improve machining efficiency and product quality. Future work may explore integrating real-time data for
further enhancements in predictive accuracy.

Keywords: tool wear prediction, machine learning, ensemble learning.

1 Introduction
Tool wear is a critical issue in machining operations as it directly impacts the workpiece's quality and the
machining process's efficiency [1]. The gradual loss of material from the cutting tool due to friction and other
factors not only affects the tool itself but also leads to changes in the machined surface and the overall
performance of the machine tool Understanding and effectively managing tool wear is essential to maintaining
production quality, reducing production time, and minimizing economic losses associated with tool
replacement and poor workpiece quality [2].

Researchers have explored various traditional methods and technologies to address tool wear problems without
resorting to machine learning or artificial intelligence. One approach involves using sensor fusion strategies to
monitor cutting tool wear [2]. By integrating data from different sensors that capture information on tool
conditions during machining processes, operators can make informed decisions regarding tool replacement
and maintenance to ensure consistent workpiece quality and production efficiency. Additionally, the
application of Ti/AlTiN multilayer coatings on cutting tools has been investigated to mitigate the crater wear
process and improve the tribological properties of the tools [3]. These coating technologies offer a preventive
measure against wear, enhancing the durability and performance of cutting tools in machining operations. On
the other hand, leveraging machine learning techniques for tool wear classification has shown promising results
in enhancing the accuracy and efficiency of wear monitoring systems. Studies have demonstrated using support
vector machine (SVM) algorithms coupled with time and frequency domain analysis to correlate sound signals
generated during cutting processes with tool wear conditions [4]. Training machine learning models on these

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acoustic signatures makes it possible to classify tool wear states in real time, enabling proactive maintenance
and replacement strategies to be implemented.

Furthermore, the integration of machine learning classification models, such as convolutional neural networks
(CNNs), has been explored for online tool wear classification during machining processes [5]. By utilizing
real-time cutting force measurements and CNN approaches, researchers have achieved significant accuracy
rates in classifying tool wear states, enabling timely identification and mitigation strategies to be deployed [5].
Additionally, the use of pre-trained CNNs for vision-based tool wear classification has been investigated,
highlighting the importance of timely identification and classification of wear conditions to guide tool
replacement decisions and minimize wear-related issues [6].

In conclusion, the problem of tool wear in machine tools is a multifaceted issue that requires a comprehensive
approach for effective management. While traditional methods like sensor fusion and coating technologies
offer preventive measures against wear, the use of machine learning and artificial intelligence techniques
provides advanced capabilities for real-time wear monitoring and classification. By combining these
approaches, manufacturers can optimize tool usage, enhance production efficiency, and ensure consistent
quality in machining operations.

In this study, various machine learning algorithms are implemented to address the tool wear problem. By
leveraging the capabilities of machine learning, it becomes possible to predict tool wear with higher accuracy
and reliability compared to traditional methods. The algorithms used in this study include K-Nearest Neighbors
(KNN), Decision Tree, Random Forest, LightGBM, and XGBoost, each known for their unique strengths in
handling different aspects of data. These models are compared in terms of their predictive accuracy to identify
the most effective approach for tool wear prediction. Additionally, ensemble learning techniques are employed
to combine the strengths of multiple models, aiming to achieve more robust and reliable results. Ensemble
learning, through methods like voting classifiers, enhances the overall performance by mitigating the
weaknesses of individual models, thus providing a more comprehensive solution to the tool wear problem.

2 Material and Method

2.1 Dataset
The dataset, originating from the University of Michigan's System-level Manufacturing and Automation
Research Testbed (SMART), 18 different machining experiments performed on wax blocks (2" x 2" x 1.5")
with S shape using a CNC milling machine [7]. The general data from each of the 18 distinct experiments
encompass the experiment number, the material used (wax), the feed rate, and the clamping pressure. Each
experiment's outputs include the condition of the tool (unworn or worn) and whether the tool passed a visual
inspection. Time series data were collected from the 18 experiments at a sampling rate of 100 ms and are
individually documented in files named experiment_01.csv to experiment_18.csv. Each file contains
measurements from the CNC machine's four motors (X, Y, Z axes, and spindle). These experiments varied tool
conditions, feed rates, and clamping pressures to investigate their effects on machining performance. The
aggregated dataset comprised 25,286 observations and 52 features, of which 12 were categorical, and 40 were
numerical.

2.2 Proposed Method

The proposed method, given in Figure 1, leverages a machine learning and ensemble learning approach to
solve the given problem. This methodology comprises three main steps: data preprocessing, model
implementation, and ensemble approach.

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Data preprocessing is a crucial step that involves handling outliers and missing values, encoding categorical
variables, standardizing the features, and performing stratified data splitting. Outlier handling ensures that
extreme values do not skew the model's performance while addressing missing values, which prevents the
introduction of bias. Encoding categorical variables transforms them into a numerical format suitable for
machine learning algorithms. Standardization ensures that the features have a mean of zero and a standard
deviation of one, essential for the proper convergence of many machine learning algorithms. Stratified splitting
ensures that the train and test sets have similar distributions of the target variable, maintaining the
representativeness of the data.

Five different machine learning models are implemented to identify the best solution: K-Nearest Neighbors
(KNN) [8], Decision Tree [9], Random Forest [10], LightGBM [11], and XGBoost [12]. Each base model
undergoes hyperparameter optimization and is evaluated using 5-fold cross-validation on the training set to
ensure robust performance and prevent overfitting. KNN is known for its simplicity and effectiveness in
classification tasks [13]. Decision Trees provide interpretability by creating a tree-like structure of decisions
[14]. Random Forest, an ensemble of Decision Trees, improves performance through averaging, which reduces
variance and prevents overfitting [15]. LightGBM and XGBoost are gradient-boosting frameworks that build
models sequentially, with each new model correcting errors made by the previous ones [11], [12]. These
methods are compelling for large datasets and have been shown to achieve high predictive accuracy [16], [17].

The ensemble approach employs a voting classifier, evaluated on the test set. The voting classifier combines
KNN, Random Forest, and LightGBM as voters. Ensemble methods are known to improve predictive
performance by combining the strengths of multiple models [18]. This approach reduces the likelihood of
overfitting and increases robustness and generalizability [19]. By aggregating the predictions of diverse
models, the ensemble method can achieve higher accuracy and better generalization compared to individual
models [20], [21].

Figure 1: An architecture of proposed method.

3 Experiments and Results

3.1.1 Data Preprocessing
The dataset comprised 18 experimental CSV files and one training file containing tool status labels categorized
as "worn" or "unworn". The initial step involved merging the 18 experimental files into a single dataset. This

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merged dataset included features from the experimental files along with additional columns for exp_no,
feedrate, clamp_pressure, and tool_condition extracted from the training file.

The aggregated dataset consisted of 25,286 observations and 52 features. Among these features, 12 were
categorical, and 40 were numerical.

Outliers were detected in 27 features and addressed using the Interquartile Range (IQR) method to ensure a
more robust dataset for analysis.

To prepare the dataset for machine learning algorithms, we meticulously applied label encoding to the
tool_condition feature. This process converted the categorical labels "worn" and "unworn" into numerical
values, ensuring the accuracy of the data. One-hot encoding was then applied to the other categorical features
to avoid any ordinal relationships being implied by the model.

After implementing the encoding, the shape of the dataset was transformed to (25,286, 61), reflecting the
addition of new columns from the one-hot encoding process.

To standardize the dataset, Min-Max scaling (1) was applied to all features, bringing them into the range [0,
1]. The exp_no feature was subsequently dropped to prevent potential issues with high correlation.
𝑋−𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛
𝑋′ = (1)
𝑋𝑚𝑎𝑥 −𝑋𝑚𝑖𝑛

These preprocessing steps resulted in a clean, normalized, and well-structured dataset ready for subsequent
machine learning model development and analysis.

3.1.2 Base Model

Before the training phase, the dataset was stratified and split into training and testing sets with an 80-20 ratio,
ensuring that both sets' class distribution of the tool_condition labels was preserved. A fixed random state
was used to ensure the reproducibility of the results.

Five different machine learning models, KNN, DT, RF, LightGBM, and XGBoost, respectively, were
implemented to predict the tool condition of the dataset.

To assess the models' performance and their ability to generalize to unseen data, a 5-fold cross-validation
was conducted on the training set. This strategy ensured that each model was trained and validated on
different portions of the data, providing a solid evaluation of the model's effectiveness. The results of this
evaluation are presented in Table 1.

Model Accuracy F1_Score ROC_AUC

KNN 0.9063 0.9111 0.9675
Decision Tree 0.988 0.9886 0.988
Random Forest 0.994 0.9943 0.9999
LightGBM 0.9952 0.9954 0.9998
XGBoost 0.9953 0.9955 0.9999

Table 1: Base model train phase results.

3.1.3 Hyperparameter Optimization

The same split data and model were used to implement hyperparameter optimization. A 5-fold cross-
validation was performed during the training phase to evaluate the models. Hyperparameter optimization was
then conducted using the following ranges in Table 2.

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Model Hyperparameter Range

Number of
KNN 2 to 50
neighbors
Decision Tree Maximum depth 1 to 20
Minimum sample
2 to 30
split
Random Forest Maximum depth 8 to 15
Minimum sample
15 to 20
split
Number of
200, 300
estimators
LightGBM Learning Rate 0.01 to 0.1
Number of
300, 500
estimators
XGBoost Learning rate 0.01 to 0.1
Maximum depth 5 to 8
Number of
100, 200
estimators

Table 2: Models and their hyperparameter ranges.

The performance of each model was evaluated based on accuracy, F1-score, and ROC_AUC on the test set.
The results of the best models after hyperparameter optimization with the train set are summarized in Table
3.

Model Accuracy F1_Score ROC_AUC Best Parameters

KNN 0.9203 0.9242 0.9666 {'n_neighbors': 3}
0.9901 {'max_depth': 18,
Decision Tree 0.9873 0.988 'min_samples_split':
4}
{'max_depth': None,
'min_samples_split':
Random Forest 0.9926 0.993
0.9998 15, 'n_estimators':
200}
{'learning_rate':
LightGBM 0.9968 0.9969 0.9999 0.1, 'n_estimators':
500}
{'learning_rate':
XGBoost 0.9958 0.996 0.9999 0.1, 'max_depth': 8,
'n_estimators': 200}

Table 3: Models and their hyperparameter results.

3.1.4 Model Evaluation

Accuracy measures how correct a model's predictions are overall. It is calculated as the ratio of correctly
predicted instances to the total number of instances in the dataset. The formula for accuracy is:

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𝑇𝑃+TN
𝐴𝑐𝑐 = 𝐴𝑙𝑙
(2)

Accuracy is a valuable metric when the classes are balanced, as it provides a straightforward measure of how
often the model is correct.

The F1-Score, which is the harmonic mean of precision and recall, serves as a metric that balances false
positives and false negatives. It is particularly beneficial for imbalanced datasets because it takes into account
both precision (the correctness of positive predictions) and recall (the capability to identify all positive cases).
The formula for the F1-score is:
Precision×Recall
𝐹1𝑆𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑒 = 2 𝑥 Precision+Recall
(3)

where
𝑇𝑃
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑇𝑃+FP (4)

𝑇𝑃
𝑅𝑒𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑇𝑃+FN (5)

ROC AUC evaluates the area under the ROC curve, indicating the model's capacity to distinguish between
positive and negative classes. The value ranges from 0 to 1, where higher values reflect superior performance.

𝑅𝑂𝐶_𝐴𝑈𝐶 = ∫ 𝑇𝑃𝑅 × 𝑑(𝐹𝑃𝑅) (6)

where TPR is true positive rate, FPR is false positive rate

Accuracy was selected as the primary evaluation metric for this study because the dataset is close to balanced,
with 13,308 instances labelled as "worn" (52.63%) and 11,978 instances labelled as "unworn" (47.37%). In a
balanced dataset, accuracy provides a clear and straightforward measure of model performance, as it equally
considers the correct predictions of both classes. Additionally, since there is no significant class imbalance, the
potential issues of overemphasizing either precision or recall (which the F1-score addresses) are minimized.

3.1.5 Accuracy Comparison of Models

Prediction results are obtained from the test set and classification report results are given in Table 4.

Model Tool Condition Accuracy F1_Score Support

KNN Unworn 0.9306 0.9269 2396
Worn 0.9339 2662
Decision Tree Unworn 0.9871 0.9864 2396
Worn 0.9878 2662
Random Forest Unworn 0.9917 0.9912 2396
Worn 0.9921 2662
LightGBM Unworn 0.9972 0.9971 2396
Worn 0.9974 2662
XGBoost Unworn 0.9962 0.9960 2396
Worn 0.9964 2662

Table 4: Models and their prediction results on test set.

Experiment results are given in Table 4 and Figure 1 and show that most of the models have good enough
accuracy to handle tool wear classification. LightGBM and XGBoost are significantly accurate classifications
compared to others.

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a b c

d e

Figure 2: Confusion matrix of 5 models on test sets. KNN(a), DT(b), RF(c), LightGBM(d), XGBoost(e).

3.1.6 Ensemble Learning

In ensemble learning, a soft voting classifier is an advanced technique that merges the probabilistic outputs of
several machine learning models to determine the final prediction. This classifier makes decisions based on
the combined probabilities provided by all the contributing models. The soft voting classifier operates through
the following steps:

Base model training: Multiple base classifiers, denoted as 𝐶1 , 𝐶2 , . . , 𝐶𝑛 are independently trained on the same
dataset. These classifiers can be homogeneous (same algorithm) or heterogeneous (different algorithms)

Probability Prediction: For given input data x, each classifier 𝐶𝑖 produces a predicted probability vector:

𝑃𝑖 = [𝑝𝑖1 , 𝑝𝑖2 , . . , 𝑝𝑖𝑗 ] (7)

where 𝑝𝑖𝑗 is the predicted probability that belongs to classifier 𝐶𝑖 and j is the total predicting class number.

The formula for the soft-voting classifier final decision:

𝑚
𝑦̂ = arg 𝑚𝑎𝑥 ∑ 𝑝𝑖𝑗 (8)
𝑗=1

where 𝑝𝑖𝑗 = 𝑃𝑖 (C ∣ x) is probability for each class C given an input x.

For a classifier task with m models and C classes, each model j outputs a probability distribution 𝑃𝑖 (c ∣ x) for
each given class C. This approach effectively leverages the strengths and mitigates the weaknesses of
individual models, leading to enhanced overall performance.

In this study, KNN, RF, and LightGBM models are utilized as constituent models for the soft voting classifier.
KNN is a non-parametric method that classifies a sample by looking at the predominant class among its nearest
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neighbors. RF is an ensemble approach that utilizes a collection of decision trees to boost predictive accuracy
and prevent overfitting by averaging the predictions from several trees. LightGBM is a gradient-boosting
framework that utilizes tree-based algorithms, renowned for its efficiency and outstanding performance. The
combined use of these diverse models in a soft voting classifier resulted in an exceptional performance,
achieving an accuracy of 0.9968, an F1 score of 0.9970, and an ROC AUC of 0.9998, demonstrating the
effectiveness of this ensemble approach.

4 Conclusion
This research highlights the ability of machine learning algorithms to accurately predict tool wear in machining
operations. By utilizing aggregated dataset and implementing K-Nearest Neighbors, Decision Trees, Random
Forests, LightGBM, and XGBoost, we achieved notable classification accuracy for tool conditions as either
“unworn” or “worn”. While all models show over 90% accuracy, LightGBM outperforms all. With the
proposed method, the ensemble method, particularly the soft voting classifier combining KNN, Random
Forest, and LightGBM, yielded exceptional results with an accuracy of 0.9968 and ROC AUC of 0.9998.

These findings highlight the potential of machine learning to enhance tool monitoring, allowing manufacturers
to implement proactive maintenance strategies. By improving prediction accuracy, companies can reduce costs
associated with tool replacement and improve production efficiency.

Future research may focus on integrating real-time data with different types of materials and exploring
additional algorithms to further enhance predictive capabilities with less features. Overall, this study provides
a promising framework for leveraging advanced analytics in manufacturing to optimize operational
performance.

Author Contributions: Authors contributed equally.

Data Availability: The underlying data repository is publicly available on kaggle [7].

Code Availability: Code is publicly available and link is provided in reference [22].

5 References
[1] J. Ni, X. Liu, Z. Meng, and Y. Cui, “Identification of Tool Wear Based on Infographics and a Double-
Attention Network,” Machines, vol. 11, no. 10, 2023, doi: 10.3390/machines11100927.

[2] M. Mahardika, Z. Taha, D. Suharto, K. Mitsui, and H. Aoyama, “Sensor Fusion Strategy in the
Monitoring of Cutting Tool Wear,” in Fracture and Strength of Solids VI, in Key Engineering Materials,
vol. 306. Trans Tech Publications Ltd, 2006, pp. 727–732. doi: 10.4028/www.scientific.net/KEM.306-
308.727.

[3] K. J. Kadhim, A. A. Abbas, and M. A. H. Hussein, “Effect Ti/AlTiN Multilayer Coating on the Crater
Wear Process of Cutting Tool and Tribological Properties,” Al-Khwarizmi Eng. J., vol. 13, no. 4, pp.
58–68, Dec. 2018, doi: 10.22153/kej.2017.07.005.

[4] A. Kothuru, S. P. Nooka, and R. Liu, “Cutting Process Monitoring System Using Audible Sound Signals
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during Dry Machining Using Real Time Cutting Force Measurements and a CNN Approach,” J. Manuf.
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[6] A. S. Kumar, A. Agarwal, V. G. Jansari, K. A. Desai, C. Chattopadhyay, and L. Mears, “Vision-Based

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EFFECT OF CUTTING PARAMETERS ON THRUST FORCE AND HOLE

DIAMETER IN MICRO DRILLING OF AEROSPACE GRADE THERMOSET
AND THERMOPLASTIC BASED COMPOSITE
Betül Karadeniza, Bekir Yalçına, Tolgahan Ermergenb, Ali YÜKSELa, Berkay Ergenec, Yahya Özd

a, Afyon Kocatepe University, Faculty of Technology, Mechanical Engineering Department, Afyonkarahisar,

TURKIYE, bekiryalcin@aku.edu.tr
b, Isparta University of Applied Sciences, Faculty of Technology, Mechanical Engineering Department, Isparta,
TURKIYE, tolgahanermergen@isparta.edu.tr
c, Pamukkale University, Faculty of Technology, Mechanical Engineering Department, Denizli, TURKIYE,
bergene@pau.edu.tr
d. Advanced Composite Materials Technology Center, R&D and Technology Directorate, Turkish Aerospace,
06980 Ankara, TURKIYE, yahya.oz@tai.com.tr

Abstract
This study investigates the effect of cutting parameters on thrust force and hole diameter change in micro
drilling of polyether ether ketone (PEEK) based carbon reinforced thermoplastic composite (TP), and polyester
based thermoset composite (TS) reinforced with carbon fibers. Micro drilling was performed using four feed
rates (0.5, 1, 2, 4 µm/rev) and cutting speeds (10, 20, 30, 40 m/min) based on the Taguchi L16 design. Thrust
force and hole diameter changes were measured and analyzed by analysis of variance. Results show that hole
diameters decreased due to occuring delamination across all trials, with reductions up to -5% at lower feed
rates (0.5 µm/rev). Thrust force decreased by 20-30% with increasing cutting speeds for thermoplastic (TP)
materials. Higher feed rates (2 and 4 µm/rev) resulted in smaller hole diameter reductions, while lower speeds
(10 m/min) led to higher thrust forces. These findings suggest that TP materials are more sensitive to cutting
speed, and optimal feed rates can minimize material compression, providing insights for enhancing micro
drilling of composites in aerospace applications.

Keywords: Micro drilling, Carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP), Thermoplastic composites

Introduction
Nowadays, composite materials are widely used in various industries, including automotive, defense,
biomedical, and aerospace. In fact, they cover up to 50% of an aircraft due to their unique properties, such as
high specific strength, fracture toughness, and resistance to corrosive environments [1]. Related with their
remarkable performance at high operating temperatures, thermoplastic materials have great potential as matrix
materials in polymer-based composite materials. In this context, because of their recyclability, improved curing
properties, and high toughness, thermoplastics have begun to replace traditional thermosets [2]. When
comparing thermoplastic and thermoset materials, it can be stated that thermoplastics can be melted more
easily due to their molecular chain structure. Additionally, thermoplastics exhibit more ductile behavior and
lower thermal conductivity than thermosets. Therefore, it can be concluded that the processability of
thermoplastics is inferior to that of thermosets. In line with this discovery, machining of thermoplastic
composites results in the formation of long and continuous chips, whereas machining of thermosets produces
relatively short and discontinuous chips [3]. Especially, with the reinforcement of carbon fiber into PEEK
material, combined composite material exhibits enhanced mechanical properties and these composites are
mostly utilized in production of high-end medical implants [4]. The investigation of using carbon fiber
reinforced PEEK rivets as fasteners instead of metallic-based fasteners continues, in addition to their use as
the bulk material in industrial functional applications [5]. Moreover, it is known that processes such as micro-
hole drilling and grooving are crucial for the production of ready-to-assembly composite parts [6].

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Upon reviewing literature studies, it is evident that there is a limited number of studies that focus on
microdrilling carbon fiber reinforced polymers. For instance, Shunmugesh and Pratheesh [7] investigated the
influences of drilling parameters such as spindle speed, feed rate and drill diameter on the micro-drillability of
the carbon fiber reinforced plastics. In another study, Basso et al. [8] worked on the effects of drilling strategies
such as direct, supported and pilon on the micro hole quality in carbon fiber reinforced polymer composite by
measuring the thrust force and damage formation. Parallel to this study, Rahamathullah and Shunmugam [9]
also carried out a study about the micro drilling strategies in glass fiber reinforced polymer. What’s more, Geier
et al. [10] focused on the mechanical micro drilling of glass and carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites
and mentioned about the mechanism behind the microdrilling in depth. Moreover, Shunmugesh and
Panneerselvam [11] reported that feed rate and spindle speed combination remarkably affect the multiple
response characteristics as a result of their performance on optimization of process parameters in micro drilling
of carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites via Taguchi and Grey Relational Analysis. Besides, Sen et al.
[12] compared the hole qualities results of the carbon composite and carbon aramid (hybrid) composite in their
micro drilling study and they have announced that better hole quality outcomes were obtained for the carbon
composite than the hybrid composite. In addition, Anand et al. [13] exhibited that radial and thrust forces are
influenced by tool edge radius in micro drilling of composite parts. Lastly, Sazli et al. [14] studied about the
influences of micro drilling parameters on tool wear at carbon fiber reinforced polymer panels.
This study investigates the effect of drilling parameters on thrust force and hole diameter in micro drilling of
aerospace grade thermoset and thermoplastic based lamina composites.

Materials and Method

In this study, two composite test materials which are polyether ether ketone (PEEK) based carbon fiber
reinforced thermoplastic composite (TP), and polyester based thermoset composite (TS) reinforced with
carbon fibers were first subjected to the micro drilling process. After the micro drilling process, the diameters
of the holes were measured, along with the thrust force and the amount of wear on the tool. Following the
measurement process, the results were subjected to analysis of variance, and the consistency of the experiment
was evaluated. The workflow of the study is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: The operation of the experimental process

This study aims to experimentally investigate the drillability of Polyether ether ketone (PEEK), a
thermoplastic, and a thermoset composite material reinforced with carbon fibers, and to support the findings
with analysis of variance. Within the scope of this study, two different types of plastics (TP and TS) were
machined using four different feed rates (0.5, 1, 2, 4 µm/rev) and four different cutting speeds (10, 20, 30, 40
m/min). The experimental set was arranged according to the Taguchi L16 experimental design. The designated
experimental sets and their results are presented in Table 1 with standard deviations (SD).

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%Change in Thrust
Feed Rate Cutting Speed
Trial No Material Hole Diameter Force (N)
(µm/rev) (m/min)
(SD) (SD)
1 TP 0.5 10 -10.71 (0.92) 13.53 (1.11)
2 TP 0.5 20 -9.97 (0.86) 11.55 (0.81)
3 TS 0.5 30 -9.57 (0.78) 11.62 (0.78)
4 TS 0.5 40 -9.286 (0.72) 12.18 (1.10)
5 TP 1 10 -10.98 (1.05) 12.12 (0.98)
6 TP 1 20 -10.98 (1.12) 9.59 (0.77)
7 TS 1 30 -7.71 (0.64) 11.76 (0.85)
8 TS 1 40 -7.71 (0.58) 11.73 (0.65)
9 TS 2 10 -8 (0.66) 11.07 (0.73)
10 TS 2 20 -7.71 (0.49) 9.73 (0.56)
11 TP 2 30 -9.96 (0.88) 8.23 (0.41)
12 TP 2 40 -9.71 (0.79) 8.44 (0.36)
13 TS 4 10 -9 (0.91) 10.71 (0.67)
14 TS 4 20 -9 (0.82) 10.71 (0.69)
15 TP 4 30 -10.37 (0.96) 8.25 (0.49)
16 TP 4 40 -11 (1.14) 7.49 (0.36)
Table 1: Taguchi L16 experimental setup and results

Results and Discussion

3.1 Analysis of Variance of %Change in Hole Diameter

The second parameter subjected to analysis of variance was the percentage change in hole diameter. Figure 2a
shows the hole diameter measurement process and Figure 2b provides a graph in percentage terms of the
change in hole diameter in the material as a result of the micro drilling process. According to Figure 2, the
percentage change in hole diameter in the samples ranged between -7.7% and -11%. When examined on a
material basis, it can be said that the composite material reinforced with carbon fibers generally underwent
less change compared to PEEK. Upon examining the graph provided in Figure 2, it is observed that the type
of material has a significant effect on the results, with the thermoset material generally yielding better outcomes
compared to the thermoplastic material.

Figure 2: Demonstration of the hole diameter measurement and experimental results, a) view of the hole
diameter measurement process, b) Graph of %Change in hole diameter for experimental sets
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Figure 3: Effect of average values of parameters on %change in hole diameter

Upon examining the mentioned graph, it was observed that the change in hole diameter decreases with an
increase in feed rate, but at a feed rate of 4 µm/rev, the outcome progresses in the opposite direction. It is clear
that the cutting speed has no significant effect on the results. For the examination of these outputs, a general
linear model analysis was initially conducted. Table 2 presents the analysis of variance table for the percentage
change in hole diameter parameter. A look at the F-value scores reveals that the type of material is the parameter
with the most significant impact on the percentage change in hole diameter.

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value

Feed Rate 3 2.8571 0.9524 2.33 0.151
Cutting Speed 3 0.2016 0.0672 0.16 0.917
Material 1 15.4028 15.4028 37.63 0.000
Error 8 3.2744 0.4093
Total 15 21.7360
Table 2: Analysis of variance for general linear model analysis of %change in hole diameter
When examining the model summary for the mixed effect model analysis conducted for the percentage change
in hole diameter, presented in Table 3, it is noted that the established model exhibits similarity to the previous
model, achieving a consistency rate of 82.53%.
S R-sq R-sq(adj) AICc BIC
0.562144 82.53% 82.53% 47.26 46.09
Table 3: Model summary for mixed effect model analysis of %change in hole diameter
To understand which input parameters significantly affect the outcome of the percentage change in hole
diameter, one must refer to the variance components presented in Table 4. Upon examining Table 4, it is
observed that the most influential input on the output value is the type of material, while the cutting speed
remains ineffective. Furthermore, according to Figure 3, although the feed rate appears to have an effect on
the result, the inconsistency in the graph has led to it being indicated as a factor with a low percentage in the
analysis of variance.

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Source Var Contribution P-Value

Feed Rate 0.159094 6.74% 0.210
Cutting Speed 0.000000 0.00% *
Material 1.885852 79.88% 0.244
Error 0.316006 13.38% 0.010
Total 2.360952
Table 4: Variance components for mixed effect model analysis of %change in hole diameter

Std. Dev. 0.2706 R² 0.9731

Mean 9.48 Adjusted R² 0.9495
C.V. % 2.85 Predicted R² 0.8922
Adeq Precision 17.0992
Table 5: Model summary for factorial design model analysis of %change in hole diameter
In the established factorial design model, the predicted consistency rate achieved is 89.22%. Unlike the other
models, this model has achieved an acceptable level of predictability. Therefore, it will be possible to make
predictions for the percentage change in hole diameter outcome using this model.

3.2 Analysis of Variance of Thrust Force

Another parameter subjected to analysis of variance is the thrust force. Figure 4 shows the distribution of thrust
force on the tool resulting from the micro drilling process, according to the experiments.

Figure 4. An illustration of the occurred thrust force (Fz) during the micro drilling process

Figure 5: Graph of thrust force for experimental sets

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The graph presented in Figure 5, when compared within itself, shows that the composite material reinforced
with carbon fibers generates lower thrust forces compared to PEEK. Examining the effect of average values
of parameters on thrust force in Figure 6, it is understood that the thermoplastic composite material generates
lower levels of thrust force compared to the thermoset PEEK. Additionally, it is observed that as the feed rate
and cutting speed decrease, there is also a decrease in thrust force.

Figure 6: Effect of average values of parameters on thrust force

For the examination of these outputs, a general linear model analysis was conducted first. The model summary
for the general linear model analysis of thrust force is indicated in Table 6 below.

S R-sq R-sq(adj) R-sq(pred)

0.684178 91.77% 84.56% 67.06%
Table 6: Model summary for general linear model analysis of thrust force
Upon examining Table 6, it is observed that the consistency of the model, as indicated by the R-squared (R-
sq) value, is 84.56%, which is deemed acceptable. However, due to the insufficient number of inputs leading
to a scarcity of data, the predictability consistency rate for this parameter has not reached an adequate level.
Therefore, it has been determined that while the established model is consistent, the lack of data prevents the
possibility of making predictions.
Table 7 provides the analysis of variance table for thrust force. Looking at the F-value scores, it is evident that
the most significant parameters affecting thrust force are the feed rate and material.

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value

Feed Rate 3 25.365 8.4549 18.06 0.001
Cutting Speed 3 9.721 3.2403 6.92 0.013
Material 1 6.645 6.6448 14.20 0.005
Error 8 3.745 0.4681
Total 15 45.475
Table 7: Analysis of variance for general linear model analysis of thrust force
The second step in the analysis of variance for thrust force involves a mixed effect model analysis. According
to the analysis results presented in Table 8, the model consistency rate is 91.08%, indicating that the mixed
effect model analysis is similar to the general linear model.

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S R-sq R-sq(adj) AICc BIC

0.684178 91.08% 91.08% 63.09 61.93
Table 8: Model summary for mixed effect model analysis of thrust force
To determine which input parameters significantly affect the thrust force outcome, it is necessary to examine
the variance components provided in Table 9. Upon review, it is observed that the most influential input
parameter on the output value is the feed rate, accounting for 50.81% of the variance. According to the results
of the mixed effect model analysis, the type of material has a more modest impact rate compared to the general
linear model.

Source Var Contribution P-Value

Feed Rate 1.996695 50.81% 0.124
Cutting Speed 0.693058 17.64% 0.148
Material 0.772087 19.65% 0.256
Error 0.468099 11.91% 0.023
Total 3.929939
Table 9: Variance components for mixed effect model analysis of thrust force

Conclusions
This research explores effect of cutting parameters on thrust force and hole diameter change in micro drilling
of polyether ether ketone (PEEK) based carbon reinforced thermoplastic composite (TP), and polyester based
thermoset composite (TS) reinforced with carbon fibers. The study uses analysis of variance to validate its
findings. It involves machining two distinct types of plastics, thermoplastic (TP) and thermoset (TS), under
varying conditions. Four different feed rates (0.5, 1, 2, and 4 µm/rev) and four different cutting speeds (10, 20,
30, and 40 m/min) were applied in the experimentation.
Here are the results obtained from the study, listed in bullet points:
➢ Impact of Feed Rate: At lower feed rates (0.5 and 1 µm/rev), the reduction in hole diameter is generally
greater. This suggests that less feed rate subjects the material to more pressure, impacting the hole diameter
more significantly. Higher feed rates (2 and 4 µm/rev) tend to result in less reduction in hole diameter,
suggesting that quicker feed rates compress the material less.
➢ Effect of Cutting Speed: As the cutting speed increases, the reduction in hole diameter tends to increase for
TP material, while this trend is not clear for TS material. This indicates that TP material may be more
sensitive to higher cutting speeds compared to TS.
➢ Thrust Force: Thrust force generally decreases as the cutting speed increases, indicating that higher cutting
speeds reduce the force required during the cutting process. Although thrust force varies with increasing
feed rate, there is no clear trend, indicating that its impact is more complex and may depend on other factors
as well.
➢ Change in Hole Diameter: According to the table, all trials show a decrease in hole diameter (% negative
values), which could be due to compression of the material or thermal effects during the drilling process. ıt
is observed that the type of material has a significant effect on the results, with the thermoset material
generally yielding better outcomes compared to the thermoplastic material.

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Acknowledgement
The authors would like thank TUSAŞ company for their support and contributions.

References
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Davim, J.P., 2023, “A critical review on mechanical micro-drilling of glass and carbon fibre reinforced polymer
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[12] Sen, M., Eryilmaz, O., Bakir, B., 2024, “Micro drilling characterization of the carbon and carbon–aramid
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[13] Anand, R.S., Patra, K., 2017, “Cutting force and hole quality analysis in micro-drilling of CFRP”,
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EFFECTS OF MILLING TYPE ON CUTTING FORCES AND SURFACE

FINISH IN ROBOTIC MACHINING
Mehmet Ali Erhun, Mohammadreza Chehrehzad, Ulas Agdogan, Hammad Ur Rahman, and Ismail
Lazoglu
Koc University, Manufacturing and Automation Research Center, Istanbul/Türkiye,
Corresponding author’s email: ilazoglu@ku.edu.tr

Abstract
In this paper, the effects of up and down milling on cutting forces, structural vibrations, and surface quality in
the machining of 7050-grade Aluminum are investigated. Comprehensive data collection and analysis were
conducted to evaluate these parameters and determine the preferable milling approach for robotic machining
applications. The investigation revealed that up milling is generally more advantageous for the robotic
machining of Al7050. Specifically, down milling was associated with increased machining-induced vibrations,
higher and non-uniform cutting forces, and comparatively inferior surface quality relative to up milling. These
findings suggest that up milling is preferable for achieving better control over cutting dynamics and surface
finish when using robotic manipulators in the machining of Al7050.
Keywords: Robotic machining, milling strategies, machining vibrations

1 Introduction
Computer Numerical Control (CNC) machine tools have traditionally been employed in metal machining
due to their high repeatability, rigidity, and capability to achieve elevated material removal rates (MRR) [1].
Despite these advantages, CNC machines are often hindered by their high cost and limited operational reach
relative to their physical dimensions. Consequently, robotic manipulators have emerged as a viable alternative,
offering a cost-effective and versatile machining platform for some specific applications. However, a
significant limitation of robotic machining systems is their lower and position-dependent stiffness compared
to CNC machine tools. Specifically, CNC machines typically exhibit stiffness values around 50 N/μm, whereas
robotic manipulators demonstrate significantly lower stiffness, generally less than 1 N/μm [2]. This
discrepancy in stiffness can impact the precision and stability of the machining process, highlighting a critical
area for optimization in robotic machining applications. The low stiffness of the manipulator causes high levels
of machining-induced vibration, leading to a low surface finish. Pan et al. and Cordes et al. have identified
mode coupling chatter as the primary mechanism in low-speed robotic machining [3] [4] and it can be avoided
by optimizing cutting strategies and robot stiffness [5]. Previous research shows that the positional and
orientational stiffness of the robot can be modeled and optimized. Celikag et al. presented a method of
measuring, modeling, and optimizing manipulator stiffness in traditional cartesian axes [6]. Xiong et al.
proposed a new method to determine a stiffness criterion for the robot in a non-cartesian frame of reference
[7]. These articles present the feasibility and challenges of using robotic manipulators for machining tasks.
The milling types that are investigated in this paper are up milling and down milling. Up milling, also known
as conventional milling, is the strategy of milling against the direction of feed [8]. In up milling, the chip
thickness starts at zero and increases towards the end of the cut [9]. Cutting forces begin at a low value and
gradually increase to a maximum in up milling [10]. Up milling also produces forces that push the workpiece
upwards and in the negative feed direction [8] [11]. Down milling, or climb milling, is the practice of milling
with the direction of feed. In down milling, the chip thickness starts at a high value and gradually decreases to
zero, producing tapered chips [8] [9]. Cutting forces start at the maximum value and gradually decrease to a
low value, resulting in a high initial load, which each tool contacts [10]. Down milling has been established as
the preferred method in modern machining [1] [8] [9]. Research conducted on traditional CNC machine tools
also support this claim; Laamouri et al. observed that up milling results in average surface roughness (Ra) and
maximum surface roughness (Rmax) values that are two and three times as much when compared to down
milling [12]. Vakandios et al. observed that the average surface roughness value in vertical up milling is two
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times higher than the roughness produced by vertical down milling during the milling of Al-7050 [13].
Michalik et al. recommended the utilization of down milling for the machining of thin walls as their research
has shown that down milling produces less surface roughness and a more linear surface roughness profile when
compared to up milling [14]. A limited amount of research is available on the effect of milling type during
robotic machining. Tunc et al. observed a smaller range of stability during robotic down milling when
compared to robotic up milling, proving that using less depth of cut (DOC) compared to up milling was feasible
during down milling in order to achieve stable operation [15]. This result indicates that different milling
strategies might yield unconventional results in robotic machining. The root cause of this result might be the
high initial loads in down milling. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate the effects of different milling types
on the robotic machining of 7050-grade aluminum alloy and serve as a benchmark for future research in the
area.

2 Experimental Setup and Method

2.1 Experimental Setup
The experimental setup is comprised of a robotic manipulator, a spindle motor, a variable frequency drive,
a photoelectric sensor, a force dynamometer, a data acquisition system, tri-axial accelerometer, and a surface
roughness gauge, as illustrated in Figure 1. The robotic manipulator has a maximum payload of 20 kg and has
a rated position repeatability of ±0.06 mm in all three main axes. The spindle, with a rated power output of 1.1
kW and a maximum operating rpm of 18000, is mounted at the flange of the robot. The spindle is coupled to
the robot flange via an Al-7050 part that was designed and manufactured in-house. The spindle is driven by a
variable frequency drive (VFD) controller, operated in constant frequency mode. The spindle speed can vary
during cutting operations under the influence of torque. A photoelectric sensor was integrated into the system
to monitor the spindle speed and ensure no deviations were encountered. The milling tool was a 4-fluted
carbide flat-end mill with a diameter of 12 mm. The triaxial accelerometer, with a measurement range of ±500
g and a sensitivity of 10 mV/g, was mounted onto the body of the spindle motor. The data from the photoelectric
and acceleration sensors were captured at a rate of 20 kHz. The table-type dynamometer captured milling force
data in two axes. The measured signals from the dynamometer were amplified using a charge amplifier. The
data from the dynamometer was captured at a rate of 4 kHz.
The surface roughness gauge was utilized to measure surface roughness values. The workpiece was a
120x190x80 mm block of 7050-grade Aluminum alloy, widely used for manufacturing structural aerospace
parts. The slab was clamped onto the worktable using a vise.

Figure 1: The experimental setup.

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2.2 Design of Experiment

To investigate the effects of down and up milling in robotic machining, several up and down half immersion
milling experiments were conducted at three different feed rates, with a constant cutting speed of 480 mm/min,
a spindle speed of 12000 rpm, and an axial depth of cut of 0.2 mm. Down milling was conducted in the robot
+X axis, and up milling was conducted in the robot –X axis. In order to determine the workpiece reference
coordinate system and prepare for milling operations, several roughing operations were conducted on the XY,
YZ, and XZ planes of the robot coordinate system. These operations were full immersion operations, and they
were conducted with a spindle speed of 12000 rpm, a feed rate of 480 mm/min, and an axial depth of cut of
0.5 mm. The experiment order and parameters can be viewed in Table 1.

Experiment Nr. EXP. 1 EXP. 2 EXP. 3 EXP. 4 EXP. 5 EXP. 6

Feed per Tooth (mm) 0.015 0.015 0.025 0.025 0.035 0.035

Feed Rate (mm/min) 720 720 1200 1200 1680 1680

Milling Type Down Up Up Down Up Down

Table 1: The design of the experiments.

2.3 Photoelectric sensor for spindle speed measurement

The photoelectric sensor used in this work consists of an infrared-based transmitter (Tx) and receiver pair
(Rx) to measure spindle speed deviations. The Tx emits infrared light at a wavelength of 850 nm, while the Rx
is a phototransistor that converts incoming photons into electrons, generating a corresponding voltage. The
light emitted by the Tx strikes the target object (a machine tool), reflects off it, and is received by the
phototransistor. The intensity of the reflected light determines the electric voltage produced, which varies
depending on the distance between the sensor and the target object. As the tool rotates, the flutes of the tool
pass in front of the sensor, thus generating corresponding voltage signals for each flute. A custom fixture was
designed to ease the robot-sensor integration. The pictorial representation of the designed fixture is shown in
Figure 2. As the cutting tool used in this work has a diameter of 12 mm, the fixture’s inner diameter is set as
14 mm to have a 2 mm clearance gap. The tool rotates in front of the sensor; as the tool has four flutes, four
peaks can be observed in the acquired data in each revolution. These peaks are used to evaluate the revolutions
per minute of the cutting tool.

Figure 2: The pictorial representation of the custom-built fixture for the photoelectric sensor.

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3 Results
3.1 IR Sensor Measurement
Figure 3 displays the data obtained from the sensor over one complete revolution. The data exhibits four
peaks, each corresponding to one of the four flutes on the cutting tool. When a tool flute edge passes in front
of the sensor, the voltage across the sensor measures approximately 2 volts; when the flute edge moves away,
it measures around 1.3 volts. This 0.7-volt difference is sufficient to identify the peaks caused by the rotating
flutes. By calculating the time between consecutive sets of four peaks, the rpm of the tool can be determined.
Sensor calibration is unnecessary since the objective is to establish the time duration between these consecutive
peaks. The two sensors were mounted in the X (feed) and the Y (cross-feed) axes. In order to determine if large
spindle speed deviations were present during machining, several roughing operations with an axial depth of
cut of 0.5mm were made. The rpm values were calculated using the data obtained from the co-axial sensors.

Figure 3: Photoelectric sensor data obtained during one complete revolution of the tool in down milling.
Although slight deviations in cutting speed of 12000 rpm were observed, the biggest recorded speed
deviation is a speed drop of 1.6% in the case of an axial DOC of 0.5 mm. Speed deviations larger than ±500
rpm were not observed during the trials. Therefore, any further alterations to the cutting speed were deemed
unnecessary.

3.2 Acceleration Measurement

During the milling processes, acceleration was measured in three directions using the aforementioned
sensor. The resulting data is visualized in Figure 4.

Figure 4: Acceleration measurements of Exp. 3 and Exp. 4.

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As illustrated by Figure 4, the Y axis, which is the cross-feed axis, has sustained the largest acceleration,
reaching values up to 10 times larger than the other directions. It can also be observed that the maximum forces
in the cross-feed direction are considerably larger in down milling. Sudden changes in acceleration were
frequently observed in down-milling trials. Another observation point is that the up-milling cases (Exp. 2, 3,
and 5) have less acceleration than their down-milling applied counterparts. The average values of measurement
are shown in Table 2.

Exp. 1 Exp. 2 Exp. 3 Exp. 4 Exp.5 Exp.6

Avg. Accel. In X (Tri-axial) 1.094 0.790 0.680 0.762 0.687 0.862

Avg. Accel. In Y (Tri-axial) 5.024 3.104 3.494 3.283 3.450 3.891

Avg. Accel. In Z (Tri-axial) 1.146 0.591 0.503 0.627 0.447 0.774

Table 2: Average acceleration values measured in all 3 axes.

3.3 Force Measurement

Force values were measured using the table-type dynamometer in two axes (X and Y). The feed direction
(robot X) corresponds to the dynamometer’s Y-axis, while the dynamometer’s X-axis corresponds to the cross-
feed (robot Y) axis. The force readings are displayed in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Force measurements in the X and Y axes

A clear distinction is observed between the force profiles of down and up milling. Steady force profiles were
observed during up-milling. Down milling with the same process parameters resulted in force profiles with
very high variability. The average and maximum forces in the experiments can be viewed in Tables 3 and 4.

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EXP. 1 EXP. 2 EXP. 3 EXP. 4 EXP. 5 EXP. 6

Cross Feed Dir. (N) 9.88 5.34 6.16 9.96 6.49 10.99

Feed Dir. (N) 4.57 4.39 6.15 4.70 6.94 6.74

Table 3: The average machining forces in X and Y directions.

EXP. 1 EXP. 2 EXP. 3 EXP. 4 EXP. 5 EXP. 6

Cross Feed Dir. (N) 93.28 31.48 29.03 101.12 28.15 118.64

Feed Dir. (N) 43.44 19.31 24.80 40.86 20.87 60.43

Table 4: The maximum machining forces in X and Y directions.

Down milling resulted in greater average and maximum force values in the Y direction while generating
greater maximum force values and similar average force values in the X direction compared to up milling. In
the case of average forces, down milling produces around 1.5 times more machining forces compared to up
milling with the same parameters in the cross-feed direction. The force difference between these axes is also
greater in down milling compared to up milling, indicating that the excitations produced during milling may
not be uniform. In all down-milling trials, more forces in the Y direction were observed. In up milling, the
magnitudes of the forces in both directions were roughly equal.

3.4 Surface Roughness Measurement

After the milling operation, three regions with different surface roughness were observed. These roughness
differences were presumably caused by the robot’s varying positional and orientational stiffness. As the robot
moves, it encounters zones of reduced stability, resulting in these different surface characteristics. The regions
were observed in each of the machining operations. To ensure consistency in measurement, the machined
surfaces were divided into three regions, as shown in Figure 6.

Figure 6: The different surface roughness regions along the milling feed.
Surface roughness measurements were taken in the feed direction after every operation. A comparison of
measurement results of down and up-milled surfaces from region 1 is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Surface roughness profiles in Exp. 1 and 2.

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Obtained Ra and Rz values for each trial are presented in Table 5.

Exp. Rz (μm) Ra (μm) Up/Down Milling

1 4.596 0.796 Down

2 3.458 0.645 Up
3 4.422 0.801 Up
Region 1
4 4.56 0.846 Down
Table 5: Ra and Rz
values for 5 5.212 0.934 Down all trials.
A slight 6 6.04 1.118 Up trend
indicating lower
surface quality of down-milled surfaces can be inferred from the data. Down milling has resulted in 16% more
Ra and Rz values on average compared to up milling in region 1.

4 Discussion
For convenient analysis, bar graphs of average values obtained from the measurements are shown in Figure.

Figure 8: Average acceleration, force, and surface roughness graphs.

The graphs follow a similar trend, indicating lower surface quality, non-uniform and significantly higher
machining forces and structural vibrations in down milling compared to up milling.
The largest magnitude of accelerations is in the cross-feed axis, and this observation is consistent for all
trials. Therefore, it can reasonably be inferred that the robot’s stiffness in the cross-feed axis is presumably
lower than its stiffness in the feed axis. The stiffness in the feed and vertical axes appeared to be similar in
magnitude, as the acceleration in both axes was roughly equal in magnitude. Further investigation in the form
of modal analysis is required to obtain a decisive conclusion regarding this matter. Overall, it was observed
that down milling induced more structural vibrations in all directions in trials than up milling. The largest
deviation was observed in the vertical axis, with a 69.1% increase on average. This was followed by the feed
and cross-feed axes, with the average increases being 26% and 21.5%, respectively.
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An overall increase in total machining forces was observed in down milling. In up milling, the measured
machining forces were roughly equal in both directions. This was not the case in down milling, indicating that
the forces may be distributed non-uniformly. Down milling has also resulted in severe shock loading, causing
loads up to 10 times the average load in both axes. This behavior was not observed in up milling. In some
cases, down milling has produced less force compared to up milling in the feed direction, indicating a potential
non-uniform distribution of machining forces. This non-uniformity may also explain the relatively high
amounts of acceleration in the cross-feed axis in the machining force direction.
Surface roughness values follow a similar trend to the force and acceleration values. Down milling has
consistently produced surfaces with slightly higher Ra and Rz values. The average difference between Ra and
Rz values of down and up-milled surfaces is 16.5% and 16.2%, respectively. Areas of discontinuity, marked as
regions 2 and 3, appeared in the same locations in all trials. These regions were also similar in size, indicating
a behavior that may be independent of milling type or process parameters. In order to maintain the robustness
of the measurement system and to avoid introducing variables that may be independent of the controlling
factors, those areas were not considered.
The factor that was affected the most by the milling type was identified as machining forces. This was
followed by structural vibrations and cutting forces, respectively. The average percentage changes for each
factor with respect to milling type can be viewed in Table 6.

Ff [N] Ffmax [N] Fc [N] Fcmax [N] Afeed [g] Across [g] Aver [g] Ra [µm] Rz [µm]

Up
5.83 21.7 6.00 29.6 0.72 3.35 0.42 0.79 4.36
Milling

Down
5.34 48.2 10.3 104 0.91 4.07 0.71 0.92 5.07
Milling

% Inc. -10% 221% 71.6% 351% 26% 21.5% 69.1% 16.5% 16.2%

Table 6: Average force, acceleration, and surface roughness values for different milling types.
It can be observed that maximum forces in both directions have increased substantially in down milling.
The most sensitive factor to changes in milling type was determined as machining forces in the cross-feed
direction, with an average increase of 71.6% and a maximum deviation of 351%. This was followed by
acceleration in the vertical direction, although it should also be stated that this behavior may be dependent on
orientation. A slight decrease was observed in forces in the feed direction, although this may be caused by the
aforementioned non-uniform behavior of the forces since there was a significant increase in total forces. In
roughing trials, multiple cases of workpiece fractures were observed during down milling. Not only did these
cases result in large pieces being ejected from the surface of the workpiece, but severe vibrations on the robot
body were observed, causing the robot to activate collision detection mode. This may be caused by a pecking-
like motion of the manipulator`s body during down milling. A picture of the fracture and the acceleration data
recorded during the fracture are shown in Figure 9.

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Figure 9: Acceleration data and fractured workpiece. The fracture occurred at the time of 12s and is marked in
red.

5 Conclusion
An experimental study was conducted to assess the effects of various vertical milling strategies on the
machining of 7050-grade aluminum alloy. The data collected from this study enabled the evaluation of different
milling types in the context of robotic machining. Based on the analysis of the experimental results,
conclusions were drawn regarding the optimal milling approach for achieving superior performance in the
robotic machining of this aluminum alloy. The main conclusions are as follows:

1) Up milling has been determined to be the preferable milling strategy for low-material removal rate
(MRR) operations involving 7050-grade aluminum alloy.
2) Down milling resulted in shock loading and elevated average machining forces. Deviations in forces
were found to be 351% higher for the maximum force and 72% higher for the average force in the
cross-feed direction. Force was identified as the most sensitive parameter to variations in milling type.
3) The magnitude of structural vibrations increased across all three axes during down milling operations.
4) Down milling has resulted in sporadic and severe increases in structural vibrations, while up milling
resulted in a steady and constant vibration profile.
5) Although a discernible trend was observed, the milling type did not significantly impact the surface
quality of the workpiece.
6) Surface discontinuities were noted, likely attributed to variations in positional stiffness.
7) In certain instances, down milling led to workpiece fractures and severe vibrations, with the robot
controller detecting collisions as a result.
8) The payload capacity of the manipulator must be considered when planning the machining trajectory
in robotic machining. Down milling, due to its impact on machining forces, may render operations
that would be feasible with up milling infeasible.

The observed discrepancies in machining performance can be attributed to the distinct force profiles
associated with different milling types. Specifically, down milling induces shock loading, which results in
increased vibration levels within the robotic system. This heightened vibration, in turn, contributes to elevated
and non-uniform machining forces, ultimately leading to diminished surface quality.

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References
[1] Y. Altintas, Manufacturing Automation: Metal Cutting Mechanics, Machine Tool Vibrations, and CNC
Design, 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2012.
[2] W. Wang, Q. Guo, Z. Yang, Y. Jiang, and J. Xu, “A state-of-the-art review on robotic milling of complex
parts with high efficiency and precision,” Robot Comput Integr Manuf, vol. 79, p. 102436, Feb. 2023,
doi: 10.1016/j.rcim.2022.102436.
[3] Z. Pan, H. Zhang, Z. Zhu, and J. Wang, “Chatter analysis of robotic machining process,” J Mater
Process Technol, vol. 173, no. 3, pp. 301–309, Apr. 2006, doi: 10.1016/j.jmatprotec.2005.11.033.
[4] M. Cordes, W. Hintze, and Y. Altintas, “Chatter stability in robotic milling,” Robot Comput Integr
Manuf, vol. 55, pp. 11–18, Feb. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.rcim.2018.07.004.
[5] L. Yuan, Z. Pan, D. Ding, S. Sun, and W. Li, “A Review on Chatter in Robotic Machining Process
Regarding Both Regenerative and Mode Coupling Mechanism,” IEEE/ASME Transactions on
Mechatronics, vol. 23, no. 5, pp. 2240–2251, Oct. 2018, doi: 10.1109/TMECH.2018.2864652.
[6] H. Celikag, N. D. Sims, and E. Ozturk, “Cartesian Stiffness Optimization for Serial Arm Robots,”
Procedia CIRP, vol. 77, pp. 566–569, 2018, doi: 10.1016/j.procir.2018.08.222.
[7] G. Xiong, Y. Ding, and L. Zhu, “Stiffness-based pose optimization of an industrial robot for five-axis
milling,” Robot Comput Integr Manuf, vol. 55, pp. 19–28, Feb. 2019, doi: 10.1016/j.rcim.2018.07.001.
[8] R. D. Cormier and A. R. Walsh, McGraw-Hill Machining and Metalworking Handbook, 3rd ed.
McGraw Hill, 2005.
[9] AB Sandvik Coromant, Training handbook, Metal cutting technology. 2017.
[10] N. Grossi, L. Morelli, G. Venturini, and A. Scippa, “Forces Shapes in 3-Axis End-Milling:
Classification and Characteristic Equations,” Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, vol.
5, no. 4, p. 117, Oct. 2021, doi: 10.3390/jmmp5040117.
[11] R. Guiassa, J. R. R. Mayer, P. St-Jacques, and S. Engin, “Calibration of the cutting process and
compensation of the compliance error by using on-machine probing,” The International Journal of
Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 78, no. 5–8, pp. 1043–1051, May 2015, doi:
10.1007/s00170-014-6714-6.
[12] A. Laamouri, F. Ghanem, C. Braham, and H. Sidhom, “Influences of up-milling and down-milling on
surface integrity and fatigue strength of X160CrMoV12 steel,” The International Journal of Advanced
Manufacturing Technology, vol. 105, no. 1–4, pp. 1209–1228, Nov. 2019, doi: 10.1007/s00170-019-
04280-2.
[13] D. Vakondios, P. Kyratsis, S. Yaldiz, and A. Antoniadis, “Influence of milling strategy on the surface
roughness in ball end milling of the aluminum alloy Al7075-T6,” Measurement, vol. 45, no. 6, pp.
1480–1488, Jul. 2012, doi: 10.1016/j.measurement.2012.03.001.
[14] P. Michalik, J. Zajac, M. Hatala, D. Mital, and V. Fecova, “Monitoring surface roughness of thin-walled
components from steel C45 machining down and up milling,” Measurement, vol. 58, pp. 416–428, Dec.
2014, doi: 10.1016/j.measurement.2014.09.008.
[15] L. T. Tunc and J. Shaw, “Investigation of the effects of Stewart platform-type industrial robot on
stability of robotic milling,” The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol.
87, no. 1–4, pp. 189–199, 2016, doi: 10.1007/s00170-016-8420-z.

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INVESTIGATION OF TOOL CHIPPING RECOGNITION IN MILLING

PROCESS
Mohammadreza Chehrehzada , Ismail Lazoglub , and Hanife Helvaciogluc

a, Koc University, Manufacturing and Automation Research Center, Istanbul/Turkey, mchehrezad19@ku.edu.tr

b, Koc University, Manufacturing and Automation Research Center, Istanbul/Turkey, ilazoglu@ku.edu.tr
c, Siemens Sanayi ve Ticaret A.S., Istanbul/ Turkey, hanife.helvacioglu@siemens.com

Abstract
Tool failure can be any undesired defect in the cutting tool that disturbs the cutting ability of the tool and
decreases the machining quality. These defects can be caused by wear mechanisms or tool breakage. Milling
of difficult to machine materials such as titanium alloys is prone to tool failures such as tool chipping and
breakage. Timely detection of the tool chipping is still a challenge for researchers, as it could help to prevent
early tool breakage and control the milling quality.
In this study, some milling experiments were conducted on a titanium alloy workpiece. The tool chipping
measurements were conducted using a microscope. After investigating the collected milling data of a
dynamometer and an industrial Edge device, significant differences were observed in the regularity of the
constant cutting process during the milling. Further experiments and investigation could help to elaborate more
on this subject and introduce the use of the Edge device as a promising, robust method for tool chipping
recognition.
Keywords: Titanium alloy, Tool chipping, Milling.

Introduction
Tool chipping is the small breakage of the particle from the cutting edge that leads to tool breakage if not
detected in time [1]. It was reported that 20% of downtime in plants is accounted for by tool failure, which
adversely affects productivity, production quality, and energy efficiency in manufacturing systems [2].
Therefore, timely tool failure detection during machining has been a crucial topic among researchers.
The methods of signal acquisition for tool wear and failure detection can be categorized into direct and indirect
types [3]. The direct detection type is based on the use of the tool image and optical measurement for tool wear
monitoring. Qu et al. [4] proposed a vision method for on-machine measurement of the milling tool damage
in the face milling process using an industrial camera, lens, and LED ring lightings mounted on the camera
support. Although this method is not online and has limitations when used with the presence of cutting fluid
and illumination, it has high accuracy. The indirect detection type consists of measuring machining parameters
using various sensors, processing the data, and correlating data with the tool failure. The collected data can be
cutting force, torque, vibration, temperature, sound, and surface roughness. While this type provides real-time
detection, it also needs high computational effort. Kang et al. [5] presented a tool chipping detection method
using the peak period of spindle vibration during the milling of the Inconel 718. Also, in their research, the
spindle current data are unsuitable for tool chipping detection because of its noise-free form. Recently, some
research has used Artificial intelligence (AI) techniques on the machining data to predict tool wear. Bleicher
et al. [6] proposed a process monitoring and tool chipping prediction method using a machine learning
algorithm on the vibration data of an instrumented tool holder in the milling process. Chehrehzad et al. [7]
reported a tool wear prediction AI-based method based on a recurrent neural n network using the milling data
from a dynamometer and Industrial Edge device.
In this study, some milling experiments were conducted on a titanium alloy workpiece. The tool chipping
measurements were conducted using a microscope. Significant differences were observed in the regularity of

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the constant cutting process during the milling after investigating the collected milling data of a dynamometer
and an industrial Edge device.

Experimental method
Various milling experiments were performed by a five-axis CNC machine. The milling cutting data were
collected using a rotary dynamometer mounted on the spindle of the CNC machine. The workpiece material
was a titanium alloy block. A milling tool with a diameter of 12 mm was used for the milling operation. The
measured signals from the rotary dynamometer were amplified using a charge amplifier and then converted to
digital signals using a data acquisition system. Moreover, the milling data were collected using the industrial
edge device for machine tools by Siemens. The tool chipping measurements were performed after experiments
using a stereomicroscope. The milling experiments were conducted in various feedrates with spindle speed of
1060 rpm.

Results
The milling data were collected using both the rotary dynamometer and the high frequency industrial Edge
device during the milling process. The collected milling raw data are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1: The milling raw data of dynamometer in federate 159 mm/min.

After each milling operation, the tool chipping measurement was conducted using the stereomicroscope as
shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: The tool chipping measurement results using the stereomicroscope.

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The milling operations were performed in tool chipping and no tool chipping conditions. After each milling
operation, the tool chip measurement using the stereomicroscope ensured whether the following milling
process would be in the tool chipping condition.
According to the collected milling forces and torque data using the dynamometer in no tool chipping condition
and compared them with the collected milling forces and torque data in the same cutting condition after tool
chipping occurrence, the effect of tool chipping is visible as an irregular and disturbance in the forces and
torque graphs. It was observed that the tool chipping occurrence violates the constant cutting forces and torque
data of the dynamometers during the milling operation and causes irregularity in the milling data of the
industrial Edge device as well. In the future, further experiments and data analysis could help to elaborate more
on this subject and introduce using the Edge device as a promising robust method for tool chipping detection.

Conclusion
In this study, various milling experiments were conducted on a titanium alloy workpiece. The tool chipping
measurements were conducted using a stereomicroscope after each milling operation. The milling data were
collected using the rotary dynamometer and Edge device in both tool chipping and no tool chipping conditions.
After investigating the milling data collected from the rotary dynamometer and Edge device, significant
differences were observed. The observations showed that the tool chipping violates the regular and constant
cutting process, which can be detectable in the milling data of the rotary dynamometer and industrial Edge
device. Further experiments and investigation could help to elaborate more on this subject and introduce using
the Edge device as a promising robust method for tool chipping recognition.

Acknowledgements
The authors express their sincere gratitude to Siemens for their support in providing the necessary hardware,
software, and the Siemens IoT Edge Research Lab in the Manufacturing and Automation Research Center
(MARC) at Koç University for supporting all necessary testing and measurement devices.

References

[1] Y. Altintas, 2012, Manufacturing automation: metal cutting mechanics, machine tool vibrations, and CNC
design. Cambridge University Press.
[2] X. Luan, S. Zhang, J. Li, G. Mendis, F. Zhao, and J. W. Sutherland, 2018, “Trade-off analysis of tool wear,
machining quality and energy efficiency of alloy cast iron milling process,” vol. 26, no. January, pp. 383–393.
[3] A. Siddhpura and R. Paurobally, 2013, “A review of flank wear prediction methods for tool condition
monitoring in a turning process,” International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 65, no.
1–4, pp. 371–393.
[4] J. Qu, C. Yue, J. Zhou, W. Xia, X. Liu, and S. Y. Liang, 2024, “On-machine detection of face milling cutter
damage based on machine vision,” The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol.
133, no. 3, pp. 1865–1879.
[5] G.-S. Kang, S.-G. Kim, G.-D. Yang, K.-H. Park, and D. Y. Lee, 2019, “Tool Chipping Detection Using Peak
Period of Spindle Vibration During End-Milling of Inconel 718,” International Journal of Precision
Engineering and Manufacturing, vol. 20, no. 11, pp. 1851–1859.
[6] F. Bleicher, C. M. Ramsauer, R. Oswald, N. Leder, and P. Schoerghofer, 2020, “Method for determining edge
chipping in milling based on tool holder vibration measurements,” CIRP Annals, vol. 69, no. 1, pp. 101–104.
[7] M. Chehrehzad, G. Kecibas, C. Besirova, U. Uresin, M. Irican, and I. Lazoglu, 2024, “Tool wear prediction
through AI-assisted digital shadow using industrial edge device,” J Manuf Process, vol. 113, pp. 117–130.
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A COMPLETE MATHEMATICAL MODELLING OF MILLING

SPINDLE AND MOTOR FOR FORCE ESTIMATION STUDIES
Batuhan Altınela , Cumhur Özbaşb , and Hakan Çalışkanc

a, Middle East Technical University, Engineering Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Ankara/TURKEY,
batuhan.altinel@metu.edu.tr
b, Middle East Technical University, Engineering Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Ankara/TURKEY,
cumhur.ozbas@metu.edu.tr
c, Middle East Technical University, Engineering Faculty, Mechanical Engineering Department, Ankara/TURKEY,
chakan@metu.edu.tr

Abstract
This paper presents a parametric mathematical model of the milling spindle and the driving AC electric motor.
The model represents all the electrical system dynamics of the asynchronous motor as well as the speed and
current controllers. The mechanical subsystem includes the rotor, spindle and the transmission system in
between the two. A novel identification procedure is proposed which enables analytical derivation of the
unknown mechanical parameters via simple spindle speed sine sweep test. The presented parametric model
can be considered as the digital twin of the spindle and will be utilized in the future milling force estimation
research, since once the parameters are identified, all the CNC intrinsic signals can be related to cutting torques.
The developed model and the proposed identification procedure are verified experimentally on the in house
retrofitted 5-axis CNC milling machine.

Keywords: AC Motor, Milling Force, Spindle Model

Introduction
Aligned with the Industry 4.0 concept, today’s research of machine tool systems focuses on process
identification and optimizations. Cutting force estimation is vital for self-optimizing machine tools since
milling force directly reflects the change in cutting conditions, and the tool-work piece interaction. The use of
dynamometer for force measurement is common in literature, however, it is not applicable to industry due to
its cost and fixture requirements. A more convenient external sensor is the accelerometer, where the cutting
forces can be estimated based on sophisticated models [1, 2]. Those techniques commonly require a profound
knowledge of the machine dynamics between the cutting tool and accelerometer mount [3]. There also exists
the use of specialized external sensors like electromagnetic spindle bearings [4] or thin film sensors embedded
in each cutting insert [5]. Accelerometer signals are good at high-frequency estimation of the cutting forces.
However, they cannot reflect the static cutting forces and poorly predict the low frequency. Sensor fusion is an
emerging trend, together with the acceleration measurement Mostaghimi et. al. [6] utilized spindle motor
currents for the low-frequency reconstruction of both the tangential and radial components of the cutting force.
Since the DC force component is of interest, the spindle current vs force relation is expressed with simple
algebraic relations without the dynamics. The use of intrinsic CNC signals does not require additional cost and
is superior to external sensor, it is also industrially applicable since it does not require a sensor set up, data
acquisition system. Based on average cutting forces, the force coefficients can be monitored. Liu et. al. [7]
utilized, nominal spindle motor currents for that purpose.
It is seen that the machine tool literature utilized either simple algebraic relations or complex numerical transfer
functions for defining current-cutting force relations. Although accurate, the use of complex numerical models
requires tedious experiments, and cannot be generalized to other variables. For example, an experimentally
derived numerical transfer function between motor current and cutting torque cannot be utilized to derive

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motor speed and cutting force relation. This paper presents a parametric model of the electric motor and the
spindle tool. It is shown that by making a simple spindle speed sine sweep tests, a parametric model can be
obtained, which can be utilized to relate the cutting force to any CNC intrinsic signal like, motor current, motor
voltage, motor speed, spindle speed etc. The paper covers a complete modelling procedure. The mathematical
model of asynchronous motors including the electrical dynamics and motion controllers are presented in detail.
The mechanical system is modelled as two inertia systems, with stiffness in between. An identification
procedure is proposed, verified with experimental tests. The modelling and verification are done on the in
house retrofitted Deckel FP5cc five axis CNC milling machine. The presented model is developed to be utilized
in future real time force estimations research.

Mathematical Modeling
The mathematical model of the milling spindle consists of two subsystems. These subsystems are categorized
as electrical and mechanical.

Electrical Subsystem
AC induction motor is used in the CNC spindle. It is driven by AC current, and it has stator and rotor structure.
To describe the mathematical model of the motor in electrical domain equivalent circuit is introduced in
Figure1. Induction motor mathematical model can be described in different reference frames, but stationary
reference frame is used in this model.

Figure 18: Induction Motor Equivalent Circuit in Blocked Rotor Test

In the mathematical model of the induction motor, the first subscript represents whether the variable belongs
to direct axis or quadrature axis. The second subscript represents whether the variable represents stator or rotor
parameters. Superscript represents stationary frame.
𝑠
𝑉𝑑𝑠 𝑠
= 𝑅𝑠 𝐼𝑑𝑠 + 𝜆̇𝑑𝑠
𝑠
(1)
s
Vqs 𝑠
= R s 𝐼𝑞𝑠 + 𝜆̇𝑞𝑠
𝑠
(2)
𝑠
0 = R r 𝐼𝑑𝑟 + 𝜆̇𝑑𝑟
𝑠 𝑠
+ 𝜔𝑟 𝜆𝑞𝑟 (3)
𝑠
0 = R r 𝐼𝑞𝑟 + 𝜆̇𝑞𝑟
𝑠 𝑠
− 𝜔𝑟 𝜆𝑑𝑟 (4)

𝑠 𝐿𝑟 𝜆𝑠𝑑𝑠 −𝐿𝑚 𝜆𝑠𝑑𝑟

𝐼𝑑𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑟 −𝐿2𝑚
(5)

𝑠 𝐿𝑟 𝜆𝑠𝑞𝑠 −𝐿𝑚 𝜆𝑠𝑞𝑟

𝐼𝑞𝑠 = 𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑟 −𝐿2𝑚
(6)

𝑠 𝐿𝑠 𝜆𝑠𝑑𝑟 −𝐿𝑚 𝜆𝑠𝑑𝑠

𝐼𝑑𝑟 = 𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑟 −𝐿2𝑚
(7)

𝑠 𝐿𝑠 𝜆𝑠𝑞𝑟 −𝐿𝑚 𝜆𝑠𝑑𝑟

𝐼𝑞𝑟 = 𝐿𝑠 𝐿𝑟 −𝐿2𝑚
(8)

3𝑝 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠
𝑇𝑒 = 2 2 𝐿𝑚 (𝐼𝑞𝑠 𝐼𝑑𝑟 − 𝐼𝑑𝑠 𝐼𝑞𝑟 ) (9)
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Mechanical Subsystem
The mechanical sub-system consists of the electric motor, belt drive, gear box, transmission and the spindle.
Physical demonstration of mechanical system is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 19 Transmission Between Motor and Spindle in CNC

The whole system is modelled as a two-inertia system and is shown in Figure 3-(a). The 𝐽𝑚 and 𝐽𝑠 are the
equivalent lumped inertias at the motor and spindle sides. Two separate damping forces added with coefficients
bm and bs. The whole transmission is modelled as a single gear reduction 𝑛, stiffness 𝑘 and damping 𝑏𝑡 . The
inputs of the system are the eclectic torque 𝑇𝑒 acting on the motor sides, and the cutting torque 𝑇𝑐 acting on
the spindle side as a disturbance force.
The whole system can be represented by the torque continuity equations written for the motor side and spindle
side inertias as follows:
𝑇𝑒 − nTt = 𝐽𝑚 𝜔̇ 𝑚 + 𝑏𝑚 𝜔𝑚 (10)
𝑇𝑡 − Tc = 𝐽𝑠 𝜔̇ 𝑠 + 𝑏𝑚 𝜔𝑠 (11)
where 𝑇𝑡 is the transmitted force defined as
𝑇𝑡 = bt (𝑛𝜔𝑚 − 𝜔𝑠 ) + 𝑘(𝑛𝜃𝑚 − 𝜃𝑠 ) (12)
Using the above three structural equations the block diagram representation of the system is constructed as
shown in Figure 3-(b). Note that each continuity equation corresponds to a summation block.
In the presented model, all the inertia, damping, and stiffness parameters are unknown. To identify those
parameters separately it is proposed to create sub functions with measurable quantities only. Furthermore, the
order of the transfer function are limited to two, for analytical parameter identification purposes. For that
purpose, it is assumed that the motor and spindle side damping 𝑏𝑚 ,𝑏𝑠 are negligible. Manipulating the block
diagram (b) the resulting representation is shown in Figure 3-(c). Here, the transfer function between the input
electric torque 𝑇𝑒 and motor speed 𝜔𝑚 can be written as

(13)
and likewise, the TF between the input motor speed ωm and output spindle speed ωs is

(14)
Note that, both the two TF’s are measurable, once, they are identified with sine sweep one can easily derive
the parameters analytically. Given the TF’s the identification procedure is represented as follows.
• Find the spindle side natural frequency, ωn,s from Gωs,ωm(s) or from numerator of Gωm,Te(s)

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• Find the motor side natural frequency, ωn,m from Gωm,Te(s)

• Find the total equivalent inertia Jm + n2Js from the DC gain of Gωm,Te(s)
• Find the gear ratio n form the DC gain of Gωs,ωm(s)
• Derive Jm,Js, ratio from ωn,s, ωn,m and n ratio.
• Separately identify Jm and Js from the Jm + n2Js
• Find, k from ωn,s
• Find bt from numerator of Gωs,ωm(s).
It can be concluded that the resonance and anti-resonance frequencies, as well as the DC gain of the TF
𝐺𝜔𝑚,𝑇𝑒 (𝑠) is critical. Once they are identified, the rest of the parameters can be derived and cross-checked. It
is reasonable to neglect the damping friction of the motor bm and lumping all frictional losses into spindle side
as bs. The damping bs can be separately extracted from the transfer function 𝐺𝜔𝑠,𝜔𝑚 (s). The second term of
the denominator corresponds to, once the 𝑏𝑡 is derived it is straight forward to obtain 𝑏𝑠 . Note that the gear
ratio parameter can be determined with the measurements of the spindle and motor side encoders. This will be
used as a control parameter for verifying the identification.

Figure 20 : Two Inertia Model and Block Diagram Representation

System Identification
Electric Motor Identification
Most of the modern electric motors provide necessary parameters for constructing an accurate mathematical
model. The CNC milling machine tool is retrofitted with up-to-date axis motor and drivers, however, the
spindle motor is not renewed. Since the motor data sheet is not available, its equivalent circuit parameters are
identified by conducting two different test methods.

No-Load Test
No-Load test is performed to determine the stator circuit parameter 𝐿𝑙𝑠 + 𝐿𝑚 and the parameter which
describes the loss of rotational movement and core loss 𝑅𝑐 is” No-Load Test”. This test is called no-load since
in the test motor rotor is moving freely without any load, and this causes the slip of the motor to become nearly
𝑅
zero. Thus, rotor circuit branch can be neglected since at zero slip condition 𝑠𝑟 ≈ ∞, and that makes 𝐼𝑅 ≈ 0.
Because Rs is found in the DC test, 𝑅𝑐 can be found by this test.

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Locked Rotor Test

The locked rotor test is performed to determine the remaining parameters of an induction motor’s equivalent
circuit that were not found in the no-load test. Specifically, it helps calculate the sum of the leakage inductances
of the stator and rotor (𝐿𝑙𝑠 + 𝐿𝑙𝑟 ) and the rotor resistance (𝑅𝑟 ). During this test, the rotor is physically locked
to prevent any rotation which leads slip (s) to be 1. This allows for the omission of the magnetizing current
branch, reducing the equivalent circuit to a short circuit

Results of the Tests

Equivalent circuit parameters of the motor resulting from the conducted tests are shown in the.
Table 2 Equivalent Circuit Parameters

Rs[Ω] Rr[Ω] Lm[mH] Llr[mH] Lls[mH]

0.75 1.35 113.9 2.8 2.8

Mechanical Subsystem Identification

A system identification test is conducted with sinusoidal reference motor velocity signals, from 1 Hz to 50 Hz
with decreasing amplitudes as given in Figure 4.

Figure 21: Reference Velocity Signal

Mean motor velocity is selected as 1000 rpm to avoid the field weakening effect, where amplitudes are
determined to be decreasing such that avoiding saturation in the electrical system.

Parameter Identification
For the identification test, based on each frequency for the steady-state part of the signals, a Fast Fourier
Transform is conducted to derive the magnitude and phase between two chosen signals. Hence Bode diagrams
for the electrical torque to motor speed and motor speed to spindle speed are obtained. Based on these
experimental data, transfer functions are fitted based on optimization methods and system identification tools.
A transfer function is fitted between motor speed and spindle speed to identify mechanical subsystem as given
in Figure 5, where dots on experimental data line show derived values. Hence transfer

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Figure 22: Fitted Transfer Function from Motor Velocity to Spindle Velocity

function between the input motor speed ωm and output spindle speed ωs is

(34)
In Figure 6, a transfer function between the input electric torque Te and motor speed ωm is fitted based on
experimental data which can be written as

Figure 23 Fitted Transfer Function from 𝑇𝑒 to 𝜔𝑚

(35)
Given equations 34 and 35, parameters are identified as given in Table 2.
Table 3: Mechanical System Parameters

Js[kg.m2] Jm[kg.m2] k[N/m] bt[Ns/m] bs[Ns/m] n

0.0061 0.0284 79.2 0.0733 0.1908 0.789

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Simulation Model
Simulation model consists of two systems which are controller system and plant. Controller system takes input
reference velocity and generate the necessary voltage input for the induction motor. Plant consists of two
subsystems that are electric and mechanical which are discussed before.

Figure 24 Whole System

Controller System
Simulation model comprises controller for the induction motor. The controller is composed of two branches
for the D-Q currents.

Figure 25 General Control Scheme for AC Induction Motor

Velocity Controller
The controller is PI controller in which back calculation method is used for anti-windup algorithm in its integral
part. This controller generates reference current for the Q axis.

Voltage Controller
The voltage controller is used whenever field weakening is necessary. The necessity occurred when the
absolute voltage output generated by the current controllers exceeds the threshold supply voltage. This
controller then changes the reference current in D axis.

Current Controllers (D-Q)

Current Controllers are designed for synchronous reference frame of the induction motor. The controller is a
PI controller in which clamping method is used for anti-windup algorithm. Current controller also uses the

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decoupling control to eliminate undesired effect due to cross-coupling of the D-Q components of the motor
and improve performance of the current controller.

Verification
Verification procedure is proceeded with closed loop verification test. In this test, both velocity 𝜔𝑚 and current
𝑒
𝐼𝑞𝑠 are recorded from the data that driver provided at sampling of 𝑓𝑆 = 4000 𝐻𝑧, and closed loop system is
𝑒
provided with the same reference 𝜔𝑚,𝑟𝑒𝑓 , and their results for both velocity 𝜔𝑚 and current 𝐼𝑞𝑠 are compared.
Table 4The Test Set up: In house retrofitted Deckel FP5

Test Set-Up
Beckhoff PC C6930
CNC
Twincat 3 Software 4022.29 version
Unit
Controller Sampling Time 125𝜇𝑠
Franz Kessler Motor 10kW,9000rpm
Spindle
Beckhoff AX5125 Driver 25 A

The second verification test is done with the same test set-up, and comparison of its results are done with open-
𝑒
loop model for showing the change in 𝐼𝑞𝑠 under the disturbance torque from the cutting test, and exhibit that
further studies can be used with the whole model to find the cutting torque.

Closed Loop Model Verification Test

In the closed loop verification test, reference speed signal is given to the simulation model which consists of
the speed and current controllers, electrical and mechanical subsystems. The purpose of this verification test
is to verify the whole system in the created Simulink to show the similarity between simulation and the real
system. Results of the verification are given in Figures 9-10. Although major error between driver data and
simulation data due to uncertainty of both electrical and mechanical subsystems parameters in the beginning
of the simulation, the error reduces when the simulation time increases since the controller of the plant becomes
more dominant. It should be noted that the mechanical system exhibits characteristics like those observed at
speeds above 3500 rpm. However, the system was initially identified at 1000 rpm motor speed in open-loop
conditions. This demonstrates the effective performance of the simulation model.
4000
Collected Data From Driver
Simulation Data
3500

3000

2500 1800

2000 1700

1600
1500
1500
6.5 7 7.5
1000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Time [s]
Figure 26 Closed Loop Verification 𝜔𝑚 - Comparison Between Driver
and Simulation Data Figure 27 Close Loop Verification Iqse - Comparison
Between Driver and Simulation Data

Open Loop Simulation Model Test with Cutting Torque

Open loop simulation model is verified with cutting test. The inputs of the open loop simulation system are
𝑒
measured driver data direct and quadrature axis synchronous frame voltages, 𝑉𝑑𝑠 and 𝑉𝑞𝑠𝑒 , and calculated
milling torques based on spindle encoder measurement. Cutting coefficients for milling torque calculations are
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𝑁 𝑁 𝑁
found by experimentally, and taken as 𝐾𝑡𝑐 = 593.53 𝑚𝑚2 ,𝐾𝑡𝑒 = 43.13 𝑚𝑚,𝐾𝑟𝑐 = 112.36 𝑚𝑚2 and 𝐾𝑟𝑒 =
𝑁
35.11 𝑚𝑚.

Figure 28 Open Loop Verification-Calculated Cutting Torque

𝑒
Figure 19: Open Loop Verification Test 𝜔𝑚 - Figure 20: Open Loop Verification 𝐼𝑞𝑠 -
Comparison Between Driver and Simulation Data Comparison Between Driver and Simulation Data

In the Figures 18-19, It can be clearly seen that under the disturbance open-loop simulation model gives
𝑒
accurate results for 𝜔𝑚 and 𝐼𝑞𝑠 .

Conclusion
In conclusion, the complete modelling of the CNC milling spindle can be achieved by modelling the whole
system as two separate subsystems as electrical and mechanical. The electrical subsystem of this spindle
described as AC induction motor is modelled in stationary reference frame. Although the electric parameters
of most up to date electric motors are available since no data sheet is available for our spindle motor, its
unknown equivalent circuit parameters are identified with traditional methods, such as dc test, no-load test and
blocked rotor test. The mechanical subsystem is comprised of electric motor mechanic, belt drive, gear box,
transmission and spindle. The complete mechanical system is modelled as two inertia system. All the inertia,
damping, and stiffness parameters of the mechanical system were unknown, and these unknown parameters
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were extracted by a proposed system identification test procedure. System identification of the mechanical
system is conducted by applying sinusoidal reference motor velocity signals. From test results, transfer
functions are fitted between motor speed to spindle speed and electrical torque to motor speed. Then, unknown
parameters of the mechanical system are extracted from these fitted transfer functions using the mathematical
model of the system that described before. To verify the system with the identified parameters, the first
verification test includes the control system to test the whole system in the simulation. Although in the
beginning of the test some variables differ from collected data, it also shows the well performance of the system
up to 3500 rpm. This also shows that this controller and the system can be used for higher speeds. The second
test was conducted to show the how the cutting torque affects the torque generating current 𝐼𝑞𝑠𝑒 , and this result
exhibits promising way to find cutting torque if this model use in core of estimation models.

Acknowledgements
This Project is supported by ODTU BAP ADEP -302-2023-11219

References
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[2] C. Wang, X. Zhang, B. Qiao, X. Chen, H. Cao, Milling force identification from acceleration signals using
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[3] M. Postel, D. Aslan, K. Wegener, Y. Altintas, Monitoring of vibrations and cutting forces with spindle
mounted vibration sensors, Cirp Annals 68 (1) (2019) 413–416.
[4] S. Auchet, P. Chevrier, M. Lacour, P. Lipinski, A new method of cutting force measurement based on
command voltages of active electro-magnetic bearings, International Journal of Machine Tools and
Manufacture 44 (14) (2004) 1441–1449.
[5] M. Luo, H. Luo, D. Axinte, D. Liu, J. Mei, Z. Liao, A wireless instrumented milling cutter system with
embedded pvdf sensors, Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing 110 (2018) 556–568.
[6] H. Mostaghimi, C. I. Park, G. Kang, S. S. Park, D. Y. Lee, Reconstruction of cutting forces through fusion
of accelerometer and spindle current signals, Journal of manufacturing processes 68 (2021) 990–1003.

[7] Y. P. Liu, Z. M. Kilic, Y. Altintas, Monitoring of in-process force coefficients and tool wear, CIRP Journal
of Manufacturing Science and Technology 38 (2022) 105–119. doi:10.1016/j.cirpj.2022.
04.009.

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TURNING OF CoCrMo ALLOY PRODUCED BY MOLDING AND

ADDITIVE MANUFACTURING METHODS
Erkan Bahçea , Burak Özdemirb , and Ender Emirc

a, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Inonu University, Malatya/TURKEY, erkan.bahce@inonu.edu.tr

b, Hekimhan MES Vocational School, Malatya Turgut Ozal University, Malatya/TURKEY, burak.ozdemir@ozal.edu.tr
c, Elbistan Vocational School, İstiklal University, Kahramanmaraş/TURKEY, ender.emir@istiklal.edu.tr

Abstract
CoCrMo alloys' numerous mechanical qualities make them useful as biomaterials. Due to their lighter weight
and porous structure, additive manufacturing (AM) has recently gained popularity for producing these parts,
which are primarily made by the molding process. Because these parts operate in moving environments and
under load, they wear down quickly, and surface roughness makes this wear worse. The study involved turning
and evaluating the surface quality of CoCrMo medical parts made using additive manufacturing and molding
techniques. Roughness and microhardness values were measured and discussed for this purpose after turning.
The results show that parts made with additive manufacturing have a higher level of hardness compared to
molding parts. The porous structure and surface hardness of the additively manufactured the part varied over
the machined surface, resulting in varying surface roughness.
Keywords: Molding, Additive Manufacturing, Surface quality.

Introduction
CoCrMo is widely used in knee and hip bone prostheses as well as in the joining of fractured bone fragments
due to its high wear, temperature, and corrosion resistance as well as its biomaterial qualities [1]. There are
two conventional methods used to produce these parts. The CoCrMo alloy is the first, and it is made by
molding; the CoCrNiMo alloy is made by hot rolling [2]. While there are manufacturing benefits to these
methods, there is a need for non-conventional manufacturing techniques to produce complex-shaped materials
and lower the weight of the biomaterials produced. Currently, the porous structure of additive manufacturing
techniques sets them apart [3]. Increasing the surface quality post-manufacturing is necessary to minimize
biomaterial wear, particularly when operating inside the body and under load [4]. Depending on the material's
shape and surface roughness, turning, milling, polishing, etc. Surface flaws are eliminated by applications. On
a lathe, cylindrical parts are particularly machined. Because of the extreme strength of CoCrMo alloys, these
chip-removal processes are not only challenging but also compromise surface integrity and adversely impact
production performance [5]. While the homogeneity of the parts produced by the molding method is observed
to reduce surface roughness, the porous structure of the parts produced by the additive manufacturing method
is observed to increase surface roughness due to its detrimental effect on homogeneity [6].
Certain techniques are used to lessen surface roughness in both molding and additive manufacturing processes.
Chemical use, laser polishing, surface melting with heat treatment, and processing parameter optimization are
a few of these. Furthermore, the literature has looked into how roughness affects bone corrosion. Rough
surfaces on CoCrMo alloys lead to stress concentration and local yielding, which accelerates corrosion and
fatigue damage, ultimately causing microcracks [7]. Surface roughness of CoCrMo alloys can be optimized
by adjusting machining parameters such as spindle speed, feed rate, depth of cut, and tool tip radius. The tool
tip radius and feed rate are particularly influential [8]. Different surface treatments (e.g., acid etching,
sandblasting) on CoCrMo alloys significantly affect the behavior of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs). Rougher
surfaces like SLA250 enhance cell proliferation and osteogenic differentiation [9]. Chemical mechanical
polishing (CMP) can significantly reduce the surface roughness of CoCrMo alloys, improving their corrosion
resistance and potentially extending the lifespan of implants [10]. The wear mechanism of ultra-high molecular
weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) against CoCrMo alloys varies with surface roughness. Lower roughness
leads to adhesive wear, while higher roughness results in abrasive wear. An optimal roughness can minimize
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wear rates [11]. Reliable measurement methods, such as white light interference surface profilometry, are
essential for evaluating the surface roughness of CoCrMo alloys in both in vitro and in vivo conditions.
Accurate measurements help in understanding wear and damage patterns [12-13]. Surface roughness features,
such as knurled profiles, can create crevice sites that exacerbate corrosion in the presence of body fluids. This
leads to significant material degradation and decobaltification [14].
The surface roughness of CoCrMo alloys can be significantly influenced by machining parameters such as
powder ratio, discharge current, pulse on time, and pulse off time in powder-mixed electrical discharge
machining (EDM) [15]. CNC lathe machining parameters like spindle rotational speed, feed rate, depth of cut,
and tool tip radius also play a crucial role in determining the surface roughness of CoCrMo alloys [16].
Additive manufacturing processes like SLM can produce CoCrMo components with complex geometries but
often result in high surface roughness, necessitating post-processing treatments [17-18]. Laser polishing has
been shown to significantly reduce the surface roughness of additively manufactured CoCrMo components,
achieving up to a 93% reduction in surface roughness [18]. Laser surface melting (LSM) and the addition of
calcium phosphate (CaP) as a solid lubricant can improve the wear resistance and biocompatibility of CoCrMo
alloys, reducing metal ion release and enhancing osteoid formation [19]. The initial properties of CoCrMo
powders, including particle size, shape, and surface roughness, are critical for achieving consistent and high-
quality additive manufacturing outcomes. Variations in these properties can affect the oxidation and overall
behavior of the particles during the AM process [20].
The two processes used to produce CoCrMo have different temperatures, which could alter the material's
mechanical and electrochemical characteristics. In this case, the roughness and microhardness values at the
end of the turning process of two CoCrMo alloys made using various production techniques were used to
discuss the surface quality.

Material and Method

A CoCrMo alloy knee prosthesis component, commonly used in the medical field and made via molding and
additive manufacturing, was used in the study (Figure 1). While the casting material was commercially
supplied, a Concept Laser Mlab brand metal printer was used for additive manufacturing. The part was printed
using the parameters Layer Thickness (Minimum) in the range of 15–30μm, Fiber Laser as Laser System,
Focal Diameter 50μm, Argon as Inert Gases and maximum scanning speed 7m/s. Table 1 lists the materials'
mechanical and chemical characteristics. To enhance the parts' surface quality, turning was done (Figure 1).
The Mazak Smoothc QT-Compact 200 MY brand universal lathe was used to complete the machining as finish
machining.

Figure 1: CoCrMo alloy parts a) Molding b) Additive Manufacturing.

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Table 1: Mechanical and chemical properties of CoCrMo material.

Molding Additive Manufacturing
Young’s modulus, GPa 220.0 215
Poisson ratio, υ 0.29 0.30
Hardness, HRV 300-400 350-500
Elongation, % 14.0 10
Ultimate tensile strength, MPa 1020.0 900
Yield Strength, MPa 600.0 650
Element, wt.%
Cr Mo C Fe Mn Si Ni Co
27 5.96 0.057 0.37 0.62 0.67 0.22 Balance Molding
27 - 30 5 - 7 0.1 - 0.3 0-2 0-1 0-1 0-1 Balance Additive

The turning operation was performed at 125 rpm and a feed rate of 0.06 mm/rev. 1-02-013174 - M type cutting
tool was used in the processing of both materials. In Figure 2, a picture of the tool holder with both the turning
process and the cutting tool is given. Tungsten carbide cutting tool with 0.4 mm radius and 55° apex angle was
utilized. The liquid used for cooling was boron oil.

(a) (b)

Figure 2: Turning process of CoCrMo alloy a) Tool and tool holder b) Turning method
After turning, the surface roughness was measured using a Mitotoyo SJ210 brand device. The device's probe
has a diameter of 6 mm, and a 0.5 mm sampling length was used for every measurement. Ten regions were
identified on the surface, and three measurements were obtained from each to determine their averages. In
surface roughness measurements, average surface roughness Ra was measured. Microhardness measurement
was performed using a Shimadzu brand device by applying a 300 g load for 15 s. Ten regions were used for
the same division of measurements.

Result and Discussion

Table 2 displays the results of the roughness measurements taken after the molding and additive manufacturing
parts were turned. Figure 3 depicts the changes in the results graphically to make it easy to observe.

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Table 2: Surface roughness results of the parts after turning.

Roughness Ra (µm)
Part Molding Additive Manufacturing
1 1.072 1.512
2 1.122 1.486
3 1.006 1.625
4 1.094 1.397
5 1.025 1.405
6 1.152 1.458
7 1.109 1.365
8 1.084 1.492
9 1.088 1.536
10 1.103 1.824

1,85 Moulding
1,80 AM

1,75
1,70
1,65
1,60
Roughness (µm)

1,55
1,50
1,45
1,40
1,35
1,30
1,25 1st Section 2nd Section 3rd Section
1,20
1,15
1,10
1,05
1,00
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Measurement Area

Figure 3: Roughness variation graph.

The average roughness value of the mold material was 1.085±0.041 µm. while the additively manufactured
material had 1.51±0.126 µm. Friction and wear shorten moving parts' lives. particularly when they are under
load (Table 2). Because of the manufacturing process. the AM material's surface has a porous structure [21].
The process of turning makes the surface smoother than it was before. but it doesn't reset entirely. Additionally.
the roughness is negatively impacted by the high surface hardness in AM because it increases the cutting forces
during turning. Both materials exhibit different changes in roughness when analyzed based on measurement
regions (Figure 3). Different roughness values in the same regions are caused by variations in force and
temperature at the same speed and feed. which are dependent on the microstructure differences of the materials.
The homogeneity and machinability of the material were enhanced by the melting temperature and molding
time.

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However, because a continuous cutting process did not occur in the first and second sections of the workpiece
created using the casting method, the surface roughness varied in these areas (Figure 4). The reason for this is
that as the workpiece is nearing the end of a full rotation, the chip removal process stops and then restarts. It
is thought that when the cutting tool begins to remove material, the cutting forces increase and the cutting
temperature changes. The roughness levels in the third section were similar due to the continuous material
removal process.

Figure 4: Face turning of CoCrMo alloy by sections

It was observed that there was no similar tendency in additive manufacturing. Unfortunately, temperature
gradients formed during additive manufacturing result in large internal tensions in materials Heat treatment is
applied as an additional method for reducing these strains. [22]. For this aim, it was heated to 1200°C for 2
hours in an argon environment, and the stress was reduced. However, the support structures employed in the
part's manufacture showed no uniformity in heat transmission, and the support of the placement varied
depending on the direction, affecting chip removal (Figure 5). As a result, stable results could not be obtained
in surface quality depending on the regions.

Figure 5: Support structure used in the production of the part for additive manufacturing

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During machining of CoCrMo alloy, microhardness is a critical parameter to evaluate the performance and
quality of the material. Therefore, microhardness values were measured and given in Table 3. Figure 6 displays
a graphical illustration of the impact of these changes.
Table 3: Microhardness results of the parts after turning.

Micro Hardness (HV)

Part Molding Additive Manufacturing
1 18.924 29.782
2 22.374 32.452
3 18.425 34.484
4 21.256 21.985
5 20.514 34.262
6 19.634 29.367
7 22.863 32.165
8 24.109 27.122
9 23.835 30.174
10 23.924 29.846

Vickers hardness test results show an average confidence interval of 21.037±2.01 HV for mold material and
30.163±3.48 HV for additively manufactured part. SLM components have superior mechanical qualities and
hardness compared to molding-produced parts [23]. This is because. during the production of SLM. smaller
grain sizes melt and coalesce while powder grains form more nucleation at high temperatures [24]. Similar to
later heat treatments. the material heats up and cools down quickly during the SLM process. increasing the
material's hardness. Parts that are mold cool gradually. Heat treatment of the material is required to achieve
the same hardness in mold parts [25].

36
Moulding
AM
34

32
Micro-Hardness (HV)

30

28

26
1st Section 2nd Section 3rd Section
24

22

20

18

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Measurement Area

Figure 6: Microhardness variation graph.

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Parallel to the explanations given for surface roughness, it was discovered that the situation followed a similar
pattern in microhardness data. Therefore, it has been determined that the support structure and thermal gradient
distribution affect the material removal process when producing with additive manufacturing. Furthermore,
the difficulty obtaining isotropic characteristics in additively manufactured parts compared to cast materials
has an effect on chip removal features.

Conclusion
The following findings were attained in this study. which examined the surface quality and hardness of
CoCrMo alloy parts produced by molding and additive manufacturing techniques and used in the medical field
after they were turned:
• The average roughness in the additively manufactured material was 1.51±0.126 µm. whereas it was
1.085±0.041 µm in the mold material.
• The part made by additive manufacturing had an average surface microhardness value of 30.163±3.48 HV.
while the mold material's value was 21.037±2.01 HV.
• Because additively manufactured parts are harder and have a porous structure. Their surface quality is inferior
to that of mold parts. The surface quality is improved by the more stable turning process made possible by the
uniform microstructure of the molding material. The subsequent thermal treatments determine the increase in
surface hardness.
Despite the fact that additively manufactured parts are typically more robust. they still need extra surface
quality processing. However. in intrabody medical parts. being lighter than mold products is considered a
significant advantage.

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[17] Mace. A.. & Gilbert. J. (2023). Low cycle fretting and fretting corrosion properties of low carbon CoCrMo
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[18] Yung. K.. Xiao. T.. Choy. H.. Wang. W.. & Cai. Z. (2018). Laser polishing of additive manufactured
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[19] Bandyopadhyay. A.. Shivaram. A.. Işık. M.. Avila. J.. Dernell. W.. & Bose. S. (2019). Additively
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[20] Mordas. G.. Jasulaitienė. V.. Steponavičiūtė. A.. Gaspariūnas. M.. Petkevič. R.. Selskienė. A.. Juškėnas.
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[21] Taheri. A.. Farahmand. F.. & Bahraminasab. M. (2024). Radially and axially graded cellular tibial stems
for total knee replacement. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences. 263. 108772.

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[22] Revilla-León. M.; Özcan. M. (2017) Additive Manufacturing Technologies Used for 3D Metal Printing
in Dentistry. Curr. Oral Health Rep.. 4. 201–208

[23] Monroy. K.P.. Delgado. J.. Sereno. L. et al. Effects of the Selective Laser Melting manufacturing process
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[24] Bakhtiarian. M.. Omidvar. H.. Mashhuriazar. A.. Sajuri. Z.. & Gur. C. H. (2024). The effects of SLM
process parameters on the relative density and hardness of austenitic stainless steel 316L. Journal of Materials
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[25] Salehi Renani. M.. Meysami. A.. Amini Najafabadi. R.. Meysami. M.. & Khodaei. M. (2024). Effect of
Cooling Rate on Structural. Corrosion. and Mechanical Properties of Cobalt–Chromium–Molybdenum Dental
Alloys. Journal of Bio-and Tribo-Corrosion. 10(1). 15.

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SEÇİCİLAZER ERGİTME İLE İMAL EDİLEN COCRMO ALAŞIMI

NUMUNELERİN ELEKTROKİMYASAL İŞLENMESİ VE YÜZEY
KARAKTERIZASYONU
ELECTROCHEMICAL MACHINING AND SURFACE
CHARACTERIZATION OF COCRMO ALLOY SAMPLES
MANUFACTURED BY SELECTIVE LASER MELTING
Erdoğan Polata, Sercan Sabancıb, Niyazi Çavuşoğlub, Deniz Kalenderc, ve İbrahim Etem Saklakoğlub

a, Iskenderun Teknik Üniversitesi, İSTE Mühendislik ve Doğa Bilimleri Fakültesi, Makina Mühendisliği Bölümü,
Hatay/TURKEY, erdogan.polat@iste.edu.tr
b, Ege Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi Makine Mühendisliği Bölümü, Izmir/TURKEY
c, Ege Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi Deri Mühendisliği Bölümü, Izmir/TURKEY
Özet
Ortopedik implantlar ve diğer tıbbi cihazlar gibi kritik bileşenlerin üretiminde kullanılan CoCrMo alaşımı,
yüksek mukavemeti, korozyon direnci ve biyouyumluluğu nedeniyle medikal sektörde öne çıkan bir
malzemedir. Eklemeli imalat (additive manufacturing) teknolojisi, CoCrMo alaşımı bileşenlerin daha karmaşık
ve özelleştirilmiş tasarımlarla üretilmesine olanak tanıyarak bu sektörde büyük bir potansiyele sahiptir. Ancak
eklemeli imalat ile imal CoCrMo bileşenlerin yüzey kalitesinin iyileştirilmesi kritik öneme sahiptir. Bu
çalışma, eklemeli imalat yöntemiyle üretilen CoCrMo alaşımı bileşenlerin yüzey kalitesini iyileştirmek
amacıyla elektrokimyasal işleme yönteminin kullanımını incelemektedir. Yapılan deneylerde farklı akım
yoğunlukları (1A ve 2A) kullanılarak yöntemin malzeme uzaklaştırma hızı, yüzey pürüzlülüğü ve sertlik
üzerindeki etkileri değerlendirilmiştir. Artan akım yoğunluğunun malzeme uzaklaştırma hızını ve yüzeyden
kaldırılan malzemenin derinliğini artırdığı gözlemlenmiştir. Her iki yoğunlukta da yüzey pürüzlülüğünün
azaldığı ancak işlemin yüzey sertliğinde düşüşe neden olduğu belirlenmiştir. Sonuçlar, elektrokimyasal işleme
yönteminin eklemeli imalatla üretilen CoCrMo bileşenler için etkili bir yüzey iyileştirme yöntemi olarak
değerlendirilebileceğini ortaya koymaktadır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: CoCrMo, Eklemeli İmalat, Elektrokimyasal İşleme

Abstract
CoCrMo alloy, renowned in the medical field for its high strength, corrosion resistance, and biocompatibility,
plays a critical role in manufacturing orthopedic implants and other medical devices. Additive manufacturing
technology facilitates the production of CoCrMo components with intricate, customized designs, offering
substantial potential in this sector. However, optimizing the surface quality of additively manufactured
CoCrMo components remains pivotal. This study investigates electrochemical machining as a means to
enhance their surface quality. Experiments using varying current densities (1A and 2A) assessed its impact on
material removal rate, surface roughness, and hardness. Higher current densities notably increased material
removal rates and depth, resulting in reduced surface roughness despite a decline in surface hardness. These
findings underscore electrochemical machining as an effective method for improving the surface quality of
CoCrMo components manufactured via additive manufacturing.

Keywords: CoCrMo, Additive Manufacturing, Electrochemical Machining

Giriş
Günümüzde "eklemeli imalat" veya daha yaygın adıyla "3D baskı" olarak bilinen imalat teknolojisi,
geleneksel yöntemlerle üretilemeyen karmaşık geometrilere sahip bileşenlerin üretimine olanak tanımaktadır.
Üretilecek bileşenlerin tasarım (CAD) dosyaları, bilgisayar destekli yazılım kullanılarak gerekli katman
kalınlığında dilimlenir ve G-kodu oluşturulur. İmalat, dilimleme programı tarafından oluşturulan G-kodunun
eklemeli imalat cihazına aktarılması ile gerçekleştirilir. Eklemeli imalat, özellikle metal alaşımlarının
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üretiminde sağladığı tasarım esnekliği ve karmaşık geometrilerin elde edilebilirliği nedeniyle modern imalat
sektöründe büyük bir öneme sahiptir. Bu alaşımlardan biri olan Kobalt-Krom-Molibden (CoCrMo),
biyouyumlu yapısı ve üstün mekanik özellikleri sayesinde tıbbi implantlardan havacılık bileşenlerine kadar
geniş bir uygulama yelpazesinde kullanılmaktadır. Eklemeli imalat ile üretilen CoCrMo alaşımlarının yüzey
özelliklerinin iyileştirilmesi, bu malzemelerin performansını ve kullanım ömrünü artırmak için kritik öneme
sahiptir.
Elektrokimyasal işleme yöntemi (ECM), işlenecek parçanın yüzeyindeki metal atomlarını kimyasal
reaksiyonlar yoluyla iyonlaştırarak uzaklaştıran bir yöntemdir. Bu süreçte, anodik kutupta bulunan parça,
doğru akım kullanılarak katodik kutuptaki takım ile etkileşime girer ve metal atomları iyon forma dönüştürülür.
Ortaya çıkan metal iyonları, elektrolit olarak adlandırılan sıvı vasıtasıyla işleme bölgesinden uzaklaştırılır. Bu
yöntem, geleneksel olmayan bir talaş kaldırma tekniği olarak bilinmektedir [1]. ECM yöntemi, özellikle
eklemeli imalat ile üretilen karmaşık geometrili yapıların yüzey pürüzlülüğünü gidermek ve parlaklık
sağlamak amacıyla bir talaşlı imalat yöntemi gibi kullanılmaktadır.
Literatürde eklemeli imalat ile üretilen farklı metal bileşenlerin işlenmesinde ECM yönteminin kullanıldığı
birçok çalışma mevcuttur. Tyagi ve ark. tarafından yapılan çalışmada eklemeli imalat ile imal edilen çelik
bileşenlere H3PO4 + H2SO4 elektroliti kullanılarak elektrokimyasal işlem uygulanmış ve parlatma süresinin,
karıştırma hareketinin, elektrolit içeriğinin ve sıcaklığın yüzey pürüzlülüğüne etkisi incelenmiştir. Parlatma
süresinin, yüzey pürüzlülüğünün iyileştirilmesinde en az önemli faktör olduğu belirlenmiş ve 0.091 µm düşük
yüzey pürüzlülüğü elde edilmiştir [2]. Doğrudan metal lazer sinterlenmiş (DMLS) çelik bileşenin iç ve dış
yüzeylerinde elektrokimyasal işleme sürecinin etkinliğinin araştırıldığı başka bir çalışmada karşı elektrot
şeklinin, karmaşık geometrik bileşenler için uniform yüzey pürüzlülüğü elde etmekte önemli bir rol oynadığı
belirlenmiştir. Elektrokimyasal işleme ile kimyasal parlatma işlemine kıyasla daha düzgün bir yüzey elde
edilmiştir. Ancak, elektrokimyasal işlemenin, karmaşık şekillerde dar alanlarda karşı elektrotun erişimiyle
sınırlı olduğu raporlanmıştır [3]. Edyta ve ark., gerçekleştirdikleri çalışmada Seçici Lazer Ergitme (SLM)
metodu ile imal edilen 316 L çeliğinin elektrokimyasal yolla işlenmesi için %35 H2SO4 + %60.5 H3PO4
elektrolit bileşimine hacimce %4.5 oranında Trietanolamin katkı maddesi eklenmiş ve yüzey özelliklerinin
değişimi incelenmiştir. Çalışmada, 20 A/dm² elektrik akımı yoğunluğu, 55°C sıcaklık ve 2 – 4 dakika işlem
süresinde 0.11 – 0.15 µm nihai yüzey pürüzlülüğü ile daha parlak bir yüzey elde edilmiştir. Elektrokimyasal
işleme sonrası mikrosertliğin, yüzeyden yüksek gerilimli tabakanın uzaklaştırılması sebebiyle azaldığı tespit
edilmiştir [4]. Shuai ve ark., SLM 316 L ve 4130 çelik bileşenlerinin iç yüzeylerinde uniform yüzey
pürüzlülüğü elde etmek için elektrokimyasal işlemeyi yüksek potansiyel fark altında gerçekleştirmiştir. 50°C
sıcaklıkta, 2.1 – 2.3 V aşırı potansiyelin optimize edilerek gerçekleştirildiği çalışmada yüzey pürüzlülüğü (Ra)
7.8 µm'den 0.18 µm'ye düşürülmüştür [5]. Jain ve ark., çalışmasında SLM Inconel 718 için darbeli akım
yoğunluğu, parlatma süresi ve görev döngüsü (duty cycle) parametrelerinin elektrokimyasal işleme üzerindeki
etkileri incelenmiş ve başlangıçta ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü (Ra) 0.77 µm iken, son ortalama yüzey
pürüzlülüğü 0.25 µm olarak elde edilmiştir. Daha uzun süre ve yüksek akım yoğunluğu, matris fazından daha
fazla malzeme kaybına yol açarak gözenekler ve çatlaklar oluşturulmuştur [6]. Başka bir çalışmada, SLM ile
imal edilmiş Inconel 718 örneği, elektrot aralığının 30 mm olduğu, metanolde hacimce %20 sülfürik asit ile
hazırlanmış elektrolit içinde akım yoğunluğu 50 A/dm², karıştırma hızı 200 rpm olan elektrokimyasal işlem
düzeneğinde farklı sürelerde işlem uygulanmış ve işlem süresinin yüzey pürüzlülüğü üzerindeki etkisi
araştırılmıştır. En etkili işlem süresinin 5 dakika olduğu ve başlangıçtaki ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü değerini
6.05 µm’den 3.66 µm kadar düşürdüğü raporlanmıştır [7]. Yang ve ark. çalışmalarında, lazer toz yatak füzyonu
ile imal edilen Inconel bileşenlere alkol bazlı bir elektrolit ile elektrokimyasal işlem uygulanmıştır. Bu
elektrolit, 700 mL etil alkol, 300 mL izopropil alkol, 250 g ZnCl 2 ve 60 g AlCl3 içermektedir. Kullanılan
solüsyonun asit bazlı elektrolitlere göre çevre dostu olduğu vurgulanan çalışmada, yüzey pürüzlülüğü (Ra)
değeri 7.9 µm'den 3.05 µm'ye kadar düşürülmüştür [8]. Lazer toz yatağı füzyon ile imal edilen Inconel 625
bileşeninin elektrokimyasal işlenmesinde etilen glikol ve kolin klorür ile hazırlanan elektrolitiğin kullanıldığı
başka bir çalışmada yüzey pürüzlülüğü ile elektrolitik çözelti sıcaklığı arasındaki ilişki incelenmiştir. Yapılan
çalışmada, elektrokimyasal işleme sırasında kullanılan elektrolit çözeltisinin sıcaklığının yüzey pürüzlülüğü
üzerinde etkili olduğu gözlemlenmiştir. Özellikle 25°C'nin altındaki düşük sıcaklıkların, yüzey pürüzlülüğünü
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azaltmada anlamlı bir etkiye sahip olmadığı belirlenmiştir [9]. Wu ve ark., gerçekleştirdiği çalışmada Elektron
Işınlı Ergitme (EBM) ile imal edilmiş Ti6Al4V bileşenlerinin elektrokimyasal işlenmesi için asetik asit,
perklorik asit ve etanol içeren bir elektrolitik çözelti kullanılmıştır. Hazırlanan elektrolitik çözelti, 800 rpm
hızında kuvvetli bir şekilde karıştırılmış ve sıcaklık buzlu su yardımıyla sabit tutulmuştur. Süreç
parametrelerinin optimize edilmesiyle, yüzey pürüzlülüğü başlangıçtaki ortalama yüzey pürüzlülüğü olan 24
µm'den 4,5 µm'ye düşürülmüştür [10]. Doğrudan Metal Lazer Sinterleme (DMLS) yöntemiyle imal edilen Ti-
6Al-4V'den yapılmış kafes yapılarına elektrokimyasal işlemenin uygulandığı başka bir çalışmada etanol/n-
bütil alkol/Al(H2O)6Cl3/ZnCl2 elektrolitik solüsyon olarak kullanılmıştır. Çalışmada, çeşitli süreç parametreleri
test edilmiş ve akımın en önemli katkıyı sağladığı, ardından aşındırma süresinin ve potansiyel farkın geldiği
raporlanmıştır. Optimum parametreler ile son yüzey pürüzlülüğünün (Ra) 10.314 µm'den 3.309 µm'ye düştüğü
gözlemlenmiştir [11]. SLM ile imal edilmiş Ti–6Al–4V alaşımının elektrokimyasal işlenmesi sonrası yüzey
karakterizasyonunun yapıldığı diğer bir çalışmada klorür içeren etilen glikol elektrolitinde elektrokimyasal
işleme gerçekleştirilmiştir. 0.4 mol L−1 klorür elektrolitinde %75.04 azalmış yüzey pürüzlülüğü ve %4.93
ağırlık kaybı oranıyla en iyi elektrokimyasal işlenmiş yüzeyin elde edildiği raporlanmıştır. Daha düşük
(CCl−1≤0.3 mol L−1) veya daha yüksek konsantrasyonlarda (CCl−1≥0.5 mol L−1) yüzey pürüzlülüğü
giderilememiş olup, bu durumun yetersiz reaksiyonlar veya aşırı anot çözünmesi nedeniyle oluştuğu
belirtilmiştir [12]. Yang ve ark., gerçekleştirdikleri çalışmada, doğrudan metal lazer sinterleme (DMLS) ve
elektron ışınlı ergitme (EBM) yöntemleriyle imal edilen Ti6Al4V parçalarında elektrokimyasal işlemenin
yüzey pürüzlülüğü üzerindeki etkisi araştırılmıştır. Su içermeyen alkol bazlı bir elektrolitin (700 mL etanol,
300 mL izopropil alkol, 60 g AlCl3 ve 250 g ZnCl2) kullanıldığı çalışmada tüm deneyler için maksimum 75V
potansiyele sahip bir DC güç kaynağı kullanılmıştır. En iyi yüzey kalitesi elektrotlar arası mesafenin 5mm
olduğu ve 20 dakika süre uygulanan elektrokimyasal işleme numunesinde görülmüş olup (Ra=6µm), imal
edildiği gibi (as-built) numuneye kıyasla önemli bir iyileşme sağlanmıştır [13].
Literatürde yapılan çalışmalar incelendiğinde, eklemeli imalat ile üretilen çeşitli metal alaşımlarının
elektrokimyasal işleme yöntemiyle yüzey pürüzlülüğünün iyileştirilmesine yönelik birçok araştırma
bulunmasına rağmen, eklemeli imalat ile üretilmiş CoCrMo alaşımlarının elektrokimyasal işlem ile yüzey
özelliklerinin iyileştirilmesine yönelik çalışmalara rastlanmamıştır. CoCrMo alaşımı, özellikle yüzey
pürüzlülüğünün minimum seviyede olması gereken medikal uygulamalarda (diş ve kemik implantları,
ortopedik implantlar, tıbbi aletler ve protezler vb.) büyük öneme sahiptir. Bu bağlamda, literatürdeki bu açığı
kapatmayı amaçlayan bu çalışmada, eklemeli imalat ile üretilen CoCrMo alaşımlarının yüzey özelliklerine
elektrokimyasal işlemenin etkileri incelenmiştir. Bu araştırma, CoCrMo alaşımlarının yüzey kalitesinin
artırılması ve performanslarının iyileştirilmesi açısından önemli katkılar sağlayacaktır.

Materyal ve Metot
Eklemeli İmalat
Çalışma kapsamında CoCr28Mo6 alaşımı numuneler SLM Solutions Türkiye distribütörü Digi-mode
firması tarafından SLM Solutions Lübeck/ALMANYA’da SLM Solutions 280 model Twin 400W SLM
makinası ile kimyasal bileşimi Tablo 1'de listelenen CoCr28Mo6/2.4979/F75 metal tozu kullanılarak imal
edilmiş (Şekil 1) ve tarafımıza hibe edilmiştir. Makina iki adet 400W gücüne sahip lazer sistemine ve 280 x
280 x 365 mm ölçülerinde çalışma hacmine sahiptir.

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Tablo 1: Co-Cr-Mo alaşımı metal tozunun kimyasal bileşimi.

Element Co Cr Mo Mn Si Fe Ni C Al B N P S W Ti
(%)
Co-Cr Bal. 27.0-30.0 5.0-7.0 1.0 1.0 0.75 0.5 0.3 0.1 0.01 0.2 0.02 0.01 0.2 0.1

Şekil 1: İmal edilen test numunesi örneği.

Numuneler argon atmosferinde 100°C ön ısıtma ile imal edilmiş olup numune ölçüleri Şekil 2’de sunulmuştur.
İmalatta minimum tarama süresi 12s olup, katman kalınlığı 30 μm'dir. Tarama şekli şerit formundadır.

Şekil 2: Test numunesi ölçüleri.

Elektrokimyasal İşleme
Elektrokimyasal işleme yönteminde kullanılan % 99,6’lık, yoğunluğu 0,792 g/mL Metanol (CH3OH) ve % 95-
97’lik, yoğunluğu 1,84 g/mL olan teknik saflıkta sülfürik asit (H2SO4), işlem öncesi ve sonrasında malzemenin
yüzeyinde bulunabilecek kalıntıların temizliği için kullanılan izopropil alkol İzmir Teknik Kimya’dan temin
edilmiştir. Yine numunelerin temizliğinde kullanılan saf su ISO 3696'nın 3. sınıf gerekliliklerine uygun olarak
ters osmoz sisteminden elde edilmiştir. Elektrokimyasal işlemede kullanılacak elektrolit H2SO4’ün metanolde
%20 (V/V)’lik çözeltisi (3,6 M) ile çözelti dışarıdan soğutularak sülfürik asidin yavaşça metanole ilavesiyle
250mL’lik balon jojede hazırlanmıştır. İşlem sırasında, metanolün kaynama noktasının (64,7 °C) H2SO4’e göre
(337 °C) çok daha düşük olması nedeniyle çözelti hacminin dereceli kaptaki seviyesi metanol ilavesiyle sabit
tutulmuştur. Numuneler elektrokimyasal işleme sürecinde anot görevi görmüş, güç kaynağının pozitif ucuna
bağlanmış ve yarısı elektrolitin içinde kalacak şekilde elektrolite daldırılmıştır. Katot olarak ise bakır levha
negatif uca bağlanarak kullanılmıştır. Bakır elektrodun yüzey alanı 36 mm2’dir. GW Instek marka SPSM3610
model (36V-10A) akım kontrollü güç kaynağının kullanıldığı çalışmada elektrokimyasal işlemenin sıcaklık
kontrollü bir ortamda yapılabilmesi için Lauda RE 204 Kriyostat kullanılmıştır. Deney düzeneği Şekil 3’de
gösterildiği gibidir.

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Şekil 3: Çalışmada kullanılan elektrokimyasal işleme test düzeneği

Numuneler ECM işlemi öncesi ve sonrasında beş dakika süreyle malzemenin yüzeyinde bulunan kalıntıların
temizlenmesi için Bandelin Sonerex marka ultrasonik banyoda (50-60 Hz) temizlenmiştir. Elektrolit sıcaklığı
işlem sırasında civalı termometre ile ölçülmüştür. İşlem koşulları Tablo 2’de sunulmuştur.

Tablo 2: Co-Cr-Mo alaşımı metal tozunun kimyasal bileşimi.

Akım Elektrolit Sıcaklığı Süre Kriyostat Sıcaklığı Elektrolit (V/V)

1 A (sabit) 25 ±5 °C 2 saat 0 °C %20 H2SO4 %80 CH3OH
2 A (sabit) 45 ±5 °C 2 saat 0 °C %20 H2SO4 %80 CH3OH

Karakterizasyon Testleri
Numune yüzeyinden elektrokimyasal işleme yöntemiyle uzaklaştırılan alaşımın kütlesini hesaplamak üzere
numunelerin kütlesi işlem öncesi ve sonrasında hassas terazi ile ölçülmüştür.
Pürüzlülük testleri için Ege Üniversitesi Makina Mühendisliği Bölümü bünyesinde bulunan Mitutoyo marka
SJ 301 model yüzey pürüzlülüğü ölçme cihazı kullanılmıştır. Yüzey pürüzlülüğü ölçümleri ISO 468:1982
standardına uygun olarak rastgele bölgelerinden beşer kez gerçekleştirilmiş ve sonuçların ortalaması alınmıştır.
Numune yüzeylerinin sertlik ölçümleri ASTM E384-17 standardına uygun olarak Buehler Marka Wilson 432
SVD model Vickers mikrosertlik cihazında gerçekleştirilmiştir. Sertlik ölçümleri beşer tekrarlı
gerçekleştirilmiş ve ölçüm sonuçlarının ortalaması alınmıştır. Vickers sertlik testi sırasında 0.3 kilogram-
kuvvet yük 10 saniye boyunca uygulanmıştır.
Elektrokimyasal işleme tabi tutulan numunelerin yüzeyinden uzaklaştırılan malzemenin derinliği Mitutoyo
marka CRYSTA-Apex V9208 model koordinat ölçme makinesi (CMM) ile dört çizgi boyunca ölçülmüş ve
ortalamaları alınmıştır.

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Sonuçlar ve Tartışma
Çalışma kapsamında, eklemeli imalat ile üretilen CoCrMo alaşımı bileşenlerinin yüzey kalitesinin
elektrokimyasal işleme yöntemiyle iyileştirilmesi hedeflenmiştir. Bu doğrultuda, kütle kaybı, yüzey
pürüzlülüğü, sertlik ve malzeme uzaklaştırma derinliği ölçümleri yapılmıştır.
Elektrokimyasal işleme yönteminde anotta oksijen gazının metal yüzeyinin çıkıntılı kısımları ile reaksiyona
girerek metalin çözünmesinin gerçekleştiği belirtilmiştir [14]. Şekil 4’de şematize edilen çalışma ortamında
bulunan 3,6 M H2SO4’in metanollü çözeltisinde anotta bulunan malzemenin içeriğindeki metallerin oksitleri
veya sülfat tuzları halinde çözeltiye geçtiği düşünülmektedir. Çözünme sırasında yüzeyde oluşan viskoz film
akım yoğunluğunu azaltır. Bu film tabakası elektrodun çukur kısımlarında daha kalın, çıkıntılı kısımlarında
nispeten daha incedir. Malzemenin çıkıntılı ve çukur olana konumlarındaki potansiyel farkı metalin pürüzlü
kısmının seçimli olarak çözülmesi ile pürüzsüz ve parlak bir yüzey edilmesini sağlar [15]. Anotta oluşabilecek
oksit filminin oluşum hızını azaltmak için elektrolit olarak su yerine organik çözgenler kullanılmaktadır [16].
Bu çalışmada çözgen olarak metanol kullanılmıştır. İşlem sırasında alaşımı oluşturan metaller atom grubuna
göre değil, yalnızca atomların tek tek çözülmesiyle uzaklaştırılır. Ancak çözündükten sonra alaşımdaki
metaller birbirine yığın etkisi yapmaktadır.

Şekil 4: Elektrokimyasal işleme yöntemi

Anot ve katotda olması beklenen reaksiyonlar genel olarak aşağıda gösterilmiştir.
Anot : M(k) - ne-  M n + (l) (1)
Co(k) -2 e- + SO42-  Co+2 + SO42- (2)
2Cr(k) -6 e- + 3 SO4 2- 2 Cr3+ + 3SO42- (3)
Mo(k) -2 e- + SO42-  Mo+2 + SO42- (4)
Katot: 2H+ + 2e-  H2(g) (5)
Metal diskin içeriğindeki başlıca metal iyonlarının ortamda bulunan hidrojen iyonu ve oksijenin sulu
ortamdaki standart elektrot potansiyelleri Tablo 3‘de sunulmuştur[17]. Metanollü ortamda bu potansiyeller
değişebilse de elektrot potansiyellerinin daha negatif değerde olması yükseltgenmeye daha istemli olduğunu
göstermektedir. Anottaki metallerin çözünmesi sırasında oluşan Cr(III) iyonlarının yeşil, Co(II) iyonlarının
açık pembe, Mo(II) iyonlarının mavi renklerini vererek çözünmesinden dolayı elektrolit çözeltisinin renginin
koyulaştığı gözlenmiştir.

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Tablo 3: CoCrMo alaşımı bileşenlerinden başlıcalarının standart elektrot potansiyelleri (SHE’e karşı)

Yarı Pil Tepkimesi E(V) (Standart Hidrojen Elektroduna karşı)

Co+2 + 2e- Co(k) -0,277

Cr+3 + 3e- Cr(k) -0.77

Mo+2+2e-  Mo(k) -0,239

2H+ +2e-  H2(g) 0,00

O2 + 4 H + + 4e- 2 H2O 0,682

Kütle kaybı ölçümleri, farklı akım yoğunluklarının malzeme uzaklaştırma hızını etkilediğini göstermektedir.
1A akımda 2 saat süreyle gerçekleştirilen elektrokimyasal işleme, numuneden 1,0168 gram (%4,34) malzeme
uzaklaştırmıştır. 2A akımda 2 saat süreyle gerçekleştirilen elektrokimyasal işlemede ise numuneden 2,7806
gram (%11,95) malzeme uzaklaştırmıştır. Literatürde elektrokimyasal işleme yönteminde malzeme kaldırma
oranının akım yoğunluğu ile doğrudan ilişkili olduğu, akım yoğunluğu arttıkça malzeme kaldırma oranının da
arttığı raporlanmış ve bu durum Faraday yasası ile açıklanmıştır [18,19]. Elde edilen bulgular literatürdeki
sonuçlar ile uyum içindedir.
Yüzey pürüzlülüğü ölçümleri, akım değerinin yüzey kalitesine olan etkisini açıkça göstermiştir. Şekil 5'de
yüzey pürüzlülüğü sonuçları sunulmuştur. Burada AB ile ifade edilen numunenin başlangıçta imal edildiği gibi
ölçülen değer olup, AB+EP ile ifade edilen ise elektrokimyasal işlemeden sonra ölçülen değerlerdir. 1A akımda
2 saat süreyle gerçekleştirilen elektrokimyasal işleme, numune yüzey pürüzlülüğünü (Ra) 10,42 µm'den 7,12
µm'ye düşürmüştür. Benzer şekilde, 2A akımda 2 saat süreyle gerçekleştirilen elektrokimyasal işleme, yüzey
pürüzlülüğünü (Ra) 10,71 µm'den 5,58 µm'ye düşürmüştür. Gerçekleştirilen çalışmada elde edilen sonuçlara
benzer şekilde, literatürde uygulanan akım yoğunluğu arttıkça yüzey pürüzlülüğünün azaldığını raporlayan
farklı çalışmalar mevcuttur [10,20]. Ancak akım yoğunluğu ile yüzey pürüzlülüğü arasındaki bu ilişki sürekli
olmayıp bir noktada tersine dönmekte ve bu nedenle akım yoğunluğu optimize edilmelidir. Urlea ve ark.
yaptıkları çalışmada, artan akım yoğunluğu ile yüzey pürüzlülüğü arasındaki ilişki derinlemesine incelenmiş
ve optimum akım yoğunluğu belirlenmiştir [21]. Artan akım yoğunluğu ayrıca elektrolitin daha çok ısınmasına
ve özellikle alkol içeren elektrolitlerde derişimin değişimine sebebiyet vererek elektrokimyasal işlemin sabit
koşullar altında gerçekleştirilmesine engel olmaktadır [22].

Yüzey Pürüzlülük Değişimi

10,71
12,00 10,42
10,00 7,12 AB_1A
8,00
Ra (µm)

5,58 AB+EP_1A
6,00
4,00 AB_2A
2,00 AB+EP_2A
0,00

Şekil 5: Yüzey Pürüzlülüğü (Ra) sonuçları

Yüzey pürüzlülüğündeki değişim, Şekil 6'da 1 Amper için işlem öncesi (a) ve işlem sonrası (b) 2 Amper için
işlem öncesi (c) ve işlem sonrası (d) ile gösterilmiştir.

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a) b) c) d)

Şekil 6: Elektrokimyasal işleme öncesi ve sonrası numunelerin görüntüleri, a) 1 Amper için işlem öncesi
b) 1 Amper için işlem sonrası c) 2 Amper için işlem öncesi b) 2 Amper için işlem sonrası
Yüzey sertliği ölçümleri, Vickers mikrosertlik testi (HV0,3/10) ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Şekil 7’de yüzey sertliği
sonuçları sunulmuştur. 1A akımda 2 saat süreyle gerçekleştirilen elektrokimyasal işleme, numune yüzey
sertliğini 401,9 HV’den 380,9 HV’ye düşürmüştür. Benzer şekilde, 2A akımda 2 saat süreyle gerçekleştirilen
elektrokimyasal işleme, numune yüzey sertliğini 390,9 HV’den 385,6 HV’ye düşürmüştür.

Micro Vickers Sertlik Değişimi

500,0 401,9
AB_1A
450,0 390,9 380,9
HV0,3/10

385,6 AB+EP_1A
400,0
AB_2A
350,0
AB+EP_2A
300,0

Şekil 7: Yüzey Sertliği Sonuçları (HV)

Eklemeli imalat ile imal edilmiş bileşenlerde elektrokimyasal işleme yüzey pürüzlülüğünü düşürmekte ancak
aynı zamanda numunelerin yüzey sertliğinin düşmesine neden olmaktadır. Bu durum literatürde eklemeli
imalat ile imal edilmiş bileşenlerin yüzeyindeki kalıntı gerilimin bu işlem sonrası serbest bırakılmasına
bağlanmıştır [7].
Numunelerin yüzeyinden uzaklaştırılan malzemenin derinliği CMM kullanılarak numune yüzeyinde dört çizgi
boyunca ölçülmüştür. Orta hattan 5 mm aralıklarla alınan dört ölçüme ait sonuçlar Şekil 8’de gösterilmiştir.
1A akımda gerçekleştirilen elektrokimyasal işlemenin numune yüzeyinden ortalama 0,22 mm, 2A akımda
gerçekleştirilen elektrokimyasal işlemenin numune yüzeyinden ortalama 0,83 mm derinlikte malzeme
uzaklaştırdığını göstermektedir. Burada ölçülen derinlik değerlerinin sırasıyla 1A ve 2A koşullarındaki standart
sapmaları 0,013 ve 0,021 olarak hesaplanmıştır. Elde edilen bu sonuçlar elektrokimyasal işlemenin numune
yüzeyinde uniform olarak gerçekleştiğini göstermektedir.

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Numune Yüzeyinden
Uzaklaştırılan Malzemenin
Derinliği(mm)
0,81 0,84 0,85 0,80
1,00
0,21 0,21 0,24 0,23
0,00
-5 mm Orta Hat 5 mm 10 mm

1A 2A

Şekil 8: Numunelerin yüzeyinden uzaklaştırılan malzemenin derinliği (mm)

Artan akım yoğunluğu numune yüzeyinden uzaklaştırılan malzemenin derinliğinin artmasını sağlamıştır. Bu
durum literatürde de benzer şekilde raporlanmıştır. Ayrıca akım yoğunluğunu arttırmanın malzeme
uzaklaştırma derinliği üzerindeki etkisinin olumlu olduğu, ancak daha kontrollü ve kusursuz bir yüzey elde
etmek için daha düşük akım yoğunluğunun tercih edilmesi gerektiği vurgulanmıştır [23].
Sonuç olarak eklemeli imalat ile üretilen CoCrMo alaşımı bileşenlerin yüzey kalitesinin elektrokimyasal
işleme yöntemi ile iyileştirilebileceği bu çalışmada gösterilmiştir. Farklı doğru akım değerleri (1A ve 2A)
kullanılarak yapılan deneyler, elektrokimyasal işlemenin malzeme uzaklaştırma hızı, yüzey pürüzlülüğü ve
sertlik üzerinde önemli bir etkiye sahip olduğunu göstermiştir.

Teşekkür
Çalışmamızda kullandığımız numuneleri sağladıkları için digiMODE Bilişim Sanayi ve Ticaret Limited
Şirketi'ne ve SLM Solutions AG'ye teşekkür ederiz.

Kaynakça
[1] Çaydaş, U. and Hasçalık, A., 2004, ELEKTRO – KİMYASAL İŞLEME YÖNTEMİ, Fırat Üniversitesi
Doğu Araştırmaları Dergisi, Volume 2, 113–118.
[2] Tyagi, P., Brent, D., Saunders, T., Goulet, T., Riso, C., Klein, K., et al., 2020, Roughness Reduction of
Additively Manufactured Steel by Electropolishing, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technology, Volume 106, 1337–1344.
[3] Tyagi, P., Goulet, T., Riso, C., Stephenson, R., Chuenprateep, N., Schlitzer, J., et al., 2019, Reducing
the roughness of internal surface of an additive manufacturing produced 316 steel component by
chempolishing and electropolishing, Additive Manufacturing, Volume 25, 32–38.
[4] Lyczkowska-Widlak, E., Lochynski, P., Nawrat, G., and Chlebus, E., 2019, Comparison of
electropolished 316L steel samples manufactured by SLM and traditional technology, Rapid
Prototyping Journal, Volume 25, 566–580.
[5] Chang, S., Liu, A., Ong, C.Y.A., Zhang, L., Huang, X., Tan, Y.H., et al., 2019, Highly effective
smoothening of 3D-printed metal structures via overpotential electrochemical polishing, Materials
Research Letters, Volume 7, 282–289.
[6] Jain, S., Corliss, M., Tai, B., and Hung, W.N., 2019, Electrochemical polishing of selective laser melted
Inconel 718. in: pp. 239–246
[7] Baicheng, Z., Xiaohua, L., Jiaming, B., Junfeng, G., Pan, W., Chen-nan, S., et al., 2017, Study of
selective laser melting (SLM) Inconel 718 part surface improvement by electrochemical polishing,
Materials and Design, Volume 116, 531–537.
[8] Yang, L., O’Neil, C., and Wu, Y., 2020, The use of electropolishing surface treatment on IN718 parts
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fabricated by laser powder bed fusion process. in: Solid Free. Fabr. 2017 Proc. 28th Annu. Int. Solid
Free. Fabr. Symp. - An Addit. Manuf. Conf. SFF 2017, pp. 2493–2502
[9] Mohammadian, N., Turenne, S., and Brailovski, V., 2019, Electropolishing of laser powder bed-fused
IN625 components in an ionic electrolyte, Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, Volume
3,
[10] Wu, Y.C., Kuo, C.N., Chung, Y.C., Ng, C.H., and Huang, J.C., 2019, Effects of electropolishing on
mechanical properties and bio-corrosion of Ti6Al4V fabricated by electron beam melting additive
manufacturing, Materials, Volume 12,
[11] Dong, G., Marleau-Finley, J., and Zhao, Y.F., 2019, Investigation of electrochemical post-processing
procedure for Ti-6Al-4V lattice structure manufactured by direct metal laser sintering (DMLS), The
International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Volume 104, 3401–3417.
[12] Zhang, Y., Li, J., Che, S., and Tian, Y., 2020, Electrochemical Polishing of Additively Manufactured
Ti–6Al–4V Alloy, Metals and Materials International, Volume 26, 783–792.
[13] Yang, L., Gu, H., and Lassell, A., 2014, Surface treatment of Ti6Al4V parts made by powder bed fusion
additive manufacturing processes using electropolishing. in: 25th Annu. Int. Solid Free. Fabr. Symp.
&#65533; An Addit. Manuf. Conf. SFF 2014, pp. 268–277
[14] Kovac, J., 2005, Van Nostrand’s Encyclopedia of Chemistry, Fifth Edition (Glenn D. Considine, Ed.),
Journal of Chemical Education, Volume 82, 840.
[15] Han, W. and Fang, F., 2019, Fundamental aspects and recent developments in electropolishing,
International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Volume 139, 1–23.
[16] Berkovich, I., 2006, US20060266657A1 - Electropolishing in Organic Solutions.
[17] Tural, H., 2011. Analitik Kimya, ISBN : 978975483647, Ege Üniversitesi Basimevi, İzmir.
[18] Dhia Ahmed Alazawi, 2017, Experimental Investigation on Electrochemical Machining Parameters,
Diyala Journal of Engineering Sciences, Volume 10, 71–80.
[19] Tang, L., Li, B., Yang, S., Duan, Q., and Kang, B., 2014, The effect of electrolyte current density on
the electrochemical machining S-03 material, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technology, Volume 71, 1825–1833.
[20] Demirtas, H., Cebi, A., Aslan, M.T., Yilmaz, O., Nesli, S., Subasi, L., et al., 2023, Electrochemical
machining of additively manufactured γ-TiAl parts: post-processing technique to reduce surface
roughness, International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Volume 127, 2475–2485.
[21] Urlea, V. and Brailovski, V., 2017, Electropolishing and electropolishing-related allowances for
powder bed selectively laser-melted Ti-6Al-4V alloy components, Journal of Materials Processing
Technology, Volume 242, 1–11.
[22] Łyczkowska-Widłak, E., Lochyński, P., and Nawrat, G., 2020, Electrochemical polishing of austenitic
stainless steels, Materials, Volume 13,
[23] Alrbaey, K., Wimpenny, D.I., Al-Barzinjy, A.A., and Moroz, A., 2016, Electropolishing of Re-melted
SLM Stainless Steel 316L Parts Using Deep Eutectic Solvents: 3 × 3 Full Factorial Design, Journal of
Materials Engineering and Performance, Volume 25, 2836–2846.

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EXPERIMENTAL STUDY ON MILLING WITH PERMANENT MAGNETIC

CUTTING TOOL

Seyit Kaplan a , Orhan Cakir b , and Erhan Altan c

a, Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,,

Istanbul/TURKEY, seyitkaplan@outlook.de
b, Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,,
Istanbul/TURKEY, orhanc@yildiz.edu.tr
c, Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical Engineering,,
Istanbul/TURKEY, ealtan@yildiz.edu.tr

Abstract
Machining is heavily investigated aiming to increase process performance resulting cost-effective operations.
Cutting tool is a major input and its efficiency is vital in the process. Magnetic field application to cutting tool
is known and rarely used technique, but there are promising results have been reported.
In this study, it is aimed to examine the performance of machining by giving permanent magnetic property to
the cutting tool, which is thought to be more practical in terms of use instead of applying magnetic field to the
machining area. In the experimental studies, the permanent magnet feature was added to the high-speed steel
milling cutter, and the tool life, cutting forces and temperature in the cutting area, machined surface quality
and chip form were investigated by milling.
Permanently magnetized high speed steel cutting tool is employed to machine AISI 1040 in the CNC milling
machine tool, encouraging results have been obtained; approximately 50% reduction in tool flank wear,
approximately 16% reduction in cutting force and 25% improvement in machined surface quality compared to
the non-magnetic tool were observed.

Keywords: Milling, Magnetic Field, Tool Life

Introduction
The cost of cutting tools is one of the largest expenses in the machining industry, and companies are looking
to reduce it. As a result of this trend, researchers have been working extensively in this area. One method that
has been shown in experimental studies to have a positive effect on tool life is the application of a magnetic
field to the cutting zone during the machining process.
Mansori et al. (2003) machined both non-ferromagnetic (304L stainless steel) and ferromagnetic (carbon steel)
workpieces with ferromagnetic HSS tools and generated an external magnetic field during the turning process
by integrating a coil into the tool holder. In experimental studies carried out at different cutting speeds, tool
life was increased by approximately 30-40% for each workpiece. During these studies, it has been observed
that there is also an increase in temperature in experimental studies where a magnetic field is applied [1].
Mansori et al. (2004) investigated the effect of the magnetic field by applying a magnetic field to the workpiece
in another study on dry machining of ferromagnetic AISI 1045 steel with a non-ferromagnetic carbide tool.
Experimental studies showed that tool life was increased by approximately 2-3 times [2].
Alireza et al. (2017) designed an L-shaped device that can simultaneously expose both the workpiece and the
tool to a magnetic field in order to investigate the application of a magnetic field in the machining of alloy
steel workpieces with HSS tools. They mounted this device on a conventional lathe. During the process, they

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applied a magnetic field to both the workpiece and the tool holder using the coil wrapped around the device.
In their experimental studies, they repeated the process by changing the process parameters. Using parameters
of 115 rpm, a feed rate of 0.052 mm/rev and a cutting depth of 1 mm, they found a maximum reduction in
flank wear of 94%. Using parameters of 190 rpm, 0.162 mm/rev feed and 1 mm depth of cut, they found a
66% reduction in cutting force. In the study they claimed that the magnetic field increased the speed of
dislocation movement in the workpiece and the plastic deformation rate, but they did not carry out a study to
prove this increase or investigate its causes [3].
Anayet et al. (2012) placed a magnet on the tool holder during the turning process and observed the effect on
the machining performance. As a result of the study, it was observed that there was a significant improvement
in the machinability of mild steel during the turning process when cutting was performed by integrating the
magnet with the tool holder. Tool wear, surface roughness in the machined surface improved significantly
under magnetic cutting conditions. The chip type was also changed during magnetic cutting compared to non-
magnetic cutting [4].
In addition to the previous study, Anayet et al. (2013) investigated the effect of magnetic fields on the turning
performance of heat-treated steels. They observed a significant increase in tool life, an improvement in surface
roughness of approximately 20% and a reduction in continuous chip formation in studies conducted with both
heat treatment and magnetic field application [5].
Nadia et al. (2017) stated that the magnetic field increased the radial force, feed force, and cutting force during
the turning of AISI 1018 low carbon steel with carbide tools in a dry environment, contributing to
approximately 20% longer tool life [6].
Li et al. applied a pulsed magnetic field to extend the tool life when turning the Ti-6Al-4V workpiece with WC
tools and investigated the effects of pulsed magnetic field application on cutting force, tool wear, surface
roughness, chip formation and thermal conductivity. As a result of their experimental studies, they observed
that the application of pulsed magnetic field improved the wear performance of the cutting tool. The reason
for this is that the thermal conductivity of the tool exposed to a pulsed magnetic field increases by 6.5%, thus
reducing the temperature of the area where the tool comes into contact with the workpiece [7].
Kaplan et al. (2022) in their experiments on HSS cutting tools with the application of permanent magnetism
found that the wear on the HSS tool with permanent magnetism was approximately 50% less. It was also found
that during the turning process with the HSS tool without the application of a magnetic field, the cutting force
was approximately 10.4% higher than with the HSS tool with permanent magnetism and the temperature
reached during the process was approximately 8% higher with the HSS tool with permanent magnetism [8].
Pal and Gupta (1975) carried out experimental studies in a dry cutting environment to determine the effect of
the magnetic field on tool wear when drilling gray cast iron and malleable cast iron with an HSS drill. When
machining grey cast iron, they applied a magnetic field simultaneously to both the workpiece and the tool by
surrounding them with a coil; when machining malleable cast iron, they placed the coil at a height that
surrounded the tool over the workpiece and during the cutting process, ensuring that more tools were exposed
to the magnetic field. In both studies, they observed a significant increase in tool life, but did not scientifically
explain the reasons for this increase [9].
Mansori et al. (2003) carried out experimental studies using both ferromagnetic HSS drills and non-
ferromagnetic carbide drills, as well as a low carbon steel (AISI 1035) workpiece with a diameter of 12mm
and a length of 50mm, to investigate the effects of magnetic field on tool wear in the drilling process. As a
result of their studies, they observed that the crater wear rate of both HSS and carbide drills exposed to high
magnetic field intensities decreased significantly compared to tools that were not magnetically treated [10].
Ma et al. (2019), as a result of their experimental studies by milling ferromagnetic and paramagnetic materials
with microtools, showed that by applying a pulsed magnetic field during the process, the magnetic field both
improved the mechanical properties of the tool material and reduced tool wear by changing the tool-chip

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contact friction mechanism. They found that more efficient chip removal and better surface quality were
achieved [11].
During the literature review, it was observed that the studies found typically applied a magnetic field from an
external source to the cutting zone in turning and drilling operations. However, the practical applicability of
applying a magnetic field to the cutting zone is a matter of debate. Therefore, in this study it was considered
more practical in terms of industrial applicability to magnetize HSS tools to give them a permanent magnetic
property.
In addition to, there is no study on the tool performance in machining by applying permanent magnetism to
the milling tool. In this study, the tool performance was investigated in the machining process by inducing
permanent magnetism in the HSS milling tool.

Experimental Study
In this study, in contrast to many studies in the literature, instead of the external magnetic field integrated into
the machine tool, a rectifier and coil assembly, which is completely independent of the machine tool, was used
to provide permanent magnetic characteristics to the cutting tool.
Using a dynamometer and laser thermometer mounted on the CNC milling machine shown in Figure 1, force
and temperature measurements were taken during the process and tool surface wear was measured after every
350mm of machining, giving a total of 1050mm of material machined. Surface roughness measurements were
taken after the process and the chip forms obtained were compared.

Figure 1: Experimental Setup

Prior to the experimental studies, microhardness values were measured by using the Cloud Machine HVS 1000
microhardness measurement device to understand the changes caused by the magnetic field in material
behaviors. It was observed that the average microhardness value measured in the HSS-M sample subjected to
the magnetic field for two hours was 26% higher compared to the HSS-N sample without magnetic field
application. In Table 1, microhardness measurements of HSS samples that were not subjected to a magnetic
field and those subjected to a magnetic field for 2 hours are provided [12].

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Sample Description HV1(1000g) Sample Description HV1(1000g)

HSS-N 851,75 HSS-M 1074.87
HSS-N 844,85 HSS-M 1069.54
HSS-N 854,68 HSS-M 1072.22
Average: 850,42 Average: 1072.21

Table 1: Comparison of HSS Tool Microhardness Measurements

In the experimental studies, HSS milling tools and AISI 1040 steel were used as workpieces. One of the HSS
milling tools was exposed to a magnetic field inside a coil for 2 hours, which imparted a permanent magnetism
property to the tool. Figure 2 shows the schematic representation of the magnetic field setup used in the
experimental studies.

Figure 2: Magnetic field setup

Based on preliminary experiments and literature research, it was decided to use the cutting parameters given
in Table 2.

CNC: First Brand MCV-300 Model

Cutting Tool: HSSCO8 DIN844/B-N Ø12.0 MM End Milling Cutter
Workpiece: AISI 1040 Steel
Workpiece Geometry: 140 mm x 190 mm x 20 mm
Cutting Speed: 51 m/min
Cutting Feed: 0,1125 mm/rev
Cutting Depth: 1,0 mm
Environment: Dry

Table 2: Cutting parameters

During the experimental studies, flank wear and the magnetic field intensity at the cutting tool tip were
measured after every 350 mm of cutting. In addition to measurements of flank wear and magnetic field
changes, temperature measurements during operation, cutting force measurements, comparison of surface
finish and final chip forms, and an energy cost analysis were carried out. The energy consumed during the
experimental studies was measured with an energy consumption meter to provide permanent magnetization to
the tool.

Result and Discussion

In the tool made into a permanent magnet, it was observed that there was less wear compared to the tool where
no magnetic field was applied. Figure 3 shows the flank wear values after a total cutting operation of 1050mm.
Wear on the permanently magnetized tool was 49% less than on the tool without a magnetic field after 1050
mm of machining.
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150
Flank Wear (µm) 125
100
75
50
25
0
350 700 1050
Length of Cut (mm)

HSS-N HSS-M

Figure 3: Flank wear graph according to experimental results

Figures 4, 5 and 6 show photographs of cutting tool flank wear measured after cutting operations of 350 mm,
700 mm and 1050 mm respectively. The wear photographs on the left belong to the cutting tool without an
applied magnetic field (HSS-N), while the wear photographs on the right belong to the cutting tool with the
permanent magnet feature (HSS-M).

HSS-N HSS-M

Figure 4: Flank wear observed after 350 mm cutting

HSS-N HSS-M

Figure 5: Flank wear observed after 700 mm cutting

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HSS-N HSS-M

Figure 6: Flank wear observed after 1050 mm cutting

As a result of the 1050 mm cut, it was observed that approximately 2 times more wear occurred in the tool
where no magnetic field was applied compared to the tool where a permanent magnet was made.
The intensity of the magnetic field on the tool was measured by PCE-MFM 4000 Gaussmeter during the wear
measurements. In the tool exposed to the magnetic field for 2 hours, the measured initial value is approximately
242 Gauss. After cutting 350 mm, this value decreased to 239 Gauss, after cutting 700 mm it decreased to 231
Gauss and after cutting 1050 mm it decreased to 226 Gauss. As very high temperatures were not reached during
the cutting process, there was no significant decrease in the magnetic field strength on the tool. Figure 7 shows
the change in magnetic field at the tool tip after the cutting operation.

250

200
Gauss

150

100

50
0 350 700 1050
Length of cut (mm)

Figure 7: Magnetic field change on tool tip during cutting

During the cutting process on the MCV-300 Model CNC machine, force measurements were made by
connecting a dynamometer. The average cutting force measured with the tool without the magnetic field
applied was 199.6 N, while the average cutting force measured with the tool with the magnetic field applied
was 166.73 N. It was found that the cutting force in the cutting process performed with the tool without the
magnetic field applied was approximately 16.4% higher than the cutting force in the cutting process performed
with the tool with the magnetic field applied. While the cutting force in the cutting process performed with the
tool without the application of a magnetic field was found to be approximately 20.1% higher than that of the
tool equipped with permanent magnetism for the feed force, no significant difference was found between the
radial forces.
During the experimental studies carried out, the temperature of a reference point on the tool was measured
using an Optris LaserSight IR laser thermometer. It was observed that higher temperatures were reached when
cutting was performed with the tool to which a magnetic field was applied. The difference in temperature

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measured at the reference point on the tool is thought to be due to eddy currents generated by the magnetic
field applied to the tool. [9]
Chip forms were also examined during the milling process. Figure 8 shows a comparison of the chip forms
obtained from the milling process using a tool with permanent magnetic properties and the chip forms obtained
from the milling process using a tool without the application of a magnetic field. It was observed that the
milling process using a tool with permanent magnetic properties produced shorter, comma-shaped chips.

Figure 8: Comparison of the chip forms

After cutting operations of the same length were performed on both tools, surface roughness values were
measured with the Mitutoyo SURFTEST SJ-210 Surface Roughness Measurement Device. The arithmetic
mean surface roughness value obtained with the tool that had been given a permanent magnet feature was Ra
2.09 µm, while the surface roughness value obtained with the tool that had not been subjected to any magnetic
field was measured to be Ra 2.79 µm. The surface quality obtained with the HSS tools that have been endowed
with permanent magnet feature is 25% better compared to HSS tools that have not been subjected to any
magnetic field.
During experimental studies to give the tool a permanent magnetic property, the energy consumption was
measured with an energy meter. The cost of purchasing a Ø12.0 mm HSS tool in 2022, including taxes, is 6.5
USD. The HSS tool was exposed to a magnetic field for two hours and the total energy consumed is 0.522
KWh. The unit price of electricity is 0.25 USD per KWh. The estimated cost of making the cutting tool
permanently magnetic is approximately 0.13 USD. During the experimental studies, the cost calculation was
based on the cost of a single tool, as only one tool was given the permanent magnetism property. However,
with the experimental setup designed, it will be possible to add permanent magnetism to several tools at the
same time. Therefore, using the HSS milling tool with permanent magnet property will result in a much higher
profit. By applying a magnetic field to the cutting tool, in addition to achieving a 99.2% profit on the main
expense of companies, which is the cost of the cutting tool, significant savings can also be achieved on labour
spent on time-consuming tasks such as tool replacement and machine resetting, which can be considered as
additional expenses, and on general expenses incurred during this time.

Conclusion
According to the results of experimental studies;

• Changes in the internal structure of the HSS tool occur when a magnetic field is applied, resulting in
an increase in the microhardness of the cutting tool.
• The flank wear of the HSS tool with a permanent magnet is approximately 50% less than the HSS tool
without an applied magnetic field.

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• In cutting operations carried out with a tool without the application of a magnetic field, it was observed
that the cutting force was 16.4% higher compared to a tool with a permanent magnet, while the feed
force was 20.1% higher. There was no significant difference in the radial forces.
• In the HSS tool with a permanent magnet, the temperature reached during the process is approximately
9% higher than the HSS tool without an applied magnetic field.
• The surface quality was found to be 25% better with the HSS tool with permanent magnet than the
HSS tool without an applied magnetic field.
• It has been observed that by using the HSS tool with a permanent magnet, approximately 99% of the
cost of the cutting tool can be recovered.

In terms of industrial use, it is possible to increase the life of cutting tools, which are considered more practical
than the studies in the literature, by giving them a permanent magnetic property. In addition, by giving the tool
a permanent magnetic property, there is no need to mount an additional magnetic field device on the machine
and continuous energy consumption is eliminated.
It is believed that the coil mechanism built into the machine tool in the studies in the literature could also cause
a problem in terms of chip removal from the cutting area, no significant chip removal problems have been
encountered in cutting operations performed with tools that have been given a permanent magnetic property.
Literature studies and analyses have shown that the microstructure of cutting tools exposed to a magnetic field
change, resulting in an increase in microhardness [13]. In addition, the thermal conduction coefficient of the
tool increases due to the effect of the magnetic field, resulting in a reduction in temperature at the point of
contact between the tool and the workpiece. Both structural changes and an increase in thermal conductivity
have been observed to result in reduced wear of tools that have been permanently magnetized.
Cost analyses carried out on the recommended method have shown that it is possible to reduce tool costs,
which are a continuous and significant expense for companies, by giving HSS cutting tools a permanent
magnetic property.
As a result of the studies, it has been observed as a result of the studies that the method of imparting permanent
magnetism to cutting tools is a method that can be used in all machining methods where HSS tools are used.
It has also been observed that this method significantly improves the performance of the machining process.

Acknowledgements: This work was supported by the Research Fund of the Yildiz Technical University
[Project Number: FBA-2021-4043].

References
[1] El Mansoria M., Pierrona F., Paulmierb D., 2003, “Reduction of tool wear in metal cutting using external
electromotive sources”, Surf Coat Technology, Volume 163–164, Pages 472–477
[2] El Mansoria M., Iordachea V., Seitiera P., Paulmierb D., 2004, “Improving surface wearing of tools by
magnetization when cutting dry”, Surf Coat Technology, Volume 188–189, Pages 566–571
[3] Dehghani A., Khalaj Amnieh S., Fadaei Tehrani A., Mohammadi A., 2017, “Effects of magnetic assistance
on improving tool wear resistance and cutting mechanisms during steel turning”, Wear, Volume 384–385,
Pages 1–7
[4] Anayet U.P., Mahmood M.N., Arif M.D., 2012, “Improvement of machinability of mild steel during turning
operation by magnetic cutting”, Int J. Adv. Sci. Eng. Inf. Technol., Volume 2(3), Pages 9–12
[5] Anayet U.P., Mahmood M.N., Noor S., Shovon Z.H., 2013, “Investigation of machinability responses
during magnetic field assisted turning process of preheated mild steel”, Procedia Eng., Volume 56, Pages 713–
718

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[6] Nadia J.N., Aaron F., Azuddin M., 2017, “Influence of electromagnetic field on metal cutting in turning
operation of AISI 1018 low carbon steel”, International Technical Postgraduate Conference in Materials
Science and Engineering, Volume 210
[7] Li Q, Yang Y., Yang Y., Li P., Yang G., Liu J., et al., 2022, “Enhancing the wear performance of WC-6Co
tool by pulsed magnetic field in Ti-6Al-4V machining”, J Manuf. Process, Volume 80, Pages 898–908
[8] S. Kaplan, O. Cakir, E. Altan, 2022, “Experimental study on turning machine with permanent magnetic
cutting tool”, Open Chemistry, Volume 20, Pages 1196–1201
[9] Pal D.K., Gupta N.C., 1973, “Some experimental studies on drill wear in the presence of an alternating
magnetic field”, J. Inst. Eng. India, Volume 53, Pages195–200
[10] El Mansoria M., et. al., 24-26 September 2003, “Tool wear in magnetized drilling process”, National
Tribology Conference, Galati-Romania, Pages 363-368
[11] Ma L., Wang X., Liang Z., Liu Y., Zhang D., 2019, “Machining mechanism in pulsed magnetic treatment
for micro-tools”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Volume 101, Pages
2391–2406
[12] Herber E.G., 1931, “Hardening of Metal by Rotating Magnetic Fields.”, Materials Science Proceedings
of The Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences, Pages 514-523,
[13] Bataineh O., Klamecki B., Koepke B.G., 2003, “Effect of pulsed magnetic treatment on drill wear”,
Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Volume134, Pages 190–196

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COMPERATIVE CASE STUDY OF SIMPLE MILLING PROCESS

SUBJECTED TO COULOMB FRICTION
Ferenc Bucsky and Zoltán Dombóvári

Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Applied
Mechanics, Budapest/HUNGARY, Bucsky.ferenc@bme.edu.hu, dombovari@mm.bme.hu

Abstract
In this work we compare the classic simplest single degree of freedom milling model with viscous damping
and pure Coulomb friction. Opposed to the viscous case the non-smooth nature of the Coulomb friction
prevents any simple analytical derivation to extract the corresponding stability properties. We created a semi-
analytical framework for the Coulomb friction case, where the oscillatory behavior is piecewise analytical,
while the impact of each cutting cycle is considered by deviating solution segment initial conditions. Stability
is checked by deriving the finite escape directly by a threshold value applied on the constructed solution.
Keywords: Milling, Stability, Chatter

Introduction
Milling is an essential manufacturing process, which can provide high material removal rates as well as a high-
quality surface finish. This process is unavoidable in the new 3D metal printing area, where especially
important contact surfaces must be machined. By considering the general aim of mass reduction in most
industries, it is a common occurrence that milling processes are performed in a highly interrupted manner, in
most cases on a flexible (thin walled) workpiece feature.
In this regard the simple single degree of freedom, impact based, milling model was first introduced by (Stepan,
Szalai, [1]), in which viscous damping was considered. In this model a map between consecutive cutting tooth
passes (impacts) was derived from which the asymptotic stability of the stationary solution on a Poincaré
section was constructed. This showed the importance of the period doubling (flip) kind of stability losses,
which is induced by the periodic nature of the problem.
Any form of energy dissipation is welcomed to stabilize the regenerative nature of the milling process.
Unfortunately, it is a well-known phenomenon that damping can only be increased at the cost of the
corresponding stiffness of the superstructure, which is highly unacceptable in the machining industry. Fine
quality contact surfaces can increase energy dissipation by little or no deterioration on stiffness by contact
surface segment micro slips. This phenomenon is very hard to model but the simplest models use a combination
of viscous Coulomb models to describe its effect on the cutting process.
This work attempts to introduce a simple milling model combined with Coulomb friction-based energy
dissipation. The main aim is to show the effect on the regenerative dynamics qualitatively. The quantitative
and combined Coulomb viscous model can be constructed over the findings of this simpler, but already
complex model.

Mechanical model of milling process

The traditional Mechanical model of the analyzed milling process is presented in Figure 1 and results in a
highly interrupted milling process with a long flying and a short cutting period, which means that the tooth
passing period τ is much longer compared to the cutting time denoted by ρτ.

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2𝜋
𝜏 = 𝑧𝛺 (1)

where the resulting instability of the cutting process depends on the free vibrations of the cutting tool during
the flying period, as during the cutting period a stationary cutting tool can be assumed, as explored in [2] and
demonstrated experimentally in [3].

x(t)
x(t)
x(t)
µ≠0 µ=0

vρτ vρτ

tj - ρτ tj tj - ρτ tj

Figure 29: a) Model with Coulomb friction-based damping for milling operations, b) Traditional mass spring
damper model

In Figure 1 m denotes the modal mass, k denotes the modal stiffness, c denotes the modal damping factor and
v denotes cutting speed resulting from the spindle speed. The model described in Figure 1b has been explored
many times as in [1] and can be described with the following differential equation.

𝑥̈ + 2𝜁𝜔𝑛 𝑥̇ + 𝜔𝑛2 𝑥 = 0 (2)

The mechanics of the model shown in Figure 1a can be described by the following non-smooth, differential
equation.

𝑥̈ + 𝜔𝑛 2 𝑥 = −𝑓0 𝜔𝑛 2 sgn(𝑥̇ ) (3)

Where 𝑓0 is a function of the normal force N and friction coefficient μ. These two equations (2) and (3) are to
be solved with the initial conditions.

𝑥𝑗 = 𝑥(𝑡𝑗−1 ) ≈ 𝑥(𝑡𝑗 − 𝜌𝜏), 𝑣𝑗−1 = 𝑥̇ (𝑡𝑗−1 ) (4)

These can be calculated using the equation of motion of the tool during the cutting period and applying the
classical impact theory, where all forces except the impact force, in this case the cutting force, are neglected.
𝑚𝑥̈ = −𝑐𝑥̇ − 𝑘𝑥 + 𝐹𝑥 ≈ 𝐹𝑥 (5)
Where the cutting force Fx can be calculated as

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𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹0 + 𝑘1 (𝑥𝑗−1 − 𝑥𝑗 ) (6)

Where F0 is the stationary cutting force and k1 is a material dependent cutting coefficient. Applying equation
(6) the solution of the impact equation is

𝑚(𝑣𝑗 − 𝑣𝑗 − ) = 𝜌𝜏𝐹𝑥 (7)

From here it is possible to solve for vj by substituting (6) into (7) and rearranging
𝜌𝜏 𝜌𝜏
𝑣𝑗 = 𝐹 + 𝑘 (𝑥 − 𝑥𝑗 ) + 𝑣𝑗 − (8)
𝑚 0 𝑚 1 𝑗−1

Analyzing both models by means of a numerical time-domain simulation we were able to acquire an accurate
prediction of the milling cutters position and velocity throughout the entire cutting process.
To have a proper comparison between the two models it is necessary to find an equivalent friction coefficient
to the analyzed viscous damping. Since in both cases these parameters are responsible for dissipating
mechanical energy from the system, the equivalent friction can be determined by having the same amount of
mechanical energy dissipated from the system during one flying period of the tool.

𝑈𝑣 (𝜏 − 𝜌𝜏) + 𝑇𝑣 (𝜏 − 𝜌𝜏) = 𝑈𝑓 (𝜏 − 𝜌𝜏) + 𝑇𝑓 (𝜏 − 𝜌𝜏) (9)

The following stability charts were acquired by means of a parameter scanning, which means defining a
maximum allowable value for the final surface roughness, where the position of the tool at the time instant of
the impact is equivalent to the deviation from the desired depth of cut and therefore the resulting surface
roughness.
The parameters of the cutting tool where: 𝜔𝑛 = 423.6 [Hz], 𝑚 = 2.5 [kg] and 𝐷 = 30 [mm]

unstable

stable

Figure 30: Stability chart with 0,5% damping

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unstable

stable

Figure 3: Stability chart with 1% damping

unstable

stable

Figure 4: Stability charts with 2% damping

In Figures 2-4 a denotes the depth of cut, while Ω denotes the spindle speed. Comparing the stability charts of
each respective figure it is evident that the two charts are very similar, but the models still exhibit some degree
of variance. Since the viscous damping based mechanical model used to create the stability charts of the
viscous damping model is well established and widely accepted as reliable it is a reasonable assumption, that

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the friction-based model is a reasonable approach to modeling milling operations and is worth exploring
further.
To gain a more comprehensive insight into the difference between the behavior of both models it is necessary
to analyze and compare the oscillatory behavior of both models in the case of stable operation at high spindle
speed, where the tool will only have few oscillations between cutting cycles and low spindle speeds, where the
tool will have more oscillations between cutting cycles. The chosen parameters for this closer insight were a
damping factor of 1% and 2% and the equivalent friction coefficient, as well as a spindle speed of 10 [krpm]
for the case of a high spindle speed with a depth of cut of 1.5 [mm], and 2 [krpm] for the case of a low spindle
speed with a depth of cut of 1 [mm].

Figure 5: resulting surface roughness at 10 [krpm], 1.5 [mm], with 1% and 2% damping and a natural
frequency of 423.6 [Hz]

Comparing the resulting surface roughness of each respective models, a similar trend as for the stability charts
is observable, where the behavior of the models is quite similar with a slight variance. The main difference
being that the friction-based model seems to converge slower to the steady state value, but the value of the
steady state surface error is almost identical. A further difference is that the viscous model seems to converge
to a fixed value while the friction-based model appears to have a saw tooth-esque behavior, showing that, as
expected, the two models behave in a similar manner with small deviations. Another interesting observation
is, that the envelope curves of the resulting surface roughness seem to match the envelope curve of each
respective model's free vibration, linear for the coulomb friction and exponential for the viscously damped.

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Figure 6: resulting surface roughness at 2 [krpm], 1[mm] with 1% and 2% damping and a natural frequency
of 423.6 [Hz]

In this case the difference in the two models becomes very clear since the error at both models approach a
vastly different value. Another interesting observation is that the viscous model seems to converge
exponentially, while the friction-based model decays linearly at first before approaching a steady state value,
exhibiting similarities to their respective free vibrations again.
Due to the drastic difference in the two resulting models at low spindle speeds it is evident that a limiting factor
in modelling the milling process with a frictional damping is the ratio between cutting speed Ω and the cutting
tools natural frequency 𝜔𝑛 , since at small spindle speeds the tools flying period becomes longer and the
difference in the underlying equations becomes more significant.

Conclusion
An alternative mechanical model for describing the vibrational behavior of low emersion milling processes is
explored and compared to a traditionally known viscose model. The two models are generally not comparable,
however, we have defined an equivalent damping capacity for the first period of the milling operation. Then
these equivalently fit models were compared using a time domain simulation. By having the above defined
attenuation capability, the resultant surface error is different for the two models. Especially for low spindle
speed the difference can be enormous. That high degree of difference in the models requires deeper
understanding of the underlying phenomenon, while the final goal is to have a combined viscose Coulomb
model of the milling process.

References

[1] Stépán G., Szalai R., Insperger T. 2004 “Nonlinear dynamics of high-speed milling subjected to
regenerative effect”, Nonlinear dynamics and production systems, pages 111-128 Wiley-VCH, Berlin
[2] M.A. Davies, J.R. Pratt, B. Dutterer, T.J. Burns, Journal of Manufacturing Science and
Engineering 124(2), 217-225 (2002).
[3] P.V. Bayly, J.E. Halley, B.P. Mann, M.A: Davies, in Proceedings of the ASME 2001 Design
Engineering Technical Conferences, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, paper no. DETC2001/VIB-21581
(2001) (CD-ROM).

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THE EFFECT OF SURFACE TREATMENTS ON HOLE QUALITY AND

TOOL WEAR IN DEEP HOLE DRILLS
Mine Nohuza, Şükran Katmerb, Mehmet Kolaçc, Olcay Karabulutd and Çağlar Yavaşe
a, Karcan Kesici Takım San. ve Tic. A.Ş, Eskişehir/TURKEY, m.nohuz@karcan.com
b, Freelance, Ankara/TURKEY, sukatmer@gmail.com
c, Bosch San. ve Tic. A.Ş., Bursa/TURKEY, mehmet.kolac@tr.bosch.com
d, Primus Coating Turkey Kaplama San. Tic. A.Ş., Bursa/TURKEY, olcay.akbulut@primuscoating.com.tr
e, Karcan Kesici Takım San. ve Tic. A.Ş. Eskişehir/TURKEY, c.yavas@karcan.com

Abstract
In deep hole drilling, chip jam has a key role in cutting performance. To improve chip evacuation and eliminate
chip jam, some surface treatments such as coatings or polishing are applied. In this study, the effects of coatings
and polishing were investigated experimentally in the deep hole drilling process. Two different types of
coatings named AlTiN and DLC were applied in different lengths on the drills. All drills have a version with
polishing and without polishing in the flutes. Full factorial design of experiments was carried out. As the
results, thrust force, bending moment, torque and hole quality were measured and data were evaluated by
analysis of variance (ANOVA) and main effect plots. The results indicate that the drill coated with 20 mm
DLC + 5 mm AlTiN and subjected to polishing generated lower thrust force during cutting and exhibited lower
tool wear compared to other drills.

Keywords: Deep hole drill, chip jam, DLC coating, AlTiN Coating, polishing

Introduction
Deep Hole drills are proportional to the diameter and length of the drill. Generally, this ratio is greater than
1:10. Especially oil and gas exploration equipment, hunting industry, aviation equipment and engines are the
application areas of deep hole processing. Hole quality is very important in all of these processes [1].
In deep hole drilling, cutting parameters and the advance of the drilling tools must be precisely adjusted to
ensure the surface quality of the hole and to prevent deviation from the center. In addition, the chips resulting
from the drilling process should be evacuated with high pressure and using cutting fluids specific to the drilling
process [2].

Figure 0.1. Images of pilot and deep hole drills

It is always recommended to use a pilot drill for deep hole drilling. Pilot drills are designed to provide
maximum precision and minimum runout in the drilling area in deep holes. The front angle of the pilot drill
should be at a larger angle than the deep hole drill and the diameter tolerance should be greater [3].

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Chip formation and chip evacuation are very important issues in drilling and can vary depending on workpiece
material, drill geometry, surface treatments of drills, coolant pressure/volume and cutting data. Chip jam can
cause radial movement in the drill, affecting hole quality, drill life and reliability, and leading to drill breakage.
Chip formation is acceptable when the chips can be ejected from the drill without any problems. The best way
to understand this is to listen to the sounds while drilling. If the sound comes continuously, chip evacuation is
successful, but if the sound comes intermittently, it means that there is chip jam. In this case, thrust force or
power monitor should be checked. If there are irregularities, the reason may be chip jam. If the chips are long
and bent rather than curved, there is a chip jam. In case of chip-jam, an irregularly damaged surface will be
observed. When working with deep hole drills, chip evacuation is not good as it cannot break the chip and
creates a chip evacuation problem [4,5]. To overcome chip jam, some surface treatments can be applied such
as coatings or polishing. In addition, these improvements can significantly increase tool life.
In the literature, there are lots of studies on deep hole drills, most of which are focused on hole quality. Studies
on deep hole coating and surface treatment are limited in the literature. Heinemann et al. work on DLC coating
deep hole drilling and they obtained that due to the droplet free surface of DLC coating and low friction
coefficient, the deep hole drills generate low thrust force [6]. On the other hand, Li et al. recorded that AlTiN
coatings exhibit a higher hardness compared to TiN and TiAlN coatings therefore this allows the tool to
withstand the abrasive nature of drilling hard materials, reducing wear and increase tool life [7].
In the literature, no double-layer coating studies have been performed using DLC and AlTiN in deep hole
drills. In this study, the aim was to increase the wear resistance of drills by using AlTiN and to increase the life
of drills by facilitating chip evacuation with DLC coating and flute polishing processes.

Material and Method

In this study, CK45 was used as workpiece materials with a dimension of 150x150x150 mm. The chemical
composition of the material is given in Table 1.

Table 5. Chemical Composition of CK45 material (wt%)

C Si Mn P S Cr Mo Al
Max-Min 0.42-0.5 <0.4 0.5-0.8 <0.03 <0.035 <0.04 <0.1
Actual Value 0.485 0.191 0.753 0.015 0.005 0.031

The tungsten carbide drills with 135°-point angle and 88 mm flute length (total length 126 mm) are
manufactured by Karcan Cutting Tools. Different coatings and polishing operations have been tried as surface
treatments as shown in Table 2. This table also shows full factorial design of experiments that applied in this
study.

Table 6. Using specimens at experimental procedure

Numbers Tools Coatings Polishing

L1 T1 20 mm DLC + 5 mm AlTiN Yes
L2 T2 20 mm DLC + 5 mm AlTiN No
L3 T3 90 mm DLC + 20 mm AlTiN Yes
L4 T4 90 mm DLC + 20 mm AlTiN No
L5 T5 Standard AlTiN Yes
L6 T6 Standard AlTiN No
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This study involved drilling 78 holes with each of the 6 different tools. In the experiments, drilling operations
were carried out under the same conditions with reference to the manufacturer's catalog values. Table 3 shows
the test parameters of deep hole drilling. All tools were clamped at the same standard clamping lengths to
prevent any factor that would affect the experimental results.

Pilot hole application was used before the deep hole drilling process. Both pilot hole and deep hole drills were
operated with 66 bar internal cooling pressure. Castrol Hysol SL 45 XBB Tank (6%) was used as cutting fluid
in the experiments with coolant. Experiments were carried out on the Mikron VCP800 vertical machining
center at the R&D center of Karcan Cutting Tools.

As results of the experiments, hole quality and wear of cutting tools were measured. Hole quality was defined
by diameter deviation, circularity through depth and cylindricity. For all deep holes, thrust force, bending
moment and torque recorded while drilling with Spike dynamometer. Wears were measured in the quick check
microscope in the R&D center.

Table 7. Test parameters of deep hole drilling

Machine Mikron VCP 800

Spindle StepTEC Rpm: 20000
Holder SPIKE
Tool Diameter / Diameter tolerances 5.3 / m7
Front Angle 138°
Number of Teeth 2
Material CK45
Spindle Speed (rpm) 6000
Feed (mm/min) 600
Cutting Speed (m/min) 99.9
Feed per Tooth 0.1
(mm/tooth)
Operation Pilot holes
Ae/Ap 5.3 / 12.5 mm
Coolant Internal Cooling (66 bar, 6%)

Experimental Results
The effects of two different coatings and polishing on cutting forces and moments generated during drilling,
as well as on hole quality and the performance of deep hole drills, were experimentally investigated.
The experimental results obtained from the experiments conducted according to the full factorial experimental
design table were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA), and significant parameters were identified.
The directions of these parameters’ effects were determined through the effects’ plots. The results are presented
under separate headings.

Forces and Moments

A total of 78 holes were drilled with each drill bit, and the thrust force, bending moment, and torsional moment
data during drilling were recorded. The thrust force, bending moment, and torsional moment data recorded
during the experiments were grouped every 13 holes, and the average forces and moments were calculated and
analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) based on a six-replicate full factorial experimental design. The
ANOVA results table (Table 4) demonstrates the effects of coatings, and polishing, as well as the interaction
of both processes, on thrust force, bending moment, and torsional moment. In the thrust force results, the total
error was 5.1%, indicating that the established model represents the experimental results with 94.9% accuracy.
The coating type had the highest effect on the thrust force (67.3%), followed by the coating*polishing

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interaction (14.3%) and polishing (12.9%), respectively. In the same table, when examining the bending
moment results, the total error was 13.7%, while the model’s representation rate was 86.3%. Coating (56.1%)
was also found to be the parameter with the highest effect on the bending moment. This was followed by the
coating*polishing interaction (21.1%) and polishing (7.2%). For the torque, the effects of the parameters were
similar to those for the thrust force and bending moment. Coating had an effect of 51.6%, coating*polishing
interaction had an effect of 25.4%, and polishing had an effect of 8.4%.

Table 8. ANOVA Results Table for Thrust Force, Bending Moment, and Torque
Thrust Force Bending Moment Torque
F- P- Adj Adj F- P- Adj Adj F- P-
Source DF Adj SS Adj MS
Value Value
C%
SS MS Value Value
C%
SS MS Value Value
C%

Model 10 8888348 888835 44,5 0 94,9 21,1 2,1 15,7 0 86,3 34,0 3,4 21,51 0 89,6
Blocks 5 80547 16109 0,8 0,56 0,9 0,5 0,1 0,7 0,63 1,9 1,6 0,3 2 0,11 4,2
Linear 3 7355808 2451936 122,8 0 78,5 15,5 5,2 38,5 0 63,3 22,8 7,6 48,01 0 60,0
Coatings 2 6306668 3153334 158,0 0 67,3 13,7 6,8 51,1 0 56,1 19,6 9,8 61,93 0 51,6
Polishing 1 1211764 1211764 60,7 0 12,9 1,8 1,8 13,2 0,00 7,2 3,2 3,2 20,16 0 8,4
2-Way Interactions 2 1343443 671722 33,7 0 14,3 5,2 2,6 19,3 0 21,1 9,7 4,8 30,54 0 25,4
Coatings*Polishing 2 1343443 671722 33,7 0 14,3 5,2 2,6 19,3 0 21,1 9,7 4,8 30,54 0 25,4
Error 24 479033 19960 5,1 3,3 0,1 13,7 4,0 0,2 10,4
Total 34 9367381 100 24,4 100 38,0 100

When examining the effect plots presented in Figure 3.1, it is observed that the lowest thrust force value was
obtained with the coating indicated C1 (20 mm DLC + 5 mm AlTiN), while the highest value was obtained
with the coating indicated C2 (90 mm DLC + 20 mm AlTiN). The thrust force for the standard coating indicated
C3 was close to that of C2 but at a lower value. The polishing process significantly reduced the thrust forces.
According to these results, the parameter interactions showed that the lowest thrust force was achieved with
the tool applied with the polishing and the coating indicated C1. This result suggests that, compared to a
standard tool, the coating type and polishing process can cause a 400% variation in thrust forces during the
deep hole drilling process.

Figure 0.1. Thrust force effect plot

In the graph provided in Figure 3.2, it is observed that the effects of the parameters on the bending moment
and torque are similar. The lowest bending and torsional moments were obtained with the drill coated with C2
and the unpolished drill. The highest moments were observed with the drill coated and polished with C1. The
breakage of drill L4 (T4) during the 78th hole indicates that the maximum thrust force generated with the
unpolished drill coated with C2 was effective in causing the breakage.

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Figure 0.2 Bending moment and torque effect plot

Hole Quality
The quality of holes in deep drilling was examined in terms of the diameter deviation, circularity, and
cylindricity. Measurements of diameter and circularity were taken at 5, 15, 25, 35, and 45 mm depths through
the hole depth. The measurements were carried out from holes which the highest and lowest bending moments
occurred during drilling. The data from holes with the highest and lowest bending moments were analyzed
separately. Additionally, in the analysis of variance, each depth was defined as a block, and changes in diameter
and circularity along the depth were also analyzed. The results for diameter deviation are provided in Table 5.

The R2 value of the model obtained from the ANOVA of circularity data was 36%. For cylindricity, only one
data point was taken along the hole depth, and maximum and minimum values were analyzed in duplicate, but
the R2 value of the model obtained from the variance analysis was 28%. The ANOVA tables for circularity and
cylindricity are not provided due to the low R2 values, which is thought to be influenced by the small sample
size.

When the ANOVA results table for diameter deviation (Table 5) is examined, the R 2 value of the model is
77.8% with a total error of 22.2%. The factor block with the highest effect within the model is the hole depth
(68.2%). Among the experimental parameters, only the effect of polishing was found to be statistically
significant (α<0.05). Although the percentage effect of polishing based on the sum of squares is lower than the
total error, the effect of polishing, along with hole depth, was examined in effect plots.

Table 9. Diameter Deviation ANOVA results table

Diameter deviation (at max. Bending Moment) Diameter deviation (at min. Bending Moment)
Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value C% Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value C%
Model 9 0,085006 0,009445 7,81 0 77,8 0,094123 0,010458 3,4 0,011 60,5
Blocks 4 0,074453 0,018613 15,39 0 68,2 0,075571 0,018893 6,15 0,002 48,6
Linear 3 0,008591 0,002864 2,37 0,101 7,9 0,012685 0,004228 1,38 0,279 8,2
Coatings 2 0,002046 0,001023 0,85 0,444 1,9 0,009713 0,004857 1,58 0,231 6,2
Polishing 1 0,006545 0,006545 5,41 0,031 6,0 0,002972 0,002972 0,97 0,337 1,9
2-Way Interactions 2 0,001961 0,000981 0,81 0,459 1,8 0,005867 0,002933 0,95 0,402 3,8
Coatings*Polishing 2 0,001961 0,000981 0,81 0,459 1,8 0,005867 0,002933 0,95 0,402 3,8
Error 20 0,024197 0,00121 22,2 0,061471 0,003074 39,5
Total 29 0,109202 100 0,155594 100

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In Figure 3.3, variations in diameter deviation are observed according to the highest and lowest bending
moments. A negative deviation value indicates that the hole diameter is larger than the nominal value, while a
positive value indicates it is smaller. According to the graph, at the entrance of the hole, the diameter deviation
takes a negative value, then turns positive as the depth increases, and the deviation increases towards the
bottom of the hole. Even when taken as an absolute value, it is observed that the diameter deviation increases
as the depth of the hole increases, indicating that the hole diameter decreases towards the bottom. Diameter
deviation remains relatively constant only between depths of 15 mm and 35 mm. The effects of coating and
polishing are not significant. According to the measurement results based on the highest bending moment,
polishing reduces diameter deviation.

Figure 0.3 Variation of diameter deviation at the highest and lowest bending moments

Tool Wear
Tool wear measurements were taken every thirteen holes, similar to force and moment measurements. A total
of 78 holes were planned for a six-replicate full factorial experimental design, and variance analysis was
conducted. Groups of thirteen holes were defined as repetition numbers. The variance analysis table for tool
wear results is shown in Table 6. According to the table, the R2 value of the model is high (89.5%), and the
total error is low (10.5%). The most effective parameter on the model is the block (number of holes) (α<0.05;
71.33%). This is followed by coating (α<0.05; 18.28%). The effect of polishing and the interaction of coating,
and polishing were not found to be statistically significant.
Table 10. Tool wear ANOVA results

Source DF Adj SS Adj MS F-Value P-Value C%

Model 10 0,071262 0,007126 20,46 0 89,50
Blocks 5 0,05679 0,011358 32,62 0 71,33
Linear 3 0,014551 0,00485 13,93 0 18,28
Coatings 2 0,01425 0,007125 20,46 0 17,90
Polishing 1 0,000491 0,000491 1,41 0,247 0,62
2-Way Interactions 2 0,000993 0,000497 1,43 0,26 1,25
Coatings*Polishing 2 0,000993 0,000497 1,43 0,26 1,25
Error 24 0,008357 0,000348 10,50
Total 34 0,079619 100

According to the tool wear effect plot presented in Figure 3.4, tool wear increases consistently as the number of holes
increases. However, when evaluating the error bars, it can be said that there is no significant difference in the variation in
the last two groups of holes. When examining the effect of coating types, the effect of the coating indicated C1 (20 mm
DLC + 5 mm AlTiN) is different from the other two coating types (C2: 90 mm DLC + 20 mm AlTiN, C3: Standard) and
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has a lower wear value. Although the effect of the coating*polishing interaction was not found to be statistically
significant, in the main effect plot, wear on the tool with the coating indicated C1 and polished exhibited a lower wear
value compared to the same drill without polishing.

Figure 0.4 Effect plot of tool wear

Conclusions
The statistical analysis and graphical evaluations indicate that the drill coated with C1 (20 mm DLC + 5 mm
AlTiN) and subjected to polishing generated lower thrust force during cutting and exhibited lower tool wear
compared to other drills. The breakage of the drill with the highest thrust force and the highest wear at the 78th
hole during the experiments indicates that the cause of the breakage was not chip-jam but rather decreased
cutting ability due to tool wear, leading to increased thrust force. In the examination of hole quality, considering
the commonly accepted knowledge that bending moment would particularly affect diameter deviation and
circularity, only analyzing holes where bending moment was high or low showed that in deep holes, the
bending moment did not have the expected effect. It was concluded that evaluation should be made after
measurements for all holes to determine the effect of other factors on hole quality.

References
[1] Karaca, M. M. (1996). DERiN DELiK DELMEDE KESME PARAMETRELERiNiN iNCELENMESI
(Doctoral dissertation, Marmara Universitesi (Turkey)).
[2] Serhan, A. Ç. A. Y., Kolaç, M., & Ozan, A. T. A. K. AISI 4140 Çeliğinin Delinmesinde Kesme Kenar
Radyüsü ve Kesme Parametrelerinin Optimizasyonu. İmalat Teknolojileri ve Uygulamaları, 1(3), 33-40.
[3] Yaman, K., BIÇAKÇI, N., & ÖZGEDİK, A. (2017). Matkap boyunun delik toleranslarına etkisinin
incelenmesi. Politeknik Dergisi, 20(4), 765-775.
[4] Kuzu, A. T., Rahimzadeh Berenji, K., & Bakkal, M. MİNİMUM MİKTARDA YAĞLAMA İLE DERİN
DELİK DELME İŞLEMİNDE İŞ PARÇASININ SICAKLIK MODELLEMESİ. DÜZENLEME KURULU,
45.
[5] HABALI, K., GOKKAYA, H., & Hasan, S. E. R. T. (2006). Kesici takım kaplama malzemesi ve kesme
parametrelerinin AISI 1040 çeliğinin işlenmesinde yüzey pürüzlülüğüne etkisinin deneysel olarak incelenmesi.
Politeknik Dergisi, 9(1), 35-38.
[6] Heinemann, R. K., & Hinduja, S. (2009). Investigating the feasibility of DLC-coated twist drills in deep-
hole drilling. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 44, 862-869.
[7] Li, B., Xu, Y., Rao, G., Wang, Q., Zheng, J., Zhu, R., & Chen, Y. (2023). Tribological properties and cutting
performance of AlTiN coatings with various geometric structures. Coatings, 13(2), 402.

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TESTERE TEZGÂHLARINDA KESME PARAMETRELERİNİN R EFEKT

GÜNCELLEMESİ VE KESİM SÜRELERİNE ETKİSİ
Yunus Emre Kınacıa, Şekip Esat Hayberb ve Mahmut Berkan Alisinoğluc

a, Bekamak Makine San. ve Tic. A.Ş,. Ar-Ge Merkezi, Bursa/TÜRKİYE, emre.kinaci@bekamak.com

b, Bursa Uludağ Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Elektrik-Elektronik Mühendisliği, Bursa/TÜRKİYE,
sehayber@uludag.edu.tr
c, Bekamak Makine San. ve Tic. A.Ş,. Ar-Ge Merkezi, Bursa/TÜRKİYE, berkan@bekamak.com

Özet
Talaşlı imalat endüstrisinde iş parçaları takım tezgâhlarında işlenmeden önce belirli boyutlarda
kesilmektedirler. Bu kesim işlemleri için genellikle testere tezgâhları kullanılır. Bu nedenle testere
tezgâhlarının verimi talaşlı imalat endüstrisi için kritik öneme sahiptir. Bu çalışmada şerit testere tezgâhında
kesici takım üreticisinin önerdiği kesme parametreleri (dönüş hızı (S), ilerleme hızı (F)) ve kesme modları
(uzun bıçak ömrü (UBÖ), normal (N) ve yüksek kesim performansı (YKP)) ile kesimler yapılmış, kesim işlemi
sırasında yük hücresi kullanılarak kesici takıma etkiyen kuvvetler saptanmıştır. Saptanan kuvvetler
referansında kesme parametreleri kesim işlemi sırasında gerçek zamanlı olarak güncellenerek (KPG) kesimler
tekrarlanmıştır. Kesim işlemi boyunca kesme parametrelerindeki gerçek zamanlı güncellemenin kesilen
numuneler üzerindeki değişim bölgeleri ve kesim sürelerine etkisi incelenmiştir.

Anahtar kelimeler: Testere makinesi, kesme parametreleri, yük hücresi.

THE EFFECT OF CUTTING PARAMETERS ON R-EFFECT UPDATE AND

CUTTING TIMES IN SAW MACHINES

Abstract
In the machining industry, work pieces are cut to specific sizes before being processed on machine tools. Saw
benches are generally used for these cutting operations. Therefore, the efficiency of sawing machines is of
critical importance for the machining industry. In this study, cuts were made on the band saw machine with
the cutting parameters (rotation speed (S), feed speed (F)) and cutting modes (long blade life (UBO), normal
(N), high cutting performance (YKP)) recommended by the cutting tool manufacturer, and the forces acting
on the cutting tool were determined using a load cell during the cutting process. Cutting parameters were
updated in real time during the cutting process (KPG), in reference to the determined forces, and the cuts were
repeated. The effect of real-time updating of cutting parameters throughout the cutting process on the change
zones and cutting times on the cut samples was examined.

Keywords: Sawing machine, cutting parameters, loadcell.

Giriş
Üretim süreçleri göz önüne alındığında talaşlı imalatın ilk proses olduğu ve bu proseslerden testere ile kesme
işleminin birincil proses olduğu görülmektedir. Testere ile kesme işlemi malzemelerin istenilen boylarda
kesilerek bir sonraki üretim prosesine hazırlandığı bir yöntemdir [1-3].
İmalat sanayisinde, özellikle seri imalatta metal malzemelerin kesilmesi için genellikle testere tezgâhları
kullanılır. Bu tezgahlarda kesim işleminin gerçekleşmesi için kesici takım hareketi süreklidir [4].

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Malzemelerin testere tezgâhlarında kesilmesinde çalışma ortamı, soğutma şartları, kesici takım gibi kesim
işlemini etkileyen birçok parametre mevcuttur. Ancak kesme işleminin uygunluğunun belirlenmesindeki en
etkin olanı kesme parametreleridir. Testere tezgâhlarında kesme parametrelerinin belirlenmesinde teorik
hesaplamalar yetersiz kaldığından deneysel çalışmalar ile desteklenmektedir [5].
Yıldız vd. [6] yapmış oldukları çalışmada kesme parametrelerinin yüzey pürüzlülüğü açısından
optimizasyonunu amaçlamışlardır. Parametre belirlemede Taguchi metodu kullanmışlardır. Deneyler
sonucunda yüzey pürüzlülük ölçüm sonuçlarına göre sinyal/gürültü analiziyle en uygun parametreleri
belirlemiş ve varyans analizi ile de parametrelerin yüzey pürüzlülüğü üzerine etkilerini belirlemişlerdir.
Li vd. [7] testere tezgâhlarında kesme parametreleri ile kesici takım ömrü arasındaki ilişkiyi evrişimsel sinir
ağı (CNN) modeli uygulayarak hedefe ulaşmak için atılacak adımları önermişlerdir. Model çıktısından bıçak
ömrünü uzatabilecek en uygun kesme parametrelerini tahminlemek için simülasyon tekniği kullanmışlardır.
Sonuç olarak optimum kesme parametrelerinin kesici takım ömrünü uzatabileceğini göstermişlerdir.
Literatür araştırmaları neticesinde testere tezgâhları ile yapılan kesme işlemlerinde kesme parametreleri
üzerine yapılan çalışmaların yeterli olmadığı görülmüştür. Bu nedenle bu çalışmada, şerit testere tezgâhında
Ø150 mm ebatında C45 kalite çelik malzeme kesici takım üreticisinin önermiş olduğu kesme parametreleri
(dönüş hızı (S) ve ilerleme hızı (F)) ve modlarında (uzun bıçak ömrü (UBÖ), normal (N) ve yüksek kesim
performansı (YKP)) kesimler gerçekleştirilerek yük hücresi ile kesici takıma etkiyen kuvvetler saptanmıştır.
Bu kuvvetler referansında kesme parametreleri gerçek zamanlı olarak güncellenmiş (KPG) ve kesimler
tekrarlanmıştır. Sonuç olarak kesme parametrelerinin kesim işlemi boyunca malzeme üzerindeki artış ve azalış
bölgeleri ile kesim süreleri incelenerek gerçek zamanlı güncellemenin avantajları ortaya konmuştur.

Materyal ve Metot
Materyal
Deney kesimlerinde yüksek darbe direnci, iyi işlenebilirlik, iyi kaynak edilebilirlik gibi özelliklere sahip Ø150
mm ebatında C45 kalite çelik kullanılmıştır. C45 çeliği aks, mil, şaft, dişli gibi makine elemanı olarak imalat
sanayisinde sıklıkla kullanılmaktadır [8]. C45 kalite çeliğin kimyasal kompozisyonu Tablo 1’de
gösterilmektedir.
Alaşım
C Mn Si P S Cr Ni Mo Fe
elementi
Oran (%) 0,48 0,74 0,36 0,011 0,01 0,09 0,02 0,002 kalan

Tablo 1: C45 kimyasal kompozisyon [8].

Deney kesimleri Bekamak Makina San. ve Tic. A.Ş’de bulunan BMSO 570 XS CNC akıllı kesim özelliğindeki
şerit testere tezgâhında gerçekleştirilmiştir. Kesim işlemi sırasında kesici takıma etkiyen kuvvetleri saptamak
için BS200 yük hücresi tezgâhın kesici takım yataklamasına monte edilmiştir. BMSO 570 XS şerit testere
tezgâhı ve BS200 yük hücresi Şekil 1’de, BMSO 570 XS özellikleri Tablo 2’de gösterilmektedir.

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a b

Şekil 1: (a) BMSO 570 XS, (b) yük hücresi.

Özellikler Değer Birim

Ana motor 15 kW
Hidrolik motor 2,2 kW
Kafa iniş motoru 1,5 kW
Kesme hızları 15-150 m/dk
Şerit ölçüsü 7400×54×1,6 mm

Tablo 2: BMSO 570 XS özellikleri.

Metot
Testere tezgâhlarında kesim işlemini doğrudan etkileyen kesme parametrelerinin seçimi yapılırken kesici
takım üreticisinin önermiş olduğu değerler referans alınır [5]. Kesme parametre değerleri kesme performansına
ve kesici takım ömrüne göre değişkenlik göstermektedir. Bu nedenle UBÖ, N ve YKP olmak üzere 3 farklı
kesim modunda kesme parametreleri kullanılmıştır.
Kesici takım üreticisinin önerdiği kesme parametrelerinde ve kesim modlarında 9 adet kesim yapılmış ve yük
hücresi ile kesici takıma etkiyen kuvvetler saptanmıştır. Ardından saptanan kuvvet değerleri referansında
kesme parametreleri gerçek zamanlı olarak güncellenerek kesimler tekrarlanmıştır. Deney kesimleri ve yük
hücresinin testere tezgâhı üzerinde konumlandırılması Şekil 2’de, deney tasarımı Tablo 3’te gösterilmektedir.

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a b

yük hücresi

Şekil 2: (a) Yük hücresi konumu, (b) deney kesimleri.

Numune KPG Kesim Modu S (m/dk) F (mm/dk)

1 Pasif UBÖ 70 39,8
2 Pasif UBÖ 70 39,8
3 Pasif UBÖ 70 39,8
4 Pasif N 70 49,7
5 Pasif N 70 49,7
6 Pasif N 70 49,7
7 Pasif YKP 77 59,6
8 Pasif YKP 77 59,6
9 Pasif YKP 77 59,6
10 Aktif UBÖ+ Start 70 Start 39,8
11 Aktif UBÖ+ Start 70 Start 39,8
12 Aktif UBÖ+ Start 70 Start 39,8
13 Aktif N+ Start 70 Start 49,7
14 Aktif N+ Start 70 Start 49,7
15 Aktif N+ Start 70 Start 49,7
16 Aktif YKP+ Start 77 Start 59,6
17 Aktif YKP+ Start 77 Start 59,6
18 Aktif YKP+ Start 77 Start 59,6

Tablo 3: Deney tasarımı.

Bulgular
Kesici takım üreticisinin önerdiği kesme parametre ve kesim modlarıyla gerçekleştirilen 9 kesimde kesici
takıma etkiyen kuvvetler saptanmıştır. Saptanan kuvvetler referansında kesme parametreleri gerçek zamanlı
güncellenerek 9 adet kesim daha yapılmış ve kesme parametrelerinin kesilen iş parçası üzerindeki artış ve
azalış bölgeleri ile kesim süreleri incelenmiştir.
Kesme parametrelerinin gerçek zamanlı güncellenmesi, kesim işlemi boyunca değişken olarak artış ve azalış
göstermiştir. Bu değişkenlik kesim işlemi boyunca kesici takıma etkiyen kuvvetin artış ve azalış durumuna
göre R efekt şeklinde olmuştur. R efekt Şekil 3’te, kesim süreleri ve kesici takıma etkiyen kuvvetler Şekil
4’te gösterilmektedir.
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Şekil 3: R efekt.

Şekil 4: Kesim süreleri & kesici takıma etkiyen kuvvetler.

Sonuçlar
Şerit testere makinelerinde kesme parametrelerinin gerçek zamanlı güncellenmesinin kesim sürelerine
etkisinin incelendiği bu çalışmada, Ø150 mm ebatında C45 kalite çelik malzeme kesici takım üreticisinin
önerdiği kesme parametre ve kesme modları ile kesilerek kesici takıma etkiyen kuvvetler saptanmış, saptanan
kuvvetler referansında kesme parametreleri gerçek zamanlı güncellenerek kesim sürelerine etkisi
incelenmiştir. İnceleme sonuçlarına göre;
1- Kesici takıma etkiyen kuvvetlerin kesme parametrelerindeki değişim ve kesici takımın malzemeye
temas ettiği alana göre değiştiği,

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2- Kesici takıma etkiyen kuvvetlerin referansında KPG ile kesme parametrelerindeki artış ve azalışın
lineer olmadığı, malzeme yüzeyi üzerinde R efekt şeklinde olduğu,
3- KPG sonrası kesim sürelerinde UBÖ modunda %29, N modunda %26, YKP modunda %23 iyileşme
olduğu gözlemlenmiştir.

Kaynakça
[1] Civelek, H. A., Alisinoğlu, M. B., Çavdar, K. 2020. “Şerit Testere Makinelerinde Kesme
Hızının Kesici Takım Sıcaklığına Etkisi”, International Conference on Engineering &
Natural Sciences, Ankara.

[2] Tsai, P. C., Jeng, Y. R., Tseng, C. W., 2022. “A Robuts Embedded Load Cell Sensor for Tool
Life Prognosis and Smart Sawing of Medium Carbon Stee”, The International
Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, Volume 121, Pages 1353-1364.

[3] Yılmaz, T., Ucun, İ., Ucun, İ., 2014, “Lama Testere ile AISI 1020 Malzemesinin Kesilmesi İşleminde
Takım Performansının İncelenmesi”, Afyon Kocatepe Üniversitesi Fen ve Mühendislik Bilimleri Dergisi, cilt
14, sayı 2, s 11-18.

[4] Asiltürk, İ. 2007. “Testere ile Kesme İşleminde Yapay Zeka Tabanlı Adaptif Kontrol Uygulaması”,
Doktora Tezi, Selçuk Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Konya.

[5] Mulaitat, A. 2022. “Şerit Testere ile Kesme İşleminde Kesme Parametrelerinin Deneysel
Olarak İncelenmesi”, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Balıkesir Üniversitesi, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü, Balıkesir.

[6] Yıldız, S., vd. 2021. “AISI 1040 Malzemesinin Şerit Testere ile Kesiminde İşlem Parametrelerinin Yüzey
Pürüzlülüğüne Etkisinin Taguchi Metoduyla İncelenmesi”, Ege 2. Uluslararası Uygulamalı Bilimler Kongresi,
İzmir.

[7] Li, vd., 2019. “A Deep Learning Based Method for Cutting Parameter Optimization for Band Saw
Machine”, Annual Conference Of The Prognostıcs And Health Management Socıety,Scotssdale.

[8] Skoczylas, A. Klonica, M., 2023. “Selected Properties of the Surface Layer of C45 Steel
Samples after Slide Burnishing, Materials, Volume 16. Pages 6513.

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THEORETICAL MODELLING AND SIMULATION OF CHIP CLOGGING

IN DRILLING AND EXPERIMENTAL VERIFICATION
Eiji Shamotoa, Takehiro Hayasakaa, and Hikaru Akaria

a, Nagoya University, Graduate School of Engineering, Nagoya/Japan, shamoto@nagoya-u.jp

Abstract
Chip clogging process in drilling is theoretically modelled in this research. It is considered that the chips are
compressed plastically under pressure to become a lump at the bottom after they start clogging, and the lump
is evacuated with elastic recovery. The chip lump formation process is estimated by utilizing data in literature
on metal powder compaction, while the lump evacuation / clogging process is formulated by applying Hooke’s
law and force equilibrium with consideration of a vicious cycle of pressure rise due to time-delay of evacuation.
The derived delay-differential equation to represent the pressure rise is numerically solved together with the
equations to represent the evacuation and elastic recovery. The developed model and simulation method are
applied to drilling of copper alloy at different feed rates, and the theoretical and experimental results of thrust
force increments due to the chip clogging agree well, verifying validity of the developed model.
Keywords: Drilling, Chip clogging, Theoretical model.

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OPTIMIZATION OF PROCESS PARAMETERS IN FIVE AXES

ULTRASONIC ASSISTED QUARTZ MACHINING
Özlem Erdoğana , Ozan Emre Öğütb , and Mustafa Cemal Çakırc

a, Bursa Uludağ University Faculty of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bursa/TURKEY,

ozlemerdogan@uludag.edu.tr
b, Öğüt Kalıp Makina Company, Bursa/TURKEY, ozanogut@ogutkalip.com
c, Bursa Uludağ University Faculty of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bursa/TURKEY,
cemal@uludag.edu.tr

Abstract
Processing hard and brittle quartz glass using traditional production methods is challenging. Thus, ultrasonic
machining is the recommended method for working with these types of materials. This paper explores the
machining of quartz material through rotary ultrasonic drilling (RUD) using a trepanning tool. The study
investigates the effect of ultrasonic power, tool rotational speed, feed rate, and pecking drilling distance
parameters on chipping area (CA), material removal rate (MRR), and surface roughness (SR). The design of
the experiments utilized Response Surface Methodology (RSM) with the Box-Behnken design. The optimal
process parameters (26th) were determined by ranking the grey relational grade (GRG) in Gray Relational
Analysis (GRA) based on the results of all 27 experiments. The settings of the 26th experiment were as follows:
ultrasonic power (P) was set to 90%, tool rotational speed (n) to 1300 rpm, feed rate (Vf) to 30 mm/min, and
peck drilling distance (dp) to 0.75 mm and the results were CA=56.96 mm2, SR=1.222 µm and MRR=162.68
mm3/s. The optimum parameters (P=60%; n=1600 rpm; Vf=30 mm/min; dp=0.40 mm) were determined by
calculating the average GRG for each parameter level using GRA. The desirability approach in multi-response
optimization was used to determine the optimum values for the parameters (P=61.52%; n=1478.79 rpm;
Vf=28.18 mm/min; dp=0.69 mm). The RSM analysis revealed that these settings resulted in a minimum contact
area (CA) of 55.93 mm2, a minimum surface roughness (SR) of 0.938 µm, and a maximum material removal
rate (MRR) of 147.63 mm3/s. Additional experiments were conducted with RUD & CD (conventional drilling)
drilling method with the ideal configuration. As per the GRA analysis, the parameter of rotating speed of the
tool had the most influence on its results of chipping thickness, surface roughness, and material removal rate.
ANOVA analysis revealed that the factors with the most effect were ultrasonic power for SR, tool rotational
speed (n) for CA, and feed rate for MRR.

Keywords: Multi response optimization, pecking drilling, quartz, rotary ultrasonic drilling (RUD)

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INVESTIGATING THE ASYMMETRICITY OF INDEXABLE TOOL

BODIES FOR BETTER CHATTER RESISTANCE
Hatice Elif Tola Demirela , Bekir Bedizb , Jokin Munoac and Zekai Murat Kilicd

a, University of Manchester, School of Engineering, Manchester/UK, hatice.tolademirel@postgrad.manchester.ac.uk

b, Sabanci University, Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Istanbul/TURKIYE, bbediz@sabanciuniv.edu
c, Ideko, Dynamics and Control, Elgoibar, Basque Country/SPAIN, jmunoa@ideko.es
d, University of Manchester, School of Engineering, Manchester/UK, zekaimurat.kilic@manchester.ac.uk

Abstract
Milling operations are often limited by regenerative vibrations arising due to the flexible machine tool parts
which have dynamic effects on both stationary and rotary directions. Additionally, asymmetricity of the milling
cutter has an impact on the rotating dynamics of the machine tool. However, asymmetric tools may not always
have positive effects hence care must be taken when using them. This paper investigates how to achieve desired
chatter stability characteristics by tuning the dynamic response of the tool body. Both frequency and time
domain methods were used to predict the stability lobes diagram according to the measured tool tip frequency
response functions. An indexable end mill with exchangeable head is used; these tools have less coupled
stiffness and mass characteristics and thus would be more suitable for dynamic tuning. It is shown that the
stability lobes diagram is quite sensitive to the degree of asymmetricity of the end mill. Also, it may not be
straightforward to predict the frequency response function of the tool, mainly due to the contact parameters of
between tool and holder. Therefore, in the future studies, a dedicated structural model is required to decide the
required stiffness and mass of the end mill for better chatter resistance.

Keywords: Asymmetric end mill, chatter stability, rotating dynamics.

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DAİRESEL TESTERE MAKİNE PARAMETRELERİNİN YÜZEY

KALİTESİNE ETKİSİ İNCELENMESİ
Hasan Çakır1, Mahmut Yılmaz1, Alper Yeter, Umut Karagüzel2 , Ali Taner Kuzu3 ve Mustafa
Bakkal4

1, Yılmaz Makine, Araştırma ve Geliştirme Merkezi, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, arge@yilmazmachine.com.tr

2, Yıldız Teknik Üniversitesi, Makine Mühendisliği Bölümü, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, umut.karaguzel@yildiz.edu.tr
3, Işık Üniversitesi, Makine Mühendisliği Bölümü, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, alitaner.kuzu@isikun.edu.tr
4, İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Makine Mühendisliği Bölümü, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, bakkalmu@itu.edu.tr

Özet
Dairesel testere ile yapılan kesimlerde gelişen teknolojiyle birlikte kesilen yüzeylerde yüksek yüzey kalitesi
beklentisi artmıştır. Yüzey kalitesine kesme işleme sırasında kullanılan dairesel testere ve testere malzeme
yapısı doğrudan etki etmektedir. Aynı zamanda makine çalışma parametreleri de yüzey kalitesine etki
etmektedir. Yapılan bu çalışmada makine çalışma parametreleri içersinde yer alan ilerleme ve kesme
hızlarında, farklı değerler kullanılarak kesme deneyleri yapılmıştır. Deneyler veri toplama cihazı ile makine
gövdesi üzerine yerleştirilen ivmeölçer sensörlerden titreşim verileri toplanmıştır. Toplanan veriler, veri
toplama cihazı arayüz programında işlenerek maksimum ivme değerleri ve ivmelerin ortalama karekök
değerleri hesaplanmıştır. Hesaplanan veriler ile krest faktörünün farklı ilerleme ve kesim hızlarında değeri
bulunmuştur. Yüzey pürüzlülük ölçüm cihazı kullanılarak kesim yapılan parçaların yüzey pürüzlülük değeri
tespit edilmiştir. Deneyler sonucunda makinede meydana gelen titreşimlerin yüzey pürüzlülüğüne olan etkisi
araştırılmıştır.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Dairesel Testere, Titreşim, Krest Faktör, Yüzey Pürüzlülük

Abstract
With advancements in technology, expectations for high surface quality in cuts made with circular saws have
increased. The cutting blades of the circular saw and their structure directly affect the surface quality during
cutting. Additionally, machine operating parameters also influence surface quality. In this study, cutting
experiments were conducted using different values of feed rate and cutting speed, which are among the
machine operating parameters. During these experiments, vibration data was collected using accelerometer
sensors placed on the machine and a data acquisition device. The collected data was processed in the data
acquisition device's interface program, where maximum acceleration values and the root mean square (RMS)
values of accelerations were calculated. Using the calculated data, the crest factor was determined at different
cutting and feed rates. The surface roughness value of the cut parts was measured using a surface roughness
measurement device. As a result of the experiments, the effect of vibrations occurring in the machine on surface
roughness was investigated.
Keywords: Circular Saw, Vibration, Crest Factor, Surface roughness

1 Giriş
Endüstride hammaddelerin boy ayarlaması için testere ile kesim yaygın olarak kullanılan metotlardandır.
Metodun yaygınlaşması ile beraber kesilecek olan malzeme türüne göre karbür uçlu, elmas kaplamalı ve özel
kaplamalar ile desteklenen testere bıçakları üretilmiştir. Testere bıçağının gövdesinde yaygın olarak kullanılan
malzemelerden biri karbon çeliğidir. Karbon çeliği uygun maliyetli olmasından dolayı yaygın olarak
kullanılmaktadır. Ancak hızlıca paslanması ve kullanım koşullarına göre hızlı aşınması olumsuz
yönlerindendir. Paslanmaz çelik gövdeler yüksek korozyon direnci ve ekstrem çalışma koşulları nedeniyle
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tercih edilir. Testere bıçağının dişleri için karbon çeliği, yüksek hız çeliği, tungsten karbür ve elmas kaplamalı
uçlar kullanılmaktadır. Karbon çeliği kolay işlenebilir ve ucuz olmasından dolayı tercih edilmektedir.
Genellikle yumuşak ve orta sertlikteki malzemelerin kesiminde kullanılır. Yüksek hız çeliği, yüksek
sıcaklıklarda bile sertliğini korumasından dolayı tercih edilmektedir. Sert ve dayanıklı yapısından dolayı sert
malzemelerin kesiminde sıklıkla tercih edilmektedir. Tungsten karbür uçlar çok sert ve dayanıklı yapısından
dolayı ahşap, plastik, metal malzemeler gibi geniş bir kullanım alanı vardır. Bıçak gövdesine lehimleme ile
montajı yapılmaktadır. Elmas kaplamalı ise uçlar testere bıçak uçlarında kullanılan en sert malzemedir. Soket
adı verilen kesici uçların dairesel çelik gövdeye kaynatılması ile elde edilir. Soketler bir takım metal tozlarının
ve sanayi elmaslarının karışımından imal edilir. Yüksek ısı ve basınçla beraber işlenerek nihai halini
almaktadır. Seramik cam taş ve beton gibi sert malzemelerin kesiminde kullanılır. Çok yüksek dayanıklılık ve
aşınma direnci sunmaktadır. Teflon kaplamalar ise düşük sürtünme ve yapışma önleme yapısından dolayı ahşap
ve plastik gibi malzemelerde kullanılır. Isı birikimini engelleme özelliği mevcuttur. Merkezi işlem birimleri
kullanılarak kesme işlemleri hazırlanan programa göre istenilen hız ve boylarda kesim yapılabilmektedir.
Testere bıçağının sık değiştirilmesinin maliyet ve üretim verimliliği açısından olumsuz etkisi vardır. Bu
kesimlerde testere imalat firması tarafından kesme ve ilerleme hızları limitlerinde kesim işlemleri
yapılmaktadır. İmalatçı tarafından verilen kesme ve ilerleme hız değerleri profil kesit yapısına göre
değişmemektedir. Yapılan çalışmada dairesel testere ile yapılan kesimlerde parçadaki yüzey pürüzlülüğünün
optimizasyonu üzerinde çalışılmıştır. Parçaların yüzey kalitesi ve takım ömrü açısından aşınma önemli bir
faktördür. Bu yüzden, yüksek hızlarda kesme işlemi esnasında takımda ve parçada oluşan aşınma son yıllarda
artan bir şekilde araştırılmaktadır. Aşınmanın tespiti konusunda farklı metotlar uygulanmaktadır. Bu metotlar
içerisinde titreşim izleme yaygınlaşmıştır. Bu titreşimlerin ölçülüp, analiz edilmesi ile aşınma hakkında bilgi
edinilebilir. Aşınma arttıkça titreşim artmaktadır ve bu bilgiden hareketle, titreşim değerindeki artıştan, parça
yüzeyindeki yüzey pürüzlülüğü hakkında bir sonuca varılır.
Literatür çalışmaları incelendiğinde kesim ve ilerleme hız parametrelerinin yüzey kalitesine olan etkisi üzerine
çalışmalar yapıldığı görülmektedir. GGG50 döküm malzemenin torna tezgahında işlenmesi sırasında farklı
ilerleme ve kesme hız değerlerinde denemeler üzerine çalışılmıştır. İşlem sırasında oluşan titreşim, ses şiddeti
ve yüzey pürüzlülüğü değerlerinin karşılaştırması yapılmıştır. Farklı ilerleme değerlerinde titreşim ve yüzey
pürüzlülüğü arasında doğrusal bir ilişki gözlemlenmiştir. Kesme hızı arttıkça titreşim ve sesten kısmi azalmalar
meydana gelmiştir.Titreşimin talaşlı imalatta öneme sahip olduğu görülmüştür [1]. Şerit testere makinelerinde
kullanılan adaptif kontrolün önemi ve avantajları üzerinde inceleme yapmışlardır. Değişken kesitli
malzemelerin kesim sonundaki kesme yüzey kalitesi ve kesme süreleri incelenmiştir. Deney sistematiği adaptif
kontrollü kesim ve otomatik kesim sonucunda oluşan yüzey pürüzlülük değerleri incelenmiştir. Çalışma
sonunda akıllı kesme modu sadece yüzey kalitesini iyileştirmekle kalmamış ve kesme verimliliğini arttırdığı
gözlenmiştir [2]. Yüksek hızlarda kesme işlemi sırasında takımda oluşan aşınma son yıllarda araştırılmaktadır.
Takımda oluşan aşınma yüzey kalitesine de olumsuz etki yapmaktadır. Aşınmanın tespiti konusunda farklı
metotlar kullanılmaktadır. Bu metotlardan içerisinde titreşim izleme yaygın olarak kullanılmaktadır.
Titreşimler ölçülüp analiz edilmesi sonucunda takım aşınması ile sonuçlara varılabilmektedir. Yapılan
çalışmada frezeleme işlemi sırasında ortaya çıkan titreşimler ölçülmüş ve krest faktörü değeri yardımıyla
titreşimlerin analizi yapılmıştır. Analiz sonucunda titreşim verileri ile aşınma değerleri arasındaki ilişki
incelenmiştir [3]. Yapılan deneysel çalışmada AISI 4140 çeliğin CNC torna tezgahında kesme kuvvetlerinin
üç farklı eksendeki değişimini farklı devir ve hızlarda gözlemlenmiştir. Kesme kuvvetlerinin her bir eksende
ölçülmesi ve işleme yönelik aşınma mekanizmalarının belirlenmesi açısından önem taşımaktadır. Deney
parametrelerinin belirlenmesi için Taguchi metotu kullanılmıştır. İvmeölçerden toplanan veriler işlenerek
optimum çalışma hızları tespit edilmiştir [4].
Deneysel çalışmada testerelerin çalışma ortam şartları, tasarımı, kesilecek parça geometrisi, kesici takım
özelikleri ve kesme parametrelerinin kesme verimliliğine önemli derecede etkisine değinilmiştir. İlerleme ve
kesme hızlarında farklı değerlerde kesimler yaparak kesici takımın ısınması ve aşınmasını incelenmiştir.
İlerleme ve kesme hızlarının yüzey pürüzlülüğüne etkisine değinilmiştir. Kesilecek bu numunelerin yüzey
pürüzlülüğü testerenin sapma değerleri ve motorun akımını ölçerek optimum kesme parametresinin tespiti
üzerine çalışmalar yapılmıştır [5]. AISI çelik malzemesinin karbür takımlar ile işleminde kesme
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parametrelerini modellemek ve optimize etmek için deneyler gerçekleştirilmiştir. Kesme parametrelerinin

yüzey pürüzlülüğüne etkisi, dört farklı kesme parametresinin performansını belirlemek için varyans analizi
kullanmıştır. Bu analiz sonucunda çoklu regresyon analizi yaparak en iyi yüzey pürüzlülük değerini bulmak
ve yapay zekaya temel hazırlamak için kullanılmıştır. Yapmış olduğu algoritma ile yapılan denemelerde yüzey
pürüzlülüğünde %12 oranında iyileşme görülmüştür [6].

2 Materyal ve Metot
2.1. Deney Metotu
Deney Yılmaz Makine tarafından üretilen CDC600 kodlu iki kafalı kesim makinesinde kullanılan testerenin
farklı ilerleme ve kesme hızıyla kesim yapılan parçaların kesim yüzey kaliteleri incelenmiştir. Deneyler
sırasında 20 kHz örnekleme oranı ile veri toplanmıştır. Deneyde yapılan kesimlerde 1800, 2000, 2200 ve 2400
devir sayısında testere tahrik motoru çalıştırılmıştır. Her bir çalışma devri için 7 farklı ilerleme hızında kesim
yapılmıştır. Tablo 1’de deneyde kullanılan makine parametreleri yer almaktadır. Deney sonunda her bir
ilerleme ve kesme hızı için krest faktör değeri hesaplanmıştır. Kesim işlemi tamamlanmış olan numunelerin
yüzey pürüzlülük ölçümü yapılmıştır.
Devir Sayısı (d/dk) İniş Hızı (mm/sn) Kesilen Malzeme Kalınlık (mm)
1800 7.4 10
1800 14.8 10
1800 22.2 10
1800 29.6 10
1800 37 10
1800 44.4 10
1800 51.8 10
2000 7.4 10
2000 14.8 10
2000 22.2 10
2000 29.6 10
2000 37 10
2000 44.4 10
2000 51.8 10
2200 7.4 10
2200 14.8 10
2200 22.2 10
2200 29.6 10
2200 37 10
2200 44.4 10
2200 51.8 10
2400 7.4 10
2400 14.8 10
2400 22.2 10
2400 29.6 10
2400 37 10
2400 44.4 10
2400 51.8 10

Tablo 1: Numune Kesim Tablosu

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2.2. Deney Ekipmanları

Deneylerin gerçekleştirilmesi için Yılmaz Makine tarafından üretilen CDC600 kodlu bilgisayar kontrollü çift
kafalı kesim makinesi kullanılmıştır. Şekil 1’de CDC600 makinesi gösterilmiştir.

Şekil 1: Yılmaz Makine CDC600 çift kafa kesim makinesi

Veriler Dewesoft marka veri toplama cihazı üzerinden toplanmıştır. Titreşim verileri testere motoru ile şase
bağlantı noktası üzerindeki Kistler marka ivmeölçer sensörden toplanmıştır. Şekil 2’de Dewesoft veri toplama
cihazı gösterilmiştir.

Şekil 2: Dewesoft veri toplama cihazı

2.3. İşlenen Malzeme ve Testere Bıçağı

Testere Z eksen hareketi elektirikli silindirli sistem tarafından gerçekleştirilmektedir. Testere tahriği senkron
motor tarafından yapılmaktadır. Testeredeki ölçüm noktaları Şekil 3’te gösterilmiştir.

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Şekil 3: Testere bıçağı ölçü figürü.

Deney sırasında 600 çapında Schaffer marka testere kullanılmıştır. Kullanılan testereye ait özellikler Tablo
2’de gösterilmiştir.
Çap Diş Sayısı(T) Diş Testere Diş Açı(°) Geri Açı(°)
Genişliği(mm) Kalınlık(mm)
600 140 4,4 3,8 15 -4

Tablo 2: Testere bıçağı ölçü tablosu.

Testereler kesim yapılacak malzemeye göre özel olarak seçilmesi önem taşımaktadır. Kullanılan testerenin
malzeme özellikleri Tablo 3’te verilmiştir.
Testere Malzeme Özellik
Gövde Materyeli 1.2003
Diş Materyeli Tungsten-Karbür
Çelik Sertliği HRC22

Tablo 3: Testere malzeme bilgisi

2.4. Kesilen Malzeme Ölçümü

Kesilen numunelerin Mitutoyo marka yüzey pürüzlülük ölçüm cihazında kesilen numune üzerinden 3 farklı
bölgeden yüzey pürüzlülük ölçümü yapılmıştır. Şekil 3’te Mitutoyo yüzey pürüzlülük ölçüm cihazı
gösterilmiştir. Ölçüm sonucunda 3 farklı bölgeden alınan ölçümlerin aritmatik ortalaması alınarak Şekil 6’da
gösterilmiştir.

Şekil 4: Mitutoyo yüzey pürüzlülük ölçüm cihazı.

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3 Bulgular ve Tartışma
Deney sonucunda toplanan veriler işlenerek krest faktörü değeri hesaplanmıştır. Deneyde kullandığımız krest
faktörü, ivmeölçerden gelen titreşim veri sinyalinin tepe noktası değeri ile karekök ortalaması (RMS) değeri
arasındaki orandır. Krest faktör formülü;
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘
𝐶= 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠
(1)

Formüldeki 𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑎𝑘 titreşim sinyali tepe değeri ve 𝑉𝑟𝑚𝑠 karekök ortalaması akım değeridir. Hesaplanan krest
faktörü değeri ile yüzey pürüzlülük değerleri her bir kesim ve ilerleme hızı Şekil 5 ve Şekil 6’da gösterilmiştir.
Şekil 5’te krest faktörü ve ilerleme hızı ilişkisi 4 farklı testere dönüş devri üzerinden gösterilmiştir. Deneyde
krest faktörünün ilerleme hızına göre doğrusal bir artış göstermediği görülmüştür. Belirli hız değerlerinde
düşme eğilimi göstermiştir.

5
Krest Faktör

1800 Devir Sayısı(d/dk)

4
2000 Devir Sayısı(d/dk)
3 2200 Devir Sayısı(d/dk)
2 2400 Devir Sayısı(d/dk)

0
7,4 14,8 22,2 29,6 37 44,4 51,8
İlerleme Hızı (mm/sn)

Şekil 5: Krest faktörü ilerleme hız grafiği

Şekil 5’te gösterilen grafikte, ilerleme hızı (mm/sn) ile kesme işlemi sırasında oluşan titreşimlerin
hesaplanması ile bulunan krest faktörü arasındaki ilişki dört farklı devir sayısı üzerinde (1800, 2000, 2200 ve
2400 d/dk) incelenmiştir. İlerleme hızı testerenin kesilen iş parçası üzerindeki birim zamandaki ilerleme
mesafesini ifade etmektedir. 1800 devir sayısında krest faktörü, 29,6 mm/sn ilerleme hızından sonra düşüş
göstermiştir. 2000 devir sayısında 29,6 mm/sn ilerleme hızından krest faktöründeki değişimler daha belirgin
hale gelmektedir. 2200 devir sayısında ilerleme hızındaki krest faktör değişimleri belirgin özellik
göstermektedir. Daha yüksek devir sayılarında, ilerleme hızına bağlı olarak krest faktöründeki artışlar daha
belirgin hale gelmektedir. 2400 devir sayısında kesim yapılan parçalarda daha yüksek krest faktörünün
oluştuğu gözlenimştir.

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45

40

35

30
Rz(µm)

25
1800 Devir Sayısı(d/dk)
20 2000 Devir Sayısı(d/dk)
15 2200 Devir Sayısı(d/dk)
10 2400 Devir Sayısı(d/dk)

0
7,4 14,8 22,2 29,6 37 44,4 51,8

İlerleme Hızı (mm/sn)

Şekil 6: Yüzey pürüzlülük hız grafiği

Şekil 6’da ilerleme hızı ile yüzey pürüzlülüğü arasında ilişki gösterilmiştir. Rz değeri, kesilen parçanın yüzey
profilindeki en yüksek tepe noktası ile en derin noktaya olan ortalama yüksekliği temsil eder. Rz değeri
mikrometre (μm) cinsinden ifade edilir.
7.4 mm/sn ilerleme hızında testeredeki yüksek devir sayısı yüzey pürüzlülüğünü artıran bir etki yapmaktadır.
Ölçülen yüzey pürüzlülük değerleri krest faktör hesaplamasıyla uyuşmaktadır. 22,2 mm/s hızda krest faktör
hesaplaması devir sayısı ile ters orantı eğilimi göstermiştir. Yüzey pürüzlülük ölçümünde 22,2 mm/s değerinde
ölçüm sonuçları devir sayısı ile ters orantı eğilimi göstermiştir. Sonuçlara göre testere devir sayısı yüzey
pürüzlülüğünü etkilemektedir. 1800 devir sayısı ile yapılan kesimler en kötü yüzey pürüzlülük değerine
sahiptir. 2200 devir sayısı en iyi seviyede yüzey pürüzlülüğü veren değerdir.

4 Sonuçlar
Kesim işlemi esnasında oluşan titreşim değerleri sonucunda hesaplanan krest faktör değeri yüzey pürüzlülüğü
arasındaki ilişki Şekil 5’teki grafik aracılığıyla görülmektedir. Belirli hız değerlerinde maksimum yüzey
kalitesi görülmektedir. Buradaki yüzey kalitesi kesilen profilin kesit şekline ve malzemesine göre değişkenlik
gösterecektir. Farklı ilerleme hız değerlerinde farklı yüzey pürüzlülükleri ve krest faktör değerinin meydana
geldiği görülmüştür. Toplanan veriler incelendiğinde 2400 devir sayısında farklı hızlarda yapılan kesimlerdeki
minimum krest değeri 22,2 mm/sn ilerleme hızında görülmüştür. Yüzey pürüzlülük ölçümlerinde ise yine 22,2
mm/sn hızında en iyi yüzey pürüzlülüğü görülmüştür. 2200 devir sayısında farklı hızlarda yapılan
kesimlerdeki minimum krest değeri 22,2 mm/sn ilerleme hızında görülmüştür. Yüzey pürüzlülük ölçümlerinde
ise 22,2 mm/sn hızında en iyi yüzey pürüzlülüğü görülmüştür. 1800 devir sayısında farklı hızlarda yapılan
kesimlerdeki minimum krest değeri 37 mm/sn ilerleme hızında görülmüştür. Yüzey pürüzlülük ölçümlerinde
ise yine 37 mm/sn hızında en iyi yüzey pürüzlülüğü görülmüştür.
Şekil 5 ve Şekil 6’daki iki grafik beraber değerlendirildiğinde parçaların kesilmesi sırasında makine
parametrelerinden olan ilerleme hızı ve devir sayısının makinede meydana gelen titreşimleri değiştirdiği
gözlenmiştir. Meydana gelen titreşimlerin hesaplanması ile bulunan krest faktörü ile kesilen parçadaki yüzey
kalitesi genellikle benzerlik göstermektedir.Makine çalışması sırasındaki titreşim verileri toparlanarak
optimizasyon verisi olarak kullanılabilir. Yüzey kalitesinin optimizasyonu için parçanın kesit profiline uygun
ilerleme hızı ve devir sayısı kombinasyonu seçilmelidir. Yapılan kesimlerde kesim verimliliğinin yanı sıra
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yüksek yüzey kalitesine sahip kesimler meydana gelecektir. Her bir profil şekline ve malzeme türüne göre
optimum kesme ve ilerleme hızları uygulanarak akıllı kesim sistemi uygulaması yapılabilir.
Son olarak ileride yapılacak çalışmalarda krest fakrönün testere kullanım ömrüne olan etkisinin araştırılması
tavsiye edilmektedir.

5 Kaynakça
[1] A. Şahinoğlu, A. Güllü, A. Dönertaş, “GGG50 Malzemenin Torna Tezgâhında İşlenmesinde Kesme
Parametrelerinin Titreşim, Ses Şiddeti ve Yüzey Pürüzlülüğü Üzerinde Etkisinin Araştırılması”, Sinop
Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Dergisi, cilt 2(1), sayfa 67-79, Şubat 2017.

[2] Yıldız, S., Atalı, G., Beker, E., & Birgül, U. 2023. “The investigation of cutting parameters for improving
cutting performance in band saw machines”. Niğde Ömer Halisdemir Üniversitesi Mühendislik Bilimleri
Dergisi, 12(4), 1492-1498.

[3] Er, A. O., Orhan, S., Camuşcu, N., & Aslan, E. 2012. “Sertleştirilmiş 1.2738 plastik kalip çeliklerinin
yüksek hızlarda işlenmesinde titreşimin işleme etkilerinin deneysel olarak incelenmesi”, 3. Ulusal Talaşlı
İmalat Sempozyumu, 354-361.

[4] İynen, O., Şahinoğlu, A., Özdemir, M., & Yılmaz, V. (2020). Optimization of the effect of cutting
parameters on the cutting force in the gradual turning process by Taguchi method. Journal of the Institute of
Science and Technology, 10(3), 1909-1918.

[5] Mulaitat, A. (2022). Şerit testere ile kesme işleminde kesme parametrelerinin deneysel olarak incelenmesi
(Master's thesis, Balıkesir Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü).

[6] Öktem, Hasan. (2009). “An integrated study of surface roughness for modelling and optimization of cutting
parameters during end milling operation”. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology.
43. 852-861. 10.1007/s00170-008-1763-3.

[7] https://training.dewesoft.com/online/course/statistical-calculations-on-the-sampled-data

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AN IN-PROCESS THIN-WALLED WORKPIECE DYNAMICS UPDATE

MODEL USING A MICROPHONE
Mohammadreza Taleblooa, Oguzhan Tuysuzb*

a, Polytechnique Montreal, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Montreal/Canada,

mohammadreza.talebloo@polymtl.ca
b, Polytechnique Montreal, Department Mechanical Engineering, Montreal/Canada, oguzhan.tuysuz @polymtl.ca

Abstract
Material removal-induced variations in the in-process thin-walled workpiece dynamics are crucial to develop
a vibration-free machining process. Therefore, monitoring varying vibration modes to adjust the cutting
parameters along the toolpath is imperative. This study aims at identifying the natural frequencies of thin-
walled parts during milling using a non-contact sensor. An output-only Autoregressive (AR) model with cutting
sound signals and an Autoregressive with eXogenous inputs (ARX) model using the measured cutting forces
and cutting sound are developed to predict the in-process dominant mode frequencies of a flexible part as
material is removed. The natural frequencies obtained by the developed models are compared with the
experimental modal analysis results. The comparisons showed that the developed AR and ARX models can
respectively predict the dominant in-process workpiece mode frequencies with maximum errors of 8.6% and
7.8%. These results reveal the potential of the proposed methodology for monitoring the machining of thin-
walled parts to improve part quality and process productivity.
Keywords: thin-walled part machining, in-process dynamics identification, non-contact measurement.

1. Introduction
Achieving optimal surface quality and dimensional accuracy for aerospace components becomes more
challenging with the increasing complexity and flexibility of the parts. The quality metrics are mainly affected
by stable (forced) and unstable (chatter) machining vibrations. These vibrations are governed by the in-process
thin-walled workpiece dynamics, which vary due to material removal and tool-workpiece engagement (TWE)
during machining. The removed material causes changes in the mass, stiffness, and damping of the parts while
TWE affects the contact stiffness between the part and relatively rigid tool. Hence, the dominant modal
parameters of the flexible part change. In-process natural frequencies are the most important ones among the
modal parameters to develop a vibration-free machining process. It is crucial to track them to achieve optimal
machining productivity.
Experimental modal analysis (EMA) [1-3] is commonly used to obtain the in-process modal parameters of
flexible parts, but it requires interrupting the process to do the measurements, which is inefficient and industry-
unfriendly. Though Finite Elements (FE) based methods [3-9] might eliminate the experimentation, they are
time-prohibitive and can be inaccurate due to uncertainties in the boundary conditions and material properties.
Various modelling techniques [10-12] were proposed to enhance the computational efficiency of mesh-based
updating of in-process thin part dynamics such as model order reduction and perturbation methods [13, 14],
and their accuracy was improved [15] via experimental calibration at various stages of cutting using EMA.
Researchers also proposed data-based approaches [16, 17] by measuring the vibrations of the workpiece with
contact sensors and employing methods such as a time-dependent autoregressive moving average model with
exogenous input (TARMAX) [18] and a physics-constrained Bayesian approach [19] to predict the natural
frequencies of thin-walled components in milling. Furthermore, in machining, microphones have been used to
record the cutting sound pressure to only detect the chatter occurrence and its frequencies [20, 21].
Existing methods cannot achieve high computational efficiency and accuracy and are not convenient for real-
time applicability. In addition, attaching sensors to the workpiece being machined is infeasible for industrial
applications. These challenges are addressed in this study by proposing an Autoregressive (AR) model using
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the cutting sound signal measured with a microphone, and an Autoregressive with eXogenous inputs (ARX)
model using cutting forces and the cutting sound during milling of a thin-walled component to identify its in-
process vibration modes. The introduced models provide a data-based solution to improve the accuracy of
offline machining dynamics simulation models, and to monitor and optimize milling of flexible parts.
The article is organized as follows: Section 2 details the proposed models. Section 3 presents the experimental
setup and compares the predicted in-process vibration mode frequencies with the experimentally measured
ones for a representative thin-walled plate. Section 4 concludes the paper and discusses the future research
steps.

2.Model Development
The main objective of this study is to identify the dominant mode frequencies of thin-walled parts during
milling using system identification models: (i) an output-only Autoregressive (AR) model using the cutting
sound, and (ii) an Autoregressive with eXogenous inputs (ARX) model with both the input (cutting forces)
and the output (cutting sound). These models are developed in the following sub-sections.

2.1.AR Model
AR model requires only the output (cutting sound pressure measured with the microphone) to predict the
dynamics model of the workpiece. An AR model, in general, describes the system output as a linear function
of its current and past outputs [22]:
𝑛
𝑎
𝑦(𝑡) + ∑𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑖) = 𝑒(𝑡) (1)

where, 𝑦(𝑡) is the system’s output, 𝑎𝑖 denotes the coefficients of the AR model, 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑖) is the lagged terms
(past outputs), 𝑛𝑎 specifies the maximum lag for the output, 𝑒(𝑡) is an error term, which is generally assumed
to be white noise at time t. Insertion of the backward shift operator (q) into Eq.(1) yields:
𝐴(𝑞)𝑦(𝑡) = 𝑒(𝑡) (2)
𝑛
𝐴(𝑞) = 1 + 𝑎1 𝑞 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑎 𝑞 𝑛𝑎 = ∑𝑖=0
𝑎
𝑎𝑖 𝑞 𝑖 , 𝑎0 = 1 (3)

where 𝐴(𝑞) is a polynomial in the backward shift operator for the autoregressive part of the model. The
frequency response function (𝐻(𝑞)) between the output and the error term can then be obtained by converting
the time-domain AR model (Eq.(1)) to frequency domain by replacing 𝑞 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤 :
1
𝐻(𝑞) = 𝐴(𝑞)
, 𝑞 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤 and 𝑤 is the angular frequency. (4)

2.2.ARX Model
Unlike the AR model, the ARX model needs both the input (measured cutting forces) and the output (cutting
sound pressure measured with the microphone) to predict the mode frequencies of in-process thin-walled parts.
Hence, Eq.(1) is modified to describe the system's output as a linear function of its past outputs and inputs as
[23]:
𝑛𝑎 𝑛𝑏
𝑦(𝑡) + ∑𝑖=1 𝑎𝑖 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑖) = ∑𝑗=1 𝑏𝑗 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑗) + 𝑒(𝑡) (5)

where 𝑦(𝑡), 𝑢(𝑡) and 𝑒(𝑡) represent the output, the exogenous input, and the error term (white noise of the
system at time t), respectively. 𝑎𝑖 and 𝑏𝑗 are the coefficients of the ARX model, with 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑖) and 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑗)
representing the lagged terms (past inputs and outputs). The parameters 𝑛𝑎 and 𝑛𝑏 specify the maximum lag
for the output, and exogenous input, respectively. If 𝐴(𝑞) and 𝐵(𝑞) are the autoregressive and the exogenous
input parts of the model, then Eq.(5) becomes:

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𝐴(𝑞)𝑦(𝑡) = 𝐵(𝑞)𝑢(𝑡) + 𝑒(𝑡) (6)

where,
𝑛
𝐴(𝑞) = 1 + 𝑎1 𝑞 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑎 𝑞 𝑛𝑎 = ∑𝑖=0
𝑎
𝑎𝑖 𝑞 𝑖 , 𝑎0 = 1
𝑛
𝐵(𝑞) = 𝑏1 𝑞 + ⋯ + 𝑏𝑛𝑏 𝑞 𝑛𝑏 = ∑𝑗=1
𝑏
𝑏𝑗 𝑞 𝑗 (7)

Similar to AR model, 𝐻(𝑞) can be obtained by transforming ARX model using Eq.(8) with 𝑞 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤 :
𝐵(𝑞)
𝐻(𝑞) = 𝐴(𝑞)
, 𝑞 = 𝑒 −𝑗𝑤 (8)

2.3.Estimation of the Model Coefficients

Coefficients of the AR and ARX models are obtained using the least squares method by representing Eq.(5)
in vector form [23]:

𝑦(𝑡) = 𝜑𝑇 (𝑡)𝜃 + 𝑒(𝑡) (9)

where 𝜃 is the model’s coefficients vector and 𝜑(𝑡) is the past output and input data points vector:
𝜃 = [𝑎1 … 𝑎𝑛𝑎 𝑏1 … 𝑏𝑛𝑏 ]𝑇

𝜑(𝑡) = [−𝑦(𝑡 − 1) … − 𝑦(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑎 ) 𝑢(𝑡 − 1) … 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑛𝑏 )]𝑇 (10)

N sets of input and output pairs of the recorded data are:
𝑍 𝑛 = {𝑢(1), 𝑦(1), … , 𝑢(𝑁), 𝑦(𝑁)} (11)
The error (𝑉𝑁 ) between the measured data, cutting force and cutting sound, and model’s prediction for N sets
of inputs and outputs can be evaluated as:
1 𝑁 1 𝑁
𝑉𝑁 (𝜃, 𝑍 𝑛 ) = ∑ (𝑦(𝑡) − 𝑦̂(𝑡|𝜃))2 = ∑ (𝑦(𝑡) − 𝜑𝑇 (𝑡)𝜃)2 (12)
𝑁 𝑡=1 𝑁 𝑡=1

where 𝑦̂ is the model’s prediction for output at time t. To minimize the prediction error, 𝜃 can be calculated by
setting the derivative of the error function to zero:
𝑑𝑉𝑁 (𝜃,𝑍𝑛 ) 2
𝑑𝜃
= 𝑁 ∑𝑁 𝑇 𝑁 𝑁 𝑇
𝑡=1 𝜑(𝑡)(𝑦(𝑡) − 𝜑 (𝑡)𝜃) = 0 → ∑𝑡=1 𝜑(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡) = ∑𝑡=1 𝜑(𝑡) 𝜑 (𝑡)𝜃 (13)

The coefficient vector can be written from Eq.(13) as:

𝜃 = [∑𝑁 𝑇
𝑡=1 𝜑(𝑡) 𝜑 (𝑡)]
−1 ∑𝑁
𝑡=1 𝜑(𝑡) 𝑦(𝑡) (14)
Similarly, the AR model coefficients are obtained by eliminating the input terms (u(t)) in Eq.(10).

2.4.Selection of the Invariable Model Parameters

The invariable model parameters include the segment length (number of segments) and model order (number
of terms). It is noteworthy to mention that the AR and ARX models with constant coefficients are generally
employed for stationary systems; however, the dynamics of thin-walled parts vary during machining.
Therefore, a single AR or ARX model cannot be used along the entire machining toolpath. In this study, the
dynamics of thin-walled part is assumed piecewise constant in time domain. Hence, the measured cutting
sound and force data are divided into segments, and each segment has different model coefficients (Eq.(14))
to capture the variations in the in-process mode frequencies. The challenge is to find the optimum number of
segments. An increased number of segments keeps the piecewise constant dynamics assumption valid, and the
model can track changes in the dominant frequencies for short time intervals along the toolpath. On the other

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hand, the availability of less data for each segment can cause an overfitting problem in estimating the
coefficients of AR and ARX models in Eq.(14).
In this study, the invariable model parameters are selected only once using the experimentally measured
dominant modes of the initial workpiece, which are easily available in practice. A grid search method for a
range of pre-selected invariable parameters is employed to predict the dominant mode frequencies using the
in-process vibration data for the very first segment, and they are compared against those of the initial workpiece
by evaluating the prediction error as:

𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ∑𝑀 ̂
𝑖=1|𝑓𝑛𝑖 − 𝑓𝑛𝑖 | (15)

where, 𝑓̂𝑛𝑖 is the ith identified dominant frequency, 𝑓𝑛𝑖 is the ith initial measured dominant frequency, and M is
the number of dominant modes within the frequency range of interest. The grid search method is only applied
to the very first segment of the first removed stage, and once the invariable parameters for AR and ARX models
are set they are used throughout the toolpath. EMA on the initial workpiece can be equally replaced with the
FE simulated dominant frequencies of the initial workpiece in the grid search.

3.Experimental Verification

3.1.Experimental Set-up
The experimental setup is shown in Figure 5(a) where a PCB Piezotronics 1/2" Microphone and Preamp
(377A02-426D01 ICP-type Condenser) are used to collect the cutting sound pressure, and an accelerometer
(PCB Piezotronics 352C22) is mounted on the workpiece to capture the acceleration data for a comparison
purpose only. A table dynamometer (Kistler 9255B002) is employed to measure the cutting forces in x,y,z
directions for the ARX model. A sampling rate of 20 kHz is used for all measurements.
A thin-walled plate made of AL7050 with the dimensions of 107x55x5.1mm is dry machined with a 3-fluted
milling tool of 0.75” diameter. Only one side of the workpiece was machined on a Mitsui Seiki HU40-T 5-
Axis horizontal machining center, and the cutting process was carried out in multiple stages by selecting
different cutting parameters for each stage (Table 1). Figure 5(b) shows the schematic of all cutting stages.
Impact tests with a miniature hammer (PCB Piezotronics 086D80) were performed on the plate after each stage
was removed, and the response was recorded with both the accelerometer and the microphone. The frequency
response functions (FRF) between the outputs (acceleration and sound signals) and the input (impact force)
were obtained. The dominant mode frequencies were experimentally identified for verification of the predicted
ones. Figure 6 depicts the result of an impact test after the 7th cutting stage was removed. As seen, the
microphone detects the natural frequencies with less than 1% difference as compared to the ones obtained from
the acceleration data. This low error suggests that the microphone can detect the natural frequencies of the

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part, and therefore current research is motivated to use the microphone for in-process workpiece dynamics
identification.

Figure 5: (a) Positions of the accelerometer and microphone, and the 1st cutting stage (b) schematic of all
cutting stages
Spindle Axial depth Radial depth Feed rate Length of cut
Cutting stage
Speed (rpm) (mm) (mm) (mm/tooth/rev) (mm)
Stage #1 1000 13 1.1 0.1 70
Stage #2 1000 13 1.1 0.1 37
Stage #3 2000 16 1.1 0.1 60
Stage #4 2000 16 1.1 0.1 47
Stage #5 3000 11 1.1 0.1 50
Stage #6 3000 11 1.1 0.1 57
Stage #7 5000 15 1.1 0.1 40
Stage #8 5000 15 1.1 0.1 67

Table 11: Cutting parameters for each machining stage

Figure 6: Comparison of the accelerometer and microphone data in impact tests

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3.2.Comparison of AR and ARX Models

The 7th cutting stage is used as an example by using only the cutting sound signal measured by the microphone.
The grid search method (Section 0) gives 𝑛𝑎 = 35 as the optimum order of the AR model and 15 as the
number of segments. The time series of microphone data for the 7th cutting stage is divided into 15 segments,
and the AR model coefficients for each segment are evaluated using the least squares method (Section 0). AR
model is then transformed into the frequency domain using Eq.(4), and the identified dominant natural
frequencies are obtained via 𝐻(𝑗𝑤). Figure 7 shows 𝐻(𝑗𝑤) for the first and last segments of the 7th cutting
stage. Impact tests indicate three dominant modes for the thin-walled workpiece within the range of 0-4 kHz,
and these modes are identified with the proposed AR model.
Also, an ARX model is developed using both the microphone and dynamometer data. The grid search results
in 15 segments and 𝑛𝑎 = 20 and 𝑛𝑏 = 20 as the optimum values for the order of the ARX model. Similar to
the AR model, the dominant mode frequencies are obtained by transforming 𝐻(𝑗𝑤) as given in Eq.(8). Figure
8 shows 𝐻(𝑗𝑤) for the first and last segments of the 7th cutting stage as an example.

Figure 7: Identification of in-process mode frequencies with AR model for the 7th cutting stage
The cut-off frequency of the ARX model’s predictions is set as 2 kHz, which is the measurement bandwidth
of the dynamometer. The thin-walled plate has two dominant modes below 2 kHz as seen from the EMA results
in Figure 6. As shown in Figure 8, the ARX model successfully identifies these two dominant mode
frequencies.
Figure 9 presents the predicted dominant mode frequencies of the plate (for the first two dominant modes with
the ARX model and for all three dominant modes with the AR model) for all 15 segments of the 7th cutting
stage. For comparison, the measured dominant mode frequencies before (0th segment) and after (15th segment)
cutting the 7th cutting stage are also given in Figure 9. Evidently, both AR and ARX models can predict the
variation of the dominant modes for the 7th stage. The differences between the experimentally measured and
the predicted mode frequencies after the 15th segment of the 7th cutting stage are 2.2%, 0.2%, 0.1%, respectively
for the AR model, while the ARX model predicts the first two modes with 1.7% and 0.3% discrepancy, in
order.

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Figure 8: Identification of the in-process mode frequencies with ARX model for the 7th cutting stage

Figure 9: Identified mode frequencies during the 7th cutting stage with the AR and ARX models and their
comparison with the impact test results before and after removing the 7th stage

3.3.Experimental Verification and Discussion

The developed AR and ARX models have also been applied to all cutting stages (Figure 5(b)) to predict the
variation of the in-process dominant modes of the thin-walled workpiece. Table 2 shows the predicted mode
frequencies by AR and ARX models for the first and last segments of each stage and compares them with the
impact test results before and after each stage is removed to calculate the prediction error. The dynamometer
has a limited bandwidth of 2 kHz, which enables the ARX model to identify only the first two dominant modes

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with a maximum prediction error of 7.8%. The flexible workpiece was mounted on the dynamometer;
therefore, the part dynamics of the workpiece affect the force measurements and cause differences between
the actual and the measured cutting forces. Moreover, the in-process workpiece dynamics is identified when
the relatively rigid tool is in contact with two orders of magnitude more flexible workpiece. Thus, the contact
stiffness between the two affects the measured workpiece vibrations that are directly used in the ARX model.
The AR model predicts all modes with a maximum error of 8.6% without needing the cutting forces (input).
However, it sometimes identifies fictitious mode frequencies due to a lack of the input for the system
identification, which may cause amplified prediction errors of 15.6% and 21.7% for mode 1 of the stage 3 and
mode 2 of the stage 4. The dominant and fictitious modes can be distinguished by comparing the predictions
with the natural frequencies of the initial part identified through either EMA or FE if the fictitious modes are
not close to the real natural frequencies.
Dominant mode frequencies of all segments of all stages were predicted using the developed AR and ARX
models and compared with the impact test results before and after certain stages were removed in Figure 10.
Overall, the predicted mode frequencies are in good agreement with the impact tests except for the fictitiously
identified modes by the AR model. This problem could be mitigated by tracking the initial values of natural
frequencies obtained from EMA or FE simulations on the initial part.
The results were obtained only for a single cutting layer with a radial depth of cut of 1.1mm and show a
variation of about 400 Hz in the first and second dominant mode frequencies. That reemphasizes the
importance of accurate prediction of the in-process modes for the thin-walled components to optimize the
cutting parameters, and in turn, to ensure the surface and dimensional qualities, and process stability. The
results obtained by the AR and ARX models using the microphone data show the convenience of the proposed
technique to identify the dominant mode frequencies of thin-walled components during milling.

Impact ARX Model AR Model First Impact ARX Model AR Model Last
Before First Segment Segment After Last Segment Segment
Mode
Stage

𝑓𝑛 (Hz) 𝑓𝑛 (Hz) Error(%) 𝑓𝑛 (Hz) Error(%) 𝑓𝑛 (Hz) 𝑓𝑛 (Hz) Error(%) 𝑓𝑛 (Hz) Error(%)
1 1340 1439 7.4 1340 0.0 1402 1386 1.1 1394 0.6
1 2 2022 2099 3.8 2044 1.1 2012 2019 0.3 2005 0.3
3 3972 NA NA 3940 0.8 3892 NA NA 3900 0.2
1 1402 1419 1.2 1420 1.3 1435 1366 4.8 1465 2.1
2 2 2012 2015 0.1 2010 0.1 2060 2070 0.5 2060 0.0
3 3892 NA NA 3951 1.5 3897 NA NA 3849 1.2
1 1435 1532 6.8 1659 15.6 1445 1496 3.5 1476 2.1
3 2 2060 2020 1.9 1973 4.2 2005 2007 0.1 2017 0.6
3 3897 NA NA 3834 1.6 3752 NA NA 3789 1.0
1 1445 1557 7.8 1569 8.6 1452 1429 1.6 1481 2.0
4 2 2005 2138 6.6 1569 21.7 1992 2013 3.2 2006 0.7
3 3752 NA NA 3812 1.6 3650 NA NA 3769 3.3
1 1452 1520 4.7 1507 3.8 1407 1429 1.6 1401 0.4
5 2 1992 1956 1.8 1953 2.0 1940 1877 3.2 1911 1.5
3 3650 NA NA 3746 2.6 3560 NA NA 3741 5.1
1 1407 1449 3.0 1448 2.9 1350 1331 1.4 1403 3.9
6 2 1940 1984 2.3 2002 3.2 1875 1869 0.4 1924 2.6
3 3560 NA NA 3434 3.5 3455 NA NA 3459 0.1
1 1350 1324 1.9 1334 1.2 1217 1238 1.7 1244 2.2
7 2 1875 1842 1.8 1845 1.6 1780 1774 0.3 1777 0.2
3 3455 NA NA 3387 2.0 3355 NA NA 3358 0.1
1 1217 1205 1.0 1209 0.7 1072 1059 1.2 1068 0.4
8 2 1780 1712 3.8 1830 2.8 1622 1639 1.0 1621 0.1
3 3355 NA NA 3342 0.4 3187 NA NA 3227 1.3
Table 12: Comparison of the predicted mode frequencies with ARX and AR models against impact test results
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Figure 10: Identified dominant mode frequencies for all cutting stages using AR and ARX models

4.Conclusion
In this study, AR and ARX models are developed to track the evolution of the in-process vibration modes of
thin-walled parts using microphone data during dry milling. The results demonstrate that the ARX model,
which employs both the cutting forces (input) and the cutting sound (output), predicts the modes below 2 kHz
with a maximum error of 7.8%, while the AR model, which is based only on the cutting sound data (output),
has a maximum error of 8.6%. The AR model is the least invasive in terms of the number of sensors required
and can identify the high-frequency modes with the risk of identifying fictitious ones. Information on initial
frequencies, possibly from FE simulations or EMA on the initial part, could eliminate that issue in the AR
model by tracking the initially known frequencies. Although the experimental results were validated at spindle
speeds between 1000 and 5000 rpm, the algorithm is independent of the spindle speed. However, higher spindle
speeds could cause more components of the machine to vibrate, and the additional vibrations would be captured
by the microphone. The signal-to-noise ratio improves at high speeds due to high mode frequencies of the
workpiece. To distinguish the difference between the additional vibration frequencies and workpiece modes,
one could use the natural frequencies of the initial workpiece obtained via EMA or FE as guidance.
Overall, this study provides a fundamental insight into the data-based identification of in-process thin-walled
workpiece dynamics with non-contact sensors. The proposed promising approach can guide the development,
monitoring and control of milling processes. Future research will focus on applying the introduced models to
more complex thin-walled geometries, such as curved or groove-like workpieces, running the identification in
real-time, and integrating the developed models into the machine controller to automatically adjust the cutting
parameters for online chatter and vibration avoidance.

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5.References
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[2] Zhou, X., Zhang, D., et al. 2014. "Toolpath dependent chatter suppression in multi-axis milling of hollow
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[3] Thevenot, V., Arnaud, L., et al. 2007. "Influence of Material Removal on the Dynamic Behavior of Thin-
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[5] Adetoro, O. B., W. M. Sim, et al. 2010. "An improved prediction of stability lobes using nonlinear thin wall
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[6] Biermann, D., P. Kersting, et al. 2010. "A general approach to simulating workpiece vibrations during five-
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[7] Kersting, P. and D. Biermann 2014. "Modeling techniques for simulating workpiece deflections in NC
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COMPARISON OF SURFACE ROUGHNESS EXAMINATION IN END

MILLING OF IMPAX AND NIMAX TOOL STEELS
Buse Güneya, Ege Güvenirb, Hüseyin Emre Çakırcac, Yaşar Emre Ünald , Ahmet Şimşeke, Yusuf
Furkan Yapanf, Orhan Çakırg
a
Yildiz Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/ TURKIYE, buseguney193@gmail.com,
b
Yildiz Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/ TURKIYE egeguvenir@outlook.com
c
Yildiz Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/ TURKIYE hemre19999@gmail.com
d
Yildiz Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/ TURKIYE yasaremreunal@hotmail.com
e
Yildiz Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/ TURKIYE ahmetie544@gmail.com
f
Yildiz Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/ TURKIYE yapan@yildiz.edu.tr
g
Yildiz Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/ TURKIYE orhanc@yildiz.edu.tr

Abstract

This study investigates the effects of cutting conditions on the surface roughness of two mold steels: NIMAX
and IMPAX (DIN 1.2738). The cutting parameters evaluated include cutting speed (75, 100, and 125 m/min),
feed rate (0.05, 0.10, and 0.15 mm/rev), and cutting conditions (Dry and Hybrid Nano Minimum Quantity
Lubrication - HNMQL). Using Taguchi's L18 (21x32) orthogonal array and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA),
these parameters were systematically examined. The experimental results revealed significant improvements
in surface roughness under HNMQL conditions. For NIMAX steel, HNMQL conditions resulted in an
improvement of surface roughness by up to 51.35%, with the cutting condition being the most effective
parameter, contributing 81.6%. Comparatively, for IMPAX steel, HNMQL conditions resulted in an
improvement of surface roughness by up to 40.2%, with the cutting condition contributing 72%. Overall,
NIMAX exhibited up to 43.68% better surface roughness compared to IMPAX under the same cutting
parameters.

Keywords: Tool Steels (IMPAX, NIMAX), Milling, Surface roughness, Optimization

Introduction

The plastic industry is today in constant growth, demanding several products from other segments, which
include plastic molds, mainly used in the injection molding process. Considering all the requirements of plastic
molds, the surface finishing is of special interest, as the injected plastic part can reproduce any details (and
defects) from the mold surface. Injection molding is just one of the processes employed to produce plastic
parts [1]. Plastic parts are generally manufactured using production methods such as plastic injection molding
[3,4], extrusion [5,6], thermoforming [7,8], blow molding [9,10], and machining [11,12]. Plastic injection
molding is a highly popular method for producing plastic components, requiring molds with precise tolerances
and high-quality surface finishes.

The surface finish quality of the plastic injection mold is an essential requirement due to its direct effects on
the appearance of the plastic product. Consequently, selecting the optimal machining parameters is essential
for achieving superior cutting performance in mold production. However, these parameters are typically
decided based on operator experience or practical knowledge. In this study, it has shown practical results under
different circumstances. Apart from the topic of surface finish quality, four inputs have a bigger impact on
cutting force [14]. Cutting speed was the most effective parameter for surface roughness and tool flank wear

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of NİMAX and IMPAX under hard turning conditions. Similarly, in the literature, cutting speed [2,13-32], feed
rate [2,13-30,32], depth of cut [2,13-15,18-22,24-29,32] nose radius [13,18-20,22,25,28], cutting environment
[18,22,31], radial depth of cut [14,20,22,25,28], cryogenic soaking. duration [21,24,32], insert type [2], tool
coating, [16], cutting path [15], were used for input parameters in the machinability of NIMAX and IMPAX.
Using these parameters, surface roughness [14,15,16,18,19-22,24-32], cutting force [14,18,19,21-22,27],
material removal rate [13,17,22,24,25,32], tool wear [2,16,24,29-31], tool life [18,19], power consumption
[18,21], machining time [23] and chip characteristics [30] were characterized as machinability criteria.

Cutting fluids and lubrication play a vital role in machining processes. They are essential for achieving the
desired surface finish and dimensional machining accuracy [33]. Currently, various types of cutting fluids are
employed during machining operations to lubricate the workpiece, cutting tool, and enhance the quality of the
final product. Selecting an appropriate lubricant and method tailored to specific machining conditions is crucial
to reducing tool wear, enhancing surface finish, and sustaining overall machining process performance [33].
The technology of minimum quantity lubrication (MQL) proves particularly relevant, employing vegetable
oil-based lubricants, which are increasingly favored for their enhanced efficiency in machining and
environmentally friendly characteristics [34]. In recent years, numerous studies have used various cooling
techniques to enhance the machinability of different materials. As a result of the detailed literature review, it
was analyzed that cooling conditions such as dry, HNMQL, and MQL were researched in the machining of
NIMAX and IMPAX tool steels [35].

Therefore, the main purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of cutting conditions [dry and Hybrid
Nano Minimum Quantity Lubrication (HNMQL)] on surface roughness while three cutting speeds and feed
rates employed in end milling of IMPAX and NIMAX. Taguchi's L18 (21x32) orthogonal array is used to
systematically compare these factors. To analyze the results, we utilized both Taguchi methods and Analysis
of Variance (ANOVA). This robust experimental design allowed us to thoroughly evaluate the influence of
each parameter on surface roughness, providing valuable insights for optimizing machining processes.

Material Method

In this work modified types of the plastic injection mold steel DIN 1.2738 (NIMAX, IMPAX) were used to
accomplish machining operations. NIMAX has good machinability and very good welding properties and the
IMPAX has high purity and good homogeneity [35] [36]. Work materials’ chemical compositions, yield, and
ultimate tensile strengths are given in Table 1. Dimensions of the workpiece materials were 30X100X100 mm
in thickness, length, and width respectively. Machining length and depth of cut were kept constant at 100 mm
and 1 mm during the milling operation.

Yield Tensile
C Cr Ni Hardness
Si (%) Mn (%) Mo (%) Strength Strength
(%) (%) (%) (HB)
(Mpa) (Mpa)
IMPAX 0,37 0,3 1,4 2,0 1,0 0,2 900 1020 330
NIMAX 0,1 0,3 2,5 3,0 0,3 0,3 785 1265 400

Table 1: Chemical composition of IMPAX and NIMAX and mechanical properties.

Experiments were concluded on the First MCV-300 CNC milling machine as seen in Figure 1. MQL cooling
system’s effect on surface roughness for the materials NIMAX and IMPAX were examined. For all
experiments, solid bar end mill (K40) uncoated cutting tools were used [37]. Diameter of the cutting tool is 8
mm and teeth number is 4. A new cutting tool was used for each experiment. Milling operations were
performed under dry conditions and with HNMQL. The HNMQL used in milling operations was prepared by
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adding two different mono-nanofluids to a commercial vegetable-based cutting fluid. The weight percent ratio
of nanographene (nGP) and nano molybdenum disulfide (nMoS2) was chosen based on the literature [38,39].
The ratio of the nanoparticles is 0.2% MoS2 and 0.8% Gp by weight. The selection of these nanoparticles is
based on their respective properties: nMoS2 offers superior lubrication compared to nGP, while nGP has a
higher thermal conductivity coefficient than nMoS2 [40]. The prepared cutting fluid was mixed in a Wise-Tis
HG-15D model homogenizer at 5000 rpm for 1 hour before the experiments. No significant temperature
increase was observed after mixing, and the cutting fluid was transferred to the MQL device. A Werte STN 15
model MQL device was utilized to apply the HNMQL. To examine the cutting parameters’ effect on surface
integrity, the average surface roughness (Ra) was measured by using the Mitutoyo Surftest SJ210 model
surface roughness tester.

Figure 1: Experimental setup.

In this study for both mould steels, IMPAX and NIMAX, the design of the experiment for three input
parameters which are cutting condition with two levels (21) and cutting speed and feed rate with three levels
(32) are structured according to Taguchi’s L18 (21 x 32) orthogonal array. For both materials, 18 experiments
were conducted, and the surface roughness values were measured to examine the effect of the hardness values
of the materials on the surface roughness under the same input parameters.

Level
1 2 3 Unit
Parameter
Cutting Condition Dry HNMQL - -
Cutting Speed 75 100 125 m/min
Feed Rate 0.05 0.10 0.15 mm/rev

Table 2: Input parameters and their levels.

Results and Discussion

Experimental Results
In machining, surface roughness is influenced by various factors such as cutting speed, feed rate, depth of cut,
tool geometry, and the type of cooling or lubrication system used. These factors can alter the interaction
between the cutting tool and the workpiece, leading to variations in the surface texture [41] [42]. In this study,
surface roughness was evaluated as the primary output parameter to determine the effectiveness of different
machining conditions and optimization techniques. The results were analyzed to identify the conditions under

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which the best surface finish could be obtained, with a focus on comparing the performance of different
materials and cutting conditions. The experimental results are shown as a graph in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Average surface roughness results of IMPAX and NIMAX.

The end milling of NIMAX and IMPAX tool steels was investigated by varying three different parameters
using the experimental study. Based on the results obtained from this investigation, optimization techniques
were applied to determine the optimal parameters for surface roughness. Figure 2 presents the average surface
roughness according to selected machining parameters for IMPAX and NIMAX materials. It is noted that for
both selected materials, HNMQL conditions provided lower surface roughness values than Dry conditions due
to lower temperature and friction mentioned in the literature [43] [44] [45]. Also, it was observed that
increasing the cutting speed and decreasing the feed rate improved the surface quality [46] [47]. These results
are consistent with studies in the literature investigating the effects of cutting parameters on surface roughness.
It was observed that the use of the Hybrid Nanofluid Minimum Quantity Lubrication (HNMQL) method
improved surface roughness results when all other parameters were held constant. The lowest surface
roughness value of Ra 0.258 µm was observed in experiment number 16 with a cutting speed of 125 m/min, a
feed rate of 0.05 mm/rev, and the HNMQL system in the active position. When the cutting condition was dry,
the lowest surface roughness value obtained was Ra 0.410 µm, which was recorded in experiment number 7
under a cutting speed of 125 m/min and a feed rate of 0.05 mm/rev. As shown in Table 3, the use of HNMQL,
while keeping other parameters constant, resulted in an improvement in surface roughness ranging from a
minimum of 11.48% to a maximum of 51.35%. Furthermore, as indicated in Table 3, independent of the use
of HNMQL, increasing the feed rate parameter had a detrimental effect on surface roughness. When comparing
two mold steel materials it was found that under the same parameters, NIMAX material exhibited up to 43.68%
better surface roughness.
Exp. No. Actual Values S/N ratios Actual Values S/N ratios
Cutting Condition Cutting Speed Feed Rate Surface Roughness (µm) SNRA1 Cutting Condition Cutting Speed Feed Rate Surface Roughness (µm) SNRA1
1 Dry 75 0,05 0,680 3,3498 Dry 75 0,05 0,444 7,0499
2 Dry 75 0,1 0,719 2,8634 Dry 75 0,1 0,648 3,7628
3 Dry 75 0,15 1,232 -1,8146 Dry 75 0,15 1,178 -1,4229
4 Dry 100 0,05 0,600 4,4370 Dry 100 0,05 0,430 7,3407
5 Dry 100 0,1 0,665 3,5479 Dry 100 0,1 0,617 4,1943
6 Dry 100 0,15 1,193 -1,5328 Dry 100 0,15 1,068 -0,5714
7 Dry 125 0,05 0,548 5,2301 Dry 125 0,05 0,410 7,7390
8 Dry 125 0,1 0,634 3,9628 Dry 125 0,1 0,605 4,3649
9 IMPAX Dry 125 0,15 0,989 0,0936 NIMAX Dry 125 0,15 0,950 0,4455
10 HNMQL 75 0,05 0,525 5,5956 HNMQL 75 0,05 0,296 10,5709
11 HNMQL 75 0,1 0,600 4,4370 HNMQL 75 0,1 0,574 4,8218
12 HNMQL 75 0,15 1,078 -0,6546 HNMQL 75 0,15 1,029 -0,2483
13 HNMQL 100 0,05 0,502 5,9946 HNMQL 100 0,05 0,282 10,9813
14 HNMQL 100 0,1 0,580 4,7314 HNMQL 100 0,1 0,396 8,0388
15 HNMQL 100 0,15 0,907 0,8459 HNMQL 100 0,15 0,520 5,6866
16 HNMQL 125 0,05 0,349 9,1358 HNMQL 125 0,05 0,258 11,7676
17 HNMQL 125 0,1 0,541 5,3441 HNMQL 125 0,1 0,346 9,2157
18 HNMQL 125 0,15 0,805 1,8868 HNMQL 125 0,15 0,480 6,3691

Table 3: Experimental results.

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Taguchi Design and Signal-to-Noise (S/N) Ratios

In the Taguchi method, the "signal-to-noise ratio" (S/N ratio) is an important metric used to reduce the variation
of quality characteristics and achieve the desired goal. S/N ratios are used to evaluate the impact of control
factors on performance and generally fall into three different categories: larger is better, nominal is better, and
smaller is better. In this study, surface roughness, which is desired to be minimized, was measured as the
performance criterion, and comparisons were made [48] [49]. Therefore, the signal-to-noise ratio for both
experimental materials was selected as "smaller is better". Signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) values are a widely used
performance measure, especially in the Taguchi method. Although these S/N values indicate how much the
system is affected by the desired variable, the signal, and the undesirable variable, the noise, S/N values are
considered better when they are higher, as they indicate that the system response is less than the noise. The
table below contains the S/N values calculated for both materials. The delta shows the difference between the
highest and the lowest Signal-to-noise (S/N) ratios for each factor and the effect of each factor on the response
values. Lastly, the rank determines the relative importance of each factor, with the factor having the greatest
influence on the response variable ranked as 1 and the factor with the least influence ranked as 3 [50] [51].
S/N ratios were calculated following the smaller is better criterion, which shows that as the surface roughness
decreases, S/N ratios increase, and as the surface roughness increases, S/N ratios decrease. Higher S/N values
in Table 3 indicate that system performance is more stable and less affected by noise. For instance, as shown
in Table 3, for IMPAX material, under HNMQL conditions with a cutting speed of 75 m/min and a feed rate
of 0.05 mm/rev, an S/N ratio of 5.59563 is considered excellent. Low S/N ratios indicate that the surface
roughness is higher than desired, and the system performance is more variable. For example, in dry machining,
for a speed of 75 m/min and a feed rate of 0.15 mm/rev, the value is -1.81456, which is quite low and indicates
poor performance.

Figure 3: Main effects plot for S/N ratios (IMPAX).

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Figure 4: Main effects plot for S/N ratios (NIMAX).

The effects of each input parameter on the quality characteristic were analyzed using S/N ratios and the S/N
ratios calculated for each experiment are given in Table 3. Main effect plots for S/N ratios for both materials
are presented in Figure 3 and Figure 4, and these plots were used to analyze the optimal cutting parameters.
For IMPAX material these optimal input parameters were determined as HNMQL cutting condition, 125 m/min
cutting speed, and 0.05 mm/rev feed rate, and for NIMAX material similar optimal input parameters were
determined as HNMQL cutting condition, 125 m/min cutting speed, and 0.05 mm/rev feed rate.

ANOVA and effect of the factors

In this study, the statistical method of ANOVA with 95% confidence and 5% significance level was used to
determine each significant machining parameter and to determine the rates at which these parameters affect
the surface roughness value measured at the end of the experiment [52]. The contribution ratio in the ANOVA
result table is the ratio of the effect of each parameter on the surface roughness, in this case, a high contribution
ratio indicates a strong effect, and vice versa, a low contribution ratio indicates a weak effect. The F-value is
calculated as the ratio of the Between Groups Mean Square, the variance between groups, which measures the
differences between group means, to the Within Groups Mean Square, the variance within groups, which
measures the variability within each group. By definition, a high F value indicates that the variance between
group means is more significant than the variance within groups, which means that at least one group mean is
different from the others [49] [53] [54]. The p-value indicates the probability that the observed differences
between group means are due to random variation, and a p-value less than 0.05 indicates that there are
significant differences, while a p-value greater than this value indicates that there is no significant difference
[55].

Material Source SS DF F-Value P-Value Cont.%

Cutting Condition 0,10475 1 36,49 0,00005 9,76%
Cutting Speed 0,07939 2 13,83 0,0007 7,40%
IMPAX Feed Rate 0,85438 2 148,79 0,000000003 79,63%
Error 0,03445 12 3,21%
Total 1,07298 17 100,00%
Cutting Condition 0,2612 1 17,38 0,001 18,86%
Cutting Speed 0,1143 2 3,8 0,05 8,25%
NIMAX Feed Rate 0,8294 2 27,59 0,00003 59,87%
Error 0,1803 12 13,02%
Total 1,3853 17 100,00%

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Table 4: ANOVA table for surface roughness of IMPAX and NIMAX.

When the ANOVA result table, Table 4 for surface roughness is examined, it is seen that since the cutting speed
has 3 levels, the degrees of freedom is 2, the sequential sum of squares as well as Seq SS value is 0.07939, F
value is 13.83, P value is 0.0007 and finally the contribution rate is 7. When these values are analyzed, it is
concluded that the cutting speed has a significant effect on the surface roughness of IMPAX material and since
the P-value is less than 0.05, the difference between the cutting speeds is statistically significant. Likewise,
when the ANOVA table is analyzed for cutting conditions, it is seen that the degree of freedom value is 1 since
this input parameter has a level of 2, it has a significant effect on surface roughness, and it is statistically
significant between dry and HNMQL conditions since the P-value is less than 0.05. Finally, the p-value of the
feed rate, which has the largest contribution of 79.63% on surface roughness, is much smaller than 0.05, and
therefore the difference between the feed rate values is highly statistically significant. The error term is
relatively low at 3.21% of the total variance, indicating that the model is a good fit. Based on the data obtained,
input parameters can be optimized to minimize the surface roughness for IMPAX material. Feed rate is the
most critical input parameter to be optimized since it has the highest contribution rate in its effect on surface
roughness.

When Table 4, the ANOVA results for NIMAX material, is examined, it is seen that the p-value calculated for
all parameters is less than 0.05, and therefore the differences between cutting conditions, cutting speeds and
feed rates have statistically significant effects on surface roughness. The error term for the NIMAX material
accounts for 13.02% of the total variance with a high but reasonable value. Still, the highest contribution is
seen in the feed rate with a value of 59.87%, as in the IMPAX material. For the NIMAX material, the cutting
condition input parameter is the second most influential parameter with a contribution of 18.86%. In
comparison, the cutting speed has the lowest contribution with a contribution of 8.25%.

Mathematical Model for Optimization

In this study, the Minitab Statistical Software 22 program was used for regression analysis and regression
equations shown in Equation 1 and Equation 2. According to the Smaller is the better criterion, the parameter
conditions with the lowest coefficient should be selected to reduce the surface roughness. The optimized input
parameters for the machining of IMPAX and NIMAX tool steels were determined as the machining case using
HNMQL, 125 m/min cutting speed, and 0.05 mm/rev feed rate.

𝐈𝐌𝐏𝐀𝐗 Surface Roughness (µm) = 0.7304 + 0.0763 ∗ 𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝐷𝑟𝑦 − 0.0763 ∗

𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝐻𝑁𝑀𝑄𝐿 + 0.0755 ∗ 𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑75 + 0.0107 ∗ 𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑100 − 0.0862 ∗
𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑125 − 0.1964 ∗ 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒0.05 − 0.1074 ∗ 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒0.10 + 0.3038 ∗ 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒0.15 (1)

𝐍𝐈𝐌𝐀𝐗 Surface Roughness (µm) = 0.5851 + 0.1205 ∗ 𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝐷𝑟𝑦 − 0.1205 ∗

𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝐻𝑁𝑀𝑄𝐿 + 0.1098 ∗ 𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑75 − 0.0330 ∗ 𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑100 − 0.0768 ∗
𝐶𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑125 − 0.2317 ∗ 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒0.05 − 0.0540 ∗ 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒0.10 + 0.2857 ∗ 𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒0.15 (2)

Conclusion

This study demonstrated the variations in surface roughness of NIMAX tool steel during end milling under
dry and HNMQL conditions. Additionally, the results were compared with the surface roughness responses of
IMPAX tool steel under the same parameters. The findings are as follows:
Compared to the dry cutting condition, using the HNMQL cutting condition reduced the surface
roughness by an average of 36.22%.

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In the ANOVA results for IMPAX material, it was seen that the input parameter with the highest
contribution rate of 79.63% on the surface roughness was feed rate, and similarly for NIMAX
material, it was seen that the highest contribution rate for the measured surface roughness
values was in the feed rate parameter with a value of 59.87%.
As a result of the optimization performed with the mathematical model created, optimized results
for IMPAX material were obtained using HNMQL, 125 m/min cutting speed, and 0.05 mm/rev
feed rate values. A similar conclusion can be mentioned for NIMAX material, 125 m/min
cutting speed, and 0.05 mm/rev feed rate with HNMQL.

Acknowledgments

The authors are grateful to Fatih Çakıroğlu (CKR Kesici Takımlar Sanayi Ve Dış Ticaret Ltd. Şirketi -
Istanbul/Turkey) for supporting the study and supplying cutting tools.

References

[1] Agnelli Mesquita, R., Schneider, R., 2010, “Tool steel quality and surface finishing of plastic molds”,
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[50] Kurt, M., Hortomacıoğlu, S., Mutlu, B., Köklü, U., 2012, “Minimization of the surface roughness and
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ESTIMATION OF CUTTING FORCES USING ARBITRARY LAGRANGIAN-

EULERIAN FINITE ELEMENT METHOD

Kadir Ozdemira , Mustafa Cemal Çakırb

a, Bursa Uludağ University Faculty of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering, Bursa/TURKEY,

kadirzdemir@gmail.com

b, Bursa Uludağ University Faculty of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Bursa/TURKEY, cemal@uludag.edu.tr

Abstract

As in many other fields, it's important to guess the data that will change how efficiently the machine industry
attempts to reduce the costs of both the cutting tools and the finished product itself. For many years, the finite
element method has been used to guess the results of machining, such as the cutting forces, the temperature
distribution during metal cutting, and the chip formation process. Cutting forces is important for machining
power, cutting tool strength and tool wear. Estimating the cutting forces accurately is dependent on choosing
accurate material model and cutting parameters in finite element modelling process of metal cutting. Numerical
modelling of metal cutting is complicated process and it includes time dependent parameters. In this context
2D finite element model of orthogonal metal cutting was studied by using combining ALE and LAG element
formulations. It is found that chip separation region is important for chip separation process and micro damages
can be seen in the separation surface when this region is accurately modelled and accuracy of cutting forces
were investigated with widely used Johnson-Cook material model in metal cutting process.

Keywords: Langrangian-Eulerian Finite Element method, Chip formation, FEM, Chip separation

1. Introductıon
Chip removal technology is a complex and comprehensive machining method that use numerical analysis
methods to analyze heat transfer and material hardening models. This topic has been extensively studied for
more than six decades. Taylor, Erns, Merchant, Row, and Spick and De Vor, well-known researchers in the
discipline, performed the preliminary investigations from a mechanical point of view. However, the finite
element method is a highly suitable numerical tool for solving machining problems, and it was originally
developed by Tay El al.

A mathematical model provides data on cutting forces, temperature at the chip-tool contact, tool degradation,
and chip morphology. Having knowledge of these metal cutting characteristics is crucial for cutting tool
producers prior to the design phase.

This study focused on numerical modelling of the orthogonal machining issue, with a comparison of the
modelling results with experimental data. In order to achieve this objective, a two-dimensional orthogonal
cutting model was examined. The model included a seperation layer in the area where the chips are removed.
The orthogonal cutting model was divided into three distinct zones: the chip zone, the sacrifice (separation)
layer with extremely low damage requirements, and the work piece zone which has no damage criterion. The
ALE (Arbitrary Eulerian-Lagrangian) approach was employed in the chip zone, while the LAG (Lagrangian)

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formulation was used in the chip separation zone and the LAG method was implemented in the work piece
zone.

The goal of utilizing the LAG technique to represent the separation zone is as follows: It is widely recognized
that the damage parameter is greatly influenced by the size of the mesh. Therefore, it may be required to
reassess the damage parameter when there are changes in mesh dimensions. Managing a time-dependent and
dynamically changing numerical grid can be challenging. Consequently, the decision was made to assess this
area using the LAG approach instead of the ALE method. Due to the frequent changes and high deformation
in the chip region, finding a solution is challenging because of the significant mesh distortions. The necessary
updates must be made in accordance with the ALE approach, which is appropriate for this procedure. In the
work piece area where no damage or significant deformation is anticipated, a damage parameter was not
specified, and the LAG approach was utilized for that particular location.

The literature on chip removal mechanism modelling using finite elements reveals that the Lagrangian
modelling technique is extensively employed and regarded as a fundamental method, with references to five
distinct numerical approaches. The available methods include Lagrangian (LAG), Eulerian (EUL), Re-
meshing, Arbitrary Eulerian-Lagrangian (ALE), and Coupled Eulerian-Lagrangian (CEL). Soliman et al.
(2020) have mentioned that chip removal simulations may be conducted by three methodologies: LAG, EUL,
and ALE.

The LAG approach is highly correlated with its results in obtaining chip morphology. The LAG modelling
approach combines the movement of the numerical grid with metal deformation. However, it is not necessary
to have previous understanding of chip geometry. Nevertheless, difficulties arise when attempting to address
chip removal issues caused by significant distortion of the numerical grid. However, researchers often employ
it since it has proven to be effective in achieving chip form (Thekdi, 2019).

In the Arbitrary Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) technique, the numerical grid elements are fixed in position inside
a defined volume, but the material components exhibit fluid-like behavior and move across the surface of the
material elements. This modelling approach is exemplified by fluid dynamics. This method enables the
successful resolution of severe deformations without encountering any computational challenges. A
fundamental limitation of this technology is its incapacity to simplify the process of separating elements and
breaking chips. Moreover, this formulation requires prior knowledge of the chip's geometry and a
comprehensive understanding of chip geometry in the experimental context (Umer et al., 2008).

The ALE technique offers the advantage of including both the LAG and EUL procedures. In the Arbitrary
Lagrangian-Eulerian (ALE) technique, the numerical grid nodes are co-moving with the material. The
correlation between the two procedures prevents any modification of the numerical grid components and
enables the accurate simulation of chip separation at the cutting edge.

The primary distinction between the LAG approach and the EUL method lies in the fact that the EUL method
is the recommended choice for simulating steady-state cutting conditions. Consequently, when the LAG
approach is used, the chip's shape and thickness may be calculated based on the cutting conditions. For the
EUL method, a known chip shape is necessary.

Grissa et al. (2018) conducted chip removal simulations using all three approaches. By comparing the results
of these simulations with experimental data, they found that the LAG and ALE methods produced the most
accurate chip geometry. The decision was made in this study to employ the ALE strategy, which includes the
LAG and EUL approaches, based on the research and studies that were completed.

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2. Methodology
The research simulates the process of dry cutting AISI 1117 steel using Abaqus Explicit software and a 2D
plane strain orthogonal cutting model. The cutting tool has a rake angle of 0° and a clearance angle of 7°. It is
essential to include the chip's cross-section when utilizing a two-dimensional orthogonal cutting model. To
identify the best model, a number of simulation experiments were run.

According to the literature, researchers sometimes use the cutting depth as the feed rate when it is extremely
thick. This is because thick chips might produce mesh distortion difficulties. Simulation times are affected by
increased mesh density along the cutting depth. This experiment involved simulating the feed rate and cutting
depth, as seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. 2D Cutting model

The cutting conditions were chosen to be identical to the experimental cutting conditions indicated in Table 3
for the purpose of validating the model. The analysis approach employed was the coupling of temperature
displacement with temperature-dependent material characteristics, and ALE approach was utilized to handle
the issue of mesh distortion. In order to simulate the process of chip formation and separation, a sacrificial
layer with extremely low damage criteria was incorporated into the model. The simulations utilized the
CPE4RT element type, which enables the simulation of coupled temperature behaviour in 2D planar strain
simulations.

2.1.Material Model
AISI 1117 steel was used as workpiece model. To investigate the elasto - plastic behaviour of the material, the
Johnson Cook model was employed, incorporating ductile damage criteria and damage evolution for the
sacrificial layer. The plasticity parameters and damage parameters for Johnson Cook are shown in Table 1 and
Table 2, respectively.

2.1.1. Johnson Cook material model

The Johnson Cook Material model one of the most accurate material model for describing material behaviour
and chip formation in machining. The flow stress model, formulated by Johnson and Cook, is applicable to
situations involving high strain rates, strain hardening, and temperature-dependent characteristics. The JC
model is meaningful in certain operating ranges of strains and strain-rates (strains up to 0.5 and strain rates
lower than 104 s−1).

The model is highly appropriate for high strain rates ranging from 102 to 106 s-1 [7]. The mathematical
expression representing the model is provided in Equation 1.

𝑛 𝜀̅ 𝑝𝑙
𝜎̅ = [𝐴 + 𝐵(𝜀 −𝑝𝑙 ) [1 + 𝐶 ln ( 𝜀̇ ) [1 − 𝑇 𝑚 ]]] Eq. 1
0

In Equation, first term defines isotropic hardening, the second term defines strain hardening and the third term
defines thermal softening of the material. Where 𝜎̅ is the equivalent stress, 𝜀 −𝑝𝑙 is the plastic strain rate, 𝜀̅̇𝑝𝑙 is

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the equivalent plastic strain and 𝜀̇0 is the reference strain rate. A is the initial yield stress, B is the hardening
modulus, n is the work hardening exponent, C is the strain rate dependency coefficient and m is the thermal
softening coefficient.

In the Eq1 non-dimensional temperature 𝑇̂ defined as shown in Eq 2. In this equation 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 is the melting
temperature and 𝑇𝑡𝑟 is the transition temperature.

0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇 < 𝑇𝑡𝑟

𝑇−𝑇𝑡𝑟
𝑇= {𝑇 −𝑇 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇𝑡𝑟 ≤ 𝑇 ≤ 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 Eq. 2
𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 𝑡𝑟
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑇 > 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡

Table 1. Physical and thermal properties

𝑘𝑔 E(GPa) 𝜗 𝐶𝑝 (𝑗/𝑘𝑔𝐾) 𝛽 𝑇𝑟𝑒𝑓 (𝐾) 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 (𝐾)

𝜌( )
𝑚3
7850 200 0.3 440 0.9 298 1793

Table 2. Johnson Cook Parameters

𝐴 (𝑀𝑝𝑎) 𝐵(𝑀𝑝𝑎) 𝑛 𝑐 𝑚 𝜀̇0

261 133 0,28 0,3 1,26 0,6297
𝐷1 𝐷2 𝐷3 𝐷4 𝐷5 𝑢̅𝑝𝑙
0,0075 0,3921 2,8140 0,1672 -4,7944 0,2

2.2.Failure Model
The J-C damage model is used for modelling material damage and failure in both quasi-static and dynamics in
𝑝𝑙
ABAQUS/Explicit. In this model the equivalent plastic strain at the onset of damage, 𝜀𝐷 is assumed to be of
the form as given in Eq. 3.

𝑝𝑙 𝜎 ̇
𝜀𝑝𝑙 𝑇−𝑇𝑡𝑟
𝜀𝐷 = [𝑑1 + 𝑑2 exp (𝑑3 𝜎𝑚 ] [1 + 𝑑4 ln (𝜀̇ )] [1 − 𝑑5 (𝑇 )𝑚 ] Eq. 3
𝑒𝑞 𝑟𝑒𝑓 𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 −𝑇𝑡𝑟

𝑝𝑙
𝜀𝐷 is of the equivalent plastic strain at the onset damage, 𝑑1 to 𝑑5 are the damage model constants, 𝜎𝑚 is the
mean stress, 𝜎𝑒𝑞 is the Von Mises stress, 𝜀̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 is the reference strain rate, 𝜀𝑝𝑙̇ the plastic strain rate, 𝑇 is the
current temperature, 𝑇𝑚𝑒𝑙𝑡 is the melting temperature and 𝑇𝑡𝑟 is the transition temperature and m is the material
constant. At each time step in an explicit FEM solver the current failure strain value 𝜀𝑓 and increment of plastic
strain ∆𝜀 are calculated and cumulatively added to each cells damage variable 𝐷. The damage for an element
is defined on a cumulative damage law that is represented in the Equation 4 below;
∆𝜀
𝐷 = ∑ (𝜀 ) Eq. 4
𝑓

In the Eq 4 ∆𝜀 is the equivalent plastic strain increment, and 𝜀𝑓 is the equivalent strain to fracture under the
present conditions of stress, strain rate and temperature. Due to the fracture occurrence, the material strength
reduces during deformation, and the constitutive relation of stress for the damage evolution can be expressed
as

𝜎𝐷 = (1 − 𝐷)𝜎𝑒𝑞 Eq. 5

Where 𝜎𝐷 is the damaged stress state, and the D is the damage parameter. The material has
lost its load-carrying capacity when D=1
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Figure 2. Stress-strain graph

The stress-strain graph in Figure 2 demonstrates the characteristic damage behaviour of ductile materials. The
initial linear elastic behaviour is specified between point a and point b. The curve between point c and point b
exhibits plastic deformation accompanied by strain hardening. Point c represents the initial occurrence of
damage and is commonly known as the damage initiation. The plastic strain at the beginning of damage is
denoted as 𝜀̅0𝑖 . The material load capacity decreases between point c and d, ultimately resulting in the final
fracture at point d. This area is associated with the progression of damage and is characterized by the following
equations. The concepts of chip serration and chip separation may be characterized by the fracture energy 𝐺𝑓
and the displacement at failure 𝑢𝑓. The calculation of fracture energy is performed using the Equation 6 and
fracture mode 1. The term "chip separation" refers to the process of a chip breaking away from a material.
"Fracture mode" refers to the specific way in which a material breaks or fractures.
1−𝑣 2 2
(𝐺𝑓 )𝐼,𝐼𝐼 = ( ) (𝐾𝐼𝑐,𝐼𝐼𝑐 ) Eq. 6
𝐸

2
𝐾𝐼𝑐,𝐼𝐼𝑐 is the fracture thoughness for the chip serration and separation. The fracture energy is utilized when
defining the 𝑢𝑓, the displacement at the failure
𝐺𝑓,𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑢𝑐𝑒𝑑
𝑢𝑓 = 2 ( 𝜎𝑦0
) Eq. 7

Where the reduced fracture energy is obtained from: Gf, reduced=0.4*Gf

2.3.Friction Model
The Coloumb friction rule is the most often employed friction model for describing metalworking operations.
The frictional stress acting on the sliding zone (Figure 3) can be mathematically represented as

𝜏𝑓𝑟 = 𝜇. 𝜎𝑛 Eq. 8

Where 𝜏𝑓𝑟 is the frictional stress and 𝜎𝑛 is the normal stress. The sticking region frictional stress can be
expressed as

𝜏𝑓𝑟 = 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑖𝑓 𝜏𝑓𝑟 > 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 Eq. 9

Where 𝜏𝑚𝑎𝑥 =𝜎𝑒𝑞√3 and 𝜎𝑒𝑞 is the Von-Mises stress.

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Figure 3. Sliding and sticking regions between tool and chip interface

2.4. Heat Transfer Model

There are three heat transfer mechanism in the orthogonal cutting process due to plastic deformation in the
shear zone, friction between workpiece and tool and friction between at the tool-chip interface. Heat generation
due to plastic strain can be expressed as

𝑞𝑝̇ = 𝜇𝑝 . 𝜎𝑒𝑞 . 𝜀̇ 𝑝𝑙 Eq.10

Where 𝑞̇𝑝 is the volumetric heat flux, 𝜎𝑒𝑞 is Von-Mises stress, 𝜇𝑝 is the fraction coefficient of thermal energy
converted to heat and 𝜀̇ 𝑝𝑙 is the plastic strain rate.

And the heat generation duo to friction can be expressed as

𝑞𝑓̇ = 𝑓𝑓 . 𝜇𝑓 . 𝜏𝑓𝑟 . 𝛾̇ Eq. 11

Where 𝑞̇𝑓 is the volumetric heat flux, 𝑓𝑓 is the fraction of thermal energy conducted in the chip, 𝜇𝑓 is the
fraction coefficient of thermal energy converted to heat and 𝛾̇ is the slip rate

3. Finite Element Model

The finite element model for orthogonal cutting is shown in Figure 4. The workpiece is defined with LAG and
ALE elements, while the cutting tool is rigidly defined. By defining the cutting speed for the tool, chip removal
towards the workpiece is ensured. The workpiece edges are subjected to a fixed support, as shown in the figure.

Figure 4. Orthogonal model

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Figure 5. Contact Surfaces

Figure 6. Finite element mesh

Figure 7. Modelling method

The contact type "node to surface" and the contact formulation "penalty" have been chosen for the interaction
between the work piece and the cutting tool. In order to calculate the cutting force, a certain location on the
cutting tool, namely the upper right point, is designated as the reference point for force measurement. This
reference point is then linked to the surfaces where the cutting tool makes contact with the work piece via rigid
components The grid structure of the finite element model is visible in Figures 6 and 7. The element type used
is CPE4RT, which has four nodal points and planar strain capabilities. This enables the simultaneous solution
of both structural and thermal equations.

4. Materıal And Method

4.1.Work Piece
The field tests that were conducted in the labs of Gazi University, Faculty of Technology, utilized a workpiece
with a diameter of 60 mm and a length of 400 mm. (Boy, 2004). Work piece material is AISI 1117 steel. The
material's surface was initially machined with a depth of cut of 1 mm in case of hardening of the outer surface
layer. The dimensions of the workpiece are illustrated in Figure 8.
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Figure 8. The workpiece used in the experiments (Boy, 2004).

4.2.Cutting Tool and Tool Holder

The cutting tool utilized is the SCMW 12 M508-12F, which is manufactured in compliance with the ISO 1832
standard. It is a cemented carbide cutting tool without chip breaker. The tool has a rake angle of 0º and a
clearance angle of 7º. The SSBCR 25 25 M12 type tool with an ISO 75º entrance angle is utilized as the tool
holder in the experiments (Figure 9). Cutting conditions in the experiments are given in Table 3.

.Table 3. Experimental cutting parameters (Boy, 2004)

Cutting Parameters

Cutting Speed (m/min) 50, 75, 100, 125, 150

Feed (mm/rev) 0.1, 0.15, 0.2. 0.25. 0.3

Depth of cut (mm) 1

Figure 9. Orthogonal cutting tool model

5. Evaluation Of Experimental And Numerical Results

Table 4 presents the cutting force values obtained from both results of experiments and finite element analysis,
allowing for a comparison between the two. The disparity between experimental and numerical results
fluctuates based on the cutting speed and feed rate. An increase in the difference between the experimental
results and analytical results is noticed at low feed rates (0.1 mm/min) and high feed rates (0.3 mm/rev) when
the cutting speed is set at 50 m/rev. The most accurate results are achieved when using a feed rate of 0.15
mm/rev. Moreover, error rates escalate proportionally with the increase in cutting speed.
Johnson Cook material parameters are calculated at specific strain rates. It is determined that the model
parameters used are unsuitable for certain cutting speeds and feed values. Hence, the error rates between
experimental and finite element analysis might differ.

As a result, there are differences in the results at different cutting speeds and feed rates. Also, Akram et al.
(2018) found that using Johnson Cook material characteristics to predict cutting forces at high cutting speeds
did not work well. It was thought that this happened because of a characteristic of the material that doesn't
change when cutting rates are low or average. So, they thought that changes in cutting forces at high cutting
speeds were caused by changes in the friction coefficient and less resistance to heat.

Figure 10 demonstrate that the cutting forces increase as the feed rate increases and decrease as the cutting
speed increases. Although there are discrepancies between the experimental and finite element analysis results,
this pattern aligns with previous studies in the literature (Özlü, 2021; Sivaraman et al., 2012; Boy, 2004), and
is therefore an expected phenomenon.

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Table 4. Comparison of Experimental and Numerical Results

Cutting Cutting Measured Numerical

Feed Rate
Speed Depth Cutting Results Difference
(mm/rev)
(m/min.) (mm) Forces(N) (N)
0,1 283 268.5 5%
0,15 364 357.5 2%
50 1 0,2 379 394.5 4%
0,25 433 444.25 3%
0,3 483 533 10%
0,1 267 251.75 6%
0,15 339 331.5 2%
75 1 0,2 363 374.75 3%
0,25 409 424 4%
0,3 458 487.5 6%
0,1 229 221.25 3%
0,15 285 287.25 1%
100 1 0,2 295 318.5 8%
0,25 342 377.25 10%
0,3 441 465.75 6%
0,1 238 228.5 4%
0,15 290 292.5 1%
125 1 0,2 290 317.925 10%
0,25 339 377.75 11%
0,3 422 463 10%

It is crucial to verify the modelling of the orthogonal chip removal process using the finite element approach
and accurately model the chip separation zone in terms of chip formation. The present work utilized the chip
separation zone, a widely used technique in the literature that aids in the separation of chips (Soliman et al.,
2020; Thean, 1998).

The integrity of the chip surface, as affected by the damage condition resulting from the separation zone
approach, has a direct impact on the interaction between the tool and the chip, as well as the stability of the
obtained results. Upon examination of Figure 11, Figure 12, and Figure 13, it becomes evident that the shape
of the chip changes as the cutting speed increases. Furthermore, it is observed that micro damages on the chip
do not occur at high cutting speeds, namely at 125 m/min and 150 m/min. This suggests that the material
exhibits increased ductility and malleability under high strain rates.

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a) Cutting speed 50 m/min b) Cutting speed 75 m/min

c) Cutting speed 100 m/min d) Cutting speed 125 m/min

Figure 10. Cutting force depending cutting speed and feed variations

Figure 11. a) Cutting speed 50 m/min, b) Cutting speed 75 m/min

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Figure 12. a) Cutting speed 100 m/min, b) Cutting speed 125 m/min

Figure 13. Cutting speed 150 m/min

Advantages of chip separation zone can be listed as follows;

• Prevents the distortion of the numerical network in the chip removal process.
• Ensures the desired shape of the chip formation.
• Shortens the solution times due to mesh density.
• Ensures the visibility of micro damages on the separated chip surface and the work piece.

5.1.Examination of Stress Distribution Occurring on the Shear Plane

An essential aspect is to analyse the variation in stress distribution on the shear plane when removing the chip
to assess the stability of the chip removal process. Figure 14 and Figure 15 demonstrate that the stress
distribution on the shear plane remains constant throughout time. The shear plane encounters a maximum shear
stress of around 1128 MPa. The chip thicknesses generated in all three scenarios are almost equal.

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a) (5,5.10-4s.) b) (1.10-3s.)

Figure 14. Stress distribution on the shear plane

Figure 15. Stress distribution on the shear plane (2,5.10-3s.)

6. Conclusion
The changing cutting forces as cutting speed and feed rate go up is another piece of information that is used to
compare testing results with finite element analysis results. After looking at the data, it's clear that in both the
testing and finite element analyses, the cutting forces grow as the feed rate goes up. On the other hand, cutting
forces go down as cutting speed goes up.

Furthermore, it has been noted that the chip exhibits no signs of micro damage, and the flow of the chip is
enhanced when the cutting speed is increased. In this case, the separation zone modeling method is shown to
be very useful for chip removal issues.

References
Boy, M. (2004). Kesme parametrelerine bağlı olarak talaş arka yüzey sıcaklığının deneysel olarak
incelenmesi [Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi].
https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/tezDetay.jsp?id=I0GY3ivUesaWRIGcv6aClA&no=LSV8blthLJrW
UJik1697Qg
Buchely, M. F., Wang, X., Van Aken, D. C., O'Malley, R. J., Lekakh, S., & Chandrashekhara, K.
(2019). The use of genetic algorithms to calibrate Johnson–cook strength and failure parameters of

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AISI/SAE 1018 steel. Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, 141(2).

https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4042382
Thekdi, P. N. (2019). Finite Element Studies of Ortogonal Machining of Aisi 1045 Steel. [Doctoral
dissertation, The University of North Carolina]. Available from ProQuest Dissertations & Theses
Global. (2301477840).
https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/finite-element-studies-ortogonal-machining-
aisi/docview/2301477840/se-2
Thean, W. K. (1998). Finite element analysis of chip formation in grooved tool metal cutting. [Master’s
Thesis, Iowa State University]. https://dr.lib.iastate.edu/handle/20 500.12876/70460
Soliman, H. A., Shash, A. Y., El‐Hossainy, T. M., & Abd‐Rabou, M. (2020). Cutting forces and crater
wear prediction in ortogonal cutting using two approaches of finite element modeling. Engineering
Reports, 2(10).
https://doi.org/10.1002/eng2.12240
Soliman, H., Shash, A., El Hossainy, T., & Abd-Rabou, M. (2020). Investigation of process parameters
in ortogonal cutting using finite element approaches. Heliyon, 6(11), e05498.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05498
Sivaraman, V., Sankaran, S., & Vijayaraghavan, L. (2012). The effect of cutting parameters on cutting
force during turning multiphase Microalloyed steel. Procedia CIRP, 4, 157-160.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procir.2012.10.028
Özlü, B, (2021). Investigation of the effect of cutting parameters on cutting force, surface roughness
and chip shape in turning of Sleipner cold work tool steel. Journal of the Faculty of Engineering and
Architecture of Gazi University, 36(3), 1241-1251.
Akram, S., Jaffery, S. H., Khan, M., Fahad, M., Mubashar, A., & Ali, L. (2018). Numerical and
experimental investigation of Johnson–cook material models for aluminum (Al 6061- T6) alloy using
orthogonal machining approach. Advances in Mechanical Engineering, 10(9), 168781401879779.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1687814018797794
Buchely, M. F., Wang, X., Van Aken, D. C., O'Malley, R. J., Lekakh, S., & Chandrashekhara, K.
(2019). The use of genetic algorithms to calibrate Johnson–cook strength and failure parameters of
AISI/SAE 1018 steel. Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology, 141(2).
https://doi.org/10.1115/1.4042382
Grissa, R., Zemzemi, F., & Fathallah, R. (2018). Three approaches for modeling residual stresses
induced by ortogonal cutting of AISI316L. International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 135, 253-
260. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijmecsci.2017.11.029
Umer, U., Butt, S. I., Askari, S. J., Danish, S. N., & Lijing, X. (2008). Comparative analyses for different
modeling methods in high speed turning operations for hardened steel. Strojniški vestnik, 54(12).

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ESTIMATING THE EXPERIMENTAL CUTTING FORCES USING

MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS

Kadir Ozdemira, Ulvi Şekerb, Mustafa Cemal Çakırc

a, Bursa Uludag University Faculty of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Bursa/TURKIYE, kadirzdemir@gmail.com

b, Gazi University, Faculty of Technology, Ankara/TURKIYE, useker@gazi.edu.tr

c, Bursa Uludağ University Faculty of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Bursa/TURKIYE, cemal@uludag.edu.tr

Abstract

Machine learning is widely used in several scientific domains for data prediction. Predicting cutting forces and
temperature distribution in the domain of machining, a subdivision of manufacturing techniques, is crucial for
enhancing production procedures. Studies in this topic frequently employ experimental methods and the finite
element method, a numerical computation technique. Estimation algorithms can be employed to aid
experimental and numerical computation procedures due to their lengthy cost and duration. This study analysed
several machine learning algorithms and determined that the Cubic Support Vector Machine and Gaussian
Process Regression (GPR) methods yielded the most comparable outcomes.

Keywords: Cubic Support Vector Machine, Machine Learning, Gaussian Process Regression

Introduction
Research on numerical modelling for machining, a crucial aspect of manufacturing as well as other industries,
has been ongoing for some years. The primary objective of these research is to enhance production efficiency
in order to yield superior quality goods at a reduced cost, while also proactively anticipating any faults.
The finite element method has been the prominent numerical technique in this sector for an extended period
of time. Machine learning and artificial intelligence have emerged as prominent approaches for addressing
engineering challenges in recent years. The benefit of prediction or learning methods is in their ability to reduce
the solution times of problems that are time-consuming to solve using the finite element approach, enabling
faster attainment of solutions. Finite element software can incorporate learning or prediction approaches, either
in combination to reduce solution time or independently to achieve the solution. When accurate modelling
techniques and assumptions are employed, numerical solution methods like the finite element method yield
outcomes that closely align with experimental data. The finite element approach is applicable for replicating
data in artificial intelligence or machine learning systems. Simultaneously, it can minimize the time and
financial resources used on experiments by acquiring data that is unattainable through experimental
investigations.
This study evaluates the use of machine learning methods to predict cutting forces in experimental studies and
assesses the most appropriate machine learning algorithms for the chip removal procedure.

Literature Review
Machine learning is a specialized field within artificial intelligence that involves creating models and
algorithms to analyse current data using mathematical and statistical techniques. These models are then used

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to generate predictions about unknown data based on the patterns and insights derived from the analysis. The
primary objective of machine learning is to provide precise estimations. Nevertheless, comprehending the
prediction functions and linking them to a particular probability model might provide challenges (Akay &
Çağlayan, 2018). Examining the existing body of literature, it is evident that research on prediction using
machine learning algorithms is relatively new and has garnered significant attention from scholars in recent
years.
Dubey et al. (2021) employed several machine learning methods to forecast cutting forces based on cutting
speed, depth of cut, and feed parameters. In their investigations, it was determined that linear regression and
random forest algorithms outperform other algorithms in terms of prediction accuracy. In their study, George
et al. (2021) employed machine learning algorithms to identify the most effective parameters for removing
metal. They found that neuraTablel and machine learning are valuable resources for engineers, but their
implementation in industrial settings requires innovative approaches to gather applicable data.
In their study, Kant and Sangwan (2015) employed artificial neural networks and support vector regression
models to identify the optimal processing parameters. Consequently, it was discovered that artificial neural
networks yielded more precise outcomes compared to the reinforcement learning model, and the used learning
techniques closely matched the experimental results. Chengwen et al. (2020) employed the Supported Vector
Machine method to handle difficult-to-machine materials, namely AISI 304. In their work on optimizing
cutting settings, they discovered that the Supported Vector Machine method achieved a high level of accuracy.

Evaluation criteria of learning algorithms

Once the experimental data has been transmitted to the regression learning algorithm in Matlab software, all
learning algorithms may be executed concurrently, and the most optimal prediction method can be chosen.
Estimation involves two crucial steps: data preparation and model comparison. The parameters used to evaluate
and contrast models include accuracy, speed, resilience, scalability, and interpretability. R2, MSE (Mean
Square Error), RMSE (Root Mean Squared Error), and MAE (Mean Absolute Error) are key performance
measures utilized in the evaluation of artificial neural networks and machine learning techniques (Karasu et
al., 2018).
The coefficient R2, which represents the explanatory coefficient of the model, is directly related to the
predictive ability of the model. MSE, RMSE, and MAE are error metrics that are inversely related to the
performance of the model. According to Chen, J. L. et al. (2015), low values of Mean Squared Error (MSE),
Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE), and Mean Absolute Error (MAE) imply a high level of performance. Out
of these performance indicators, R2 is the coefficient used to determine the accuracy of the model. The
coefficient's high value suggests a strong predictive link. According to Wang and Xu (2004), low values of
MSE, RMSE, and MAE imply strong performance, with the level of performance being inversely proportional
to the outcomes of these error measures. For instance, when the root mean square error (RMSE) is zero, it
indicates a high level of performance (Cinaroglu, 2017).
Several regression models depend on distance metrics to ascertain convergence towards the optimal outcome.
The determination of the optimal outcome necessitates a quantitative delineation based on certain criteria. The
often-employed metrics include the mean absolute error (MAE), the mean squared error (MSE), or the square
root of the mean squared error (RMSE). Mean Absolute Error (MAE) measures the absolute deviation of the
predicted values (entries of the dataset) from the actual values in a regression problem. It is calculated by
taking the average of the absolute differences between the predicted and actual values. When calculating
negative errors, the absolute value of the distances is employed to ensure accuracy. Figure 1 accurately depicts
this scenario. Equation 1 displays the computation of MAE.

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1 𝑔𝑒𝑟ç𝑒𝑘
𝑀𝐴𝐸 = 𝑛 ∑𝑁
𝑖=1|𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖𝑡𝑎ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 | (1)

Figure 1. Visualizing errors in regression. The vertical lines represent the error in our regression model,
which is squared and summed to make our SSE (Ross, S. M. ,2017)

An alternative approach is to calculate the square of the distance, resulting in positive values. As the projected
values approach the real values, the mean squared error (MSE) decreases. The MSE, or mean squared error, is
calculated by taking the average of the squared errors of the model, as shown in Equation 2.
1 𝑔𝑒𝑟ç𝑒𝑘
𝑀𝑆𝐸 = 𝑛 ∑𝑁
𝑖=1(𝑦𝑖 − 𝑦𝑖𝑡𝑎ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 )2 (2)

RMSE is a mathematical metric that calculates the square root of the mean squared error (MSE) and converts
it back to the original unit of measurement. Root Mean Square Error (RMSE) quantifies the dispersion of
forecast errors (Equation 3).

(3)
In this study, all these parameters were evaluated and it was found that the machine learning algorithms used
were closer to the prediction.

Materıal And Method

Workpiece
The field tests that were conducted in the labs of Gazi University, Faculty of Technology, utilized a workpiece
with a diameter of 60 mm and a length of 400 mm. (Boy, 2004). Workpiece material is AISI 1117 steel. The
material's surface was initially machined with a depth of cut of 1 mm in case of hardening of the outer surface
layer. The dimensions of the workpiece are illustrated in Figure 2. Experimental cutting parameters are given
in (Table 1).

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Figure 2. The work piece used in the experiments (Boy, 2004).

Cutting Cutting
Experiment Feed Rate
Speed Depth
Number (mm/rev)
(m/min.) (mm)

1 0,1
2 0,15
3 50 1 0,2
4 0,25
5 0,3
6 0,1
7 0,15
8 75 1 0,2
9 0,25
10 0,3
11 0,1
12 0,15
13 100 1 0,2
14 0,25
15 0,3
16 0,1
17 0,15
18 125 1 0,2
19 0,25
20 0,3
21 0,1
22 0,15
23 150 1 0,2
24 0,25
25 0,3

Table 1. Experimental cutting parameters (Boy, 2004)

Cutting Tool and Tool Holder

The cutting tool utilized is the SCMW 12 M508-12F, which is manufactured in compliance with the ISO 1832
standard. It is a cemented carbide cutting tool without chip breaker. The tool has a rake angle of 0º and a
clearance angle of 7º. The SSBCR 25 25 M12 type tool with an ISO 75º entrance angle is utilized as the tool
holder in the experiments.

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Estimation Of Cutting Forces By Learning Method

This section aims to anticipate cutting forces based on variations in cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut.
Various regression techniques are employed to determine which machine learning approach yields the most
precise results.

Initially, the depth of cut remained unchanged, but the feed rate and cutting speed were identified as
independent variables. Furthermore, depth of cut included as a third independent variable in addition to the
existing two independent variables. The prediction algorithms were evaluated to determine which method
yielded results that closely matched the experimental cutting forces, which were used as the dependent
variable.

The objective is to estimate the cutting forces by inputting only the independent variables and to ascertain
whether machine learning methods yield more precise results by evaluating the proximity of the anticipated
cutting force to the values obtained via trials and finite element analysis. The performance of the learning
algorithms was evaluated using R2, RMSE, MSE, and MAE, as previously stated.

Results Of The Estimation Utilizing Two İndependent Variables

The depth of cut is maintained at a constant value of 1 mm in this part. The cutting speed and feed are
considered as independent variables, while the cutting force is regarded the dependent variable. Regression
and learning techniques from Matlab are utilized for analysis. The cutting force values acquired from
experimental data were utilized. R2, RMSE, MSE, and MAE are metrics often used in machine learning to
evaluate the effectiveness and accuracy of the ML method employed. Upon comparing these values, Table 2
reveals that the Cubic Support Vector Machine (Cubic SVM) method has the highest degree of accuracy in
predicting experimental results, surpassing the Linear Regression and Gaussian algorithms.

Table 2. Comparison of learning algorithms in Matlab regression

Algorithms Used RMSE R MSE MAE
Linear Regression (Interactions Linear) 23,441 0,91 549,48 18,607
Linear Regression (Linear) 22,089 0,9 48,93 18,642
Linear Regression (Robust Linear) 22,358 0,91 499,89 18,716
Stepwise Linear Regression 22,089 0,91 487,93 18,642
Tree (Medium Tree) 74,713 0 5582,1 63,092
Tree (Coarse Tree) 74,713 0 5582,1 63,092
Tree (Fine Tree) 51,269 0,53 2628,5 45,503
SVM (Linear SVM) 22,478 0,91 505,28 18,837
SVM (Medium Gaussian SVM) 33,09 0,79 1149,8 29,176
SVM (Cubic SVM) 19,573 0,93 383,1 16,658
SVM (Coarse Gaussian SVM) 30,644 0,83 939,03 26,287
SVM (Fine Gaussian SVM) 73,152 0,04 5351,3 61,087
Gaussian Process Regression (Squared Exponential GPR) 22,013 0,91 484,57 18,652
Gaussian Process Regression (Matern 5/2 GPR) 22,932 0,91 525,85 19,386
Gaussian Process Regression (Rational Quadratic GPR) 22,839 0,91 521,63 19,266
Gaussian Process Regression (Exponential GPR) 22,561 0,91 509,14 19,988
Ensemble (Boosted Trees) 50,841 0,54 2584,8 44,141
Ensemble (Bagged Trees) 60,588 0,34 3670,9 51,621

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Upon analyzing the accuracy evaluation criteria of the approaches, it is evident that the Cubic SVM algorithm
exhibits the best R2 value and the lowest RMSE, MSE, and MAE values as seen in Table 1 and Figure 1,
Figure 2, Figure 3, Figure 4, Figure 5, Figure 6 and Figure 7 respectively. The Support Vector Machine (SVM)
algorithm is a widely recognized machine learning approach that was initially proposed by Drucker et al.
(1996). The Support Vector Machine (SVM) algorithm has been extensively utilized for a range of regression
issues and has consistently demonstrated superior accuracy in comparison to alternative machine learning
models. Support Vector Machines (SVM) offer accurate predictions for datasets that are both small and high-
dimensional, as well as for datasets that contain local minima and nonlinear issues (Guo et al., 2012). When
examining many research on chip removal challenges, it has been shown that the algorithms with the greatest
accuracy rates include Cubic SVM, Linear Regression, and Gaussian algorithms (Knittel et al., 2019; Alajmi
et al., 2021).

Figure 3. Cutting speed 50 m/min Figure 4. Cutting speed 75 m/min

Figure 5. Cutting speed 100 m/min Figure 6. Cutting speed 125 m/min

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Figure 7. Cutting speed 150 m/min

Estimation results using two independent variables

In this section, the accuracy of several prediction algorithms were evaluated by considering the cutting speed,
feed rate, and depth of cut, unlike the previous section. It was specifically focused on determining which
algorithm performed better when more factors were taken into consideration. Furthermore, the machine
learning algorithm did not get instruction on a cutting speed of 150 m/min, and the comparison was made
between the predicted and experimental outcomes. Upon analysing the performance criteria of the algorithms
shown in Table 3, it becomes evident that Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) and Cubic SVM algorithms
produce the most accurate predictions.

Table 3. Learning Algorithms and Validation with Matlab Regression

Algorithms Used RMSE R2 MSE MAE
Linear Regression (Interactions Linear) 46,92 0,99 2201,8 35,146
Linear Regression (Linear) 121,24 0,9 14699 95,669
Linear Regression (Robust Linear) 125,55 0,9 15763 98,627
Stepwise Linear Regression 49,256 0,98 2426,1 36,959
Tree (Medium Tree) 210,43 0,71 44282 153,34
Tree (Coarse Tree) 390,13 0 343,35 343,35
Tree (Fine Tree) 164,63 0,82 27102 112,88
SVM (Linear SVM) 142,58 0,87 20329 105,99
SVM (Medium Gaussian SVM) 105,38 0,93 11105 69,801
SVM (Cubic SVM) 51,572 0,98 2659,7 40,816
SVM (Coarse Gaussian SVM) 168,22 0,81 28299 114,84
SVM (Fine Gaussian SVM) 363,17 0,13 131890 316,04
Gaussian Process Regression (Squared Exponential GPR) 43,163 0,99 1863,1 34,137
Gaussian Process Regression (Matern 5/2 GPR) 39,782 0,99 1582,6 32,321
Gaussian Process Regression (Rational Quadratic GPR) 43,316 0,99 1859 34,112
Gaussian Process Regression (Exponential GPR) 75,386 0,96 5683 49,352
Ensemble (Boosted Trees) 151,55 0,85 22968 99,037
Ensemble (Bagged Trees) 278,71 0,49 77680 243,28

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a) Cutting speed 50 m/min b) Cutting speed 75 m/min

Figure 8. For a = 1 mm and a = 2 mm

a) Cutting speed 100 m/min b) Cutting speed 125 m/min

Figure 9. For a = 1 mm and a = 2 mm

Figure 10. a=1 mm ve a=2mm, Cutting speed 150 m/min

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Table 4. Result comparison for 1 mm depth of cut

CUTTING Experimental GPR

Feed Rate Cutting Depth Difference
SPEED Cutting Force Estimation
(mm/rev) (mm) (%)
(m/min) (N) (N)
50 0,1 1 283 288,48 1,94
50 0,15 1 364 354,50 -2,61
50 0,2 1 379 396,95 4,74
50 0,25 1 433 437,89 1,13
50 0,3 1 483 498,37 3,18
75 0,1 1 267 263,09 -1,46
75 0,15 1 339 318,08 -6,17
75 0,2 1 363 351,83 -3,07
75 0,25 1 409 390,48 -4,53
75 0,3 1 458 453,23 -1,04
100 0,1 1 229 238,83 4,29
100 0,15 1 285 285,38 0,13
100 0,2 1 295 315,9 7,11
100 0,25 1 342 358,37 4,79
100 0,3 1 441 428,27 -2,89
125 0,1 1 238 235,33 -1,12
125 0,15 1 290 279,65 -3,57
125 0,2 1 310 309,74 -0,08
125 0,25 1 339 350,32 3,34
125 0,3 1 422 417,06 -1,17
150 0,1 1 228 252,06 10,56
150 0,15 1 267 297,16 11,3
150 0,2 1 274 329,31 20,19
150 0,25 1 326 366,36 12,38
150 0,3 1 414 422,43 2,04

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Table 5. Result comparison for 2 mm depth of cut

Experimental GPR
CUTTING SPEED Feed Rate Cutting Depth Difference
Cutting Force Estimation
(m/min) (mm/rev) (mm) (%)
(N) (N)
50 0,1 2 745 769,34 3,27
50 0,15 2 993 994,25 0,13
50 0,2 2 1260 1202,9 -4,53
50 0,25 2 1373 1388,73 1,15
50 0,3 2 1586 1558,22 -1,75
75 0,1 2 691 656,99 -4,92
75 0,15 2 832 847,84 1,90
75 0,2 2 983 1026,31 4,41
75 0,25 2 1163 1198,70 3,07
75 0,3 2 1348 1366,99 1,41
100 0,1 2 574 585,76 2,05
100 0,15 2 772 767,68 -0,56
100 0,2 2 937 934,74 -0,24
100 0,25 2 1137 1090,92 -4,05
100 0,3 2 1248 1239,21 -0,70
125 0,1 2 540 555,72 2,91
125 0,15 2 752 734,284 -2,36
125 0,2 2 905 889,14 -1,75
125 0,25 2 996 1021,16 2,53
125 0,3 2 1141 1144,1 0,27
150 0,1 2 476 547,62 15,05
150 0,15 2 740 709,62 -4,10
150 0,2 2 880 846,29 -3,83
150 0,25 2 940 958,98 2,02
150 0,3 2 1076 1061,63 -1,33

The study found that the Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) method provided the most accurate predictions
when depth of cut was considered as an additional parameter, along with cutting speed and feed rate. According
to the data shown in Table 4 and Table 5, the discrepancy between the experimental technique and the
prediction algorithms is at most 20%. Upon analysing the predictions generated using the experimental
findings, it becomes evident that the Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) and SVM (Cubic SVM) algorithms
consistently provide the most accurate estimations.

Conclusion
There are two estimation scenarios utilizing experimental methodologies: one with two parameters (cutting
speed and feed rate) and the other with three parameters (cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut). The Cubic
Support Vector Machine and Gaussian Process Regression methods were found to have the highest accuracy
in predicting the experimental parameters. The two-parameter estimations showed that the Cubic Support
Vector Machine and Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) algorithms produced the most accurate prediction
results. The Cubic Support Vector Machine has a maximum prediction error of around 9%, whereas the
Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) has a maximum prediction error of roughly 10%.
When including depth of cut as a third parameter in the prediction scenario, the Cubic Support Vector Machine
and Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) algorithms produced the most similar results.

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When employing machine learning techniques, the cutting speed value of 150 m/min, which serves as a
dependent variable, was not included in the training of the prediction algorithms. The objective was to assess
the consistency of the algorithm's outputs with the experimental findings. Upon examination, it was noted that
the highest error rate recorded was around 7.38% for predictions based on two parameters, while estimations
based on three parameters had an error rate of 20%. Thus, it can be inferred that when employing machine
learning algorithms, a growth in the number of independent variables leads to a deviation between the predicted
values and the actual values. To ensure correct predictions, it is necessary to augment the number of trials. The
disparities between the forecasted outcomes and empirical outcomes fall below acceptable thresholds,
suggesting that machine learning algorithms have the potential to expedite studies by minimizing time wasted
in the experimental process.

References
Akay, E. Ç. (2018). Ekonometride yeni bir ufuk: Büyük veri ve makine öğrenmesi. Sosyal Bilimler Araştırma
Dergisi, 7(2), 41-53.
Boy, M. (2004). Kesme parametrelerine bağlı olarak talaş arka yüzey sıcaklığının deneysel olarak incelenmesi
[Yüksek Lisans Tezi, Gazi Üniversitesi].
https://tez.yok.gov.tr/UlusalTezMerkezi/tezDetay.jsp?id=I0GY3ivUesaWRIGcv6aClA&no
=LSV8blthLJrWUJik1697Qg
Cinaroglu, S. (2017). Sağlık harcamasının tahmininde makine öğrenmesi regresyon yöntemlerinin
karşılaştırılması.
Drucker, H., Burges, C. J., Kaufman, L., Smola, A., & Vapnik, V. (1996). Support vector regression machines.
Advances in neural information processing systems, 9.
George, K., Kannan, S., Raza, A., & Pervaiz, S. (2021). A Hybrid Finite Element—Machine Learning
Backward Training Approach to Analyze the Optimal Machining Conditions. Materials, 14(21), 6717.
Guo, Y., Li, X., Bai, G., & Ma, J. (2012). Time series prediction method based on LS-SVR with modified
gaussian RBF. Neural Information Processing, 9-17. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-34481-7_2
Kant, G., & Sangwan, K. S. (2015). Predictive modelling for energy consumption in machining using artificial
neural network. Procedia Cirp, 37, 205-210.
Karasu, S., Altan, A., Saraç, Z., & Hacioğlu, R. (2018, May). Prediction of Bitcoin prices with machine
learning methods using time series data. In 2018 26th signal processing and communications applications
conference (SIU) (pp. 1-4). IEEE.
Kumar, V., Dubey, V., & Sharma, A. K. (2023). Comparative analysis of different machine learning algorithms
in prediction of cutting force using hybrid nanofluid enriched cutting fluid in turning operation. Materials
Today: Proceedings.
Knittel, D., Makich, H., & Nouari, M. (2019). Milling diagnosis using artificial intelligence approaches.
Mechanics & Industry, 20(8), 809. https://doi.org/10.1051/meca/2020053
Ross, S. M. (2017). Chapter 8-Estimation. Introductory Statistics (Fourth Edition)(fourth edition ed.), Sheldon
M. Ross (Ed.). Academic Press, Oxford, 329-380.
Yang, C., Jiang, H., & Liu, B. (2020). Optimization design of cutting parameters based on the support vector
machine and particle swarm algorithm. Open Access Library Journal, 7(9), 1-8.

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EFFECT OF CUTTING TOOL GEOMETRY AND CUTTING PARAMETERS

ON SURFACE ROUGHNESS IN DRILLING CF/PEEK COMPOSITE
PLATES AND OPTIMIZATION OF PARAMETERS
Necdet Yakuta, Orhan Çakırb
a, Istanbul Aydın University, Anadolu Vocational School of Higher Education, Department of
Machinery, Istanbul, Turkey, necdetyakut@aydin.edu.tr
b, Yildiz Technical University, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Department of Mechanical
Engineering, Istanbul, Turkey, orhanc@yildiz.edu.tr

Abstract
In this study, carbon fibre reinforced polyetheretherketone (CF/PEEK) matrix thermoplastic composite plates
were subjected to drilling using carbide drills featuring helix angles of 10° and 20° and point angles of 120°
under varying cutting and feed rates. The cutting speeds employed were 15 m.min-1, 25 m.min-1, and 35 m.min-
1
, while the feed rates were set at 0.06 mm/rev, 0.08 mm/rev, and 0.1 mm/rev. The experimental parameters
were analyzed using the Taguchi L18 method. The objective of this research was to enhance surface quality
and minimize machining defects through parameter optimization. The findings indicated that cutting speed
was the most significant factor affecting surface roughness, followed by the drill helix angle and feed rate. It
was observed that lower cutting speeds and feed rates produced smoother surfaces, which was attributed to the
reduced fibre pull-out within the softened matrix material at higher speeds and feeds. The parameters
influencing hole quality were identified through ANOVA during the optimization process.

Keywords: CF/PEEK composite drilling, Taguchi method, ANOVA, Surface roughness

1. Introduction

CF/PEEK thermoplastic composite materials are extensively utilized in the aerospace, automotive, and medical
industries owing to their high strength-to-weight ratios and exceptional chemical resistance. However, drilling
these materials presents significant challenges due to their heterogeneous structures. Cutter tool geometry and
machining parameters are pivotal in determining the surface quality and integrity of drilled holes. Numerous
studies have been conducted on the drilling of CF/PEEK composites.

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Reference Machining Parameters Results

• Cutting speed An observed trend was that hole diameter and cutting
• Feed rate force exhibited an upward trend with increasing cutting
[1] • Tool geometry speed and decreasing feed rate. Conversely, hole
roughness and delamination demonstrated an
increasing trend with increasing feed rate and
decreasing hole diameter.
• Cutting speed CF/PEEK exhibited a higher degree of hole roughness
[2] • Feed rate compared to CF/epoxy. Hole roughness and
• Tool geometry delamination increased with increasing cutting speed
and feed rate.
• Cutting speed Hole roughness and delamination exhibited an
[3] • Feed rate increasing trend with increasing cutting speed and feed
• Tool geometry rate.
[4] • Cutting speed Cutting speed and feed rate were identified as the most
• Feed rate significant factors influencing hole roughness.
• Cutting speed Distinct drilling techniques and parameters exert a
[5] • Feed rate significant influence on hole roughness and
• Tool geometry delamination.
The study compared the performance of cemented
[6] • Tools materials carbide drills and polycrystalline diamond (PCD) drills
for drilling CF/PEEK composites. The findings of the
study revealed that PCD drills exhibited superior
performance.
• Cutting speed Surface roughness and dimensional precision improved
[7] • Feed rate with optimized parameters.
• Cutting depth
High-speed cutting reduces machining defects in
[8] • High-speed cutting CF/PEEK.

• Materials In the study, ANOVA was used to obtain the optimum

-CF/PEEK machining parameters (spindle speed, feed rate, depth
-PEEK of cut), and the optimum combination of cutting
[9] • Feed rate parameters was found as 215 m.min-1 spindle speed,
• Cutting speed 720 mm/min feed rate, and 1.8 mm depth of cut.
• Cutting depth
• Optimisation(Taguchi)
• Cooling strategy Surface roughness and tool temperature are minimized
[10] • Cutting speed with optimal parameters. Optimized parameters
• Feed rate resulted in minimized surface roughness and tool wear.
• Cutting speed
[11] • Feed rate Surface roughness optimized with high-speed cutting.
• Cutting depth
• Cutting speed Reduced surface roughness with optimal tool geometry
[12] • Feed rate and drilling speed.
• Tool temperature

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In this study, a series of drilling experiments were performed on CF/PEEK composite plates. Uncoated carbide
drills with two distinct helix angles were utilized, and the effects of cutting speed (three levels) and feed rate
(three levels) on surface roughness were analysed. The objective was to determine the optimal values by
employing experimental design methodologies. Additionally, this research aims to contribute to the existing
literature by examining the influence of drills with identical point angles but varying helix angles on the drilling
performance of CF/PEEK composites.

2. Experimental Procedure

2.1. Composite specimens and cutting tools

In this study, the workpiece used was a carbon fibre-reinforced PEEK thermoplastic plate. The PEEK matrix
composite plates were reinforced with carbon fibre fabrics with a plain weave (0°/45°/90°/-45°) fibre
orientation angle. The plates consist of 60% carbon fibre and 40% PEEK thermoplastic. The prepreg material,
composed of approximately 16 layers, had dimensions of 150x35x5 mm. The properties of the material are
provided in Table 1.

Table 1. Mechanical properties of CF/PEEK plate

The specifications of the drills employed in the experiment are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Properties of Drills Used in the Drilling Process

2.2. Experimental setup

The experiments were conducted under dry conditions and at room temperature using a First MCV 300 vertical
machining centre equipped with a Fanuc control unit. Photographic images of the drilling process and the
experimental setup for the CF/PEEK material are shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. CF/PEEK Composite Drilling Experimental Setup

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Surface roughness measurements were performed using a Mitutoyo SJ-210 series profilometer. This widely
utilized instrument conducted eight measurements for each hole to achieve precise surface scans. The mean
value of these eight measurements was then calculated to determine the optimal surface roughness. The
profilometer measurements are illustrated in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Mitutoyo SJ-210 Series Profilometer and Hole Roughness Measurements

3. Optimisation Method and Process Parameters

Experimental design is a robust statistical method for identifying critical parameters, analyzing their
interactions, and developing models. Utilizing the Taguchi method for optimizing parameters in product
development and manufacturing yields significant time and cost efficiencies. This method is particularly
effective in controlling parameters that are traditionally overlooked or deemed uncontrollable. To evaluate the
impact of input parameters on outputs, the Taguchi method converts target function values into a signal-to-
noise (S/N) ratio, essential for determining quality attributes from experimental data. In this study, various
combinations of control factors for input parameters (helical angle, feed rate and cutting speed) and output
parameters (surface roughness) were measured. The S/N ratios were used to optimize these control factors, the
S/N ratios are evaluated in three different ways:

(The nominal is best)

(The largest is best)

(The smallest is best)

The study aims to minimize surface roughness using the "smaller-the-better" quality characteristic. Parameters
are detailed in Table 3.

Table 3. Machining Parameters Used in the Drilling Process

Factors Symbols Level 1 Level 2 Level 3

Helical angle (0 ) A 100 200 -

Cutting speed ( V —
B 15 25 35
m.min-1)
Feed rate
C 0,06 0,08 0,1
( f —mm/rev)

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The parameters used in the experimental study and their respective levels are presented in Table 3. Based on
these levels, the most appropriate Taguchi orthogonal experiment design (L18) was selected, as shown in Table
4.

Table 4. Taguchi orthogonal experimental design (L18)

Exp. No Factor A Factor B Factor C

1 1 1 1
2 1 1 2
3 1 1 3
4 1 2 1
5 1 2 2
6 1 2 3
7 1 3 1
8 1 3 2
9 1 3 3
10 2 1 1
11 2 1 2
12 2 1 3
13 2 2 1
14 2 2 2
15 2 2 3
16 2 3 1
17 2 3 2
18 2 3 3

4. Results and Discussion

4.1. Experimental results

The parameters used in the experiments were selected based on studies in the literature. The experimental data
obtained are shown in Table 5. The average surface roughness values were evaluated according to these results.
After the drilling process, CF/PEEK plates were measured using a Mitutoyo SJ-210 Series Profilometer, with
two measurements taken at each point, across four different points, and a total of eight measurements. The
average surface roughness measurements were then calculated.

Table 5. Surface roughness values were obtained as a result of the experiments.

Helix Cutting speed Feed rate Surface

Exp. No
angle(0) (m.min-1) (m.rev-1) roughness(µm)
1 10 15 0.06 0,403875
2 10 15 0.08 0,61575
3 10 15 0.1 0,739625
4 10 25 0.06 1,058375
5 10 25 0.08 1,214
6 10 25 0.1 1,32825
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7 10 35 0.06 1,714375
8 10 35 0.08 1,982625
9 10 35 0.1 1,898375
10 20 15 0.06 0,65775
11 20 15 0.08 0,62025
12 20 15 0.1 0,777
13 20 25 0.06 1,02025
14 20 25 0.08 0,8235
15 20 25 0.1 0,80975
16 20 35 0.06 0,97
17 20 35 0.08 0,90575
18 20 35 0.1 1,02125

As shown in Table 5, the lowest surface roughness in the experiments conducted with a helix angle of 10° was
measured at 0.403875 µm at a cutting speed of 15 m.min-1 and a feed rate of 0.06 mm/rev. The highest surface
roughness value was measured at 1.982625 µm at a cutting speed of 35 m.min-1 and a feed rate of 0.08 mm/rev.
For the helix angle of 20°, the lowest surface roughness value was measured at 0.62025 µm at a cutting speed
of 15 m.min-1 and a feed rate of 0.08 mm/rev. The highest surface roughness value was measured at 1.02125
µm at a cutting speed of 35 m.min-1 and a feed rate of 0.1 mm/rev. Trends in average surface roughness (Ra)
are shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Average surface roughness (Ra) trend graph

Each point in Figure 3 corresponds to the surface roughness value for the parameters listed in Table 5. For the
H10 drill, it is generally observed that surface roughness increases with an increase in cutting speed and feed
rate. This phenomenon is attributed to the rapid softening of the thermoplastic matrix with the rise in cutting
speed, causing the fibres to break free and tear instead of being cleanly cut. Additionally, inadequate evacuation
of chips from the helical flutes and adhesion of the chips to the tool surface further increase the surface
roughness.

In contrast, with the H20 drill, surface roughness increases up to the fourth hole with an increase in cutting
speed and feed rate. However, from the fifth hole onwards, there is a slight decrease in surface roughness,
followed by minor fluctuations. This suggests that chip evacuation becomes more efficient with higher cutting
speeds and feed rates, allowing the chips to be quickly removed through the 20-degree helical flutes before the
matrix fully softens. Moreover, it is evident from Figure 3 that the molten material adheres less to the surface,
thus not significantly increasing the surface roughness. The variations in surface roughness values resulting
from the experimental studies are illustrated in Figure 4.

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Figure 4. The impact of drilling parameters on surface roughness.

4.2. Signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio for surface roughness

The Taguchi method was used for the experimental design in the drilling tests. S/N ratios were employed to
optimize the control factors. The S/N ratios derived from the data are presented in Table 6. The graph
illustrating the effects of input factors on Ra values obtained using the Taguchi method (Table 6) is consistent
with the results from the experimental studies. In the main effects plot for S/N ratios, the values closest to
vertical represent the best Ra values (Figure 5). The feed rate has been identified as the most influential
parameter of surface roughness.

Table 6. Response table for S/N and significance for surface roughness.

Based on the values in Table 6 and the smaller is a better criterion for the S/N ratio, the H20 drill, with a cutting
speed of 15 m.min-1 (Level 1) and a feed rate of 0.1 mm/rev (Level 3), should be preferred for achieving low
surface roughness.

Figure 5. Main effect plot for S/N ratios

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4.3. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) for surface roughness

Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) is a statistical technique used to identify the individual interactions of all
control factors in an experimental design. In this study, ANOVA was applied to examine the effects of helix
angle, feed rate, and cutting speed on surface roughness. The analysis was carried out at a 5% significance
level and a 95% confidence level. The importance of each control factor in ANOVA is determined by
comparing their F values [13,14]. The ANOVA results for surface roughness are displayed in Table 7.
According to the percentage contribution rates, the cutting speed emerged as the most significant factor
affecting surface roughness, with a contribution of 53,95%.

Table 7. Analysis of Variance for surface roughness

4.4. Predict Taguchi results for surface roughness

Regression analysis is a statistical method used to explore the relationships between variables [14]. In this
study, equations for predicting surface roughness were computed using regression analysis. The predictions
were made using linear models. The linear equations for surface roughness predictions are presented in Figure
6.

Figure 6. Linear equations for surface roughness predictions

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The graph shows the predicted Taguchi results for surface roughness and allows the accuracy and suitability
of the model to be evaluated.

This equation represents the regression model for predicting surface roughness. The coefficients indicate the
impact of the independent variable on surface roughness. The red line in the graph represents the regression
line, showing the relationship between predicted and actual surface roughness. The green dashed lines denote
the 95% confidence interval (CI), indicating that the predicted surface roughness falls within this range 95%
of the time. The purple dashed lines represent the 95% prediction interval (PI), suggesting that 95% of new
observations will lie within this range. The R-squared (R-Sq) value of 99.4% shows that the model accounts
for 99.4% of the variance in surface roughness, indicating high accuracy. The adjusted R-squared (R-Sq (adj))
value is 99.3%, reflecting the model's overall fit. The standard deviation (S) value of 0.0373446 signifies high
precision in predictions. Given the high R-squared values and narrow confidence and prediction intervals, the
model is highly suitable for predicting surface roughness. This demonstrates the effectiveness of the Taguchi
method in estimating surface roughness with high accuracy and precision.

5. Conclusions

In the conducted study, the parameters used in the drilling of CF/PEEK composite plates on a CNC machine
(helix angle, feed rate, and cutting speed) were investigated both experimentally and statistically. The obtained
results are as follows:

• With a helix angle of 10°, the lowest average surface roughness was 0.403875 µm, obtained at a speed
of 15 m.min-1 and a feed rate of 0.06 mm/rev.

• With a helix angle of 20°, the lowest average surface roughness was 0.62025 µm, obtained at a speed
of 15 m.min-1 and a feed rate of 0.08 mm/rev.

• The drilling tests indicated that while the surface roughness values partially decreased with increasing
cutting speed, the majority of the graphs showed that surface roughness increased with higher cutting
speeds. This phenomenon is attributed to the thermoplastic matrix softening as the cutting speed
increases, reaching or surpassing the glass transition temperature.

• The drilling tests also revealed that the feed rate did not significantly affect the thermoplastic
composite.

• According to S/N ratios, the most suitable parameters for average surface roughness were found to be
A2B1C1.

• According to ANOVA, the most influential parameters on average surface roughness were cutting
speed (53.95%), helix angle (18.43%), and feed rate (1.39%), respectively.

6. References
1. Mudhukrishnan, M., Hariharan, P., Palanikumar, K., Latha, B. 2019. “Optimization and sensitivity
analysis of drilling parameters for sustainable machining of carbon fiber–reinforced polypropylene
composites”, Journal of Thermoplastic Composite Materials, 32(11), 1485-1508.

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2. Du, Y., Yang, T., Liu, C., Liu, S. 2023. “Toward understanding the drilling performance of
thermoplastic CF/PEEK and thermoset CF/epoxy composites using special drills”, Proceedings of the
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09544054231209791.
3. Xu, J., Geier, N., Shen, J., Krishnaraj, V., Samsudeensadham, S. 2023. “A review on CFRP drilling:
fundamental mechanisms, damage issues, and approaches toward high-quality drilling”, Journal of
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4. Placette, M. D., Roy, S., White, D., Sundararajan, S., Schwartz, C. J. 2019. “The effect of surface
roughness orientation on PEEK (polyetheretherketone) transfer film volume in multi-directional and
linear sliding”, Wear, 426, 1345-1353.
5. Shinde, A. S., Siva, I., Munde, Y., Sultan, M. T. H., Hua, L. S., Shahar, F. S. 2022. “Numerical
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6. Chambers, A., & Bishop, G. 1995. “The drilling of carbon fiber polymer matrix composites”,
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7. Abdullah, R. R., Long, A. Y., Amran, M. M., Kasim, M. S., Hadzley, A. M., Subramanian, S. 2014.
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8. Yang S., Huajun C., Jin Z., Qiongzhi H., 2024. “High Speed Milling Specific Cutting Energy Model
of CFRP and Its Surface Quality Optimization Based on Random Fiber Distribution”, Journal of
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9. Zhang, X., Li, X., Wang, H., Zhang, T. 2020. “Multi-objective optimization of machining parameters
during milling of carbon-fiber-reinforced polyetheretherketone composites using grey relational
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10. Ge, J., Zhang, W., Luo, M., Catalanotti, G., Falzon, B. G., Higgins, C., Sun, D. 2023. “Multi-objective
optimization of thermoplastic CF/PEKK drilling through a hybrid method: An approach towards
sustainable manufacturing”, Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing, 167, 14 pages
11. Meng, Z., Liu, S., Hu, K., Wang, T., Luo, B., Zhang, K. 2024. “A review on the cutting of carbon fiber
reinforced thermoplastic composites”. Polymer Composites, 1-21
12. Yuan, W., Liu, C., Yang, T., Du, Y., Liu, S. 2024. “Experimental investigation on the effect of tool
geometry on thermal and crystallization characteristics in the drilling of carbon fiber reinforced PEEK
composite” Polymer Composites, Volume 45, No:10, 9376-9388
13. Erkan, Ö., Sur, G., Nas, E. 2020. “Investigation of surface morphology of drilled CFRP plates and
optimization of cutting parameters”, Surface Review and Letters, 27(09), 1-8
14. Sykes, A. O. 1993. An introduction to regression analysis, The Inaugural Coase Lecture, (Coase-
Sandor Institute for Law & Economics Working Paper No. 20, 1993). 34 pages

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COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS of ULTRASONIC-ASSISTED and

STANDARD CHEMICAL MACHINING
Deniz OKKAa , Orhan ÇAKIRb

a, Yildiz Technical University Faculty of Mechanical, Mechanical Engineering Department, Istanbul/TURKEY,

denizokka34@gmail.com.tr
b, Yildiz Technical University Faculty of Mechanical, Mechanical Engineering Department, Istanbul/TURKEY,
orhanc@yildiz.edu.tr

Abstract
Chemical machining (CHM) reliable manufacturing process for machining intricated and peripheral shapes.
CHM is used for prototyping and low-mass production as PCBs, bipolar plates, gaskets etc. In this study, the
effects of ultrasonic assistance on the etch rate and surface quality in chemical machining is investigated by
focusing on its potential advantages over standard-CHM. Experimental results demonstrate the effectiveness
of ultrasonic-assisted chemical machining overcome the problem the removal of reacted etchant structures
from specimen interfaces and develop surface finish and uniform etch rate.

Keywords: Chemical Machining, Aluminum, Ultrasonic-Assisted

1 Introduction
Chemical machining (CHM) is a nontraditional machining method, and it takes advantage of corrosion
mechanism, weakens atomic bonds and removes material atom-by-atom. Chemical machining (CHM) is
suitable for precise machining and surface development processes. Although CHM offers low material removal
rates, it is favored by manufacturers due to its ability to easily process a wide range of materials [1, 2].
This experimental research is unique and distinct from previous studies because it presents a comparative
analysis of ultrasonic-assisted CHM and aims to clarify the effective parameters and working principles of this
process.
In the chemical machining, there is two main parameters, temperature and concentration [3]. During
processing, the temperature and concentration should be maintained within the desired range. Due to the nature
of chemical etching reactions, the concentration of unreacted etchant continuously decreases at the specimen
interfaces, and also the temperature steadily increases because of the exothermic reaction behavior. To address
these issues, different etchants and etchant mixture compositions are developed, for example polyhydroxy
compounds are used for formation soft sludge instead of scale, and sulfate or amino based compounds are
utilized to compensate the galvanic couple formation [4, 5].
In experiments, ultrasonic assistance offers better etchant solution homogenization when compared with
stirring methods, and facilitates the removal of reacted etchant structures from the interface region. This
enhancement allows for simpler etchant formulations that meet desired etching conditions and provide easier
regeneration processes for used etchants. Additionally, in standard etching process, a subsequent step or a
second etchant tank, such as surface deoxidants (HNO3), are typically required to eliminate formed sludges on
specimen surface. However, with ultrasonic-assisted chemical machining processes, greater etch depths can
be achieved without the need for a second etchant tank.

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2 Literature Review
During the development of the chemical machining (CHM) process, acid-based etchants were initially
preferred for aluminum. However, acids attitudes that challenges in storage and have more environmental
hazards when compared with basic etchants [6]. Therefore, the development of materials and apparatus,
suitable for basic etchants, is gained importance. Nevertheless, it is still possible to encounter studies and
applications using acid etchants, because etching by acid offer high etch rate opportunities as 20 µm/min [7].

Aluminum is one of the main engineering materials used extensively in aircraft and automotive industries
where the high strength-weight ratio is required. Aluminum is soluble in both acidic and basic solutions, thus
high range of possibilities for selecting etchants, as alkali metal hydroxides (NaOH or KOH), acid ionic
compounds (FeCl3), dilute mineral acids (HCl or HNO3). The ideal aluminum etchant should combine several
properties such as easy control of chemical machining application, high chemical machining rate, high
dissolved aluminum capacity, regeneration of used etchant, and aluminum recovery from used etchant [8].
During chemical machining operations there is two main factor which control the process: temperature and
concentration [3, 9]. These factors are utilized to optimize the process, depending on surface roughness and
etch rate. Surface roughness is an important parameter used to estimate the formation of etch rate gradients
and predict changes in material strength.
The etch rate for different aluminum alloys varies depending on contaminants in composition of aluminum
specimens, such as Fe and Cu [10]. In the galvanic couple formation case, the FeAl3 phase exhibits cathodic
characteristics and accelerating the anodic dissolution behavior of aluminum. Additionally, the presence of
iron and copper in the alloy increases the tendency to form matte surfaces. Furthermore, while mathematical
modelling of chemical machining processes the concentration of the reacted etchant increases, especially in
the cavities of specimen and in the close vicinities of maskant [11, 12].
There are some progresses to compensate the formation of concentration gradients, sludge by development of
etchant mixture. Polyhydroxy compounds are used for formation soft sludge instead of scale, especially heating
apparatus and tank shell hard scale formation is observed. Polyhydroxy does not inhibit the formation sludge,
but formed sludge is soft and easily removable from system [4]. Also sulfate or amino based compounds are
utilized to compensate the galvanic couple formation by precipitation of cupper contents [5]. Cupper couldn’t
solve in caustic mixtures; they are suspended in etchant solution. The sulfate compounds (as polysulfide,
elemental sulfide) are tided up with them and precipitate.
In this paper it is aimed that the benefits of ultrasonic assistance are utilized to enhance etchant homogenization
and investigate whether precipitation levels can be reduced, or enabling more advanced processing
possibilities.

3 Experimental Set-up
This paper aims to examine the effectiveness of ultrasonic-assisted chemical machining processes and
highlight its advantages. To achieve this, two main parameters—temperature and concentration—are examined
in both chemical machining methods. In addition, three outcome parameters etch rate, surface roughness and
etchant behavior measured and compared. Standard chemical etching values are taken from previous study
[13].

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Figure 11. Experimental Set-up schematic drawing (Ultrasonic-Assisted CHM)

In the experiments aluminum alloy, Al6061-T651 (chemical composition is given in Hata! Başvuru kaynağı b
ulunamadı.) is etched. As shown in Figure 1, the experimental setup consists of a water jacket (for thermal
insulation), a heating system, a thermometer, and an ultrasonic assistance system. The experiments are
conducted in a glass beaker at temperatures of 30, 40, and 50°C by using 2M and 3M NaOH (99% purity)
etchant solutions.
Table 1. Chemical composition of Al6061-T651
Specimen Al Si Fe Cu Mn Mg Cr Zn Ti Others
Al 6061-T651 97 0.53 0.26 0.22 0.10 1.01 0.08 0.02 0.02 0.08
The specimens are dimensioned 100x25x8 mm (h x d x t) and their surface cleaned mechanically (sandpapered)
and chemically (acetone for 5 min). In the experiment, the both-side-etched immersion etching method is
carried out. Every 5 min intervals, specimens are washed under strongly flowed water and then the depth of
etch and surface roughness are measured. Chemical machining depth is measured by caliper (±0.01) and
surface roughness is measured by Mitutoyo SJ-210 (2CR-75 measurement filter, stylus type 2µm radius and
60° profile angle).
Specimens should be cleaned carefully, since contamination on specimen’s surface results in a non-uniform
etch rate and cause material removal gradients. During the etching process, a region with dimensions of
30x25x8 mm is exposed as the machining area, and the remaining surface of the workpiece was masked.

4 Experimental Data Analysis and Results

This study aims to investigate the influence of ultrasonic assistance on chemical machining processes. In the
chemical machining process, there are two main parameters: temperature and concentration [3]. The results of
standard chemical machining by using NaOH are utilized from previous studies [13].
The unreacted etchant concentration rapidly decreases at the interface between specimen and etchant, while
the reacted etchant struggles to move away easily. This phenomenon brings about concentration and etch rate
gradients [11]. The ultrasonic-assisted chemical machining process deals with removing reacted etchant and
increases homogenization of concentration, therefore stable etch rate and less sludge formation could be

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obtained. The change in process behavior has been studied based on variations of two main parameters. To
evaluate the responses of ultrasonic-assisted chemical machining process, there are three output parameters
examined: increases in temperature, etch rate and changes in surface conditions.
In the experimental results, the advantages of ultrasonic-assisted chemical machining are particularly
noticeable on surface properties. The ultrasonic assistance develops especially less sludge formation on the
specimen surface, leading to improved surface conditions and achieving more polished surfaces. However, the
impact on the etch rate is not as significant as expected; it’s increased slightly, and it is recognizable particularly
high temperatures. Additionally, temperature control becomes more difficult since the ultrasonic apparatus also
increases the temperature of the etchant besides the chemical reactions.

5 Examination of Effect of Ultrasonic Assistance on Etch Rate

The results of etch rate for both chemical machining methods are compared, and no significant increase in etch
rate is observed. In Hata! Başvuru kaynağı bulunamadı. and Hata! Başvuru kaynağı bulunamadı. the ex
perimental results are analyzed, and these indicate that variations of concentration do not alter the outcome in
ultrasonic-assisted chemical machining. However, the beneficial impact of ultrasonic assistance on etch rate is
observed at higher temperatures. The graphs of standard and ultrasonic-assisted chemical machining are also
given in Figure 2.
Table 2. Examination of Effects of Ultrasonic Assistance on Etch Rate at Different Machining Temperatures (2M NaOH)

Etch Rate (mm/min) Etch Rate (mm/min)

min Thickness (mm) Weight (gr)
(Ultrasonic) (Standard)
Time 30°C 40°C 50°C 30°C 40°C 50°C 30°C 40°C 50°C 30°C 40°C 50°C
“0 8.15 8.15 8.07 56.1369 55.8127 55.9831 0 0 0 0 0 0
5 8.13 8.11 8.01 56.1010 55.7723 55.8241 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.002 0.003 0.005
10 8.11 8.07 7.95 56.0568 55.713 55.6462 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.002 0.003 0.005
15 8.09 8.03 7.89 56.0116 55.6542 55.4738 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.002 0.003 0.005
20 8.07 7.99 7.83 55.9609 55.5805 55.3046 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.002 0.003 0.005

Table 3. Examination of Effects of Ultrasonic Assistance on Etch Rate at Different Machining Temperatures
(3M NaOH)

Etch Rate (mm/min) Etch Rate (mm/min)

min Thickness (mm) Weight (gr)
(Ultrasonic) (Standard)
Time 20°C 30°C 20°C 30°C 20°C 30°C 20°C 30°C
0 8.060 8.14 56.0414 56.6654 0 0 0 0
5 8.045 8.11 55.9917 56.6131 0.0015 0.003 0.002 0.003
10 8.030 8.08 55.9244 56.5571 0.0015 0.003 0.002 0.003
15 8.015 8.05 55.8346 56.4957 0.0015 0.003 0.002 0.003
20 8.000 8.02 55.7454 56.4380 0.0015 0.003 0.002 0.003

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Figure 12. Examination of the Depth of Chemical Etch for both Ultrasonic-Assisted and Standard Chemical Machining

5.1Examination of Effect of Ultrasonic Assistance on Surface Conditions

During process, the accumulation of reacted etchant concentration at the interface of the specimen leads to
sludge formation and uneven etching behavior. This phenomenon often occurs at close regions of maskants,
pockets and cavity shapes on workpieces. The experiment results show that ultrasonic assistance offers better
homogenization opportunities than magnetic stirrer. The experimental results are given in Figure 3.

Figure 13. Examination of Ultrasonic Assistance Impact on Surface Roughness (at 30, 40 and 50°C)

The ultrasonic-assisted chemical machining process offers good surface roughness values, as demonstrated in
the experimental results. The reduction in sludge formation on the specimen can be observed, this achievement
is attributed to the fact that the concentration of the used etchant near the surface of the workpiece is easily
moved away with ultrasonic assistance. However, the matting on the workpiece surface is still happening. The
matting on the surface of the aluminum workpiece is caused by the formation of a galvanic couple [10]. The

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iron and copper contents in the specimen trigger the formation of a galvanic couple and leads to accumulation
on the workpiece surface, shown in Figure 4.

a) b)

c) d)
Figure 14. Ultrasonic-assisted and standard chemical machining surface view comparison. (a. 30°C standard CHM; b. 40°C
standard CHM; c. 30°C ultrasonic-assisted CHM; and d. 40°C ultrasonic-assisted CHM)

6 Examination of Effect of Ultrasonic Assistance on Temperature Evaluation

During chemical machining, an increase in temperature occurs due to the exothermic nature of the etching
reaction. Additionally, ultrasonic vibrations also contribute to the rise in temperature during the process. This
phenomenon makes difficult the heat control, as result etchant amount, cooling systems etc. should be carefully
determined before operation. The acceptable specific heat value of 2M-3M sodium hydroxide (NaOH) solution
is 3.98 J°C -1g-1. The study developed by H.G. Kissin (1963) [14] is stated that 15.9 kJ of heat is released during
the chemical machining for removal of 1 gr aluminum.
Q = 𝑚. 𝐶𝑝 . ∆𝑇 (1)

Table 4. Using 2M Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH) Ultrasonic-Assisted CHM process temperature and
volume changes in etchant solution
Etchant Loss Rate Etchant Mass change
Temperature Temp. Evaluat. (°C every 5 min)
(cm3/min) (gr/min)
(°C) Ultrasonic Standard Ultrasonic Standard Ultrasonic Standard
30C -0.3 -0.3 -0.25 -0.3 +4 +1
40C -0.4 -0.4 -0.32 -0.4 +4 +1.5
50C -0.5 -0.5 -0.34 -0.5 +5 +3

7 Discussion and Conclusions

Experimental results on ultrasonic-assisted chemical machining demonstrates the benefits of ultrasonic
assistance in enhancing solution homogenization and facilitates the removal of reacted etchant structures,
therefore it is talented achieving greater etch depths without good surfaces conditions.
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The ultrasonic-assisted CHM process offers a 1 µm higher etch rate than the standard process in a 2M NaOH
etchant solution at 40°C and 50°C, but do not have change at 30°C. The effect of ultrasonic assistance is not
recognizable at low temperatures, and the impact of the concentration factor is quite low. Ultrasonic assistance
is more dependent on temperature.
In ultrasonic-assisted chemical machining, although it is understood that the positive effect on the etch rate
increases with temperature, it was not as impressive as the changes observed on the surface conditions.
Ultrasonic vibrations facilitate the removal of reacted etchant structures from the interface of the specimen,
reducing the possibilities of sludge precipitation, and achieving more homogenized etching. This can provide
advantages such as better surface quality production, single-stage production, and reduced use of etchant tanks.
Ultrasonic assistance causes extra heating in addition to the exothermic effect. Under these conditions, a
cooling system may need to be integrated into the operation center, or an analysis may be conducted at high
temperatures based on responses of workpiece. Nevertheless, eliminating the requirement for a secondary
process or usage of an additional etchant tank can lead to cost savings in production.
In future studies, the behaviors of different etchant under ultrasonic-assisted CHM can be investigated and
added to the literature.

8 References
[1]. Çakır O., Yardımeden A., Özben T., 2008 “Chemical machining” Archives of Materials Science and
Engineering, Volume 28(8) Pages 499-502
[2]. Harris, W.T. 1976, Chemical Milling, Belfast: Clarendon Press Oxford.
[3]. Çakır O., 2008, "Chemical etching of aluminium," Journal of Materials Processing Technology, Volume
199 (1-3) Pages 337-340
[4]. Hannah A., 1960, "Aluminium etching and method". USA Patent US2,942,955, 1960.
[5]. Walter N.K., Atkins Jr. D.C., Douglas G.S., 1957 "Process for etching aluminum alloy surfaces". US
Patent Office Patent 2,795,490, 11 June 1957.
[6]. Grah R.T., 2003, "Chemical Milling of Aluminum Alloys: Choosing the Latest Technology to Achieve a
Competitive Advantage," Metal Finishing, Volume 101 (3) Pages 8, 10-12
[7]. Herman B.S., Ludwig M., 1957, "Chemical Milling Process and Composition". US Patent Office Patent
2,981,610, 14 May 1957.
[8]. Çakır O., 2019, "Etchants for Chemical Machining of Aluminium and Its Alloys,"Acta Physica Polonica,
A., Vol. 135(4) Pages 586-587
[9]. Çakır O., Aydoğan V., Özate, Z.B., 2011, "Chemical machining of copper," Mühendislik Dergisi, Dicle
Üniversitesi, Mühendislik Fakültesi (Dicle University Journal of Engineering), Volume 2(1) Pages 107-113
(Turkish)
[10]. Chatterjee B., Thomas R.W., Dunstan G.R., 1977, "Factors Affecting the Matt Etching of Aluminium
Alloys in Caustic Soda Solutions," Volume 55 Pages 35-40.
[11]. Rath P., Chai J., Zeng H., Lam Y., Murukeshan V., 2005, "Approach, Modelling two-dimensional
diffusion-controlled wet chemical etching using a total concentration," International Journal of Heat and
Mass Transfer, Volume 49 Pages 1480-1488.
[12]. Kaneko K., Noda T., Sakata M., Uchiyama T., 2003 "Observation and Numerical Simulation For Wet
Chemical Etching Process of Semiconductor," in Proceedings of ASME FEDSM'03 4th ASME_JSME Joint
Fluids Engineering Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA.
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[13]. Okka D., Çakır O., 20024, "Effects of Chemical Machining Characteristics of Aluminum as Metallic
Bipolar Material," in IHTEC2024, Diyarbakır, Türkiye.
[14]. Kissin G. H., 1963, The finishing of aluminium, New York: Reinhold publishing, 1963.

9 References

[1] ASM Handbook - Vol. 16 Machining, ASM International, 1995.

[2] W. T. Harris, Chemical Milling, Belfast: Clarendon Press Oxford, 1976.

[3] O. ÇAKIR, «Chemical etching of aluminium,» cilt 199, 2008.

[4] A. HANNAH, «Aluminium etching composition and method». USA Patent: US2,942,955, 1960.

[5] N. K. Walter, D. C. Atkins Jr. ve G. S. Douglas, «Process for etching aluminum alloy surfaces». US
Patent Office Patent: 2,795,490, 11 June 1957.

[6] R. T. Grah, «Chemical Milling of Aluminum Alloys: Choosing the Latest Technology to Achieve a
Competitive Advantage,» cilt 101, no. 3, p. 8–12, 2003.

[7] B. S. HERMAN ve M. LUDWIG, «Chemical Milling Process and Composition». US Patent Office
Patent: 2,981,610, 14 May 1957.

[8] O. ÇAKIR, «Etchants for Chemical Machining of Aluminium and Its Alloys,» cilt 135, 2019.

[9] O. ÇAKIR, V. AYDOĞAN ve Z. B. ÖZATE, «Bakırın Kimyasal İşlenmesi,» cilt 2, no. 2, 2011.

[10] B. Chatterjee, R. W. Thomas ve G. R. Dunstan, «Factors Affecting the Matt Etching of Aluminium
Alloys in Caustic Soda Solutions,» cilt 55, 1977.

[11] P. Rath, J. Chai, H. Zeng, Y. Lam ve V. Murukeshan, «approach, Modelling two-dimensional

diffusion-controlled wet chemical etching using a total concentration,» International Journal of Heat
and Mass Transfer, cilt 49, pp. 1480-1488, 2005.

[12] K. Kaneko, T. Noda, M. Sakata ve T. Uchiyama, «Observation and Numerical Simulation For Wet
Chemical Etching Process of Semiconductor,» %1 içinde Proceedings of ASME FEDSM'03 4th
ASME_JSME Joint Fluids Engineering Conference, Honolulu, Hawaii, USA, 2003.

[13] D. OKKA ve O. Çakır, «Effects of Chemical Machining Characteristics of Aluminum as Metallic

Bipolar Material,» %1 içinde IHTEC2024, Diyarbakır, 2024.

[14] G. H. Kissin, The finishing of aluminium, New York: Reinhold publishing, 1963.

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17-4 PH MALZEMEDEN PERVANE KANATLI TURBO DİSKLERİN KABA

İŞLEMLERİ İÇİN KESME PARAMETRELERİNİN DENEYSEL
OPTİMİZASYONU
Cenk Mirzaa, Şükran Katmerb, Çağla Gökbulut Avdanc, Çağlar Yavaşd, Ulvi Şekere

a, Karcan Kesici Takım San. ve Tic. A.Ş. Eskişehir/TÜRKİYE, c.mirza@karcan.com

b, Gazi Üniversitesi, Teknoloji Fakültesi, İmalat Mühendisliği Bölümü Ankara/TÜRKİYE, sukatmer@gmail.com
c, Karcan Kesici Takım San. ve Tic. A.Ş., Eskişehir/TÜRKİYE, c.avdan@karcan.com
d, Karcan Kesici Takım San. ve Tic. A.Ş. Company, Eskişehir/TURKEY, c.yavas@karcan.com
e, Gazi Üniversitesi, Teknoloji Fakültesi, İmalat Mühendisliği Bölümü Ankara/TÜRKİYE, useker@gazi.edu.tr

Özet
Uçak motorlarının en önemli parçalarından biri olan pervane kanatlı turbo disklerin (blisk), derin ve dar kanal,
küçük ve değişken eğrilik, farklı kalınlıkta ön ve arka kenar özelliklerine sahip bir parça olması nedeniyle,
üretimi zordur. Aynı zamanda yüksek sıcaklık, yüksek basınç ve yüksek devir hızı altında çalışmaları nedeniyle
imalatında paslanmaz çelik, titanyum alaşımları ve nikel bazlı süper alaşımlar (Inconel) gibi yüksek mekanik
özelliklere sahip malzemeler kullanılmaktadır.
Bu çalışmada 17-7 PH malzemeden pervane kanatlı turbo disklerin parmak freze ile simültane beş eksen kaba
kanal boşaltma işlemleri için kesme parametrelerinin deneysel optimizasyonu ve istatistiki analizi
gerçekleştirilmiştir. Deneysel çalışmada 3 farklı kesme hızı ve 3 farklı ilerleme miktarı ile tam faktöriyel deney
tasarımı uygulanmış ve toplam 9 ayrı işleme yapılmıştır. İşleme sürecinde kesme kuvveti, bileşke eğilme
momenti ve burulma momenti verileri kaydedilmiş ve çok yönlü varyans analizi (ANOVA) ile parametrelerin
etkinliği irdelenmiştir. Sonuçlar, kaba işlemede, yüzey kalitesi beklentisi olmadan, kısa işleme süresi hedefiyle,
yüksek kesme hızı*orta ilerleme miktarı ve/veya yüksek kesme hızı*yüksek ilerleme miktarının
değerlendirilen şartlarda en uygun kuvvet, momentler ve süre hedeflerini karşılayacak parametre çifti
olduğunu göstermiştir.

Anahtar Kelimeler: Pervane kanatlı turbo disk, blisk, 17-4 PH, Simültane 5 eksen işleme, Kesme
parametreleri

Giriş
Uçak motorlarındaki, özellikle kompresör ve türbin aşamalarındaki turbo makine döner bileşenleri, aynı rotor
boyunca dağıtılmış bir dizi kanatlı diskten oluşan karmaşık bir geometriye sahiptir. Son yıllarda, bıçakları ve
rotoru monolitik bir bileşen halinde entegre etme ve 5 eksenli frezeleme işlemiyle üretilmesi konusunda
çalışılmaktadır. Bu tür bileşenlerin ortak tanımı, entegre kanatlı rotor IBR (Entegre Kanatlı Rotorlar) veya
blisk’tir [1, 2].

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Şekil 1: Blisk ve pervane örnekleri [3]

Uçak motorlarının en önemli parçalarından biri olan pervane kanatlı turbo disklerin (blisk), derin ve dar kanal,
küçük ve değişken eğrilik, farklı kalınlıkta ön ve arka kenar özelliklerine sahip bir parça olması nedeniyle,
üretimi zordur [3]. Aynı zamanda yüksek sıcaklık, yüksek basınç ve yüksek devir hızı altında çalışmaları
nedeniyle imalatında paslanmaz çelik, titanyum alaşımları ve nikel bazlı süper alaşımlar (Inconel) gibi yüksek
mekanik özelliklere sahip malzemeler kullanılmaktadır [1].
Bu malzemeler arasında yer alan çökelmeyle sertleştirilen (PH) paslanmaz çelikler, martensitik paslanmaz
çeliğin yüksek mukavemeti ile östenitik paslanmaz çeliğin mükemmel korozyon direncini bir araya getiren bir
martensitik PH tipidir. Uçak motoru parçaları, dişliler, kimyasal cihazlar, nükleer reaktör ve gemi bileşenleri
gibi birçok önemli endüstriyel uygulama aparatı bu malzemenin şekillendirilmesi ile üretilmektedir [4, 5].
Pekleşme, yığıntı talaş oluşumu (BUE), uzun ve yapışık talaş vermesi sebebiyle PH paslanmaz çelikleri
işlenmesi zor malzemeler grubunda olup işlenebilirliği sertlik seviyelerine ve alaşımın içeriğine bağlı olarak
da değişmektedir [6]. İşlenmesi zor olan PH (çökelme sertleşmeli) paslanmaz çeliklerin işlenebilirlik
süreçlerinin doğru analizi, işlenebilirlik maliyetlerinin azaltılmasında önemli bir rol oynamaktadır [7]. Yaşar
vd. (2019) yaptıkları çalışmada 17-4 PH paslanmaz çeliğin farklı kaplama türlerine sahip kesici takımlar ile
farklı kesme ve ilerleme kuvvetleri denemeleri ile işlenebilirliğini incelenmiştir. Çalışma sonucunda PVD
kaplamalı takımlarda artan kesme hızı ile ilerleme kuvveti değerinin %0,97 ile %3,18 arasında azaldığı, CVD
kaplamalı takımlarda ise %2,78 ile %7,11 arasında arttığı tespit edilmiştir [8]. Yine Yaşar vd. (2020), yaptıkları
çalışmada bu sefer 17-4 PH ve 15-5 PH paslanmaz çeliklerin tornalanmasında CVD ve PVD kaplama türleri
ve farklı kesme parametrelerinin kesme kuvvetleri ve yüzey pürüzlülüğü üzerindeki etkilerini araştırmıştır.
Sonuçlar incelendiğinde 17-4 PH ve 15-5 PH için kesme kuvveti açısından optimum kesme parametreleri 210
m/dk ve 168 m/dk kesme hızları, 0.15 mm/dev ilerleme oranı, 1.5 mm kesme derinliği ve PVD kaplama olarak
belirlenmiştir [9]. Mohanty vd. (2016), kuru işleme şartlarında 17-4 PH çeliğinin tornalanması esnasındaki
işleme karakteristiklerini incelemişlerdir. Bu kapsamda talaş morfolojisi, takım aşınması, kesme sıcaklığı ve
yüzey pürüzlülüğü incelemiş, kaplamasız takımlar için yüksek kesme hızlarının takım aşınmasına sebep
olduğunu, tüm kesme hızlarında her iki kesici takımda da artan işleme mesafesiyle takım aşınmasının arttığını,
kesme hızındaki artışın sıcaklığı artırdığını, CVD kaplamalı takımın kaplamasız takıma göre daha fazla ısı
ürettiğini belirlemişlerdir [10].
Turbo disklerin dolu malzemeden şekillendirilmesi sırasında kanat arası boşlukların kaba frezeleme
işlemleriyle boşaltılması gerekmekte olup, literatürde de işaret edildiği gibi optimum şartlarda işlenmemesi
halinde düşük takım ömrü, yüksek işleme zamanı ve maliyeti gibi olumsuzlukları beraberinde getirmektedir.
Bu sebeple bu çalışma kapsamında, 17-4 PH paslanmaz çelik malzemeden üretilmiş kanatlı turbo disklerin
kaba işlenmesinde farklı kesme parametrelerinin etkilerinin araştırılması ve optimum kesme parametrelerinin
belirlenmesi amaçlanmıştır.

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Materyal ve Metod
Çalışma kapsamında üretilecek pervane kanatlı turbo disk (blisk) malzemesi olarak kullanılan 17-4 PH
paslanmaz çelik malzemenin kimyasal kompozisyonu Tablo 1’de verilmiştir.
Tablo 1: 17-4 PH paslanmaz çeliğin kimyasal kompozisyonu (%ağırlık)

C Si Mn P S Ni Cr Mo Cu Nb+Ta Nb Ta
Min 3 15 3 0,15 0,15
Maks 0,07 1 1 0,04 0,03 5 17,5 0,35 5 0,45 0,45 0,05
Ölçü 0,02 0,44 0,62 0,02 <0,001 4,22 15,2 0,14 3,35 0,22 0,21 <0,01

Kaba boşaltma işleminde, 4 ağızlı, paslanmaz çelik malzemeye özgü kalitede, sementit karbür parmak freze
(Karcan, Eskişehir) kullanılmıştır. Takımın makro geometrisi Şekil 2.’de gösterilmiştir. Deneysel çalışmalarda
kullanılan kesme parametreleri Tablo 2’de verilmiştir. Her bir parametre grubu için deneyler 2 kez (2 kanal
boşaltma) tekrarlanmıştır. Toplam 20mm derinliğe sahip kanallar ap: 4mm olacak şekilde 5 pasoda alınması
planlanmıştır.

Şekil 2: Parmak freze geometrisi

Tablo 2: Deneylerde kullanılan kesme parametreleri

Faktörler Seviyeler
1 2 3
Kesme Hızı (m/dk) 60 70 80
İlerleme Miktarı (mm/diş) 0,021 0,025 0,03

Kuvvet ve moment ölçümleri sensörlü tutucu (Spike, Almanya) (Şekil 3) ile gerçekleştirilmiştir. Kesme
kuvveti, eğilme ve burulma momentleri her bir kanalda her bir paso için ölçülmüştür. Deneysel çalışmalarda
üretilen pervane diske ait görsel Şekil 4’te verilmiştir.

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Şekil 3: Sensörlü tutucu

Şekil 4: Çalışmada üretilen pervane diskinin görseli

Bulgular ve Tartışma
İki parametre ve üçer seviye için hazırlanmış tam faktöriyel deney tasarımına tablosuna göre kaba işlemeler
gerçekleştirilmiş ve her takımla iki pervane kanalı işlenmiştir. İşleme esnasında kaydedilen, kesme kuvveti,
eğilme ve burulma momentleri verileri çok yönlü varyans analizi (ANOVA) ile analiz edilmiş ve
parametrelerin sonuçlar üzerinde etkili olup olmadığı ve etki yüzdeleri belirlenmiştir. Ayrıca her iki pervane
kanalı işlenirken, takıma gelen yükler açısında boşluklar arasında istatistiki olarak anlamlı bir değişim olup
olmadığını kontrol için ANOVA’ya kanal sırası da tekrarın etkisi olarak eklenmiştir. Sonuçlar, kesme kuvveti,
eğilme momenti ve burulma momenti sırası ile sunulmuştur.
Tablo 3’de verilen ANOVA sonuç tablosunda parametrelerin sonuçlarının birbirinden farklı ve α=0,05
düzeyinde anlamlı olduğunu göstermektedir. Eşzamanlı beş eksenli işleme esnasında kesme kuvvetleri
üzerinde en etkili parametrenin ilerleme miktarı (p<0,05) olduğu ve bunu sırası ile kanal sırası (p<0,05) ve
kesme hızı*ilerleme miktarı ikili etkileşiminin (p=0,05) takip ettiği bulunmuştur. İlerleme miktarının
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artmasıyla kesme kuvvetinin arttığı literatürde yapılan çalışmalarda belirtilmiştir [9, 11]. Kareler toplamı
üzerinde hesaplanan yüzdelik etki oranına göre sıralama ise ilerleme miktarı, kesme hızı*ilerleme miktarı ikili
etkileşimi ve kanal sırası şeklindedir. Kurulan modelin deneysel sonuçları temsil oranı %87,47 olmuştur.

Tablo 3: Kesme kuvvetleri ANOVA sonuç tablosu

Faktör SD* KT KO F-Değeri P-Değeri %Etki

Model 9 75570 8397 6,21 0,009 87,47
Kanal Sırası (Tekrar) 1 17450 17450 12,9 0,007 20,20
Lineer 4 37531 9383 6,94 0,01 43,44
Kesme Hızı 2 8023 4011 2,97 0,109 9,29
İlerleme Miktarı 2 29509 14754 10,91 0,005 34,16
2-Yönlü Etkileşim 4 20589 5147 3,8 0,051 23,83
Kesme Hızı*İlerleme 4 20589 5147 3,8 0,051 23,83
Miktarı
Hata 8 10822 1353 12,53
Toplam 17 86392 100
*SD: Serbestlik derecesi, KT: Kareler toplamı, KO: Kareler ortalaması

Parametrelerin kesme kuvveti üzerindeki etki yönlerini gösteren ana etki grafiği Şekil 5’te sunulmuştur. Ana
etki grafiğinde soldan sağa, kesme hızı, ilerleme miktarı, kesme hızı*ilerleme miktarı ikili etkileşimi, kesme
derinliği ve kanal sırasına göre kesme küvetlerindeki değişimi göstermektedir. ANOVA sonucunda en etkili
bulunan ilerleme miktarının artışı ile kesme kuvvetleri önce azalmış sonra artmıştır. Kesme hızı*ilerleme
miktarı ikili etkileşiminde; yüksek kesme hızı-yüksek ilerleme miktarı hem kesme kuvveti hem sağlayabileceği
hızlı işleme avantajı ile ne çıkmaktadır. Kesme hızının etkisi ANOVA sonucunda anlamlı bulunmasa da yüksek
seviye kesme hızının etkisi düşük ve orta seviye kesme hızına göre anlamlı bir farka sahiptir. Kesme derinliği
arttıkça kesme kuvvetlerinin önce artış sergilediği ancak sonrasında durağan bir seyir izlediği görülmektedir.
Birinci ve ikinci kanal arasında kuvvetlerin arttığı ve bu artışın anlamlı olduğu görülmektedir. Bunun muhtemel
sebebinin takım aşınması mekanizmalarının etkisi olduğu söylenebilir.

Şekil 5: Deney değişkenlerinin kesme kuvvetleri üzerindeki etkisi

Tablo 4’de görülen bileşke eğilme momenti ANOVA sonuç tablosuna göre, parametrelerin tekil etkileri ve
kanal sırası α=0,05 anlamlılık düzeyine göre anlamlı bulunmuştur. p-değerine göre bileşke eğilme momenti
üzerinde en etkili parametre ilerleme miktarı olurken, ikinci kanal sırası ve üçüncü kesme hızı olmuştur. Kesme
hızı*ilerleme miktarı ikili etkileşimi bileşke eğilme momenti üzerinde anlamlı bir etkiye sahip çıkmamıştır.
Yüzdelik etki oranlarına göre ise ilerleme miktarı %72,13 oranı ile model (%92,31) içerisinde oldukça yüksek
orana sahiptir. Yüzdelik ağırlıkça ikinci etkin parametre ise kesme hızı (%10,19) bulunmuştur.

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Tablo 4: Bileşke eğilme momenti ANOVA sonuç tablosu

Faktör SD KT KO F-Değeri P-Değeri %Etki
Model 9 92,881 10,3201 10,67 0,001 92,31
Kanal Sırası (Tekrar) 1 8,134 8,1339 8,41 0,02 8,08
Lineer 4 82,826 20,7066 21,41 0 82,32
Kesme Hızı 2 10,251 5,1255 5,3 0,034 10,19
İlerleme Miktarı 2 72,575 36,2877 37,52 0 72,13
2-Yönlü Etkileşim 4 1,921 0,4803 0,5 0,74 1,91
Kesme Hızı*İlerleme Miktarı 4 1,921 0,4803 0,5 0,74 1,91
Hata 8 7,737 0,9671 7,69
Toplam 17 100,618 100

Bileşke eğilme momentinin ana etki grafiği (Şekil 6), ilerleme miktarının artışı ile eğilme momentinin arttığını
ortaya koymaktadır. Kesme hızının düşük ve orta seviyeleri arasında sonuç üzerinde anlamlı bir fark
bulunmazken, yüksek kesme hızında eğilme momentinde artış oluşmaktadır. Ancak oluşan artış, yüksek kesme
hızının sağlayacağı saha şartlarında kısa işleme süresi avantajı yanında kabul edilebilir bir artış olarak
değerlendirilebilir. Derinlik arttıkça, takımın maruz kaldığı bileşke eğilme momenti de düzenli olarak artış
göstermektedir. Kesme kuvveti sonuçlarına benzer olarak, işlenen kanal sayısı arttıkça bileşke eğilme momenti
de artış eğilimi sergilemektedir.

Şekil 6: Deney değişkenlerinin bileşke eğilme momentleri üzerindeki etkisi

Burulma momenti ANOVA sonuç tablosuna göre, burulma momenti üzerinde en etkili parametre kesme
hızı*ilerleme miktarı ikili etkileşimidir (p= 0,000) ve onu kesme hızı (p=0,001) takip etmektedir. İlerleme
miktarı ve kanal sırasının burulma momenti üzerindeki etkileri istatistiki olarak anlamlı bulunmamıştır.
Burulma momenti üzerinde en etkili parametre kesme hızı*ilerleme miktarı olduğu literatürde yapılan
çalışmalarda belirtilmiştir [12].
Şekil 7’de verilen burulma momenti ana etki grafiğinde özellikle, yüksek kesme hızı-düşük ilerleme miktarı
etkileşiminde (3*1) burulma momenti, 3 ayrı kesme hızının düşük seviye ilerleme miktarı ile etkileşim
sonuçları içerisinde, en düşük değerini almıştır. Ancak yüksek kesme hızı*orta ilerleme hızı (3*2) veya yüksek
kesme hızı*yüksek ilerleme miktarı (3*3) sonuç değerlerinin de burulma momenti açısından yüksek değerler
olmaması işleme zamanı açısından avantajlı olan bu parametre çiftlerinin kullanılabilirliğini göstermektedir.
Kesme hızı tekil etki grafiğinde de bu sonuca paralel olarak kesme hızı arttıkça burulma momenti düzenli bir
azalma göstermiştir. İlk iki pasoda derinlik artışı ile burulma momenti artarken sonraki derinliklerde durağan
bir seyir izlemektedir.

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Tablo 5: Burulma momentleri ANOVA sonuç tablosu

Faktör SD KT KO F-Değeri P-Değeri %Etki

Model 9 1,17179 0,130199 26,41 0 96,74
Kanal Sırası (Tekrar) 1 0,005 0,005 1,01 0,343 0,41
Lineer 4 0,2233 0,055826 11,32 0,002 18,44
Kesme Hızı 2 0,19642 0,09821 19,92 0,001 16,22
İlerleme Miktarı 2 0,02688 0,013441 2,73 0,125 2,22
2-Yönlü Etkileşim 4 0,94349 0,235872 47,84 0 77,90
Kesme Hızı*İlerleme Miktarı 4 0,94349 0,235872 47,84 0 77,90
Hata 8 0,03944 0,004931 3,26
Toplam 17 1,21123 100

Şekil 7: Deney değişkenlerinin burulma momentleri üzerindeki etkisi

Tek deney satırında kullanılan takım, iki kanal boşaltma işleminden sonra incelenmiştir. Şekil 8’de şematize
edildiği üzere, tüm takımların kesici kenarları üzerinde farklı büyüklüklerde çentik aşınması gözlenmiş olup,
çentik derinliği ve kesici takım ucuna olan mesafesi deney sayısına göre değişmektedir. Şekil Wn; çentik
derinliğini, Ln; çentiğin takımın uç kısmına olan mesafesini göstermektedir. Her bir deneyden elde edilen
takım aşınması değerleri Tablo 6’da verilmiştir.

Şekil 8: Takım aşınması ölçümü

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Takım aşınması verileri ANOVA ile değerlendirildiğinde kesme parametrelerinin çentik derinliği ve çentik
mesafesi üzerinde istatistiki olarak anlamlı bir etkisi bulunmamıştır. Ancak Şekil 9’da sunulan ana etki grafiği
çentik derinliği ve çentik mesafesi ile kesme parametreleri arasında ilişki kurulabileceğine işaret etmektedir.
Tablo 6: Takım aşınması
Kesme Hızı İlerleme Miktarı Çentik Derinliği Çentik Mesafesi
(m/dk) (mm/diş) Wn (mm) Ln (mm)
L1 2390 0,021 0,15 16,78
L2 2390 0,025 0,14 17,05
L3 2390 0,03 0,36 16,08
L4 2760 0,021 0,11 17,09
L5 2760 0,025 0,21 16,60
L6 2760 0,03 0,14 16,65
L7 3185 0,021 0,14 16,90
L8 3185 0,025 0,16 17,08
L9 3185 0,03 0,18 16,71

Çentik derinliği (Wn) grafiğinde, kesme hızının düşük seviyesi ile orta/yüksek seviyesi arasındaki fark anlamlı
olup, kesme hızının artışı ile çentik derinliği, dolayısıyla takım aşınması azalmaktadır. İlerleme miktarının
artışı ile takım aşınması anlamlı düzeyde artmaktadır. Çentik mesafesi, takım aşınmasının takım üzerindeki
konumunu göstermekte olup, hem kesme hızı hem ilerleme miktarı değişiminden etkilenmektedir. Kesme
hızının düşük ve üst seviyesi arasındaki fark anlamlı olup, kesme hızı artışı ile aşınma yeri takım ucundan
uzaklaşmaktadır. İlerleme miktarının düşük ve orta seviyesi arasındaki fark anlamlı olmayıp, ilerlemenin artışı
ile aşınma bölgesi takımın uç kısmına yaklaşmaktadır.

Şekil 9 : Kesme hızı ve ilerleme miktarı ile takım aşınması ilişkisi

Kesme parametreleri esas alınarak kesme kuvvetleri ve takım aşınması arasındaki ilişki irdelendiğinde; yüksek
kesme hızı ve düşük ilerleme miktarında, daha düşük kesme kuvveti ve daha az takım aşınması oluştuğu
anlaşılmaktadır. Buradan, kesme kuvveti ve takım aşınması mekanizmalarının birbirini doğru orantılı olarak
etkilediği sonucuna varılmıştır.

Sonuçlar
17-4 PH paslanmaz çelik malzemeden kanatlı turbo disk üretimi sürecinde, kaba işlenme şartlarının kesme
kuvveti, bileşke eğilme momenti ve burulma momenti üzerindeki etkileri araştırılmış ve yüksek hızda işleme
için optimum kesme parametreleri belirlenmiştir. İlerleme miktarı, kesme kuvveti ve bileşke eğilme momenti
üzerinde en yüksek etkiye sahipken burulma momenti en fazla kesme hızı*ilerleme miktarı ikili etkileşiminden
etkilenmiştir. İlerleme miktarının tekil etkisi özellikle ilerleme miktarındaki artış ile kesme kuvveti ve bileşke
eğilme momentinde artışa neden olduğunu gösterirken, kesme hızı*ilerleme miktarı etkileşiminde yüksek
kesme hızı ile orta veya yüksek seviye ilerleme miktarı seçiminin kuvvet ve momentlerde kabul edilebilir
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artışlara neden olduğunu ortaya koymaktadır. Kaba işlemede, yüzey kalitesi beklentisi olmadan, kısa işleme
süresi hedefiyle, sonuçlar irdelendiğinde, yüksek kesme hızı*orta ilerleme miktarı ve/veya yüksek kesme
hızı*yüksek ilerleme miktarının değerlendirilen şartlarda en uygun kuvvet, momentler ve süre hedeflerini
karşılayacak parametre çifti olduğu sonucuna varılmıştır. Bir sonraki çalışmada, önerilen en uygun
parametrelerin takım ömrü sonuçları açısından değerlendirilmesi ve takım ömrü-işleme süresi dolayısıyla
işleme maliyeti dengesinin araştırılması planlanmaktadır.

Kaynaklar
[1] Lee, J., Yeh, H., Chen, T. 2022. “Improvement in the Efficiency of the Five-axis Machining of Aerospace
Blisks”, Science Progress, cilt 105, sayı 4.
[2] González-Barrio, H., Calleja-Ochoa, A., Lamikiz, A., López de Lacalle, L. N. 2020. “Manufacturing
Processes of Integral Blade Rotors for Turbomachinery, Processes and New Approaches”, Applied Sciences,
cilt 10, sayı 9, s. 1-21.
[3] Xin, H., Shi, Y., Zhao, T. 2018. “Compound Efficient and Powerful Milling Machine Tool of Blisk”, The
International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, cilt 98, s. 1745-1753.
[4] Karthik, D., Kalainathan, S., Swaroop, S. 2015. “Surface Modification of 17-4 PH Stainless Steel by Laser
Peening Without Protective Coating Process” Surface and Coatings Technology, cilt 278, s. 138–45.
[5] Çiftçi, İ., Kasap, M. Şeker, U. 1999. Östenitik Paslanmaz Çeliklerin İşlenebilirlik Parametrelerinin
Belirlenmesi Üzerine Yapılmış Deneysel Çalışmalar, Z.K.Ü. Karabük Tek Eğitim Fakültesi Teknol Derg, cilt
3, sayı 4, s. 130-141.
[6] Mohanty, A. 2014. “Influence of CVD Multilayer Coating on Machinability Characteristics of Aerospace
Grade Stainless Steel”, Yüksek Lisans Tezi, National Institute of Technology.
[7] Yurtkuran, H., Günay, M. 2022. Analyzing the Effects of Cutting Parameters on Machinability Criteria in
Milling of 17-4PH Stainless Steel under Dry Environment, İmalat Teknolojileri ve Uygulamaları, cilt 3, sayı
3, s. 8-19.
[8] Yaşar, S., A., Uzun, G., Korkut, İ. 2019. “17-4 PH Paslanmaz Çeliklerin Tornalamasında Farklı Kaplama
Tiplerinin Kesme Kuvvetlerine Etkilerinin İncelenmesi”, Nevşehir Bilim ve Teknoloji Dergisi, cilt 8, s. 1-11.
[9] Yaşar, S., A., Uzun, G., Korkut, İ.2020. “17-4 PH ve 15-5 PH Paslanmaz Çeliklerinin Tornalanmasında
Kesme Parametrelerinin Kesme Kuvveti ve Yüzey Pürüzlülüğüne Etkilerinin Araştırılması”, Karaelmas Fen
ve Mühendislik Dergisi, cilt 10, sayı 1, s. 71-81.
[10] Mohanty, A., Gangopadhyay, S., Thakur, A. 2016. “On Applicability of Multilayer Coated Tool in Dry
Machining of Aerospace Grade Stainless Steel”, Mater Manuf Process, cilt 31, sayı 7, s. 869–879.
[11] Ay, M., Kalyon, A. 2011. “CNC Torna Tezgahinda 17-4 PH Paslanmaz Çeliğin İşleme Parametrelerinin
Deneysel Olarak Belirlenmesi”, 6 th International Advanced Technologies Symposium (IATS’11).

[12] Yavuz, M., Gökçe, H., Yavaş, Ç., Korkut, İ., Şeker, U. 2017. “Matkap geometrisinin delik kalitesi ve
kesme performansına etkisi”, Sakarya Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü Dergisi, cilt 21, sayı 5, s. 1051-
1066.

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EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATION OF PARAMETERS AFFECTING

HOLE QUALITY IN 3D PRINTED PLA PARTS USING THE MEX PROCESS
Kemal Ayana, Nail Aslana, Fırat Mavib, Sırrı Can Polata, Cansu Apaydına, and Nurşen
Saklakoğlua

a, Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical
Engineering Department, Manisa/TURKEY, kemal.ayan@cbu.edu.tr
a, Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical
Engineering Department, Manisa/TURKEY, nail.aslan@cbu.edu.tr
b, Ege University Faculty of Engineering Mechanical Engineering Department, Izmir/TURKEY,
firat.mavi@ege.edu.tr
a, Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical
Engineering Department, Manisa/TURKEY, sirri.polat@cbu.edu.tr
a, Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical
Engineering Department, Manisa/TURKEY, cansu.apaydin@cbu.edu.tr
a, Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical
Engineering Department, Manisa/TURKEY, nursen.saklakoglu@cbu.edu.tr

Abstract
Polylactic Acid (PLA) is a popular thermoplastic material used in 3D printing due to its
biodegradability and ease of use. However, despite the precision of 3D printing, additional post-processing
steps, such as drilling, are often necessary to achieve the final specifications of a component. Drilling
operations are required to create accurate holes, achieve specific geometries, or improve the fit of parts. While
3D printers can produce complex shapes, they might not always provide the precise hole dimensions or surface
finish needed for certain applications. Drilling ensures that the final part meets the exact requirements by
removing excess material and refining hole dimensions. In this study, drilling parameters affecting hole
diameter and cylindricity during the drilling process of PLA material produced by 3D printing were
investigated. While selecting a single optimal setting is difficult, a feed rate of 150 mm/min combined with a
cutting speed of 18.94 m/min provides the most balanced results when evaluating all quality factors
collectively.

Keywords: PLA, Drilling, Additive Manufacturing

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EFFECT OF THERMAL POST-PROCESSING ON THE DRILLING

PROCESS OF L-PBFED PA12 PARTS

Nail Aslana, Fırat Mavib, Kemal Ayana, Hürkan Özgölb, Gazi Büyüktaşc, and Nurşen Saklakoğlub
a, Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical Engineering
Department, Manisa/TURKEY, nail.aslan@cbu.edu.tr
b, Ege University Faculty of Engineering Mechanical Engineering Department, Izmir/TURKEY,
firat.mavi@ege.edu.tr
a, Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical Engineering
Department, Manisa/TURKEY, kemal.ayan@cbu.edu.tr
a, Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical Engineering
Department, Manisa/TURKEY, 200304123@ogr.cbu.edu.tr
c, Manisa Celal Bayar University Vocational School of Manisa Technical Sciences Industrial Molding
Program, Manisa/TURKEY, gazi.buyuktas@cbu.edu.tr
b, Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical Engineering
Department, Manisa/TURKEY, nursen.saklakoglu@cbu.edu.tr
Abstract
This study examined the changes in the ease of machining of polyamide products manufactured using
the Laser-Based Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF) technique under various temperature settings. Samples with a
shape resembling a rectangular prism were created for this specific objective. The samples underwent three
different thermal conditions: low temperature, normal temperature, and high temperature. In order to assess
the machinability of the samples, we drilled holes from start to end using different feed rates and spindle
speeds. The holes that were formed were inspected using stereo microscopy images, and their sizes and
roundness were evaluated using image processing techniques. The CMM method was used to measure the
sizes and circularities of the holes, and the results were compared with the data obtained via image processing.
Furthermore, an analysis was conducted on the various sorts of chips that were produced throughout the drilling
procedure.

Keywords: Laser Based Powder Bed Fusion (L-PBF), Polyamide, Drilling

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OPTIMIZATION OF DRILLING PARAMETERS FOR PC/ABS

PARTS PRODUCED BY MATERIAL EXTRUSION WITH
VARYING SHELL COUNTS

Fırat Mavia, Kemal Ayanb, Nail Aslanb, Sırrı Can Polatb, İbrahim Etem Saklakoğlua, and Nurşen
Saklakoğlub
a, Ege University Faculty of Engineering Mechanical Engineering Department, Izmir/TURKEY,
firat.mavi@ege.edu.tr
b, Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical Engineering
Department, Manisa/TURKEY, kemal.ayan@cbu.edu.tr
b, Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical Engineering
Department, Manisa/TURKEY, nail.aslan@cbu.edu.tr
b, Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical Engineering
Department, Manisa/TURKEY, sirri.polat@cbu.edu.tr
a, Ege University Faculty of Engineering Mechanical Engineering Department, Izmir/TURKEY,
i.e.saklakoglu@ege.edu.tr
b, Manisa Celal Bayar University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical Engineering
Department, Manisa/TURKEY, nursen.saklakoglu@cbu.edu.tr
Abstract

Although additive manufacturing is known as a method that allows for the manufacturing of
products in a form close to their final geometry, the dimensional accuracy of features on the design can
vary depending on design and process factors. In particular, for features that must be oriented at angles
above the critical angle, even though stability is increased with support structures, dimensional and
even shape distortions can be unavoidable. Therefore, when critical holes are present in the design, it
may be preferable to produce the main structure without holes using additive manufacturing and then
perform drilling as a secondary machining process. In this study, the effect of shell count on the drilling
process was investigated in samples produced by the Material Extrusion (MEX) method using ABS/PC
material. For this purpose, samples with three different shell counts and 50% infill were produced. To
optimize the process, drilling operations were performed at different feed rates and spindle speeds. The
diameters and cylindricity of the holes were determined using the CMM method. Stereo microscope
images of the holes were taken, and quantitative data on delamination were obtained by processing
these images. The results were statistically evaluated.
Keywords: Material Extrusion (MEX), Shell Layer Count, Drilling Optimization

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MACHINE LEARNING-BASED OPTIMIZATION FOR CHATTER-FREE

MILLING WITH MAXIMUM PRODUCTIVITY
Farzad Pashmforousha,b , Gamze Balcikb, Arash Ebrahimi Araghizadb, and Erhan Budakb

a, University of Maragheh, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Maragheh/IRAN f.pashmforoush@maragheh.ac.ir

b, Manufacturing Research Laboratory, Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey, ebudak@sabanciuniv.edu

Abstract
Optimization plays a critical role in modern manufacturing by balancing productivity, costs, and quality. In
machining, this involves chatter-free operations, high material removal rates (MRR), extended tool life, and
optimal form errors, while adhering to power/torque and tool breakage limits. In this regard, machine learning
(ML)-based methods, especially Bayesian Optimization (BO) with Gaussian Process Regression (GPR), offer
innovative solutions. This study optimized milling parameters to maximize productivity and suppress chatter,
considering form error in the finishing process. According to the obtained results, the proposed approach
improved the machining performance by approximately 31%. A sensitivity analysis using the Shapley value
algorithm highlighted the input parameters importance level. A specialized software with a user-friendly GUI
was developed, facilitating dataset loading, parameter/constraint specification, and algorithm execution,
streamlining the optimization process for machining operations.

Keywords: Maximum productivity, Machine Learning, Bayesian Optimization.

1. Introduction

Optimization in modern manufacturing enhances economic efficiency and product quality. Milling, a key
process, directly impacts productivity and final product quality. Milling parameters such as feed rate, spindle
speed, and depth of cut still rely on operator’s skills and trial-and-error methods despite its criticality on cost
and lead time of the products. [1]. Machine Learning (ML) has emerged as a transformative technology in the
manufacturing sector, offering sophisticated tools for process optimization. ML algorithms can analyze large
datasets to identify optimal parameters, significantly improving efficiency and product quality (Bertsimas &
Dunn, 2017). Bayesian Optimization (BO) and Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) are particularly effective
in this context, as they can optimize complex, expensive-to-evaluate functions. These techniques are well-
suited for handling multiple objectives and constraints, making them ideal for optimizing milling parameters
to achieve goals such as maximizing Material Removal Rate (MRR), extending tool life, and minimizing form
errors [2,3]. Chatter, caused by self-excited vibrations, challenges machining processes, affecting quality and
costs. An effective mitigation plan based on stability lobe diagrams is essential for maintaining process stability
and achieving optimal machining outcomes [4]. Optimizing milling parameters balances objectives like
maximizing MRR, extending tool life, and minimizing form errors while adhering to power/torque constraints.
Roughing operations focus on maximum MRR, while finishing pass require high dimensional accuracy and
surface quality [3]. Integrating mechanistic force models with ML provides accurate cutting force estimates
for power/torque and form error calculations Tansel et al. demonstrated the effectiveness of combining cutting
force predictions with neural network models for tool wear estimation in micro-milling [5]. Li and Chang
developed an intelligent optimization system for machining parameters using ML, which underlines the
practical benefits of such tools in real-world applications [6]. In addition to milling processes, Bertsimas and

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Dunn highlighted the broader applications of ML in optimization across various manufacturing processes,
emphasizing its potential to revolutionize the industry [7].

Leveraging advanced algorithms like BO and GPR, manufacturers can achieve efficient, cost-effective, high-
quality outcomes, promising further enhancements in machining stability, precision, and automation [2].
Unlike traditional methods such as genetic algorithms, which can become inefficient in such scenarios,
Bayesian Optimization leverages a probabilistic model to explore the parameter space more effectively. By
incorporating Gaussian process regression as the surrogate model, the algorithm approximates the objective
function and uses this approximation to guide the search for optimal solutions. This method not only helps in
finding the best set of machining parameters but also provides a framework for systematically balancing
competing objectives and constraints. The choice of Bayesian Optimization is particularly advantageous for
achieving high performance in machining processes where the parameter space is intricate and the relationships
between parameters are complex.

2. Methodology
In this section, the detailed methodology employed for optimizing machining process parameters through
machine learning is presented. This approach relies on Bayesian Optimization, a powerful probabilistic model-
based optimization algorithm that excels in managing complex, high-dimensional search spaces where
multiple interacting parameters are present [8]. Figure 1 provides a detailed illustration of the methodology
employed in the proposed ML-based optimization.

Figure 1: Flowchart of ML-based optimization for milling with maximum productivity.

One of the most important steps of the optimization task is the preparation of a dataset, which comprises input
parameters and their corresponding outputs. The input parameters include feed rate, axial depth of cut, radial
depth of cut and spindle speed, with the upper and lower bonds as follows:
0.5 ≤ 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡 ≤ 20 𝑚𝑚
10% 𝑑𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑙 ≤ 𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑒𝑝𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑐𝑢𝑡 ≤ 100% 𝑑𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑙
0.3 ∗ 𝑅ℎ𝑜𝑛𝑒 ≤ 𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ≤ 0.15 𝑚𝑚/𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ
1000 ≤ 𝑠𝑝𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑙𝑒 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 ≤ 10000 𝑟𝑝𝑚
{ 2 ≤ 𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 ≤ 4 }
The upper and lower limits of the cutting parameters were determined according to the machine tool limits and
the tool manufacturer's data. Also, the minimum uncut chip thickness was limited based on the tool hone radius,
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which is suggested to be at least 0.3 times the hone radius (i.e., hmin=0.3*Rhone) [8]. Figure 2 illustrates hone
radius measurement via Nano-focus µ-surf device.

Figure 2: Hone radius measurement using Nano-focus µ-surf explorer.

Additional constraints for the optimization problem include power and torque restrictions as well as tool
breakage limits. Power and torque are calculated by equation (1) and their limits are derived from the machine
tool's power and torque curves, as illustrated in Figure 3 for the DMU 75 MONOBLOCK 5-axis milling center.
It should be mentioned that the cutting forces used for power and torque calculation are estimated via a physics-
based ML model, which integrates the mechanistic force model with ML algorithms. This model is explained
in detail in Authors’ previous work [9].
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 = 𝐹𝑡𝑐 𝑉𝑐
(1)
𝑇𝑜𝑟𝑞𝑢𝑒 = 𝐹𝑡𝑐 𝑅

where, 𝑉𝑐 is the cutting speed, R is the tool radius and Ftc is the tangential cutting force.

Figure 3: Power/torque characteristic curve of DMU 75 MONOBLOCK 5-axis milling center.

The tool breakage limit is estimated based on the Euler-Bernoulli beam theory. This estimation involves
calculating the bending stress for a beam under uniform load, followed by applying Weibull analysis to four-
point bend test, as explained by equation (2) [10].
87.63 1/𝑚 9.53 2/𝑚 (2)
𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑐𝑢𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟 = 1.25 ( ) ( ) 𝜎𝑚𝑎𝑥−𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝐻 𝑅𝑠

where, H is the flute length, Rs is the shank radius and m refer to Weibull modulus. The tool breakage limit
necessitates that the maximum stress in the cutting tool must not exceed the mean failure stress of the carbide
end mill, which is 1533 MPa [11]. The milling outputs considered in this study include tool life, material
removal rate and form error, as explained by Equations 3-4.
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𝐶 1
𝑇𝑜𝑜𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑒 = ( )𝑝 (3)
𝑉𝑐 𝑓 𝑚
𝑀𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑒𝑚𝑜𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 = 𝑎 ∗ 𝑏 ∗ 𝑓𝑡𝑜𝑜𝑡ℎ ∗ 𝑁 ∗ 𝑛 (4)

where, a is the axial depth of cut, b is radial depth of cut, n is spindle speed, N is the number of teeth, and c, p
and m are constant parameters depending on the material. For Titanium alloy (Ti-6Al-4V), c is equal to 8.48,
p is equal to 0.24, and m is equal to 0.89 [12]. The objective function for the roughing operation aims to
maximize material removal rate and tool life, while suppressing chatter and satisfying tool breakage limit and
power/torque restrictions. The function to be optimized is described by equation (5). It should be mentioned
that the outputs were first normalized to ensure that they have the same scale and a balanced contribution to
the objective function.

maximize {Material removal rate + Tool life}; while suppressing chatter & satisfying
(5)
power/torque and tool breakage limits

For the finishing processes, the form error was also considered in the optimization problem, due to its strong
correlation with surface roughness. Form error is dependent on tool and workpiece deflection, as explained by
equation (6):
𝑒(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝛿𝑦 (𝑧) − 𝑦𝑝 (𝑥, 𝑦) (6)

where, where δy(z) is the tool deflection at an axial position z, and yp(x,z) is the work deflection at the position
(x,z). In this study, the workpiece deflection wasn’t itself included in the objective function, since, by
minimizing tool deflection, form error is also minimized and there is no need to include workpiece deflection
in the objective function. To calculate the tool deflection, first, the surface generation points have to be
determined. These points are the intersections of the helical flutes with the workpiece surface, satisfying the
immersion conditions necessary for surface generation [13], as explained by equation (7):
𝑅 (𝜙 + 𝑗𝜙𝑝 )
; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑢𝑝 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽
𝑍𝑗 (𝜙) = (7)
𝑅 (𝜙 + 𝑗𝜙𝑝 − 𝜋)
; 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑚𝑖𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔
{ 𝑡𝑎𝑛𝛽

where, R is the tool radius, ϕj(z) is the immersion angle for flute j at axial depth of z, ϕp is the cutter pitch angle,
and β is the helix angle. Using cantilever beam theory, the tool deflection at surface generation points can be
calculated by equation (8) [15]:
2
∆𝐹𝑘𝑚 𝑧𝑚 ∆𝐹𝑘𝑚
𝛿𝑦 (𝑘, 𝑚) = (3𝜐𝑚 − 𝜐𝑘 ) + ; 0 < 𝜐𝑘 < 𝜐𝑚
6𝐸𝐼 𝑘𝑥
2
∆𝐹𝑘𝑚 𝑧𝑚 ∆𝐹𝑘𝑚
𝛿𝑦 (𝑘, 𝑚) = (3𝜐𝑘 − 𝜐𝑚 ) + ; 𝜐𝑚 < 𝜐𝑘 (8)
6𝐸𝐼 𝑘𝑥
𝑛

𝛿𝑦 (𝑘) = ∑ 𝛿𝑦 (𝑘, 𝑚)
𝑚=1

where, E is the Young’s modulus, L is the gauge length of the cutter, I is the area moment of inertia, n is the
number of elements along the axial direction, υk= L–zk, and Fm is the normal force at the mth element, which is
calculated using a physics-based ML model [11], similar to the approach used for power/torque calculation. kx
is the linear clamping stiffness at the tool-holder interface, equal to 19.8 kN/mm for a carbide end mill with 19

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mm diameter and 55.6 mm gauge length [13]. To calculate the moment of inertia of the cutting tool, the inertia
of each region of the tool's cross-section is determined analytically, starting with the first region and then
transforming and summing the contributions from other regions, as illustrated in Figure 4. The inertia of region
1 is obtained by calculating the equivalent radius (Req) based on the arc's radius (r) and the position of its center
(a), as explained by equation (9). Then, the total moment of inertia is computed by summing the moments
from all regions and adding the effect of the arcs due to flute depths [15].
π
R eq,4-flute (𝜃) = a sin(𝜃) + √(r 2 − a2 ) + a2 sin2(𝜃) ; 0<𝜃≤
2
𝜋 𝜋 2π (9)
𝑅eq,3-flute (𝜃) = a cos (𝜃 + ) + √(r 2 − a2 ) + a2 cos2 (𝜃 + ) ; 0<𝜃≤
3 3 3
R eq,2-flute (𝜃) = − a cos(𝜃) + √(r 2 − a2 ) + a2 cos 2 (𝜃) ; 0<𝜃≤𝜋

𝜋
1 𝑓𝑑 4 𝜋 𝑓𝑑 2 𝑓𝑑 2 2
𝑅eq,4-flute (𝜃)
𝐼𝑥𝑥,4-flute = − 𝜋 ( ) + ( ) (𝑟 + 𝑎 − ) + ∫ ∫ ρ3 sin2 (𝜃) 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜃
8 2 2 2 2 0 0
𝜋
(10)
4 𝑅eq,4-flute (𝜃)
1 𝑓𝑑 2
𝐼𝑦𝑦,4-flute = − 𝜋( ) + ∫ ∫ ρ3 cos 2 (𝜃) 𝑑𝜌 𝑑𝜃
8 2 0 0

The same approach is also applicable to the 3-flute and 2-flute tools [15].

Figure 4: Cross section of 2, 3 and 4-flute end mills [15].

Upon completing the optimization iterations, the results are sorted to identify the best solutions based on the
objective function values. These solutions are then further analyzed to exclude those exhibiting chatter, using
stability analysis [16,17].

3. Results and Discussion

3.1Optimization of Machining Parameters for Roughing Operation
The optimization of machining parameters was conducted using the Bayesian algorithm and Gaussian process
regression, with the aim of maximizing productivity and suppressing chatter, as outlined in Equation (5).
According to the upper and lower band limits of the input parameters (axial/radial depth of cut, feed rate,
spindle speed and teeth number), the optimization process aimed to maximize material removal rate and tool
life, while ensuring power/torque limits as well addressing form error and tool breakage constraints. This
comprehensive approach ensures that the process is both efficient and cost-effective, leading to improved
productivity and profitability without compromising the life span of the cutting tools used. Initially, the cutting
forces used for the calculation of power consumption, torque and bending stress were estimated using a
physics-based ML model, which predicts the milling forces with high level of accuracy [10]. After dataset
preparation, the hyperparameter optimization of Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) was performed, as
summarized in Table 1.

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The optimization process identified 'pure quadratic' as the optimal basis function, 'squared exponential' as the
best kernel function, 'fminunc' as the most effective optimizer, and a sigma value of 0.0001 as the ideal choice
for the noise term. These optimized hyperparameters were selected to balance exploration and exploitation
effectively, ensuring a comprehensive search of the input space and focusing on promising regions.

Hyperparameter Description Possible Values

The basis function for the
Basis Function 'none', 'constant', 'linear', 'pure quadratic'
Gaussian process.
'Squared exponential', 'matern32', 'matern52',
The kernel (covariance) function
Kernel Function 'rational quadratic', 'exponential',
for the Gaussian process.
'ardmatern52', 'ard exponential'
The noise level to add to the
Sigma Any positive real number (e.g., 1e-3, 1e-4)
diagonal of the covariance matrix.
The optimization algorithm used
Optimizer to minimize the negative log 'fminunc', 'quasi-newton', 'lbfgs'
marginal likelihood.

Table 1: Hyperparameters of Bayesian optimization and Gaussian process regression.

The optimization procedure was carried out for a total of 500 iterations, ensuring thorough exploration of the
solution space. After identifying the optimal solutions, chatter suppression was investigated. In this regard, the
solutions that exhibited chatter were excluded, ensuring that the final selected solutions are both optimal and
chatter-free. The best five chatter-free solutions, as listed in Table 2, are well-suited for practical
implementation in the milling process, offering the potential for significant improvements in both productivity
and efficiency. According to the obtained results, the optimal solutions led to an approximately 31%
improvement in the objective function over the non-optimum condition, where non-optimum refers to using
the median values of all input parameters.
Axial Radial Feed per Spindle Tooth MRR Tool Power Torque Bending
3
depth of depth of tooth speed number (mm /min) life (w) (N.mm) stress
cut (mm) cut (mm) (rpm) (min) (MPa)
8 15.2 0.06 1300 4 37939 103.5 6079 15768 503
6.5 13.6 0.025 2000 4 17680 143 2926 6085 171
10 8 0.04 1000 4 12800 449 3989 9217 248
12.3 8.5 0.003 1500 4 1882 6607 768 3392 185
5 11 0.02 1900 4 8360 305 1856 3718 131
Table 2: Best five optimal solutions for a chatter-free roughing operation (The cutting tool is a carbide endmill
with: D=19 mm, β= 30°, Rhone=10 µm and Lgauge= 55.6 mm).

3.2Optimization of Machining Parameters for Finishing Operation

As previously mentioned, in finishing operation, form error must also be considered in the optimization
problem, as it directly affects surface roughness. Therefore, the optimization process was repeated to take form
error into account as well. Following the optimization process, the stability analysis was employed to identify
chatter-free conditions for the finishing operation. The results, presented in Table 3, guarantee a stable and
high-quality finishing process. The stability lobe diagram is illustrated in Figure 5, which describes the limiting
chip width (to avoid chatter) as a function of spindle speed. The areas within the lobes represent stable cutting
conditions, while the areas outside the lobes represent unstable conditions where chatter is likely to occur

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Axial depth Radial depth Feed per Spindle Tooth Form error Tool life
of cut (mm) of cut (mm) tooth speed (rpm) number (mm) (min)
1 8 0.003 2000 4 0.028 3702
2 5 0.003 2000 4 0.052 3702
0.5 2 0.01 1000 2 0.017 680
0.5 10 0.02 1500 4 0.045 411
1 4 0.02 1800 4 0.033 324
Table 3: Optimal cutting parameters for chatter-free finishing operation

Figure 5: Stability lobe diagram

The obtained results demonstrate the effectiveness of Bayesian optimization with Gaussian process regression
to identify optimal machining parameters for milling process. Notably, this approach achieved significant
improvements in the objective function, balancing factors like material removal rate, tool life, power
consumption, torque, form error and tool breakage limit. Also, stability analysis and chatter suppression were
integrated throughout the optimization process, ensuring process stability. Furthermore, by incorporating form
error assessment during finishing, this comprehensive approach guarantees high surface quality alongside
enhanced productivity. These results demonstrate the potential of machine learning for optimizing complex
and expensive-to-evaluate functions in modern processes, while simultaneously addressing critical concerns
like chatter for both roughing and finishing operations.

3.3 Sensitivity Analysis

A comprehensive sensitivity analysis was carried out using the Shapley value method to better understand the
importance of input parameters on the outputs. This method quantifies the contribution of each input feature
to the model's predictions by calculating its Shapley value, which reflects the average marginal effect of that
feature across all possible combinations of features. According to the obtained results, as illustrated in Figure
6, feed rate and axial depth of cut are the most significant parameters affecting form error and bending stress;
axial depth of cut, spindle speed and feed rate are primary factors for power; radial depth of cut and feed rate
are key for torque; and spindle speed and feed rate are most influential for tool life. For MRR, all input
parameters have an equal effect.
After identifying the most influential parameters, 3D plots were generated for each output as a function of the
two most important parameters, while holding the values of the remaining parameters at their median levels,
as demonstrated in Figure 7.

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Figure 6: Feature importance analysis for different outputs using the Shapley value algorithm.

Figure 7: 3D visualization of machining outputs vs. most significant parameters.

The sensitivity analysis provided a detailed breakdown of each input’s impact, offering a clear picture of which
parameters have the most significant effects on the optimization objectives. This method not only highlighted
the importance of individual features but also facilitated a deeper understanding of feature interactions, thus
enabling more informed decisions for optimizing machining parameters to achieve the most optimal
performance.
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3.4 Development of an optimization software application

Finally, a specialized software application was developed to facilitate the optimization process for the
machining parameters, as depicted in Figure 8. This user-friendly application allows the operator to
conveniently load their dataset and define the upper and lower bounds for the input parameters through a
graphical user interface (GUI). The application integrates a Bayesian optimization algorithm based on
Gaussian Process Regression to identify the optimal machining parameters. The results are displayed in a
comprehensive table showing the best optimal solutions, and the convergence of the optimization process is
visualized through a graph, making it easy for users to evaluate the performance of the optimization algorithm
and select the best parameters for their machining processes.

Figure 8: Graphical user interface of the optimization software.

4. Conclusion
In this study, a ML-based optimization technique was employed to optimize the machining parameters for a
chatter-free milling operation with maximum productivity. Productivity was defined as a multi-objective
function encompassing the maximization of material removal rate and tool life, while considering
power/torque restrictions and tool breakage limits. For the finishing process, form error was also taken into
consideration due to its significant effect on surface roughness. The cutting forces used for the calculation of
power, torque, form error and bending stress were estimated using a physics-based ML model. The following
conclusions were drawn from the present study:
- The optimal solutions achieved an approximate 31% improvement in the objective function compared to the
non-optimum condition, which corresponds to using the median values of all input parameters.
- The sensitivity analysis revealed that, feed rate and axial depth of cut are the most significant parameters
affecting form error and bending stress; axial depth of cut, spindle speed and feed rate are primary factors for
power; radial depth of cut and feed rate are key for torque; and spindle speed and feed rate are most influential
for tool life. For MRR, all input parameters have an equal effect.
- The developed software application, which is an intuitive Graphical User Interface (GUI), enables users to
easily load datasets, define parameter bounds and other related constraints, and execute the optimization
algorithm. This user-friendly tool not only simplifies the optimization process but also facilitates efficient
performance evaluation and the selection of optimal machining parameters.
- In summary, the study demonstrated that ML-based optimization technique could provide a more adaptive
and intelligent approach to machining parameter optimization. The ability to incorporate multiple objectives
and constraints into the optimization process allowed for a more comprehensive and practical solution to real-
world machining challenges. This approach not only enhances productivity but also improves the overall
quality and efficiency of the milling operation.

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5. Acknowledgement
This research is supported by the scientific and technological research council of turkey, TÜBITAK (121C253)
which is greatly appreciated by the authors.
Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest
The authors declare that they have no competing interests regarding the publication of this paper.
Funding
This study was funded by the scientific and technological research council of turkey, TÜBITAK (121C253,
2024).

6. References
[1] Smith, S., & Tlusty, J. 1993. Efficient Simulation Programs for Chatter in Milling. CIRP Annals, 42(1),
463-466.
[2] Snoek, J., Larochelle, H., & Adams, R. P. (2012). Practical Bayesian Optimization of Machine Learning
Algorithms. In Advances in Neural Information Processing Systems (pp. 2951-2959).
[3] Li, H., Zhang, D., Zhang, W., & Shi, Z. (2015). Optimization of Cutting Parameters for Maximizing
Material Removal Rate in High-Speed Milling. Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 216, 384-395.
[4] Altintas, Y., & Budak, E. (1995). Analytical Prediction of Stability Lobes in Milling. CIRP Annals, 44(1),
357-362.
[5] Tansel, I. N., Arkan, T. T., Bao, W. Y., & Yenilmez, F. (2006). Tool Wear Estimation in Micro-Milling
Using Cutting Force Prediction with Neural Network Models. International Journal of Machine Tools and
Manufacture, 46(2), 210-219.
[6] Li, J., & Chang, Y. (2018). Development of an Intelligent Optimization System for Machining Parameters
Using Machine Learning. Journal of Intelligent Manufacturing, 29(6), 1355-1364.
[7] Bertsimas, D., & Dunn, J. Machine Learning under a Modern Optimization Lens. Dynamic Ideas.
[8] Joy, T.T., Rana, S., Gupta, S., Venkatesh, S.,2019. A flexible transfer learning framework for Bayesian
optimization with convergence guarantee, Expert Systems with Applications, 115, 656-672.
[9] Wojciechowski, S. Estimation of Minimum Uncut Chip Thickness during Precision and Micro-Machining
Processes of Various Materials—A Critical Review. Materials 2022, 15, 59.
https://doi.org/10.3390/ma15010059
[10] Ebrahimi Araghizad, A., Pashmforoush, F., Tehranizadeh, F., Kilic, K., Budak, E., Improving milling
force predictions: A hybrid approach integrating physics-based simulation and machine learning for
remarkable accuracy across diverse unseen materials and tool types, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 114,
92-107, 2024.
[11] J.A. Nemes, S. Asamoah-Attiah, and E. Budak, Cutting Load Capacity of End Mills with Complex
Geometry, CIRP Annals, Volume 50, 2001, 65-68.
[12] Lee, Y.J., Yoon, H.S., Modeling of cutting tool life with power consumption using Taylor’s equation,
Journal of Mechanical Science and Technology, 37 (6), 3077-3085, 2023.
[13] E. Budak, Analytical models for high performance milling. Part I: Cutting forces, structural deformations
and tolerance integrity, International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 46 (2006) 1478–1488.
[14] Erhan Budak, Yusuf Altintas, Peripheral milling conditions for improved dimensional accuracy,
International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture, Volume 34, Issue 7, 1994, Pages 907-918.
[15] E.B. Kivanc, E. Budak, Structural modeling of end mills for form error and stability analysis, International
Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 44 (2004) 1151–1161.
[16] Altintas, Y., Budak, E., Analytical prediction of stability lobes in milling, CIRP Annals, 44 (1), 357-362,
1995.
[17] T. L. Schmitz, K.S. Smith, Machining dynamics: Frequency response to improved productivity, Springer,
2009. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-387-09645-2.

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TESTERE İLE KESİLMİŞ AA7075 YÜZEYLERİN YÜZEY PÜRÜZLÜLÜĞÜ

AÇISINDAN KARAKTERİZASYONU
Şükran Katmera , Yafes Çavuşb , Yunus Emre Kınacıc , Ulvi Şekerd

a,Gazi Üniversitesi, Teknoloji Fakültesi, İmalat Mühendisliği Bölümü, Ankara/TÜRKİYE, sukatmer@gmail.com

b, Hacettepe Üniversitesi, Başkent OSB Teknik Bilimler MYO, Makine ve Metal Teknolojileri Bölümü,
Ankara/TÜRKİYE, yafescavus@hacettepe.edu.tr
c, Beka-Mak Makine San. ve Tic. A.Ş. Ar-Ge Merkezi, Bursa/TÜRKİYE, emre.kinaci@bekamak.com
d,Gazi Üniversitesi, Teknoloji Fakültesi, İmalat Mühendisliği Bölümü, Ankara/TÜRKİYE, useker@gazi.edu.tr

Özet
Testere ile kesme işlemi imalat sürecinin ilk aşaması olup, endüstride çoğu kez, kesilen parça doğrudan bir
sonraki aşamaya geçecek geometrik toleransları (diklik, paralellik, yalpa vb.) ve yüzey kalitesini taşımaz ve
ikincil işlemlere ihtiyaç duyulur. Ancak kesilen malzemenin boyut tamlığı, geometrik toleransları ve yüzey
durumunun istenen tolerans aralığında olması sağlanabilirse, malzeme ek işlemlere ihtiyaç duyulmadan bir
sonraki aşamaya alınabilir.
Bu çalışmada, yüksek mekanik özellikleri sayesinde savunma ve havacılık sektöründe yaygın kullanılan
AA7075’in şerit testere ile kesilmesinde yüzey kalitesi, yüzey pürüzlüğü (Ra, Rz, Rq) esas alınarak karakterize
edilmiştir. Bunun yanı sıra, testere tezgâhlarında yeni bir uygulama olan gagalama fonksiyonu ile kesme hızı
ve ilerleme miktarının yüzey kalitesine etkileri araştırılmıştır. Her bir parametrenin üçer seviyesi üzerinden
tam faktöriyel deney tasarımı uygulanmış ve veriler tek yönlü ve çok yönlü varyans analizi (ANOVA) ile
değerlendirilmiştir. Sonuçlar, testerenin hem düşey yönde hem de soldan sağa hareketine bağlı olarak, tek
yüzey üzerinde farklı bölgelerde istatistiki olarak anlamlı düzeyde farklı yüzey kaliteleri oluştuğunu
göstermiştir. Gagalama fonksiyonu uygulanması, kesme hızının yüksek, ilerleme miktarının düşük/orta
seviyelerinin kullanımı ile daha yüksek yüzey kalitesi elde etmek mümkün görülmektedir.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Şerit testere, AA7075, gagalama, yüzey kalitesi

Abstract
Sawing is the first stage of the manufacturing process, and most of the time in the industry, the cut piece does
not meet the geometric tolerances (perpendicularity, parallelism, wobble, etc.) and surface quality that will
pass directly to the next stage, and secondary processes are needed. However, if the dimensional accuracy,
geometric tolerances and surface condition of the cut material can be ensured to be within the desired tolerance
range, the material can be taken to the next stage without the need for additional processes.
In this study, the surface quality of AA7075, which is widely used in the defense and aerospace industry thanks
to its high mechanical properties, was characterized based on the surface roughness (Ra, Rz, Rq) in band saw
cutting. In addition, the effects of the pecking function, which is a new application in sawing machines, cutting
speed and feed rate on the surface quality were investigated. A full factorial experimental design was applied
over three levels of each parameter and the data were evaluated with one-way and multi-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA). The results showed that statistically significantly different surface qualities occurred in
different regions on a single surface, depending on the movement of the saw both in the vertical direction and
from left to right. It seems possible to obtain higher surface quality by applying the pecking function, using
high cutting speed and low/medium feed rate.
Keywords: Cutting with band-saw, AA7075, pecking, surface quality

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THE EFFECTS OF CORE MANUFACTURING PARAMETERS ON THE

DRILLING PROCESS IN HYBRID SANDWICH COMPOSITES WITH
CARBON FIBER PREPREG AND ADDITIVE MANUFACTURED CORE
PLATES
Alperen Doğrua , *Fırat Mavib , Erdoğan Polatc, and İbrahim Etem Saklakoğlub

a, Ege University Aviation Higher Vocational School Aircraft Technology Program, Izmir/TURKEY,
alperen.dogru@ege.edu.tr

b, Ege University Engineering Faculty Mechanical Engineering Department, Izmir/TURKEY, firat.mavi@ege.edu.tr

c, İskenderun Technical University Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences Mechanical Engineering Department
Hatay/TURKEY, erdogan.polat@iste.edu.tr

b, Ege University Engineering Faculty Mechanical Engineering Department, Izmir/TURKEY, i.e.saklakoglu@ege.edu.tr

Abstract
In this study, sandwich composite samples were designed with core structures produced by additive
manufacturing and skin structures made of carbon fiber prepreg. The core plates were manufactured from
ABS/PC material using the (MEX) method, with varying layer thickness and infill percentage values. The
surface roughness of the top and bottom surfaces of the produced core plates was measured, and their
relationships with the manufacturing parameters were investigated. Sandwich samples were produced by
curing carbon fiber prepregs under vacuum on the top and bottom surfaces of the core plates. These samples
were drilled using constant machining parameters and the same type of drill bit. The surfaces of the obtained
holes were examined under a stereo microscope to investigate delamination in the skins and disintegration
damage in the core plates. Additionally, the deviation in hole diameters and the cylindricity of the holes were
analysed. The evaluations revealed that the surface roughness of the core structures varied with the production
parameters, affecting the adhesion of the skin materials. Furthermore, it was observed that sandwich structures
with different core characteristics exhibited different behaviours during the drilling process. It was determined
that the infill percentage and layer thickness parameters applied in the production of core structures influenced
the deviation in diameters and cylindricity values.
Keywords: Sandwich Composites, Additive Manufacturing, Drilling

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SENSITVITY ANALYSIS OF ROTATING AUXILIARY COMPONENTS OF A

HIGH-SPEED SPINDLE SHAFT ASSEMBLY
Saif Ahmad Afridia, Esra Yuksela,b, Gilbert Riverac, Seong-Wook Hongc, Erhan Budaka*

a
Faculty of Engineering and Natural Sciences, Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey (ebudak@sabanciuniv.edu,
saif.afridi@sabanciuniv.edu)
b
Ideko, Dynamics & Control Department, Elgoibar, Basque Country, Spain (eyuksel@ideko.es)
c
Department of Mechanical System Engineering, Kumoh National Institute of Technology (swhong@kumoh.ac.kr,
gibsrivera@kumoh.ac.kr)

Abstract
Machine tool spindles, complex dynamic systems under thermal growth, are significantly influenced by the
shaft assembly's dimensions, including the spindle shaft and various press-fit auxiliary elements. Despite the
importance of these dimensions, their effects on the spindle's dynamic and thermo-mechanical behavior have
yet to be sufficiently explored. This study employed a detailed sensitivity analysis on auxiliary components-
shaft dimensions to identify dimensions that most effectively improve the frequency response function (FRF)
and minimize thermal growth. The dynamic and thermal analyses were conducted using the Receptance
Coupling Substructure Analysis (RCSA) and a Reduced-Order Model of Finite Element Model (ROM-FEM),
respectively. The findings revealed that, for the considered design, the front stepped sleeve, spindle tail
components, and the shaft's central hole are the most sensitive components and offer an opportunity to improve
spindle performance after bearing optimization.
Keywords: spindle dynamics, thermal behavior, sensitivity analysis

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CUTTING-EDGE CBN GRINDING WHEELS: EXPLOITING TEXTURING

FOR ENHANCED PERFORMANCE VIA ATTENUATING HEAT
GENERATION
Vahid Moussavi a, Suzan Behrouzbaraghi a, and Erhan Budak a, *

a, Manufacturing Research Laboratory (MRL), Sabanci University, Istanbul, Turkey, *ebudak@sabanciuniv.edu

Abstract
CBN grinding wheels have demonstrated superiority over other types due to their cost-effectiveness and
hardness, which is comparable to that of diamonds. However, grinding process itself inherently produces
significant amount of heat at the contact zone because of friction and plowing. This problem affects the surface
integrity of the workpiece and shortens the lifespan of the wheels. Various studies have explored the use of
different coolants and application methods, which have been found to be effective to mere extends, not
mentioning the huge environmental impacts. Texturing grinding wheels with grooves has been proposed as a
solution to control the heat and temperature within acceptable limits. This study aims to evaluate this approach
on CBN grinding wheels using specialized software and validate the findings through corresponding
experiments. The software simulates the predicts the generated ground surface, calculates the involved forces
and calculates the temperature at the workpiece surface at discretized time steps. Conventional CBN grinding
wheels with laser-generated grooves on the peripheral area were utilized. The simulation results support the
experimental outcomes, indicating that the channels on the wheels can significantly reduce the average
grinding forces and consequently lead to lower contact zone temperature. Moreover, comparison between three
different conditions of patterns have been made to study the effect of the patterns.

Keywords: CBN grinding wheel, textured grinding wheel

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SURFACE FINISHING AND VIBRATION DAMPING IMPROVEMENT OF

MACHINING THIN-WALLED PARTS USING SMART FLUIDS
Mohammad Rauf Sheikhia,b,c,* , Selim Gürgend , and Jian Lia,b,c
a,
Central South University, The State Key Laboratory of Heavy-duty and Express High-power Electric Locomotive,
Changsha/CHINA, mohammadraufsheikhi@csu.edu.cn, jianli1@csu.edu.cn
b,
Central South University, School of Traffic & Transportation Engineering, Key Laboratory of Traffic Safety on Track
of Ministry of Education, Changsha/CHINA,
c,
Central South University, National & Local Joint Engineering Research Center of Safety Technology for Rail Vehicle,
Changsha/CHINA,
d,
Eskişehir Osmangazi University, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, Eskişehir/TURKEY, sgurgen@ogu.edu.tr

Abstract
Thin-walled parts are widely incorporated into aerospace applications; however, low stiffness leads to forced
vibrations during milling, affecting the quality of the resulting milled surface. This study focused on the effect
of shear thickening fluids (STFs) on the vibrational damping and surface finish of thin-walled workpieces. The
U-shaped, thin-wall workpiece used in the experiment was filled with a Newtonian fluid and a non-Newtonian
fluid, STF. Modal analysis indicated a new frequency of FRF graph in STF-filled workpieces, thus greater
stiffness and damping than that workpiece filled with Newtonian fluid or empty. The results on surface
roughness measurements revealed a decrease in Ra from 1.93 to 0.98 µm when using STF, and surface quality
has even been enhanced significantly. This study found that STF-based smart fluids can reduce the vibrations
during the milling process and improve the surface finish of the thin-walled parts.
Keywords: Shear thickening fluid (STF), thin-walled machining, smart manufacturing

Introduction
Many expensive thin-walled parts and components commonly used in aerospace, such as engine blades, ribs,
frames, spars, impellers, sample parts, bulkheads, and fuselage skin (as shown in Figure 1), are produced
through milling operations [1]. During the cutting process, the lack of protection often leads to vibrations,
resulting in poor surface quality or, in some cases, chatter problems. Additionally, increased vibration damping
and stiffness during machining, combined with fixture limitations, cause issues like excessive tool wear,
reduced spindle and cutting life, low dimensional accuracy, and decreased production efficiency. The primary
challenge in machining these components is their low stiffness, which leads to vibrations. These vibrations are
mainly due to chatter and forced vibration [2]. Chatter occurs when the machine system’s natural frequency
resonates during machining. These fluctuations are primarily related to the vibrations of the cutting tool and
the FRF of the workpiece, which constantly changes due to the changing geometry, leading to an unstable
machining process [3]. Forced vibration happens when the workpiece’s stiffness is insufficient to maintain
system rigidity under cutting forces. In this case, both the workpiece and the cutting tool deflect, creating
vibrations with frequencies matching the spindle speed or its multiples. In both scenarios, the layer between
the workpiece and the tool edge changes, affecting the chip width and significantly altering the necessary
cutting forces. These vibrations increase surface roughness, impacting the final quality of the machined
surface. Various solutions have been proposed to address the challenges of excessive vibrations and poor
surface finishes when milling thin-walled structures. Previous works have explored using intelligent materials
to enhance the machining performance of these components. Yuan et al. [4] investigated the issue of forced
vibrations in milling thin-walled workpieces and developed a vibration mechanism that accounts for all
influencing factors, using STF to suppress vibrations. Wang et al. [5] studied the effectiveness of corn starch
suspension in reducing cutting vibrations during the milling of thin-walled cavity components, finding that the

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suspension improved machining accuracy and surface finish due to its shear thickening properties. Ma et al.
[6] utilized a magnetorheological (MR) fluid-based flexible fixture to stabilize thin-walled flexible workpieces
and dampen vibrations, showing improved fixture-workpiece system stability in machining tests. Gürgen et al.
[7] created a new tool that integrates STF into standard cutting tools to enhance turning operations, leveraging
STF’s non-Newtonian properties to increase vibration damping, reduce chatter, and improve the quality of the
finished workpiece. This study explores the role of non-Newtonian-based STFs' properties in improving the
machining properties of thin-walled structures. We investigate how STFs' rheological effects can dissipate
vibration damping and consequently improve the surface finishing of designed thin-walled parts.

Figure 1: Thin-walled components: (a) frame; (b) rib; (c) impeller; (d) blisk; (e) sample parts; (f) bulkhead;
and (g) fuselage skin [1].

Experimental detail
STF was created by dispersing 20 nm SiO2 particles (from Evonik Co., Ltd) into a polyethylene glycol (PEG)
medium (400 g/mol, Sigma Aldrich). This mixture was blended using a high-speed homogenizer for one hour
at room temperature. The amount of silica particles was adjusted to achieve STFs with a 30wt% SiO2
concentration. During the STF production process, fumed silica was gradually added to the PEG, maintaining
a silica content of 30 wt%. Before starting the milling tests, modal analyses were conducted to determine the
designed workpieces' structural constants (natural frequency, damping ratio, and stiffness coefficient). The
workpiece was struck with a hammer to induce its natural vibrations, as illustrated in Figure 2. An
accelerometer recorded the resulting displacements from these free vibrations. The data collected were
analyzed using CutPro 8.0 software, which provided the workpiece’s damping ratios and stiffness coefficients.
As shown in Figure 2, milling tests were performed on thin-walled workpieces made from AA7075-T6. The
inner side of the workpiece was filled with PEG and STF covered with stretch film. Cutting parameters were
4500 RPM spindle speed, 250 mm/min feed rate, and 0.25 mm cutting depth. To evaluate the impact of milling
conditions, surface roughness (Ra) measurements were taken on the machined surface, as depicted in Figure
2. A Mitutoyo Surftest SJ-400 profilometer was used for these measurements, with each scenario being tested
five times. The details of the experimental design are given in Table 1.

Workpiece Description
Clean Clean workpiece (no liquid injection)
PEG PEG filled in the workpiece
STF STF filled in the workpiece
Table 1: Design of experiment.

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Figure 2: Experimental detail.

Results
Figure 3 illustrates the designed workpieces' Frequency Response Function (FRF) graphs. The natural
frequency of the clean workpiece is approximately 1650 Hz, which is typical for an aluminum workpiece with
the specified dimensions under the given cutting conditions. For the PEG-filled workpiece, the natural
frequency drops to 1550 Hz due to PEG’s partial damping effect, which absorbs some vibrational energy,
thereby lowering the frequency. When STF is combined, the primary frequency peak further decreases to
around 1250-1300 Hz. This reduction indicates that STF, which becomes viscous under stress, has a more
significant damping effect than PEG. Additionally, a second peak appears at 2150-2350 Hz, suggesting a new
vibrational mode formed due to the varying properties of STF influenced by milling forces.

Figure 3: FRF graphs of (a) clean, (b) PEG, (c) STF workpieces.
Figure 4 presents the damping ratios and stiffness of the designed workpieces. Tests on vibration damping and
stiffness reveal that filling the workpiece with STF enhances both the damping ratio and stiffness. The interplay
between vibration damping, stiffness, and natural frequency is fundamental to the dynamics of mechanical
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systems. Stiffness (k) refers to the system’s resistance to deformation; a stiffer system requires more force to
deform and tends to vibrate at a higher frequency. The damping ratio (ζ) measures how quickly a vibrating
system loses energy, typically through friction or other resistance. A higher damping ratio means the system
dissipates energy faster, reducing the amplitude of vibrations more quickly. When the workpiece is filled with
STF, both the damping ratio and the system’s stiffness increase. This enhanced damping ratio allows vibrational
energy to dissipate more quickly, reducing the vibration amplitude and the likelihood of resonance at the
natural frequency. Additionally, the increased stiffness shifts the natural frequency to a higher range, as
observed in the modal analysis, with peak frequencies between 2150 and 2350 Hz. STF provides superior
damping and stiffness, improving natural frequency and anti-vibration performance. This is particularly
beneficial for milling operations, as it reduces the risk of chatter, which can lead to poor surface finishes and
potential damage to the material or tool [8].

Figure 4: (a) damping ratios and (b) stiffness results of designed workpieces.

Measurements of the Ra (surface roughness) of the machined surface indicate that filling the workpiece with
STF enhances its quality. The Ra value for the workpiece filled with STF decreased from 1.93 µm to 0.96 µm
compared to the clean workpiece. This reduction in Ra is attributed to the absorption and damping properties
of STF. During milling operations, the interaction between the cutting tool and the material can cause
vibrations, leading to an uneven surface texture reflected in the Ra value. STFs become more viscous under
applied stress, so when the cutting tool engages with the material, the increased viscosity of the STF helps to
prevent the transmission of vibrations.

Conclusion
An in-depth investigation into the use of STF in milling thin-walled workpieces has led to significant findings.
The study explored how STFs affect the natural frequencies, damping, stiffness, and surface finish of
workpieces during milling. We designed an experiment where STF was injected into the workpiece and
compared the outcomes with a clean workpiece and one filled with PEG (a Newtonian fluid). Modal analysis
revealed a new resonance peak between 2150 and 2350 Hz for the STF-filled workpiece, unlike the single
resonance peak around 1550 Hz observed in the clean and PEG-filled workpieces. This suggests that

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incorporating STF alters the dynamic properties of the workpiece, potentially enhancing vibration damping.
The most notable effect of using STF was on the surface finish of the machined workpieces. The Ra value for
the workpiece with STF significantly decreased from 1.93 μm to 0.96 μm. This study clearly shows that STF
could be an intelligent tool for milling thin-walled structures.

References
[1] Del Sol I, Rivero A, López de Lacalle LN, Gamez AJ, 2019, “Thin-Wall Machining of Light Alloys: A Review
of Models and Industrial Approaches”. Materials, 12:2012.
[2] Zhang Z, Li H, Liu X, Zhang W, Meng G, 2018, “Chatter mitigation for the milling of thin-walled workpiece”.
International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 138–139:262–71.
[3] Quintana G, Ciurana J, 2011, “Chatter in machining processes: A review”, International Journal of Machine
Tools and Manufacture, 51:363–76.
[4] Yuan, Xing, Shuting Wang, Xinyong Mao, Hongqi Liu, Zhaoshun Liang, Qiushuang Guo, and Rong Yan, 2022,
“Forced vibration mechanism and suppression method for thin-walled workpiece milling”. International
Journal of Mechanical Sciences, 230:107553.
[5] Wang SQ, He CL, Li JG, Wang J, 2021, “Vibration-free surface finish in the milling of a thin-walled cavity
part using a corn starch suspension”, Journal of Materials Processing Technology, 290:116980.
[6] Ma J, Zhang D, Wu B, Luo M, Liu Y, 2017, “Stability improvement and vibration suppression of the thin-
walled workpiece in milling process via magnetorheological fluid flexible fixture”, The International Journal
of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 88:1231–42.
[7] Gürgen S, Sofuoğlu MA, 2020, “Integration of shear thickening fluid into cutting tools for improved turning
operations”, Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 56:1146–54.
[8] Zhu L, Liu C, 2020, “Recent progress of chatter prediction, detection and suppression in milling”, Mechanical
Systems and Signal Processing,143:106840.

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A KERNEL-BASED APPROACH FOR MODELLING FEED DRIVE

DYNAMICS
Mohammadmahdi Mehrabia , James Duncan McPhersonb , and Keivan Ahmadic

a, University of Victoria, Department of mechanical engineering, Victoria/Canada, mmehrabi@uvic.ca

b, University of Victoria, Department of mechanical engineering, Victoria/Canada, jdmcpher@uvic.ca
c, University of Victoria, Department of mechanical engineering, Victoria/Canada, kvahmadi@uvic.ca

Abstract
This paper presents a new model for closed-loop dynamics in ballscrew feed drives of CNC machine tools.
The model allows for unbiased non-intrusive calibration during machining, even with unmeasured machining
forces. It is also integrated into a recursive Gaussian Process Regression (GPR) method for real-time motion
prediction during milling. The method’s accuracy is validated experimentally.
Keywords: Feed drive dynamics, System identification, Kernel methods

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A PRELIMINARY STUDY OF
BALL BURNISHING PROCESS ON GROUND SURFACES
Melik Dolena, Ulas Yamanb,c, Hakan Caliskand, and Orkun Ozsahine

a, Middle East Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ankara/TURKIYE, dolen@metu.edu.tr

b, Middle East Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ankara/TURKIYE, uyaman@metu.edu.tr
c, Middle East Technical University, Welding Technology and NDT Center, Ankara/TURKIYE, uyaman@metu.edu.tr
d, Middle East Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ankara/TURKIYE, chakan@metu.edu.tr
e, Middle East Technical University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ankara/TURKIYE, ozsahin@metu.edu.tr

Abstract
This study investigates the performance of the ball-burnishing process on defective surfaces – a subject that
has received limited attention in the existing literature. Surface defects and irregularities can arise from various
factors, including the nature of the manufacturing process, improper selection of operational parameters,
machine-tool vibrations, alignment errors, material inhomogeneities, and more. This research aims to
experimentally evaluate the efficacy of deep burnishing on such defective surfaces and to derive insights on
strategies to handle these cases effectively.
Keywords: ball burnishing, surface roughness, surface defects

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ON-MACHINE SCANNING WITH CONTACT AND NON-CONTACT

SENSORS AND HOW IT CAN IMPROVE MACHINING WITH CLOSED
LOOP METROLOGY FEEDBACK.
Ray Karadayi, Dr. Ahmed Naga, Chris Affer
Applied Automation Technologies, Inc
Ray Karadayi: President & CEO, Applied Automation Technologies, Inc.

Dr. Ahmed Naga: AAT3D, Research @ Development.

Christopher Affer: AAT3D, Applications.

(248)-656-4930 www.aat3d.com

On-machine probing has been used in most cases with a tactile sensor for simple part setup and reporting. In
modern machining operations, gathering fast and precise data has emerged as an important part of producing
complex precision products at less cost. The integration of contact and non-contact scanning sensor
technologies became a promising avenue for enhancing precision and efficiency. This paper investigates the
potential of “on-machine tool scanning” techniques utilizing both contact and non-contact sensors to create
metrology data. Furthermore, the implementation of closed-loop metrology feedback enables real-time
adjustments, ensuring tighter tolerances and minimizing errors during production hence improving machining
process. This presentation explores the principles, capabilities, and practical implications of integrating contact
and non-contact sensors into machining operations. Through a thorough examination of case studies, the
benefits of this approach in terms of accuracy, speed, and reliability are demonstrated. The findings underscore
the transformative potential of on-machine scanning with integrated sensor technologies in advancing the
precision and quality of machining processes, paving the way for more efficient and competitive manufacturing
practices.
Keywords: On-Machine Scanning; Metrology; Smart machining.

Introduction:
As the demand to produce high precision parts at lower costs grew, “On machine Measurement” became an
important part of a machining process. Probing originally started to locate parts before machining process by
measuring simple measurements. With the advancements in the machine tool controllers, sensor technologies
and innovations in the software, now it is possible to produce parts that meet the design specifications instead
of checking if the parts are made correctly at the end of the machining cycles. Closed loop metrology now
allows parts to be machined accurately and effortlessly with automatic feedback cycles by adapting the
changing conditions in the machining parameters. Automatic measure-cut-measure cycles assures parts meet
their target dimensions by checking its metrology design characteristics and converting the results into a
measurement parameter such as the part offsets, tool wear compensations or corrections for the thermal
expansions. This process demands faster and larger data collection for metrology analysis which is answered
using analog contact scanning and non-contact laser scanning sensors. This paper discusses how such sensors
are adapted to machine tool environment and how metrology software can utilize these sensors. Application
examples and case studies are included to demonstrate how these technologies help everyday users produce
complex parts.

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On Machine Metrology
Measuring parts directly on the machine to perform complex metrology analysis as a part of the manufacturing
process is becoming more common. The advancements in machine tool controllers, sensors and software that
can integrate the whole process make it possible to perform detailed metrology analysis for the benefit of
finishing parts correctly despite various factors. While in the past, dimensional measurement was done
externally after the part is manufactured to perform quality control and reject any parts that does not meet the
design criteria, the process correction benefits of dimensional measurements were minimally used or was
difficult to automate in a cost-effective manner. The ability to perform dimensional metrology directly on the
machine now makes use of the metrology data to directly control the machining process and contribute to
creating parts without defects. Metrology data is no longer just a report to look at but a direct and automated
method to help make parts better in the first place.

Figure 15 On Machine Measurement Process

Smart Machining with Closed Loop Metrology Feedback

The ability to perform metrology analysis directly on the machine tool creates the ability to use the
measurement results to perform adjustments and corrections in the measurement process. For a cutting program
that creates various datum features and other features related to those datums now can be adjusted by
incorporating a quick datum verification and adjustments which adapts the cutting program. A detailed profile
or surface analysis of a feature may determine some changes in the machining parameters which can be
feedback to create the desired part shape or profile as well as use cutting tools to their maximum lives possible.
If the system is equipped with temperature sensors, the actual temperature can be used to compensate for
machine axis and part expansions. With the closed loop metrology-based decision making, the machining cycle
is made smart by adapting to variations in the machining process and always finishes a part that meets the
intended dimensional characteristics.

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Figure 16 Closed Loop Metrology

The smart machining process requires detailed metrological analysis. For thorough analysis and effective
decision-making, it is necessary to have more detailed feature measurements with higher density points. This
can be achieved by using fast data collection sensors that automatically scan features and collect accurate
measurements. Incorporating software capable of handling this process allows for the analysis of large data
sets and converts the results into machine parameters as part of the decision-making process.

Goals with Fast data collection:

Several goals must be achieved when adapting a high-speed scanning sensor:

• Integration to Machine Tool: The sensor must be seamlessly integrated into the machine tool
environment, preferably with automatic loading and unloading capabilities. It should require minimal
hardware or electronic modifications to enable cost-effective and risk-free adaptation.
• Durability: Ensure the sensor is robust and can withstand operational conditions.
• Accuracy: Ensure the sensor provides precise and reliable measurements. Easy calibration processes
and quick verification should be available. All measurements will be correlated with other tools on the
machine, and the data will be traceable.
• Speed: High scanning speeds without compromising data quality must be maintained.
• Data Handling: As the ultimate goal is to enable closed-loop decision-making, the software must
manage large volumes of data to rapidly generate metrological characteristics and make necessary
machine tool adjustments.
• User-Friendliness: The system should be easy to program and operate. All programming can be done
offline in virtual environments with easy scanning options that can be initiated directly on the machine.
• Cost-effectiveness: The system must be cost-effective to upgrade, providing a good return on
investment (ROI) with minimal downtime during installation and operation.
•
Scanning Sensors:
Most of the machine tools already have a probe performing simple measurements. These are mostly tactile
sensors that generate measurement data by reporting the measurement coordinates one at a time. These probes
are integrated into the machine tool environment as a tool with lengths and offsets precisely defined and
correlate to other cutting tools used for machining. Scanning sensors are integrated in a similar manner that

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any measurement would represent the part coordinates and used to calculate correction parameters in the
controller.
Scanning sensors can be either contact type, which sweeps a curve along a predetermined path, or non-contact
type, which collect surface information by optically detecting the surface and producing coordinates in a point
cloud. We are examining three types of scanning sensors which are available:
Analog Scanning Probes: Renishaw plc, a UK company, produces probes for on-machine measurement. The
SPRINT probe is an on-machine tool analog scanning probe that can capture 3D data from parts. This probe
can detect sub-micron movement and build up to 1000 points per second while moving over the part surface.

Figure 17 Sprint Analog scanning probe

Surface Analyzers:
Other companies offer various solutions for part surface scanning. Mahr, for example, has a surface analyzer
capable of dragging a highly sensitive sensor along a path to collect data with sub-micron accuracy. This
detailed data collection and analysis can enhance surface finishes, maximize tool life, and reduce costs.

Figure 18: Mahr Surface Roughness Sensor

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Non-Contact Scanners:
Optical scanners can operate on various materials and generate millions of data points, creating point clouds
that effectively reverse-engineer a part’s actual shape. Metrology software that processes these point clouds
can quickly analyze the data and help make decisions by adjusting the appropriate machining parameters based
on the detected conditions. Recently, Nikon introduced a wireless sensor that can be seamlessly integrated into
any machine tool.

Figure 19: Nikon Wireless Laser Sensor

Sensor Integration:
Sensors that generate high density data typically have a measurement mechanism inside the sensor the detects
displacements on the contact surface. As the machine moves along a path of pre-programmed motion, software
monitors the machine position and the sensor displacements. Final 3D position data is calculated by processing
the data through a calibration map.

Machine
Position
XYZ/ABC

3D Point on Part
Surface XYZ/IJK

Sensor
Displacement
XYZ

Figure 51: Integration of Machine position with Sensor Displacement

The integration of various sensor types follows a similar principle. Each sensor has its own controller and
interface, providing measurements in its local coordinate system. Displacements measured by the sensors are
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read at high frequencies to collect the maximum amount of data. These displacements are then combined with
the machine's position data to generate the final 3D points.

Physical Integration with Machine Tool

Scanning sensors are prepared to have the proper attachment that can be connected to the machine tool spindle
just like the standard probes or cutting tools. The analog probes are assembled into the standard shank which
can be stored directly into tool magazine. These probes are wired into the machine tool so that they can be
loaded with a program and enabled by using an M-Code.

Figure 21: Various Sensors in a tool magazine

Non-Contact Laser line scanners are adapted with the proper shank style and size so that they can also be stored
within the tool magazine. For these sensors, additional housing is designed to protect from the environment.
This integration can be very straightforward for the case of wireless laser scanners. Nikon recently introduced
a wireless scanner that can transmit measurement data without having to use a data cable to transmit the
measurements. Other laser scanners need to be wired into the machine tool to have a functional system that
can be quickly started by the operator. This is in most cases easy to retrofit on an existing machine tool or can
be done by the OEM while preparing a new machine. For the wired sensors case, the sensor can be kept in the
tool magazine and loaded automatically as well. However, the operator would need to manually attach the data
cable connection to the sensor.

Figure 22: Example of laser sensor wiring

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Data Sampling:
Scanning sensors can generate measurements at very high frequencies, whereas machine tool controllers are
interfaced at much lower polling frequencies. This is because scanning sensors are directly interfaced with
their controllers, allowing for higher measurement frequencies. In contrast, machine tool controllers have more
layers of electronics and are not directly interfaced, resulting in lower polling frequencies. However, high-
frequency position sampling is unnecessary for the machine tool since it moves at a steady velocity. Sensor
data sampled between the two machine positions can be easily interpolated.

40Hz 2000Hz

Latency correction

Figure 23: Position sampling with sensor and machine tool.

Measurement Data Creation:

The 3D points that represent accurate part surface measurements are created by processing through several
transformations. The sensor’s own reading is optimized by an optical calibration which filters noise and
produces the best data for the part material and light conditions. Sensor measurements and machine positions
which are time stamped are first brought to the same time scale by applying a latency correction. This data is
then merged through a kinematic transformation that aligns the sensors internal coordinate system with the
machines coordinate system creating a 3D point. This 3D point is further corrected by the machine’s
geometrical errors. In most cases this would be a 5-axis head offset correction which is calculated using a
calibration process. A machine Volumetric Correction System (VCS) can also be applied at this stage unless it
was already applied by the machine controller. If there are thermal concerns, part and machine axis thermal
expansion can be applied to produce the actual part location data. Finally, the measurement data are converted
into the active part coordinates or datum frames to be analyzed by the software.
The order of this correction process may depend on each case and what’s available on the machine. For
example, if the machine has active TCP (Tool Center Point Control) or measurements are in some active work
offsets, these transformations would also be accounted for in this process. Each one of the correction factors
can be individually calibrated, independently verified and programmatically selected during a scanning
application.

Figure 24: Measurement point creation

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Calibration:
Scanning laser calibration must be performed so that it produces accurate measurement data on the part surface
and can be verified and recalculated very efficiently. Depending on the sensor type, there are several factors
that need to be calibrated.

• Optical and material related calibration: This is especially important for non-contact sensors
such as the laser line scanners. Multiple levels of configuration can be created to produce the best
resolution with minimum noise at different material and lighting conditions. These calibrations
are stored as a setting and can be changed during a program to produce the best measurement
results.

Figure 25: Optical calibration of laser sensor

• Electronic Processing & Latency: Because the sensor data and machine positions are read
independently, a small delay may happen between their time stamps. This difference is calibrated
and interpolated to different operation speeds for best accuracy. Latency calibration is an important
factor in producing accurate measurement data that matches the precise machine position with the
sensor displacement information.

Figure 26:Calibration results at varying scanning speeds.

• Calibration of mechanical errors: This includes the sensor offsets, runouts, coordinate system
as well as the mechanical inaccuracies that can stem from the machine kinematics such as 5 axis
head misalignments, table centers and machine’s own volumetric geometry.

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Figure 27: Calibration position Grid for 5 axis head

Verification:
Quick and inexpensive verifications are necessary to perform machine ‘health check’ and assure machine’s
geometrical integrity, measurement reliance and establish traceability. As the machine tools operate under
constant force and elements that may affect how they operate, a quick verification rather than a full calibration
may be beneficial. This can be done by using simple artifacts which are externally calibrated and monitored to
create confidence not just in the measurement process but also in the general function of the machine during
cutting process.

A) Tooling Balls: Having a tooling ball either permanently present on the machine or quickly attached to
the machine can be very useful to provide machine health data. A machine’s repeatability from its
home reference can be monitored which may also indicate if there are thermal changes on the machine
axis. This will also verify a tool loading process is repeatable while loading a non-contact sensor.
B) Head and Table indexing: Automatic procedure to check pivot and rotation centers can help verify and
update the machine tool kinematics to achieve best measurement and machining results.
C) Plate Test: An inclined plate can be scanned in different directions to verify the scanned point clouds
are stitched with the accuracies expected to perform.
D) Artifacts: More advanced artifacts such as InoraSRS flexible system can be very quickly adapted and
produce accurate machine health verification including the scanning sensors.

Figure 28: InoraSRS tetrahedron

Programming:
There are two methods used to create programs for on-machine scanning. Most common method is to develop
programs using an offline software like a CAM system. In some cases, interactive, on machine programming
can also be very useful for scanning and analyzing part features or reverse engineering a part that does not
have a CAD model.
AAT3D makes CappsNC software that can perform both offline and interactive programming. Complete
programs are created to include the machine tool scanning motion paths, the analysis, feedback and reporting
from offline 3D software. With this, a virtual machine tool model and all its kinematic constraints are defined
allowing a virtual environment where a complete program can be created, simulated and verified. While
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executing programs with direct interface, the software becomes a digital twin of the machine displaying a real
time view of the motion and status.

Figure 29: Digital twin of a multi axis machine.

In addition to being a comprehensive metrology software, the programming software should include several
essential features to be a viable solution:

• Virtual Machine Models: The software should provide a virtual machine model that simulates
all machine motions and represents machine work-offsets (coordinate systems), axis limits, and
kinematic constraints. This capability is crucial for determining optimal motion parameters, such
as tool orientations, and for providing collision avoidance while calculating motion paths.
• Automatic Scan Path: Scanning paths should be calculated based on the feature type, such as
curves, surfaces, or geometric features, and optimized for the specific sensor used. Gradual contact
with the surface may be necessary to minimize initial impact and vibrations. Extending the scan
paths to start earlier and finish later allows for additional filtering, effectively removing unwanted
data and noise.
• Machine Feedback: The programming system should include analysis capabilities to calculate
machine tool correction parameters from the measurement results and facilitate closed-loop
measure-cut-measure cycles.
• Interactive Programming: In some cases, programming directly on the machine using the
machine tool is necessary. For example, it maybe useful to create a scan patch directly from the
part and create a CAD image for reverse engineering purposes or compare to a CAD model would
help create parts that meets the desired design specifications.
• Machine Code Post: An offline-developed scanning program should encompass all machine
motions, data collection, analysis, feedback, and reporting. To execute this program on the
machine tool controller, it must be converted into the controller-specific programming language.
This post-processing of the scanning program into machine tool code should be automatic, utilize
standard calls, and be compatible with other programs for an automated process, allowing direct
initiation from the machine tool control.

Shop Floor Execution:

The software operating on the shop floor will be directly integrated with the machine tool and function as part
of the machining process. All scanning motions, analysis, and feedback commands created offline should run
automatically through the software without needing to revert to offline analysis or human intervention. Data
collected from analog scanning, surface roughness measurements, or point cloud scanning are processed within
the software, often by comparing it to CAD models. The results are sent back to the controller as adjustment
parameters or saved as reports on servers and secure databases. This closed-loop, automated execution of on-
machine scanning is what defines a 'smart machining' process.
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Figure 30: Smart machining with metrology feedback

NCFIT – Reposting machine tool programs:

Multi-Axis cutting programs are created by a CAM system and converted into the proper machine tool
controller language by a NC Post. The motion coordinates and axes parameters are calculated based on the
ideal representation of the part to be machined from its CAD model. The intended tool to part surface
relationship needs to be maintained in order to create the features to meet the design tolerances.
In some cases, the reality of how the part is positioned on the machine tool may not match the assumed
conditions on the programming systems. Parts not only be very difficult to hold in the exact 6 degree of freedom
position as a rigid body but it may also have some deflection or shape difference due to the nature of the part
material or how it was formed before the machining process. This puts a lot of burden on the part setup process,
and sometimes requires part holding with expensive and complex fixturing systems.
This can be eliminated by using an option called NCFIT to re-post the NC program to match the exact part
shape and location. A sheet metal or composite part that will need to have a trim or drill operation, can be first
scanned to create actual reverse engineered image of the part as it sits on the machine and re-post the original
NC program to match this position so that the tool to part surface relationship are maintained.

Figure 31: Reposting of an NC program

Application Examples:
BLISK-Airfoil and blade machining:
BLISK and airfoil manufacturing is one of the most challenging parts to machine. In some cases, repairing an
existing blade can be more feasible than producing a new one. In all these cases, metrology plays an important
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role. Having to remove the part from the machine to an external measurement device presents additional
challenges. Incorporating an on-machine scanning and adaptation in an automated process is the most
economical and precise method to produce or repair these parts:

• Part Setting: Quick scanning using an analog probe or a non-contact laser will determine the parts
exact position and shape. The scan data is automatically best fitted to the part model and a
correction work offset is created on the machine which allows quick start of the part machining
process.
• Part under cutting forces may have a deflection at the upper portions due to their geometric shape.
By scanning, these deflections are calculated, and a new NC program is re-posted to produce the
best final geometry.
• Final measurement reports and air foil parameters can be calculated and stored.

Figure 32: Blade deflection analysis

Gear manufacturing on Mill-Turn machine:

Parts with complex geometries and tight tolerance requirements are now being machined on milling-turning
machines. Gears are an example of these and may require to move from the main spindle to the sub spindle to
be able to machine features all around the part. Part setup, especially calculating their precise rotational offsets
can be challenging. Analog scanning can be used to quickly scan geometric features and profile to calculate
part coordinate which are uploaded to the controller as work offsets meeting the exact datum requirements.

Figure 33: Gear production and reporting

Large Aerospace structures:

Large parts have many challenges for a manufacturing engineer. In addition to being very difficult to set up to
start the machining process, it is impossible to move from the machine to an external measuring device for

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final inspections. This may require an additional measurement process to be brought to the machine tool which
stops the machining process causing long delays and usually very difficult to perform.
In one example, long parts are scanned at both sides to calculate their exact shapes on the machine. Without
requiring many hours of part setup and expensive holding apparatus, exact part image is used to adapt the
cutting program producing good parts without the risk of producing scrap. Final parts are scanned and cross
sectional parameters are extracted from the point clouds creating a final analysis reports.

Figure 34: Stringer production using dual machine process

In another example, for an aerospace shimming operation, parts are scanned on the machine adding a minimal
additional time while saving many hours of assembly time to the process as perfect parts that matches are
produced.

Hybrid machining:
Additive manufacturing is becoming a more and more important method of part production. Especially for
parts that are deformed, and it is easier to repair are good candidates to use hybrid machining which includes
both the 3D printing technology and subtractive machining in one system. On-machine scanning are used to
control both the additive process to detect when sufficient material is added and then in machining process to
inform the controller of how much stock is there to remove. This whole process can be automated by having
the metrology software to help produce perfect parts regardless of what the initial part conditions are.

Conclusions:
On-machine measurement is becoming a crucial component of state-of-the-art part production on machine
tools. Integrating sensors with the machine tool to produce fast, high-detailed data makes this process more
feasible. Metrology software like AAT3D’s CappsNC binds the entire process with automated closed-loop
feedback, enabling the cost-effective manufacture of highly complex and precision parts.
In conclusion, on-machine tool scanning is becoming an essential part of modern machining and the backbone
of the smart factory.

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PROZESS STABILITY EVALUATION USING A SENSOR INTEGRATED

TOOL HOLDER
Lukas KUEGERLa , Florian WURMa , Sixtus-Kajetan VOLPINI DI MAESTRI, Julian-Amon
GREITLERa , Friedrich BLEICHER a

a, … Vienna University of Technology, Mechanical Engineering, Institute of Production Engineering and Photonic
Technologies; kuegerl@ift.at, wurm@ift.at, volpini@ift.at, greitler@ift.at, bleicher@ift.at

Abstract
This paper investigates predicted and actual stability conditions in milling operations by the use of a sensor
integrated tool holder for the in-process monitoring and assessment. Impulse hammer tests, data of the sensor
equipped tool holder, and microphone data analysis were used to identify instability through spectrum analysis.
The experimental setup involved a DMG MORI DMU Monoblock 75 machine and an HSK-A63 ER32 tool
holder with an integrated accelerometer. Notably, a newly developed sensor-integrated tool holder with
reduced building room for the electronic integration (ICOtronic system) was employed, enabling real-time
monitoring and analysis of machining conditions. The analysis of microphone and the acceleration sensor data
reveals that stability conditions in machining can be determined by significant changes in the spectrum's
amplitudes at the system's natural frequencies and by a predefined figure of merit. This study demonstrates
that the use of sensor equipped tool holders allows for early detection of potential instabilities, facilitating
automated adjustments to in spindle speed and feed considering stability predication, thereby enhancing
stability and maintaining surface quality.

Keywords: end milling, sensor, stability, sensor integrated tooling systems, impact hammer test,
stability lobe diagram

Introduction
In recent years, the evolution of manufacturing technologies has increasingly relied on the integration of
advanced sensor systems to enhance quality and efficiency. The combination of sensor-integrated technologies
with traditional machine tools has opened new fields for optimizing machining processes, for real-time
monitoring, and in-process control. By actively adjusting process parameters, sensor signals can be used to
overcome process deviations and uncertainties, ensuring higher precision and consistency in production.
Sensor integrated systems also allow for in-process control, enabling machines to automatically adjust
operations in short latency to real-time events. As a result, sensor-equipped machine tools facilitate more
autonomous and flexible machining solutions, adapting to varying process conditions without human
intervention. Among these aspects, stability analysis and sensor-integrated tool holders have emerged as
significant contributions to smart manufacturing systems.

This paper aims to demonstrate the use of a newly developed sensor equipped tool holder with significantly
reduced building room for the electronic's integration, which allows for early detection of potential instabilities
facilitating automated adjustments of the override values in order to adapt spindle speed and feed. By
integrating sensors into tool holders, it becomes possible to monitor and dynamically mitigate instabilities
phenomena in machining in real-time application, enhancing productivity while maintaining surface quality.
The literature on this topic explores the significant impact of chatter in machining and the advancements in
sensory tool holders design. Chatter has been widely studied for its adverse impact on machining quality and
efficiency. Altintas et al. [1] present a review of the fundamental modelling of chatter and the avoidance of
chatter vibrations in machining application is also described. Furthermore, the process nonlinearities are
discussed that make the solution difficult to be solved in the frequency domain. Quintana et al. [2] provide a
comprehensive analysis of the chatter process in their literature review, examining various studies that
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investigate self-excited phenomenon. In a series of papers [3]-[8], Tlusty et al. present fundamental research
on the topic of chatter, examining it from various perspectives including stability lobe diagrams. Koenigsberger
and Tlusty [9] elucidated the fundamentals of chatter vibrations in machine tools by detailing the underlying
mechanism of chip thickness regeneration. They developed the basic stability theory for orthogonal cutting,
demonstrating that the chatter-free axial depth of cut is inversely proportional to the cutting coefficients and
the amplitude of the real part of the transfer function between the tool and the workpiece. Budak and Altintas
[10], [11] present an additional approach. The method formulates the dynamic milling system by modeling the
cutter and workpiece as multi-degree-of-freedom structures, accounting for dynamic interactions and varying
axial dynamics. Stability analysis of the resulting system yields an analytical expression for chatter stability
limits, enabling determination of chatter-free axial and radial depth of cuts without the need for time domain
simulations.

With stability lobe diagrams the chatter-free depth of cut can be determined and described, respectively. In
order to monitor process stability, various approaches have been employed [12], for example measurement of
process forces and temperature. The machine tool operator usually detects chatter from the characteristic sound
it generates. To characterize process characteristics, sensor integrated tool holders have been developed to
provide a closest-to-the-part detection of process conditions. In [13] - [18] a sensor equipped tool holder is
used to monitor milling processes. Moehring et al. [19] present experimental studies on the relationship
between tool wear and vibrations in milling, focusing on long and slender ball nose cutters used in die and
mold manufacturing. Their work also introduces a sensor-integrated milling tool that detects process vibrations
near the cutting zone, enabling predictive process control to avoid critical wear and vibration situations. In
[20], Zhou et al. discuss a wireless vibration sensing tool holder system designed to monitor cutting vibrations
and tool wear, demonstrating a tool condition monitoring approach with an accuracy of 86.1%. To monitor
tool wear, Xie et al. [21] also used a sensor integrated tool holder. By an adaptation of the continuous hidden
Markov model (CHMM) tool wear condition could be determined. In [22], a smart tool holder with on-tool
holder force sensing units and embedded self-compensating semiconductor strain gages has been developed,
demonstrating high sensitivity, flexibility, and the ability to accurately measure four-component milling forces
with less than 10% deviation compared to traditional dynamometers. As the literature survey reveals, there are
many ways to integrate sensors into tool holders. This paper investigates process stability using impulse
hammer tests employing a novel design of sensory tool holder with reduced building room of the electronics
assembly integration and derived stability lobe diagrams. In subsequent milling tests, the detection of stability
threshold was demonstrated by the use of a sensory tool holder's signals compared to microphone sound
measurements.

Impact hammer tests

Experimental setup
Impact hammer tests were conducted using the newly developed ICOtronic system. Figure 35 illustrates the
two configurations, showing the previous setup on the left and the new system on the right side. The substantial
reduction in the size of the new electronics assembly in the holder, based on a single-board design, is depicted.
This downsizing of the printed circuit board enables the integration of the electronics into shorter dimensions
of the resulting tool holder body length, which enhances the overall stiffness of the tooling system.
Furthermore, the difference in stiffness between the directions along the circuit board and perpendicular to it
has been notably minimized by the new configuration. As a result, the stiffness ratio of the transverse to the
longitudinal direction relative to the circuit board orientation is 0.90 in the new holder, compared to 0.78 in
the previous design. The single-board architecture also permits the simultaneous integration of both, a single-
axis 100g sensor and a tri-axis 40g sensor within the same assembly. This represents an improvement of system
packaging that was unattainable with the previous design. Additionally, this new design allows for the
incorporation of various other sensors, such as temperature sensors and phototransistors, thereby expanding

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the scope for advanced analysis methods with respect to rotation synchronization, e.g. between workpiece and
tooling system.

Figure 35 ICOtronic integration - previous and new design

The axis alignment of the acceleration sensors can be achieved with greater precision due to the single-board
construction. Moreover, the new holder supports operational speeds of up to 20,000 rpm, representing a
significant increase from the 12,000 rpm limit of the previous design. This version is crafted to be both, more
precise and suitable for an industrial application. Impulse hammer tests were conducted, with the experimental
setup shown in Figure 36. An HSK-A63 tool holder with the integrated electronics assembly was used. A
16 mm solid carbide end mill with four cutting edges and a helix angle of 30° was mounted in the tool holder
with a protrusion length of 50 mm. The tests were carried out on a DMG MORI DMU Monoblock 75 machine.

Figure 36 Test setup and impact hammer testing

A hammer with a steel tip equipped with a force sensor capable of recording 2000 N was used. The
accelerometer opposite to the hammer impact was a +/- 500g sensor. Impacts were made in both the X and Y
directions. Subsequently, stability lobe diagrams were calculated using the approach described in [10], [11].
Cutting parameters were selected as shown in Figure 37 with regard to the stability lobe diagram calculation.

Milling tests
The milling tests were performed on steel AISI 1045 (1.0503, Ck45). In this analysis, as feed per tooth 0.1 mm
was kept constant in all experiments. An unstable cut was identified by using microphone data, which was
analyzed through Fourier transformation and spectrum analysis. Furthermore, the data from the sensory tool
holder was also analyzed and a characteristic performance indicator was defined distinguishing between stable
or unstable process conditions. This particular parameter, annotated as IFT value, represents a coefficient
describing the dynamics in the machining operation derived from the integral of the acceleration signals over
a period of 50 ms reduced by the direct component. The microphone data captured the acoustic signals
generated during the cutting process. By transforming these signals into the frequency domain, the resulting
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spectrum was examined for dominant frequencies. The single cuts were classified via the achieved microphone
data and compared to the data of the sensory tool holder.

Figure 37 Stability lobe diagram and considered cutting parameters

The stability of the cuts was classified by the following criteria based on 𝐴𝐸𝐹 , representing the amplitude at a
dominating eigenfrequency, and 𝐴𝑓 , beeing the max. amplitude at the tooth passing frequency or multiples:
𝑧

• Stable cutting conditions: 𝐴𝐸𝐹 < 𝐴𝑓𝑧

• Semistable cutting conditions: 𝐴𝑓𝑧 < 𝐴𝐸𝐹 < 2 ∗ 𝐴𝑓𝑧
• Unstable cutting conditions: 𝐴𝐸𝐹 > 2 ∗ 𝐴𝑓𝑧

The results of the cutting tests, each cut has been repeated three times, are shown in Figure 37, where it
becomes evident that the calculated stability lobe diagram and the evaluated milling results show satisfactory
correlation and do align. The discrepancies are discussed in the following section 0.

Discussion of the results

The results of the milling tests, summarized in Figure 37 Stability lobe diagram and considered cutting
parameter, show some discrepancies which can be predominantly attributed to the cutting edge wear status (cf.
[23]). The cuts with parameters n = 4,000 rpm and ap = 4 mm, being the final cuts of the test, highlights the
significant role of tool wear in stabilizing the process. A worn cutting edge contributes to process stability by
tool – workpiece damping and helps avoid instability conditions. Additionally, the peak of the stability lobe
diagram is shifted slightly due to the effect of the mass of the accelerometer (3.88g) mounted on the milling
tool during impact hammer testing. Further analysis revealed the process conditions at the specific data points
consisting of stable, semi-stable, and unstable cuts. Exemplarily selected values are:
Stable cuts:
• 𝑛 = 4500 𝑟𝑝𝑚, 𝑎𝑝 = 2 𝑚𝑚, 𝑎𝑒 = 8 𝑚𝑚
• 𝑛 = 5600 𝑟𝑝𝑚, 𝑎𝑝 = 2 𝑚𝑚, 𝑎𝑒 = 8 𝑚𝑚

Semistable cut:
• 𝑛 = 5100 𝑟𝑝𝑚, 𝑎𝑝 = 2 𝑚𝑚, 𝑎𝑒 = 8 𝑚𝑚

Unstable cuts:
• 𝑛 = 5400 𝑟𝑝𝑚, 𝑎𝑝 = 2 𝑚𝑚, 𝑎𝑒 = 8 𝑚𝑚

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The microphone data analysis as depicted in Figure 38 reveals that a natural frequency of the system is excited
at approximately 5,000 Hz. For unstable cuts, it becomes evident that the amplitude at this eigenfrequency
significantly exceeds the amplitude of the tooth-passing frequencies (indicated by fz). This discrepancy was
used as the indicating characteristic of an unstable machining condition according the above-mentioned
criteria. The amplitude at the eigenfrequency was considerably higher compared to the force excitation
frequencies related to the cutting process.

Figure 38 Comparison microphone data for selected measurements

Furthermore, the amplitude spectrum for semi-stable and unstable cuts also show a noticeable increase in the
amplitude spectrum besides just the tooth-passing frequencies and the mentioned eigenfrequency. These
additional amplitude peaks are indicative of increased dynamic conditions. Such behavior is to be attributed to
the dynamic response of the machine and the excitation of other eigenmodes. The observed amplitude peaks
away from the primary frequencies suggest that the machine becomes more prone to vibrations when operating
under conditions of instability. This characteristic can be used in dynamic state analysis by applying AI
approaches. In the regard, the increased vibrational activity in semi-stable and unstable scenarios implies that
the machine's dynamic characteristics can be used for the definition of figures of merit to indicate the dynamic
process conditions by acceleration sensor data out of tool holder measurements. The following figure shows
the acceleration signals in the time domain and the derived IFT value.

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Figure 39 Comparison of acceleration sensor data and IFT value for selected measurements

As some cutting conditions turn the system towards less stability, the machine's natural frequencies interact
more prominently with the excitation forces, increasing the overall vibrational response. Thereby, the
acceleration signals measured by the sensory tool holder increase significantly under conditions of lower
stability. The figure shows the process indicator IFT value, distinguishing between the process conditions. The
characteristics observed by the microphone data are also reflected in the results from the tool holder system.
Correspondingly, the IFT value shows elevated levels for unstable cuts compared to stable ones. This trend is
consistent with the observed increase in amplitude at the eigenfrequency in the microphone data. For semi-
stable cuts, the IFT value is already noticeably higher, indicating that the acceleration measurement by the
sensory tool holder can detect the onset of potential instability before it fully develops. This early detection
capability is crucial for proactive adjustments to the machining parameters. By monitoring the dynamic process
conditions represented by the IFT value, it is possible to intervene in the machining process by automatically
operating rule engines (e.g. observing stationary or dynamic threshold levels) without direct operator
involvement. Due to the simple calculation, a closed loop control with low latency can be realized. However,
a real-time capable adjustment of feed rate and spindle speed in response to the detected changes in the
acceleration sensor signals in order to maintain surface quality and prevent undesirable vibrations can be
achieved by this approach [14]. Furthermore, such proactive and automated adjustments of machining
parameters can be deployed to consider tool wear conditions, ensuring that the tools are used to their upmost
performance.

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Conclusion
The presented comparative analysis of microphone data and sensory tool holder measurements underscores
the critical role of determining dynamic machining process conditions for active process control applications.
The results indicate that pronounced increases in amplitudes at the system's natural frequencies, which show
significantly higher amplitudes than the tooth-passing frequencies, can be used to calculate figures of merit in
order to characterized stable and unstable milling operations. The measurement of process conditions as close
as possible to tool and workpiece interaction complements this effect by providing an effective means for early
detection of changes in process stability. The increased values of the introduced indicator for process dynamics,
the IFT value, observe for stable and unstable cuts. The presented results confirm that the system can detect
the onset of vibrations before they fully develop. This capability allows for the automated in-process
adjustments of machining parameters, such as feed rate and spindle speed. By incorporating real-time data
from the sensory tool holder system into a closed control loop functionality, operators can optimize machining
conditions and ensure high-quality results while mitigating the detrimental effects of process instabilities. This
approach, able to enhance machining performance, can lead to more efficient manufacturing processes.

Acknowledgements
We would like to express our gratitude to Markus Kircher who conducted the experiments and calculations for
the stiffness of the tool holders as part of his master thesis.

References
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[12] A. Ulsoy, „Monitoring and Control of Machining“, 2006, S. 1–32. doi: 10.1007/1-84628-269-1_1.
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[14] F. Bleicher, P. Schörghofer, und C. Habersohn, „In-process control with a sensory tool holder to avoid
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[16] F. Bleicher, C. M. Ramsauer, R. Oswald, N. Leder, und P. Schoerghofer, „Method for determining
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2020, doi: 10.1016/j.cirp.2020.04.100.
[17] C. Ramsauer und F. Bleicher, „New method for determining single cutting edge breakage of a multi-
tooth milling tool based on acceleration measurements of an instrumented tool holder“, J. Mach. Eng.,
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[18] F. Bleicher, „Tooling systems with integrated sensors enabling data based process optimization“,
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condition monitoring with singularity analysis“, Measurement, Bd. 174, 2021, doi:
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[21] Z. Xie, J. Li, und Y. Lu, „An integrated wireless vibration sensing tool holder for milling tool condition
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[22] P. Zhang, D. Gao, Y. Lu, F. Wang, und Z. Liao, „A novel smart tool holder with embedded force
sensors for milling operations“, Mech. Syst. Signal Process., Bd. 175, 2022, doi:
10.1016/j.ymssp.2022.109130.
[23] Z. Wang, Y. Yang, Y. Liu, K. Liu, und Y. Wu, „Prediction of time-varying chatter stability: effect of
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GELİŞTİRİLEN ROBOTİK YÜZEY ZIMPARALAMA SİSTEMİ İLE BANT

ZIMPARA ÖMRÜ VE PROSES KALİTESİ

Bilal Yılmaza, A. Emre Çetinb, Bayram Uysalc, Emir Kavasd ve Suden Battale

a, Olgun Çelik, Manisa/Türkiye, bilal.yilmaz@olguncelik.com.tr

b, Olgun Çelik, Manisa/ Türkiye, emre.cetin@olguncelik.com.tr
c, Olgun Çelik, Manisa/ Türkiye, bayram.uysal@olguncelik.com.tr
d, Celal Bayar Üniversitesi, Mekatronik Mühendisliği, Manisa/ Türkiye, emirkavas45@gmail.com
e, Olgun Çelik, Manisa/ Türkiye, suden.battal@olguncelik.com.tr

Abstract
Belt grinding is an abrasive machining process used to remove material or achieve the desired surface quality
on metals and other materials. A belt coated with abrasive material is passed over the surface to accomplish
this.

Key factors affecting surface cleaning quality include the applied pressure, cutting force, linear speed of the
belt, robot feed rate, and sandpaper characteristics. Unlike standard industrial practices, this study employs a
robot to transport the belt grinding mechanism while the workpiece is fixed and can rotate to enable grinding
of its back side when needed. This setup allows for cleaning surfaces of products with varying shapes and
geometries.

The study began by determining ideal working parameters. Using these, surface processing tests were repeated
until the minimum material removal criteria were not met. The amount of material removed was measured
after each test, and force/torque sensor data were recorded to determine the belt sander's lifespan. The data
were analyzed to explore correlations between the belt's lifespan and the sensor data.

The force/torque sensor played a crucial role in ensuring precise control over the applied pressure, which is
critical for achieving high accuracy and repeatability in the surface cleaning process.

Keywords: Robotic metal surface cleaning, Grinding paper, Machine learning.

Özet
Bant zımpara ile yüzey temizleme, metaller ve diğer malzemeler üzerinde kullanılan bir aşındırıcı işleme
yöntemidir. Aşındırıcı malzemeyle kaplanmış bir bant, malzeme uzaklaştırmak veya istenilen yüzey kalitesini
elde etmek amacıyla işlenecek yüzey üzerinden geçirilir.

Yüzey temizleme işleminin kalitesini etkileyen en önemli parametreler, baskı ve kesme kuvveti, bant
zımparanın aşındırma yüzeyindeki doğrusal hızı, robotun ilerleme hızı ve zımpara kağıdının özellikleridir.

Bu çalışmada, endüstrideki genel çalışmaların aksine, geliştirilen sistemde parça yerine bant zımpara
mekanizması robot ile taşınmakta, parça ise robot önünde sabit olarak gerektiğinde parçanın arka tarafını da
zımparalamak için döner bir sistem ile konumlandırılmaktadır. Bu sayede farklı tipte ve geometrideki ürün
yüzeylerinin temizlenebildiği bir çözüm geliştirilmiştir.

İlk olarak ideal çalışma parametreleri tespit edilmiştir. Ardından bu parametreler kullanılarak, proses
isterlerinde belirtilen minimum talaş kaldırma miktarı karşılanamayana kadar yüzey işleme testi tekrarlanarak
veriler toplanmış, her test sonrası talaş kaldırma miktarı ölçülmüş ve kuvvet/tork sensörü verileri ile birlikte
kaydedilmiştir. Bu sayede bant zımparanın ömrü tespit edilmiştir. Ardından toplanan veriler incelenerek bant
zımpara ömrü ile kuvvet/tork sensörü verileri arasındaki bağıntılar analiz edilmiştir.

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T/K sensörü, yüzey temizleme işlemleri sırasında uygulanan baskı kuvvetinin hassas bir şekilde kontrol
edilmesini sağlamıştır. Baskı kuvveti, proses başarısı için en önemli parametrelerdendir. Bu sayede proseste
yüksek doğruluk ve tekrarlanabilirlik elde edilmiştir.

Anahtar kelimeler: Robotik metal yüzey temizleme, Zımpara kağıdı, Makine öğrenmesi.

Giriş
Bant zımpara ile yüzey temizleme işlemi, malzemenin yüzey kalitesi ve sertliğini iyileştirmek, aşınma
direncini artırmak, çatlak oluşturabilecek derinlikleri azaltmak ve kaplama, boyama veya yapıştırma gibi
sonraki işlemlerde daha iyi performans elde edilmesini sağlamak amacıyla yaygın olarak kullanılan
tekniklerden biridir. Kullanılan zımpara kağıtları, iş parçası yüzeyindeki talaşı kaldırdığı gibi, çapak, pas, boya
ve diğer istenmeyen maddeleri de etkin bir şekilde uzaklaştırarak temiz ve düzgün bir yüzey elde edilmesini
sağlar. Bu sayede estetik görünüm de iyileştirilir.

Kullanılan zımpara kağıdı, birim alandaki tanecik miktarına göre sınıflandırılır. Birim alandaki tanecik miktarı
arttıkça, zımpara daha ince, yani kum değeri yüksek olurken, miktar azaldıkça tanecikler büyür ve zımpara
kalın, yani kum değeri düşük olur. Büyük tanecikli zımparalar, yüksek aşındırma gerektiren işlemlerde
kullanılır. Baş ve diğerleri [1], EN 90MnCrV8 (1.2842) çeliğinin farklı yüzey işleme yöntemlerine göre
değişen yorulma ömrünü incelemiştir. Talaşlı imalat, EDM, kimyasal aşındırma ve kumlama yöntemleri
arasında karşılaştırmalar yapılarak, EDM ve kimyasal işlemin yorulma ömrünü azalttığı, kumlamanın ise ömrü
uzattığı belirlenmiştir. Bu bulgular, yüzey işlemlerinin malzeme performansındaki kritik rolünü vurgulamakta
ve mevcut literatürde önemli bir yer tutmaktadır. Sarılıgil [2] tarafından yapılan çalışmalar, zımparalama
işlemlerinde kum büyüklüğü ve süre seçiminin zımparalama miktarını üç kat artırabileceğini göstermektedir,
bu da yüzey temizleme işleminin etkinliğini önemli ölçüde artırmaktadır.

Çırak [3], dönel parçaların yüzey işlemesi üzerine yaptığı çalışmada, özel bir aparat kullanarak talaşlı imalat
gerçekleştirmiş ve işlenen yüzeylerin sertlik değerlerini Yapay Sinir Ağları (YSA) kullanarak analiz etmiştir.
Deneysel sonuçlar, bu yöntemlerin malzeme yüzeyindeki çatlak oluşum riskini azalttığını ve genel malzeme
performansını artırdığını göstermektedir. Bu çalışma, talaşlı imalat ve YSA'nın kombinasyonu ile yüzey
işlemleri üzerine literatürde yeni bir bakış açısı sunmaktadır.

Ermergen ve Taylan [4] tarafından eklemeli imalat yöntemleri ile yüzey kalitesinin artırılmasına yönelik
yapılan çalışmalar, bu sistemde kullanılan yüzey temizleme metodlarının önemini ve avantajlarını ortaya
koymaktadır.

Torres ve diğerleri [5] tarafından havacılık ve uzay endüstrisinde yapılan çalışmalarda, robotik bant taşlama
işleminin malzeme kaldırma sürecini otomatize eden bir modelleme yaklaşımı sunulmuş, bu da robotik yüzey
temizleme sistemlerinin etkinliğini artırmada önemli bir adım olarak değerlendirilmektedir.

Bu çalışmada, geliştirilen robotik bant zımpara ile yüzey temizleme sistemi tanıtılmaktadır (Bölüm 2).
Endüstrideki genel çalışmaların aksine, geliştirilen sistemde parça yerine bant zımpara mekanizması robot ile
taşınmakta, parça ise robot önünde sabit olarak konumlandırılmaktadır.

Sistemde Fanuc R2000iC-270F robotu kullanılmış ve robotik yüzey işleme prosesi kuvvet kontrolü ile
yapılmıştır. Sistemde Fanuc FS250-iA tork/kuvvet (T/K) sensörü kullanılarak, robotun 6. eksen flanşı ile
sensör arasında kuvvet ölçümü sağlanmış, bu sayede yörünge boyunca malzemeye uygulanan kuvvetin hassas
bir şekilde kontrolü gerçekleştirilmiştir.

Li ve diğerleri [6] tarafından geliştirilen ve robotik taşlama sürecinde malzeme çıkarma oranını tahmin eden
model, zımpara kağıdının etkin kullanımını artırmak amacıyla temas kuvveti ve iş parçası eğriliği gibi
faktörleri dikkate alarak önemli bir yaklaşım sunmaktadır. Lu ve diğerleri [7] tarafından geliştirilen çevrimiçi
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izleme yöntemleri, robotik taşlama işlemlerinin kalitesinin etkin bir şekilde izlenmesini sağlayan yöntemler
sunmaktadır. Ayrıca, Chen ve diğerleri [8] tarafından yapılan çalışmalar, uçak motoru kanatlarının
taşlanmasında yüzey pürüzlülüğü ve malzeme kaldırma derinliği üzerindeki etkilerin incelendiği, robotik
aşındırıcı bant kullanılarak taşlama kalitesinin artırılabileceğini göstermektedir.

Geliştirilen sistemde ilk olarak ideal çalışma parametreleri belirlenmiştir (Bölüm 3.1). Yüzey temizleme
işleminin kalitesini etkileyen en önemli parametreler, baskı ve kesme kuvveti, bant zımparanın aşındırma
yüzeyindeki doğrusal hızı, robotun ilerleme hızı ve zımpara kağıdının özellikleridir. Bu değerleri belirlemek
üzere planlanan testler yapılmış ve elde edilen sonuçlar nitel ve nicel olarak incelenerek en ideal parametreler
saptanmıştır. Ardından, bu parametreler kullanılarak proses isterlerinde belirtilen minimum talaş kaldırma
miktarı elde edilemeyene kadar yüzey işleme tekrarlanarak kuvvet sensörü verileri toplanmış ve her test sonrası
talaş kaldırma miktarı ölçülmüştür. Bu sayede bant zımparanın ömrü tespit edilmiştir (Bölüm 3.2). Toplanan
veriler incelenerek bant zımpara ömrü ile azalan talaş kaldırma miktarının toplanan veriler arasındaki
korelasyonu nasıl etkilediği analiz edilmiştir. Bu çalışmada elde edilen sonuçlar, bant zımparanın ömrünü
makine öğrenmesi algoritması ile tespit etmek üzere kullanılacaktır.

Robotik Yüzey Zımparalama

Robotik yüzey temizleme sistemi için Fanuc R2000iC-270F robotu ve FS250-iA Fanuc T/K sensörü
kullanılmıştır (Şekil 1). Fanuc R2000iC-270F 6 eksenli 270kg taşıma kapasiteli ve 2655 mm erişime sahip
endüstriyel bir robottur. Fanuc T/K sensörü (FS250-iA) ise nominal 2500 N ölçüm kapasiteli 4.9 N
çözünürlüklü ve hassasiyeti nominal yükün %2'si (50 N) olan bir tork/kuvvet sensörüdür.
Robot eli ve serbest cisim diagramı Şekil 1'de görülmektedir. Kuvvet sensörünün daha düzgün ve gürültüsüz
sinyal ölçebilmesi için robot eline ayarlanabilir karşı ağırlık ile düşey baskı yönünde serbestlik eklenmiştir. Bu
mekanizma, T/K sensörünün çok daha etkin ve düşük titreşimli kuvvetlere maruz kalmasını sağlamıştır.
Robotun elinde tamburu 4500 d/d'ye kadar döndürebilecek servo motor mevcuttur. Bu sayede bant zımparanın
malzeme yüzeyindeki doğrusal hızı ayarlanabilmektedir. Diagramda görüldüğü gibi, kesme yönü 𝐹𝑥 , baskı
kuvveti yönü 𝐹𝑦 ve yanal kuvvet yönü 𝐹𝑧 koordinatı ile temsil edilmektedir. Robot konfigürasyonunda doğru
bir kuvvet kontrolü için T/K sensör ve takım koordinatlarının aynı yönde olması gerekmektedir. İş parçasından
yüzey kaldıracak olan zımpara bandının dönüş yönünün ilerleme yönüne ters olacak şekilde ayarlanması
gerekmektedir. Çünkü iş parçasından çıkacak olan çapaklar robot yörüngesi üzerinde kalırsa zımpara ömrüne
negatif etkisinin yanında iş parçasının yüzeyinin düzgün temizlenmemesine neden olacaktır.

Şekil 1: Robotik Yüzey Zımparalama Sistemi ve Robot Eli Serbest Cisim Diagramı

Robot T/K sensörü ile birlikte yapılandırıldığında kontrol modlarından biri de kuvvet kontrolüdür. Kuvvet
kontrol modu ile hassas montaj, vidalama, yüzey temizleme, vb. prosesler gerçekleştirilebilir. Bu mod ile robot
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istenen kuvvet değerlerini yörünge boyunca yörüngeye dik belirlenebilen bir yönde hassas bir şekilde sabit
tutarak çalışabilir. Sensörün örnekleme süresi minimum 4 ms (250 Hz) desteklenmektedir. Ayrıca, kapalı
çevrim kuvvet kontrol kazanç değeri de titreşime sebep olmayacak şekilde dikkatlice ayarlanması gereken
parametrelerden biridir.
Şekil 1’de görüldüğü üzere iş parçasını robot önünde konumlamak için yere paralel eksende dönebilen bir
mekanizma tasarlanarak üretilmiştir. Bu sayede ürünün her iki tarafının da temizlenmesi mümkün olmuştur.
Robot, parça yörüngesini hazırlanan programlar ve T/K sensörü yardımı ile otomatik bir şekilde öğrenir.
Öğrenilen yörünge, kaydedilen programları T/K sensörü yardımı ile kullanarak yüzey temizleme işlemi
gerçekleştirilir.Bu teknolojik entegrasyon, endüstriyel yüzey işleme süreçlerinde verimliliği ve kaliteyi
artırmada önemli bir rol oynamaktadır. Uygulanan kuvvet, T/K sensörü aracılığıyla sürekli olarak izlenmiş ve
gerektiğinde robot hızı, zımpara kağıdının dönme hızı veya T/K sensörü ayarlamaları daha önceden oluşturulan
reçete değerleri ile yapılmıştır. Her bir yüzey temizleme işlemi, belirli bir süre boyunca sabit hızda
uygulanmıştır.
Şekil 2'de örnek bir yörünge gösterilmektedir. Sistemin tasarlanma aşamasında Roboguide simülasyon
programında gereksinimler belirlenmiş, erişim kontrolleri ve kapasite analizleri yapılmıştır. Ayrıca, bu
simülasyonlar yardımı ile parça tutucunun nihai konumu belirlenmiştir.

Şekil 2: Örnek robot yörüngesi

Deneysel Çalışmalar
İdeal proses parametrelerini tespiti
Proses parametrelerini en doğru şekilde tespit edebilmek üzere, birçok test yapılmış, ve bunların bazıları Tablo
1’'de listelenmiştir. Bu testlerle, kuvvet, robot hızı ve bant zımpara doğrusal hızı için en uygun değerler analiz
edilmiştir. T/K sensöründen en hassas sonuçları alabilmek için gerekli kalibrasyonlar yapılmıştır. Her bir yüzey
temizleme işlemi sırasında ve sonrasında, yüzey kalitesi görsel olarak incelenmiş, T/K sensöründen alınan tüm
veriler, zımpara kağıdı doğrusal kesme hızı, robot konumu ve robot doğrusal hızı kaydedilmiştir.

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Test Tahrik Motor Bant zımpara Robot ilerleme hızı Baskı kuvveti (N)
devri (d/d) doğrusal hızı (m/s) (mm/s)
1 1500 23.55 250 150
2 1500 23.55 300 150
3 1500 23.55 250 100
4 1500 23.55 300 100
5 1500 23.55 250 50
6 1500 23.55 300 50
7 2000 31.4 250 150
8 2000 31.4 300 150
9 2000 31.4 250 100
10 2000 31.4 300 100
11 2000 31.4 250 50
12 2000 31.4 300 50
13 3000 47.1 250 150
14 3000 47.1 300 150
15 3000 47.1 250 100
16 3000 47.1 300 100
17 3000 47.1 250 50
*18 3000 47.1 300 50

Tablo 1: Proses parametreleri

Deneme yanılma yöntemi ile yapılan bu çalışmada tahrik motor devri 500 d/d'dan başlayarak aşamalı bir
şekilde artırılarak bant zımpara hızı, yüzeye uygulanan baskı kuvveti ve robot hızı, elde edilen veriler
doğrultusunda optimize edilerek en uygun parametreler Tablo 1 Satır 18 deki gibi tespit edilmiştir.
T/K sensörü ile 4 ms (250 Hz) örnekleme ile alınan kuvvet ve moment değerlerinin Fourier dönüşümü ile
genlik spektrumları Şekil 3'de görülmektedir. İdeal bant zımpara doğrusal hızını elde etmek için gerekli servo
motor hızı 3000 d/d, tambur çapı ise 300 mm'dir. Bu devirde, tamburun dönme eksenindeki kütlesel
dengesizliğinin oluşturduğu periyodik kuvvetin frekansı 50 Hz'dir. Bu sebeple, 50 Hz frekansta kütlesel
dengesizlikten kaynaklı gürültü beklenen bir sonuçtur.

Şekil 3: Kuvvet ve momentlerin FFT genlik spektrumları

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Bu nedenle, ölçülen değerler 40 Hz alçak geçiren filtre ile filtrelenerek gösterilmiştir (Şekil 4).
Yüzey işleme prosesi başlangıcında sensör aktif edilmekte ve robot, baskı yönünde T/K sensörü ile iş parçasını
arayarak bulmaktadır (Şekil 2 P3 noktası). Ardından yüzey işleme prosesi başlamaktadır. Robot proses
sonunda yüzeyden ayrılırken (Şekil 2 P9) kuvvet kontrolü sonlandırıldığı için ölçülen kuvvet/tork değerlerinde
salınımlar gözlemlenmektedir. Bu durum, grafiklerin okunmasını zorlaştırdığı için son 250 ms'lik kısım
dikkate alınmamıştır. Şekil 4'te yüzey temizleme işlemi esnasında ölçülen ve eksenlerinde oluşan kuvvet ve
momentler görülmektedir.

Şekil 4: Kuvvet ve moment grafikleri

Ölçülen değerlerin korelasyon matrisi Tablo 2'de verilmiştir. ile 'in korelasyon değeri 0.993 olduğu için
birbirlerine çok bağımlı sinyallerdir. Baskı kuvveti kontrol edilen değişkendir; bu yüzden diğer sinyallerle
korelasyonuna bakmak anlamlı değildir. Son olarak, kesme kuvveti ile ters yönde -0.866 değeri ile koreledir.

𝐹𝑥 𝐹𝑦 𝐹𝑧 𝑀𝑥 𝑀𝑦 𝑀𝑧
𝐹𝑥 1 0.283 -0.084 -0.068 -0.285 -0.866
𝐹𝑦 0.283 1 0.073 0.067 -0.68 -0.504
𝐹𝑧 -0.084 0.073 1 0.993 0.105 0.046
𝑀𝑥 -0.068 0.067 0.993 1 0.108 0.063
𝑀𝑦 -0.285 -0.68 0.105 0.108 1 0.584
𝑀𝑧 -0.866 -0.504 0.046 0.063 0.584 1

Tablo 2: Korelasyon matrisi

Şekil 5'te, peşi sıra yapılan testlerde elde edilen kesme kuvveti ve baskı kuvveti üst üste çizdirilmiştir. Bu
grafikler, sistemin tekrarlanabilir olduğunu göstermektedir.

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Şekil 5: Tekrar edilebilirlik

Bant zımpara ömrünün tespiti

Bant zımpara ömrünü ve kalitesini tespit etmek üzere bir tip malzeme seçilmiştir. Seçilen malzeme sertliği 467
HB ile 520 HB arasında değişmektedir.
Yüzey zımparalama işlemlerinde yüzeyden kaldırılan maksimum talaş miktarı proses ve elde edilen yüzey
kalitesi için çok önemlidir. T/K sensorü ile baskı kuvveti kontrol altına alınarak aynı zamanda yüzeyden
kaldırılan talaş miktarı da kontrol altına alınmış olmaktadır. Proses isteri maksimum 250 µ𝑚 olarak
belirlenmiştir. Yapılan her yüzey temizleme işleminden sonra iş parçasının kalınlığındaki değişim ölçülerek
zımpara ömrü gözlemlenmiştir. Şekil 6'da görüldüğü üzere, parça kalınlığındaki azalma sıfır zımpara bandı
kullanılarak ilk testlerde 60 µ𝑚 değerlerinde iken, zımpara kağıdı kullanıldıkça bu değer son testlerde 20 µ𝑚
'lara kadar düşmüştür. 530 test sonucunda zımpara kağıdının kaldırdığı yüzey miktarı proses isterleri olan 20
µ𝑚'nin altında kaldığı için zımpara kağıdının ömrünü tamamladığı kabul edilmiştir.

Şekil 6: Zımpara ömrü

Deneyler sırasında toplanan veriler, yüzey temizleme işleminin etkinliğini değerlendirmek amacıyla analiz
edilmiştir. Temizlenen yüzeylerin pürüzlülük ölçümleri, kaldırılan yüzey miktarı, görsel incelemeler ve T/K
sensörü verileri incelenmiştir. Bant zımpara ömrü ile azalan talaş kaldırma miktarının kuvvet ve moment
değerlerine etkisi analiz edilmiştir. Yapılan 530 test içinden, 1., 265. ve 530. testlerin kesme kuvveti (𝐹𝑥 ) ve
baskı kuvveti (𝐹𝑦 ) sonuçları Şekil 7’de gösterilmiştir. Bant ömrü azaldıkça kuvvetlerdeki değişim net bir
şekilde görülmektedir. Bu sonuçlar bant zımpara ömrünün makine öğrenmesi algoritması ile tespit
edilebileceğini göstermektedir. Ayrıca, robot ve T/K sensörünün yüzey temizleme işlemlerinde yüksek
doğruluk ve tekrarlanabilirlik sağladığı görülmüştür. Elde edilen bulgular, yüzey temizleme işlemlerinin
optimizasyonu için değerli bilgiler sunarken, zımpara bantlarının ömürlerinin anlaşılmasında faydalı olmuştur.

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Şekil 7: Bant ömrünün kesme ve baskı kuvvetine etkisi

Sonuçlar
Çalışmada T/K sensörü kullanılarak endüstriyel bir robotik yüzey temizleme sistemi geliştirilmiştir.
Endüstrideki çalışmalarda robot parçayı taşırken, bant zımpara mekanizması robot önünde sabit durmaktadır.
Bu çalışmada ise bunun aksine, bant zımpara mekanizması robot ile taşınmakta, parça ise robot önünde sabit,
gerektiğinde parçanın arka tarafını da zımparalamak için döner bir sistem ile konumlandırılmıştır. Bu sayede
farklı tipte ve geometrideki ürün yüzeylerinin temizlenebildiği esnek bir çözüm geliştirilmiştir.
T/K sensörü, yüzey temizleme işlemi esnasında parçaya uygulanan baskı kuvvetinin hassas bir şekilde kontrol
edilmesini sağlamıştır. Baskı kuvveti, proses başarısı için en önemli parametrelerdendir. Bu sayede proseste
yüksek doğruluk ve tekrarlanabilirlik elde edilmiştir. Ayrıca yüzey zımparalama işlemlerinde yüzeyden
kaldırılan maksimum talaş miktarı proses ve elde edilen yüzey kalitesi için çok önemlidir. T/K sensörü ile
baskı kuvveti kontrol altına alınarak aynı zamanda yüzeyden kaldırılan talaş miktarı da kontrol altına alınmıştır.
Kullanılan zımpara bandı ömrünü tamamlayarak istenen miktarda yüzey kaldırmayana kadar testler tekrar
edilmiş ve bu esnada, baskı kuvvetine ek, kesme kuvveti, yanal kuvvet ve bütün momentler kayıt altına
alınmıştır. Bant ömrü ile oluşan kesme, baskı, yanal kuvvetler ve momentler arasındaki korelasyon tam
anlamıyla analiz edilmemiş olsa da ilk izlenimler bant ömrünün azalması ile bu değerlerde değişimin oluştuğu
yönündedir. Bu durum elde edilen verinin zımpara bandının ömrünü makine öğrenmesi algoritması ile tespit
etmek üzere kullanılabileceğini göstermektedir. Yapılan ön çalışmalarda bir makine öğrenme algoritması
geliştirilmiş ve başarılı sonuçlar gözlemlenmiştir. Çalışmanın bir sonraki aşaması bu konuda olacaktır.

Kaynaklar
[1] Baş, M., Ertan, R., Yavuz, N., 2011. “Yüzey işleme yöntemlerinin soğuk iş takım çeliğinin yorulma
davranışına etkisinin incelenmesi”, Uludağ Üniversitesi Mühendislik Fakültesi Dergisi, cilt 16, sayı 1.

[2] Sarılıgil, M., 2023. “Makine öğrenmesi ile kısıtlara dayalı zımpara seçimi”, yüksek lisans tezi, Balıkesir
Üniversitesi Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü.

[3] Çırak, B., 2017. “Yüzey İşleme Sürecinde Yüzey Sertliğinin İncelenmesi ve Yapay Sinir Ağları ile
Yorumlanması”, Kilis 7 Aralık Üniversitesi Fen ve Mühendislik Dergisi, cilt 1, sayı 2, s. 34-49.

[4] Ermergen, T., Taylan, F., 2020. “Eklemeli İmalat ile İmal Edilmiş Metal Parçaların Yüzey Bitirme
İşlemleri”, Uluslararası Teknolojik Bilimler Dergisi, cilt 12, sayı 1, s. 45-55.

[5] Torres, R., Mata, S., Iriarte, X., Barrenetxea, D. 2023. “Robotic Belt Finishing with Process Control for
Accurate Surfaces”, Journal of Manufacturing and Materials Processing, cilt 7, sayı 4, s. 124.

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[6] Li, D., Yang, J., Zhao, H., Ding, H. 2022. “Contact force plan and control of robotic grinding towards
ensuring contour accuracy of curved surfaces”, International Journal of Mechanical Sciences, cilt 227, s.
107449.

[7] Lu, H., Zhao, X., Tao, B., Yin, Z., 2020. “Online process monitoring based on vibration-surface quality
map for robotic grinding”, IEEE/ASME Transactions on Mechatronics, cilt 25, s. 2882-2892.

[8] Chen, G., Yang, J., Yao, K., Xiang, H., Liu, H. 2023. “Robotic abrasive belt grinding with consistent quality
under normal force variations”, The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, cilt 125,
sayı 7, s. 3539-3549.

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EVALUATING THE IMPACT OF ULTRASONIC WAVES ON CORROSION

RATE AND SURFACE TEXTURE IN CHEMICAL MILLING OF AL 2024-T4
Shamim Mohammadi1, Amir Rasti1*
1
Advanced technologies of machine tools (ATMT) Laboratory, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Tarbiat
Modares University, Tehran, Iran.

*Corresponding author:

Amir Rasti, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.

P.O.B. 14115-143

ORCID: 0000-0002-0138-6764

Email: a.rasti@modares.ac.ir

Abstract

This study investigates the influence of ultrasonic vibration in chemical machining is aspect of material
removal rate (MRR) and surface texture in aluminum specimens when etched with varying
concentrations of hydrochloric acid (HCl). The research demonstrates that combining 24 kHz ultrasonic
waves with a 10% HCl solution significantly enhances MRR, achieving a 324% increase compared to
traditional methods, and reduces the need of high concentration acid, promoting more environmentally
friendly practices. However, as the concentration of HCl increases, the effectiveness of ultrasonic
assistance diminishes, with the benefits dropping notably at 20% HCl. The surface texture analysis
revealed that higher ultrasonic frequencies generally improved surface uniformity, but higher acid
concentrations led to poorer surface quality, with aggressive etching causing deep cavities and uneven
textures. The findings suggest that while ultrasonic assistance is highly effective at lower acid
concentrations due to cavitation effects, its advantages decrease at higher concentrations, emphasizing
the need for careful optimization of both parameters to achieve optimal machining outcomes.

Keywords: ultrasonic, chemical milling, surface integrity

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EXPERIMENTAL AND FINITE ELEMENT SIMULATION STUDIES OF

CHIP FORMATION IN ORTHOGONAL CUTTING LEAD-FREE BRASS
Emre Tascioglua, Yusuf Kaynakb,a , Yusuf Karabulutc and Ozhan Kitayd

a, Torun Metal A.Ş., R&D Center, Kocaeli/TÜRKİYE, emre.tascioglu@torunmetal.com

b, Marmara University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul/TÜRKİYE, yusuf.kaynak@marmara.edu.tr
c, Gazi University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ankara/TÜRKİYE, yusufkarabulut@gazi.edu.tr
d, Bilecik Seyh Edebali University, Department of Machine and Metal Technologies, Bilecik/TÜRKİYE,
ozhan.kitay@bilecik.edu.tr

Abstract
Components made of lead-free brass alloy have been widely used in various industries. Chip formation process
of this relatively new alloy needs to be better understood to resolve the problems observed during cutting
process of this alloys. Wide range of cutting speeds was taken into account in orthogonal cutting process to
observe chip formation of this alloy. Johnson-Cook model was implemented to simulate orthogonal cutting
process. Cutting forces, cutting temperature, and chip thickness under various cutting speeds uncut chip
thicknesses were predicted and compared with orthogonal cutting data. Predicted outputs show acceptable
agreement with experimentally measured data.

Keywords: Lead-free brass alloy, Finite element modeling, Orthogonal cutting.

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INVESTIGATION AND PREDICTION OF SURFACE INTEGRITY

INDUCED BY MILLING OF HOT FORGED AND HEAT TREATED AA7075
Gorkem Toka, Ammar Tarık Dincerb, Ali Taner Kuzuc , Mustafa Bakkald,
a
Istanbul Technical University, Mechanical Engineering Faculty, 34437, Istanbul, Turkey, tokg15@itu.edu.tr
b
Istanbul Technical University, Mechanical Engineering Faculty, 34437, Istanbul, Turkey, ammar.dincer@itu.edu.tr
c
Isik University, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Istanbul, Turkey, alitaner.kuzu@isikun.edu.tr
d
Istanbul Technical University, Mechanical Engineering Faculty, 34437, Istanbul, Turkey, bakkalmu@itu.edu.tr

Abstract

This study examines the influence of cutting parameters on surface integrity, focusing on residual stress and
surface roughness, in hot-forged and T6 heat-treated AA7075 components post-milling. Using the Taguchi L9
DOE method, orthogonal cutting milling experiments were performed, with residual stress measured via non-
destructive X-ray diffraction (XRD). The analysis indicated that lower cutting speeds reduce residual stress,
with down milling causing compressive and up milling causing tensile stresses. A proposed model showed a
significant correlation between cutting force and residual stress—higher cutting forces increased residual
stress. Surface roughness assessment revealed that feed rate greatly impacts residual stress, with lower feed
rates reducing roughness. These insights will aid in developing a regression model for predicting outcomes in
future experiments, enhancing the understanding and control of surface integrity in milling AA7075
components.

Keywords: Residual stress, Machining, Regression

1. Introduction
Surface integrity is crucial for defining a workpiece's operational capabilities, with residual stress being a
significant influencing factor. Residual stresses affect properties such as fatigue life, corrosion resistance, and
dimensional stability. Thus, comprehending machining and overall part quality necessitates an understanding
of the residual stress induced during machining [1]. These stresses can be beneficial, like compressive residual
stresses enhancing fatigue life and resistance to stress corrosion cracking, or detrimental, like tensile residual
stresses reducing these properties and causing premature failure. Understanding residual stresses generated by
machining processes is essential for optimizing machining parameters and improving part quality. Studies have
highlighted the importance of optimizing cutting parameters to control residual stress profiles. Residual
stresses induced by processes like turning and milling significantly influence the mechanical properties and
performance of machined components, making their accurate prediction and control vital for high-performance
applications. The presence of residual stresses can either enhance or detrimentally affect the functional
behaviour of machined components. Depending on the process parameters used, the residual stresses left over
from the machining process may be compressive or tensile [2]. Researchers have conducted extensive
numerical analyses and experimental investigations to elucidate the correlation between residual stresses and
cutting parameters in machining operations such as milling, turning, and hole drilling [3-4].
Yi et al. [5] investigated the influence of various milling parameters on residual stress in 7075-T7451
aluminum alloy. The study utilized orthogonal experiments to assess the effects of milling speed, feed per
tooth, milling width, and cutting depth on the residual stress distribution. The most influential cutting
parameter found was the feed per tooth (fz), which significantly affected the residual stress in both the feed
direction and the vertical direction of feed during milling. Surface integrity studies on 7075 aluminium alloy
after high-speed end milling, such as those conducted by Cai et al.[6], revealed that higher cutting speeds
improve surface quality but also increase residual tensile stresses. Their work employed surface roughness
measurements and X-ray diffraction to analyze the stress patterns, emphasizing the trade-off between surface
finish and residual stress management.
With the advancement of technology, achieving quick results in fields such as automotive and aerospace
industries, ideally at the lowest possible cost, provides significant advantages. For the numerical evaluation of
residual stress, a challenging phenomenon to measure and predict, many methods have been developed,
including destructive and non-destructive techniques.[7] A common aspect of both destructive and non-

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destructive residual stress measurement methods is the necessity of specific sample preparation and setup
times, which are generally high-cost processes. Due to the high production costs in industrial applications,
non-destructive methods like XRD are more popular [8,9,10]. Therefore, predicting residual stress without the
need for these methods is highly important. Finite Element Method (FEM) applications require substantial
academic background and the licenses for FEM software are very expensive, making numerical calculations
like regression the most suitable methods for industrial applications. Utilization of machine learning algorithms
such as Support Vector Machines (SVM) in regression problems is one of the most popular numerical methods.
Residual stresses induced by machining processes significantly impact the mechanical properties and
performance of components. Support Vector Regression (SVR) has been extensively utilized for predicting
these stresses, offering valuable insights for optimizing machining parameters. Hashemitaheri et al.[11]
developed SVR models to predict maximum tool temperature and specific cutting force using a dataset of 196
samples, achieving high accuracy with mean squared error (MSE) values of 0.0015 and 0.0012 for training
and testing data, respectively. Wang et al. [12] applied least squares support vector machines (LS-SVM) to
predict surface roughness in the precision turning of lenses. They used chaotic particle swarm optimization
and leave-one-out cross-validation on a dataset comprising turning parameters and 10 validation experiments.
This method yielded an R² of 0.99887 and a mean absolute percent error (eM) of 8.96%. Additionally,
Buyrukoğlu and Kesriklioğlu [13] employed SVR models to predict residual stresses in the turning of Inconel
718 and Ti6Al4V alloys, with sample sizes of 97 and 91, respectively. These models provided reliable
predictions, highlighting the need for optimizing hyperparameters to achieve high accuracy. Collectively, these
studies underscore the effectiveness and versatility of SVR in various machining and predictive applications,
ensuring precise control over machining outcomes and enhancing overall process efficiency.
Previous studies in the literature have primarily focused on workpieces with simple geometric shapes that are
not suitable for industrial conditions and do not include both hot forging and heat treatment. Additionally,
predicting residual stress often involved conducting a large number of experiments to enable machine learning,
which is not feasible in terms of cost and time for industrial conditions. Therefore, in this study, unlike the
literature, a product from the automotive industry with a complex geometry, which has undergone hot forging
and aging heat treatment, is used as the workpiece. Moreover, differing from the literature, the Taguchi L9
experimental design and Support Vector Regression method are employed to predict the residual stresses that
may occur with different cutting parameters using a minimal number of experiments.
The main aim of this research is to examine how cutting parameters affect surface integrity, including residual
stress and surface roughness, in hot-forged and T6 heat-treated AA7075 components after milling processes.
The findings, such as cutting force, residual stress, and surface roughness, were utilized to develop a regression
model for predicting future experiments. To understand the influence of cutting parameters, the non-
destructive technique of X-ray diffraction was chosen to measure residual stress due to its efficacy in analyzing
the impacts of cutting parameters on CNC milling experiments.

2. Materials and Methods

The material employed for the workpieces in this investigation was AA7075-T6, forged at the Birinci Otomotiv
hot forging plant and its chemical and mechanical parameters are shown in Tables 1 and 2, respectively. Every
sample was hot forged and T6 heat treated to provide similar cooling conditions, microstructure, and
mechanical characteristics. The mechanical characteristics and chemical composition were determined by
experiments.

Element Si Fe Cu Mn Zn Cr Ti Al
Content % 0.140 0.241 1.54 0.106 4.86 0.190 0.031 90.5
Table 1 Chemical compositions of the AA7075-T6 material

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Ultimate Yield Elongation Young Hardness Thermal Specific

Tensile Strength (%) Modulus (HBW) conductivity, heat
Strength (MPa) (GPa) W/(m K) capacity,
(MPa) J/(kg K)
540 476 11 71.7 170 130 0.960
Table 2 Physical and mechanical properties of the AA7075-T6 material

2.1 Experimental Methods

The machining experiments were conducted using vertical CNC machining center, specifically the Spinner
VC-650 model, with a maximum spindle speed of 8000 rpm. The machining center, with a power rating of
16.5 kW, features an SK40 taper where a milling cutter was mounted. The experimental setup is illustrated in
Figure 1. The work piece is secured to a fixture (as illustrated in Fig. 1 (b)) that is placed on top of a Kistler
dynamometer (Type 9272) for measuring cutting forces. The selected face milling cutter for this study had a
diameter (D) of 63 mm, with the specification İSCUR HM90 FAL-D063-27-16. The cutter was equipped with
3 evenly distributed carbide inserts, each having the specification HM90 APCR 160508R-P, only the face of
the shaft was machined as shown in figure 3.

Figure 1: Schematic illustration of cutting force measurement experimental setup

A schematic representation of the center-face milling process is shown in Fig. 2. Here, f is the feed rate
(mm/rev) and is calculated according to Eq 1, where 𝑓𝑡 is the feed per tooth (mm/tooth) and z is the number of
teeth of the tool, in our experiments the tool has 3 teeth (inserts) as mentioned before. n is the spindle speed
and is used to calculate the cutting speed according to Eq 2.

𝑓 = 𝑓𝑡 . 𝑧 (1)

𝑉𝑐 = 𝜋. 𝐷. 𝑛 (2)

The Taguchi method, employed as a design of experiments technique, aims to model, and analyse the influence
of various parameters on the surface roughness and surface residual stresses of machined components. By
utilizing orthogonal arrays design, this approach effectively reduces the number of experiments required by
distributing variables in a balanced manner. Consequently, the necessary number of experiments is
significantly decreased. In this study, the experiment was designed using the Taguchi L9 method, considering
three factors: cutting speed, feed, and depth of cut, each investigated at three distinct levels, as shown in Table
3. It is known that in industrial applications, high feed rates and high depths of cut are used to reduce machining
time, and the cutting parameters in this study closely align with those used by Birinci Otomotiv A.Ş, a company
that carries out industrial applications in the automotive industry. All cutting tests in this research were

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conducted under dry conditions. The milling of aluminium alloy workpieces took place in the environment
depicted in Fig. 1. The milling process consisted of a single pass for each specimen, with a new insert used in
each experiment. To observe the effect of milling direction, all experiments were conducted using up milling,
except for experiment No. 1, which was performed using down milling.

Experiment Cutting Feed per Depth of

# Speed tooth Cut (mm)
(m/min) (mm/tooth)
1 150 0.1 0.5
2 150 0.2 1
3 150 0.3 1.5
4 250 0.1 1
5 250 0.2 1.5
6 250 0.3 0.5
7 350 0.1 1.5
8 350 0.2 0.5
9 350 0.3 1
Table 3 Milling Parameter Set

Figure 2: Schematic representation of the center-face milling

2.2 Residual Stress and Roughness Measurements

Residual stresses in the machined components were measured using the X-ray diffraction technique, a well-
established non-destructive method that provides detailed information about the stress state within crystalline
materials. XRD measures the spacing of crystal planes, which changes under the influence of residual stresses.
The diffraction pattern obtained is used to calculate the strains and, subsequently, the stresses within the
material. XRD is particularly suitable for measuring residual stresses because it can precisely determine the
elastic strain by measuring the spacing between crystal planes (d-spacing) which is shown in fig 3. When a
polycrystalline material undergoes elastic deformation, the strain is uniformly distributed over a substantial
distance. This causes the lattice spacing within individual crystals to shift from its stress-free value to a new
value, which is dictated by the applied stress. This process is explained by Bragg’s law [6]
This measurement is based on Bragg's law which is defined in Eq. 3, which relates the angle at which X-rays
are diffracted by the crystal planes to the distance between these planes. The basic principle involves directing
X-rays at the material and measuring the angles and intensities of the diffracted beams. The changes in the
diffraction angle provide information about the strains in the crystal lattice.
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nλ = 2dsinθ (3)

here, n signifies the diffraction order, λ refers to the wavelength of the X-rays, d denotes the distance between
the planes in the crystal lattice, and θ is the angle at which diffraction occurs.

Figure 3: Diffraction of X Ray Beams by a Crystal Lattice.

The residual stress measurements were carried out using a diffractometer equipped with a Cu-Kα radiation
source, which is commonly used for stress analysis due to its suitable wavelength for many engineering
materials. The XRD equipment was calibrated using a stress-free reference sample to ensure accuracy.
Measurements were taken at different teta (θ) angles to determine the variation in lattice spacing and calculate
the stress tensor components [15,16] The fundamental equation used for determining macro residual stresses
from diffraction measurements can be found by employing the principles of Hooke’ s elasticity theory in
references [14,10,17,18,19]
1+ν −𝜈
εϕΨ = (σ1 cos 2 𝜙 + σ2 sin2 𝜙)sin2 𝛹 − (𝜎1 + 𝜎2 ) (4)
E 𝐸

E 𝑑𝛹 −𝑑𝑛
σϕ = (1+ν)sin2 𝛹 ( ) (5)
𝑑𝑛

In this equation, 𝜀𝜙𝛹 represents the strain at the (ϕΨ) orientation, as defined in Figure 4. The term 𝑑𝛹 refers
to the interplanar spacing measured in the stressed sample for the (ϕΨ) orientation, while 𝑑0 indicates the
stress-free interplanar spacing. The stress tensor is denoted by 𝜎𝜙 , and ν and E represent the Poisson's ratio
and the Young's modulus of the material, respectively.

To construct the complete residual stress tensor in the plane of the newly created surface, measurements were
obtained at three ϕ angles: 0°, 45°, and 90°. The normal stress (strain) for each ϕ angle was determined using
the standard sin2 𝛹 method. Then, the normal tensor coordinate transformation rules were utilized to compute
the entire biaxial stress field (𝜎𝜙𝜃 , 𝜎𝜃𝜃 , 𝜏𝜙𝜃 ) on the newly formed workpiece surface within its coordinate
framework. [20]

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Figure 4: Schematic diagram of the principal stresses [16]

X-ray diffraction was utilized to evaluate the residual stress on the upper surface of the component depicted in
Figure 5. The residual stress resulting from machining was measured using a Stresstech XStress 3000 G2R X-
ray diffractometer, which employed radiation with a 3 mm diameter spot size. XRD measurements were
conducted at a distance of 10 mm from the part's center. Residual Stresses in both Axial and Hoop direction
was measured. After the stress measurement, Ra surface roughness values were measured using the Mitutoyo
SJ 400 surface roughness measurement device, and the measurements are indicated in Table 5.

X-ray Device Radiation Filter 2Ɵ Miller Penetration Collimato

Diffraction Model Indices Depth (est.) r Size
Parameter [h k l]
Specification/V XStress Cr - Kα No 156.7° [2 2 2] ~ 20.0 μm 3 mm
alues 3000 Filter
G2R
Table 4 X-ray Diffraction Parameter

Figure 5: XRD Measurement sample for CNC milled for Exp. #7

2.3 Support Vector Regression Principle

Support Vector Regression (SVR) is a supervised learning algorithm derived from the Support Vector
Machine (SVM) framework, initially developed for classification tasks. SVR extends the principles
of SVM to regression problems, providing a robust method for function estimation in high-
dimensional spaces. The fundamental idea behind SVR is to find a function that approximates the
given data with a predefined accuracy, balancing model complexity and prediction accuracy.
The SVR algorithm operates by mapping the input data x into a higher-dimensional feature space
𝜑(𝑥) through a kernel function. This transformation enables the algorithm to handle complex,

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nonlinear relationships between the input and output variables. In the feature space, a linear regression
model is constructed, which can be expressed as:

𝑦 = 𝜔𝑇 𝜑(𝑥) + 𝑏 (6)

where ω represents the weight vector, and b denotes bias term. SVR aims to determine the optimal ω
and b that minimize the prediction error, ensuring that deviations from actual targets are within an
acceptable margin ε. This objective is achieved by solving the following optimization problem:[20]

𝑁 𝑁
1
min (ω, b, ξ, 𝜉 ∗ )=2 𝜔𝑇 𝜔 + 𝐶 (∑ 𝜉𝑖 + ∑ 𝜉∗𝑖 )
𝑛=1 𝑛=1
(7)
Subject to:
𝑦𝑖 −𝜔𝑇 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ) − 𝑏 ≤ 𝜀 + 𝜉𝑖 (8)
𝜔𝑇 𝜑(𝑥𝑖 ) + 𝑏 − 𝑦𝑖 ≤ 𝜀 + 𝜉∗𝑖 (9)
𝜉𝑖 , 𝜉𝑖∗ ≥ 0 (10)

∗
Here, 𝜉𝑖 and 𝜉𝑖 are slack variables allowing deviations beyond ε and C is a regularization parameter controlling
the trade-off between model complexity and tolerance of deviations. Fig. 6 represent these notations and
represent the transformation of kernel functions. Smaller values of ‖𝜔‖ contribute to the flatness of the
estimated regression function, thereby reducing overfitting and complexity. The parameter C is crucial as it
balances the trade-off between maintaining a flat regression function and allowing deviations within the margin
ϵ\epsilonϵ. Proper selection of C is essential: a high value of C can lead to overfitting, while a low value may
result in significant prediction errors.[21]

Figure 6: Kernell Function Transformation [23]

Additionally, the Karush–Kuhn–Tucker (KKT) conditions are employed to solve the nonlinear optimization
problem and estimate the parameters ω and b. The solution to the regression problem is given by:

𝑁
𝑦 = ∑𝑖=1(𝛼𝑖 −𝛼∗𝑖 ) 𝐾 (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥) + 𝑏 (11)

where α and 𝛼 ∗ are the Lagrange multipliers, and K (𝑥𝑖 , 𝑥) is the kernel function used to map the input data
into the higher-dimensional space. Commonly used kernels include the radial basis function (RBF) and
sigmoidal kernels. Selecting the appropriate kernel type and parameters, along with the values for C and ε, is
critical for the performance of the SVR model.
In this research, SVR was used to predict residual stresses resulting from different machining parameters, such
as spindle speed, feed rate, cutting depth, and tool type. Experimental data from controlled machining tests
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were used to train the SVR model, with the RBF kernel chosen for its ability to capture nonlinear relationships
in the data.
3. Result and Discussion
There are many factors influencing the residual stress of the milled surface, of which the most important ones
are cutting speed (v), feed per tooth ( f ) , depth of cut (ap) but, in the practical milling process, there are
complicated nonlinear mapping relationships between these machining factors and the workpiece surface
integrity such as residual stress and surface roughness, thus it’s difficult to set regression model by mechanism
analysis of milling process.
In this research, the experimental results obtained using the Taguchi L9 design are detailed in Table 5. A
dynamometer was used to measure forces, and the moving average method was employed to compute the
maximum force values in the X, Y, and Z directions. This method involved selecting 100 random points from
the complete dataset to determine the maximum force values, which are summarized in Table 5. Also, in the
table 5, the force measurements in the Y-axis, which is the feed direction, are observed to be higher compared
to the force measurements in the X and Z axes. In the first three experiments with the lowest cutting speed of
150 m/min, it is observed that as the feed per tooth and depth of cut increase, the Fy max values significantly
rise. Specifically, Fy max increases from 42.15 N to 742.8 N as the feed per tooth increases from 0.1 mm/tooth
to 0.3 mm/tooth and the depth of cut increases from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm. This indicates a strong correlation
between the increase in both feed rate and depth of cut with the cutting force in the feed direction. The force
in the feed direction (Fy max) shows a substantial increase from Experiment 1 to Experiment 3 due to higher
feed rates and greater depths of cut.

Exp. Cutting Feed per Depth 𝑭𝒙 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑭𝒚 𝒎𝒂𝒙 𝑭𝒛 max 𝑹𝒂 Hoop Axial
No # Speed tooth of Cut (N) (N) (N) (µ) Stress Stress
(m/min) (mm/tooth) (mm) (MPa) (MPa)
1 150 0.1 0.5 1.18 42.15 49.20 1.12 -108.7 -88.4
2 150 0.2 1 8.88 461.9 58.58 4.21 84 88.5
3 150 0.3 1.5 10.10 742.8 169.8 4.49 98.1 -58.8
4 250 0.1 1 5.460 256.5 44.40 2.44 93.1 64.9
5 250 0.2 1.5 7.022 428.1 78.61 2.3 73.4 49.7
6 250 0.3 0.5 4.305 207.2 51.65 3.95 81.8 -16.8
7 350 0.1 1.5 5.278 263.8 28.09 2.14 92.5 54.6
8 350 0.2 0.5 2.657 127.3 22.55 4.1 98.1 62.3
9 350 0.3 1 5.502 294.1 45.73 3.44 97.5 45.9
Table 5 Milling Parameter Set

Conversely, in the subsequent experiments with higher cutting speeds of 250 m/min and 350 m/min, a similar
trend is noted. For instance, at a cutting speed of 250 m/min, Fymax increases from 256.5 N to 428.1 N when
the feed per tooth increases from 0.1 mm/tooth to 0.2 mm/tooth. The Cutting forces of the second three
experiment rise as the feed rate and depth of cut increase. However, when examining the experiments at the
highest cutting speed of 350 m/min, it is noticeable that while the feed rate increases, the measured Fymax values
also increase, but not as drastically as seen at lower speeds. For example, Fy max increases from 127.3 N to
294.1 N as the feed per tooth increases from 0.2 mm/tooth to 0.3 mm/tooth. increase in cutting forces of the
last three experiment is less pronounced compared to lower speeds. This suggests that while feed rate is a
significant parameter affecting cutting force, its impact is somewhat mitigated at higher cutting speeds.
Additionally, when the feed rate increases while the depth of cut decreases, such as in experiment 6 (cutting
speed 250 m/min, feed per tooth 0.3 mm/tooth, depth of cut 0.5 mm), Fymax is observed to be 207.2 N, which
is lower compared to other setups with higher depths of cut. This indicates that depth of cut has a more
pronounced effect on cutting force compared to feed rate. Furthermore, as the cutting speed increases, the
observed change in force due to feed rate variations becomes less significant, highlighting the complex
interplay between these cutting parameters.

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In this study, various regression models were applied to predict surface integrity parameters. The models
employed included Support Vector Regression (SVR), Ridge (L2 Regularization), and Lasso (L1
Regularization) regression models. The training and evaluation of these models were conducted using the
Python programming language and the Scikit-Learn library. Each model was trained on 80% of the dataset
and evaluated on a 20% test set. To assess the performance of the models, metrics such as Mean Squared Error
(MSE), Mean Absolute Percentage Error (MAPE), and R-squared (R²) were utilized.
Each model was further evaluated using the Leave-One-Out Cross Validation (LOO) method, which involves
using each observation as test data while the remaining observations are used as training data. This approach
allows for a more reliable assessment of the model's overall performance. At the end of the training process,
the performance of each model on the test set was calculated, and the results were compared. Thus, in the
milling operation mechanism, the relationship between cutting parameters, residual stress, and surface
roughness was calculated with the help of a correlation matrix heat map, as seen in Figure 7.

Figure 7: Correlation Matrix Heatmap for inputs and outputs of the regression analysis

3.1 Regression Analysis of the Cutting Parameters and Residual Stress

The impact of cutting parameters on residual stress was evaluated using Lasso, Ridge, and Support Vector
Regression (SVR) models. The residual stresses measured were axial residual stress and hoop stress. Table 6
summarizes the performance metrics of the regression models. Lasso regression resulted in a mean squared
error (MSE) of 0.15 for axial residual stress and 0.07 for hoop stress, with mean absolute percentage error
(MAPE) values of 13.1% and 15.5%, respectively. Ridge regression performed similarly, with an MSE of 0.15
for axial residual stress and 0.06 for hoop stress, and MAPE values of 13.0% and 14.5%. The SVR model
outperformed both Lasso and Ridge, achieving an MSE of 0.12 for axial residual stress and 0.06 for hoop
stress, with MAPE values of 11.5% and 15.0%

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MSE (Axial Residual MSE (Hoop MAPE (Axial Residual MAPE (Hoop
Model
Stress) Stress) Stress) Stress)
Lasso
0.15 0.07 13.1% 15.5%
Regression
Ridge
0.15 0.06 13.0% 14.5%
Regression
SVR 0.12 0.06 11.5% 15.0%
Table 6: Performance of Regression Models on Residual Stress

The regression analysis highlighted the significant impact of cutting parameters on residual stresses. Higher
cutting speeds generally resulted in lower residual stresses due to the thermal softening effect. Increased feed
rates led to higher residual stresses, likely due to the greater mechanical load imposed on the material. Depth
of cut was also a critical factor, with deeper cuts inducing higher residual stresses due to the increased material
removal rate. As it seen in the figure 7, For the Hoop Stress, the most influential parameters are cutting speed,
feed per tooth, and depth of cut respectively, for the axial stress the most influential parameters are depth of
cut, feed per tooth and cutting speed respectively.

3.2 Regression Analysis of the Cutting Parameters and Surface Roughness

Surface roughness (Ra) was also predicted using Lasso, Ridge, and SVR models. The analysis showed that the
cutting parameters significantly influenced the surface roughness of the machined components. Table 7
presents the performance metrics of the regression models for surface roughness prediction. Lasso regression
achieved an MSE of 0.18 and a MAPE of 12.7%. Ridge regression had an MSE of 0.17 and a MAPE of 12.2%.
SVR again provided the best performance, with an MSE of 0.14 and a MAPE of 11.0%.
Model MSE (Ra) MAPE (Ra)
Lasso Regression 0.18 12.7%
Ridge Regression 0.17 12.2%
SVR 0.14 11.0%

Table 7: Performance of Regression Models on Surface Roughness

The regression analysis revealed that higher cutting speeds tended to improve surface finish, resulting in lower
Ra values. Conversely, higher feed rates and deeper cuts generally resulted in increased surface roughness due
to the higher mechanical load and increased cutting forces. As it is seen in the figure 7, the most influential
parameters are feed per tooth, depth of cut and cutting speed respectively.

3.3 Comparison of the Regression Methods

Comparing the three regression methods, SVR consistently outperformed both Lasso and Ridge in predicting
both residual stresses and surface roughness. The superior performance of SVR can be attributed to its ability
to capture the nonlinear relationships between the cutting parameters and the output variables through the use
of the radial basis function (RBF) kernel.
Metric Lasso Ridge SVR
MSE (Axial Stress) 0.15 0.15 0.12
MSE (Hoop Stress ) 0.07 0.06 0.06
MAPE (Axial Stress ) 13.1% 13.0% 11.5%
MAPE (Hoop Stress) 15.5% 14.5% 15.0%
MSE (Ra) 0.18 0.17 0.14
MAPE (Ra) 12.7% 12.2% 11.0%
Table 8: Comparative Performance of Regression Models

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The practical implications of these findings suggest that SVR is the most suitable one among the three
algorithms utilized for predicting machining outcomes in terms of residual stresses and surface roughness. This
model's ability to accurately predict these parameters can help optimize the cutting process, leading to better
surface integrity and performance of machined components.

4. Conclusions
In this comprehensive study, the effects of milling parameters on the surface integrity of hot-forged and T6
heat-treated AA7075 components were systematically examined. Utilizing the Taguchi L9 experimental
design, the investigation provided significant insights into the relationship between cutting parameters, residual
stress, and surface roughness.

• The study indicated that force measurements in the Y-axis (feed direction) were higher compared to
the X and Z axes. For instance, in the first experiment, the Fy max value was 42.15 N, whereas Fx
max and Fz max were 1.18 N and 49.20 N, respectively. As the feed rate and depth of cut increased,
the forces also escalated, with Fy max reaching up to 742.8 N in the third experiment.
• The findings revealed that cutting speed and feed rate are crucial factors influencing residual stress.
Lower cutting speeds (150 m/min) and down milling conditions were found to reduce residual stress
significantly. Down milling induced compressive residual stress, with values reaching as low as -108.7
MPa, while up milling resulted in tensile stress, with values up to 98.1 MPa. The relationship between
cutting parameters and residual stress can vary across different studies in the literature. Findings such
as the reduction of residual stress with decreasing cutting speed are supported by the work of Mehmet
E. Kara et al. on CGI material [14] and the study conducted by Yue, Qibin, et al. on 7075-T6 material
[24]. The SVR, Lasso, and Ridge regression models were employed to predict these stress variations,
with SVR showing the highest accuracy, achieving an MSE of 0.12 for axial residual stress and 0.06
for hoop stress.
• The analysis demonstrated that feed rate had the most substantial impact on surface roughness. Higher
feed rates (0.3 mm/tooth) led to increased roughness, with Ra values ranging from 1.12 µm to 4.49
µm. The regression models confirmed these observations, with SVR outperforming Lasso and Ridge.
SVR achieved an MSE of 0.14 and a MAPE of 11.0% in predicting surface roughness.
• By integrating experimental data and advanced regression techniques, a robust predictive model was
developed. This model successfully correlated cutting parameters with residual stress and surface
roughness, offering a valuable tool for optimizing milling operations. The correlation matrix heatmap
illustrated in Figure 7 further validated these relationships, showing a strong correlation between
cutting parameters and both residual stress and surface roughness.
• The regression analysis using Lasso, Ridge, and SVR demonstrated that SVR is the most effective
model among the three algorithms utilized for predicting residual stresses and surface roughness based
on cutting parameters. The insights gained from this analysis can inform the optimization of milling
processes, enhancing the quality and performance of machined AA7075 component.
The practical implications of these findings are significant, providing a pathway to optimize milling parameters
to enhance the surface integrity and performance of AA7075 components. By leveraging the predictive
capabilities of the SVR model, manufacturers can achieve better control over machining outcomes, leading to
improved component quality and operational efficiency.
Future research could expand on this work by exploring other alloy systems and incorporating real-time
monitoring technologies to further refine predictive models and machining practices.

Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Birinci Otomotiv A.Ş for the financial and equipment support and
Simultura Material Technologies Inc. for residual stress measurements.

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Technology, vol. 87, 2016, pp. 1273-1281. doi:10.1007/s00170-013-5231-3.
[13] Buyrukoğlu, Selim, and Sinan Kesriklioğlu. "A Comparison of Ensemble and Base Learner Algorithms
for the Prediction of Machining Induced Residual Stresses in the Turning of Aerospace Materials." Bitlis Eren
University Journal of Science, vol. 11, no. 3, 2022, pp. 861-879. doi:10.17798/bitlisfen.1130044.
[14] Kara, Mehmet Emre, Ali Taner Kuzu, and Mustafa Bakkal. "Investigation of Residual Stresses Induced
by Milling of Compacted Graphite Iron by X-ray Diffraction Technique." Journal of Materials Engineering
and Performance, 2023. doi:10.1007/s11665-023-08904-3.
[15] Huang, Xiaoming, et al. "An Experimental Investigation of Residual Stresses in High-Speed End Milling
7050-T7451 Aluminum Alloy." Advances in Mechanical Engineering, vol. 2013, Article ID 592659, 7 pages.
doi:10.1155/2013/592659.
[16] Prevéy, Paul S. "Current Applications of X-ray Diffraction Residual Stress Measurement." Developments
in Materials Characterization Technologies, edited by G. Vander Voort and J. Friel, ASM International, 1996,
pp. 103-110.
[17] Masoudi, Soroush, et al. "Effect of Machining-Induced Residual Stress on the Distortion of Thin-Walled
Parts." The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 76, 2015, pp. 597-608.
doi:10.1007/s00170-014-6281-x.
[18] Berry, Luke, et al. "The Influence of Milling Induced Residual Stress on Fatigue Life of Aluminum
Alloys." Forces in Mechanics, vol. 7, 2022, p. 100096. doi:10.1016/j.finmec.2022.100096.
[19] Wu, Qiong, Da-Peng Li, and Yi-Du Zhang. "Detecting Milling Deformation in 7075 Aluminum Alloy
Aeronautical Monolithic Components Using the Quasi-Symmetric Machining Method." Metals, vol. 6, no. 80,
2016, pp. 1-14. doi:10.3390/met6040080.
[20] Huang, Xiaoming, Jie Sun, and Jianfeng Li. "Effect of Initial Residual Stress and Machining-Induced
Residual Stress on the Deformation of Aluminium Alloy Plate." Journal of Mechanical Engineering, vol. 61,
no. 2, 2015, pp. 131-137. doi:10.5545/sv-jme.2014.1897.

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[21] Yeganefar, Ali, Seyed Ali Niknam, and Reza Asadi. "The Use of Support Vector Machine, Neural
Network, and Regression Analysis to Predict and Optimize Surface Roughness and Cutting Forces in Milling."
The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 105, 2019, pp. 951-965.
doi:10.1007/s00170-019-04227-7.
[22] Wu, Deh. "Surface Hardness Intelligent Prediction in Milling Using Support Vector Regression." Fourth
International Conference on Natural Computation, IEEE, 2008, doi:10.1109/ICNC.2008.258.
[23] Sayad, Saed. "Support Vector Machine Regression." Saed Sayad's Homepage. Accessed July 11, 2024.
https://www.saedsayad.com/support_vector_machine_reg.htm.
[24] Yue, Qibin, et al. "Modeling and Optimization of Surface Residual Stress Profiles in Milling of Aluminum
7075-T6 Alloy." The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, vol. 130, no. 1, 2024, pp.
5913-5934. Springer-Verlag London Ltd

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KESİCİ TAKIM GEOMETRİSİNİN CW511L KURŞUNSUZ PİRİNÇ

MALZEMENİN İŞLENEBİLİRLİĞİNE ETKİSİNİN İNCELENMESİ
Emre Taşcıoğlua, Yusuf Kaynakb,a ve Özhan Kıtayc

a, Torun Metal A.Ş., AR&GE Merkezi, Kocaeli/TÜRKİYE, emre.tascioglu@torunmetal.com

b, Marmara Üniversitesi, Makine Mühendisliği Bölümü, İstanbul/TÜRKİYE, yusuf.kaynak@marmara.edu.tr
c, Bilecik Şeyh Edebali Üniversitesi, Makine ve Metal Teknolojileri Bölümü, Bilecik/TÜRKİYE,
ozhan.kitay@bilecik.edu.tr

Özet
Kurşunsuz pirinç malzemeler çok geniş bir uygulama alanına sahip olmasına rağmen talaşlı işlenebilirliğinde
halen problemlerle karşılaşılmaktadır. Bu çalışmada kurşunsuz pirinç olan CW511L malzemenin talaşlı
işlenebilirliği farklı kesme hızları, takım talaş açısı ve ilerleme değeri bakımından incelenmiştir. Elde edilen
bulgular düşük kesme hızı ve ilerleme değeri kombinasyonunun kesme kuvvetini ve kesme sıcaklığını
azalttığını göstermektedir. Ayrıca takım geometrisi işlenebilirliği doğrudan etkilemiştir. En yüksek
mikrosertlik değeri negatif talaş açısıyla yapılan deneylerde elde edilmiştir. Ayrıca malzemenin deformasyon
hızının 105 s-1 olduğu hesaplanmıştır. Deformasyon hızına takım geometrisinin etkisi sınırlı olurken kesme
hızının etkisi belirgin farklılıklar sağlamıştır.

Anahtar kelimeler: CW511L, Kurşunsuz pirinç, Talaşlı imalat

INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF CUTTING TOOL GEOMETRY ON THE

MACHINABILITY OF CW511L LEAD-FREE BRASS MATERIAL

Abstract
Although lead-free brass materials have a very wide application area, problems can still be encountered in
machinability. In this study, the machinability of lead-free brass CW511L material was investigated in terms
of different cutting speeds, tool rake angle and feed rate. The findings show that the combination of low cutting
speed and feed rate reduces the cutting force and cutting temperature. In addition, tool geometry directly
affected machinability. The highest microhardness value was obtained in experiments conducted with negative
rake angle. In addition, the strain rate of the material was calculated as 105 s-1. While the effect of tool
geometry on strain rate was limited, the effect of cutting speed provided significant differences.

Keywords: CW511L, Lead-free brass, Machining

10 Giriş
Boru, profil, vana, pompa, su saatleri, kol saatindeki çok küçük parçalar gibi birçok nesne pirinç alaşımlarından
üretilmektedir. Pirincin mukavemeti, sızdırmazlığı ve işlenebilirliği çok iyi olup fiyatı da gayet uygun sınırlar
içindedir. Ana metal olarak bakır ve çinkodan meydana gelen pirinç alaşımlarının büyük bir çoğunluğu
kurşunludur. Kurşunun doğada çok olması, düşük sıcaklıkta ergimesi ve kolay şekillendirilebilmesi gibi birçok
nedenler kullanılmasını cazip kılmaktadır [1-3]. Pirinç imal edilirken işlenebilirliği artırıcı farklı alaşım
elementleri ilave edilir. Bu elementlerden bazıları silikon [4], selenyum [2], bizmut [5], grafit [6] ve özellikle
kurşundur [7]. Bu bağlamda en önemli unsur, mükemmel talaş kırılması, düşük takım aşınması ve yüksek
kesme parametreleri ile ilgili olan kurşundur. Çünkü kurşunun pirincin içinde çözünmesi çok düşüktür, kurşun
tüm mikroyapıyı özellikle tane sınırlarını ayırır. Bu nedenle kayma mukavemeti önemli ölçüde azalır ve
mükemmel talaş kırılması ile sonuçlanır.

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Bununla birlikte kurşunlu pirinç insan sağlığı ve doğa için önemli bir tehlike oluşturmaktadır. [8-10]. Bu
nedenle pirinç alaşımlarında kullanılan kurşun miktarı Avrupa, ABD, Çin ve Japonya'da önemli ölçüde
sınırlıdır. [11]. Bu kısıtlamalar kurşunsuz pirinç kullanımını artırmış ve bu nedenle çalışmalar kurşunsuz pirinç
üzerine yoğunlaşmıştır. Kurşun tehlikeli ağır metal olduğu için son yıllarda bakır alaşımlarında kurşun
kullanımı belirli uygulamalar için sınırlandırılmıştır. Pirinç malzemelerdeki kurşun oranının azaltılması talaşlı
imalat performansına talaş kırılabilirliği açısından olumsuz etkileri vardır. Kurşun içermeyen pirinçler çoğu
işleme sırasında sürekli talaş üretme eğilimindedir [12].
Literatürdeki birçok çalışma kurşunlu malzemelere odaklanmış olup, sınırlı sayıda çalışma kurşunsuz
malzemeleri analiz etmiştir [12-14]. Nobel ve ark. [3], CuZn42 (CW510L) ve CuZn38As (CW511L) gibi
kurşunsuz pirinç alaşımlarının işlenebilirliğini araştırmıştır. Bu alaşımlar için ana problemlerin uzun talaş
oluşumu ve takıma gelen yüksek termal ve mekanik yüklerin olduğunu tespit etmişlerdir. Nobel ve ark. [8]
ayrıca orthogonal kesme yöntemiyle talaş oluşumu ve kırılabilirliğini incelemiştir. Kato ve ark. [15]
CuZn21Si3P malzemenin mikro delinmesinde farklı takımlar kullanılarak talaş oluşumunu incelemişlerdir.
Nobel ve ark. [16] takım kaplamasının ve malzemenin düşük kurşunlu pirinç alaşımlarının işlenebilirliği
üzerindeki etkisini analiz etmişlerdir. Kurşunlu ve düşük kurşunlu pirinç alaşımlarının işleme davranışlarını
karşılaştırmışlar ve çok farklı işlenebilirlik sonuçları elde etmişlerdir. Pantazopoulos ve ark. [17] kurşunsuz
pirinçlerin mekanik özellikleri ve mikro yapısı arasındaki ilişkiyi araştırmışlar ve en uygun kurşunsuz pirinç
alaşımını belirlemeye çalışmışlardır. CW510L kurşunsuz pirincin kurşunlu pirincin yerini alabilecek
potansiyel bir aday olduğunu göstermişlerdir.
Bu çalışmada CW511L kurşunsuz pirinç malzemenin dik tornalanması deneylerinde farklı kesme hızları ve
talaş açılarının etkisinin işlenebilme kabiliyetine etkisi kesme kuvveti ve kesme sıcaklığı bakımından
incelenmiştir. Ayrıca kesme parametrelerinin malzemenin deformasyon hızına etkisi hesaplanmış olup
işlenmiş yüzeydeki mikrosertlik değişimleri incelenmiştir.

11 Deneysel Tasarım
Çalışmalarda iş parçası olarak 80 mm çapında ve 100 mm uzunluğunda çubuk CW511L kurşunsuz pirinç
malzemesi kullanılmıştır. Malzemelerin kimyasal bileşimi Tablo 1' de sunulmuştur. Pirinçler alfa (α) ve beta
(β) fazından oluşmakta olup, malzemelerin mikroyapı görüntüleri Şekil 1' de gösterilmiştir.

α
40µm

Şekil 1. CW511L pirinç malzemenin optic mikroskop ile alınmış mikroyapı görüntüsü

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Tablo 1. CW511L pirinç malzemenin kimyasal bileşimi ve mekanik özellikleri

Kimyasal Bileşim Cu Zn Pb As
%61.16 %38.39 %0.15 %0.07
Mekanik Özellikler Çekme Mukavemeti Akma Mukavemeti Uzama Sertlik
(N/mm2) (N/mm2) (%) (HV)
392 250 22 90 ±5 HV

Deneylerde kullanılmak üzere CW511L malzemeden 4 mm çapında diskler tel erozyonla kesilmiştir. Deneysel
düzenek Şekil 2’ de gösterilmiştir. Deneyler 4500 dev/dak kapasiteli Doosan Puma CNC torna tezgâhında
yapılmıştır. Kesme hızları 50, 150 ve 350 m/dak olarak seçilmiştir. 0.05 ve 0.15 mm/dev olmak üzere iki farklı
ilerleme değeri kullanılmıştır. Kesici uç olarak TCMW16T308 H13A kodlu kaplamasız ve nötr takım tercih
edilmiştir. Özel olarak imal edilmiş takım tutucular kullanılarak deneyler -6, -3, 0, 3 ve 6° olmak üzere beş
farklı talaş açısında gerçekleştirilmiştir. Kesme kuvvetleri KISTLER 2129AA dinamometreyle ölçülmüştür.
Sıcak ölçümünde Optris PI400 termal kamera kullanılmıştır. Vickers(HV) sertlik ölçmede FutureTech FM310e
model cihaz kullanılarak yapılan 10 adet ölçümün ortalaması alınmıştır.

Dinamometre Termal
kamera

İş parçası

Takım tutucu

Kesici takım

Şekil 2. Deneysel düzenek gösterimi

12 Deneysel Bulgular ve Tartışma

13 Kesme Kuvveti
Değişken talaş açısı değerlerinde ve kesme hızlarında yapılan talaş kaldırma deneylerinde ölçülen kesme
kuvvetleri Şekil 3’ te gösterilmiştir. 0.05 mm/dev ve 0.15 mm/dev olmak üzere her iki ilerleme değerinde de
kesme hızları ve talaş açıları bakımından ölçülen kesme kuvvetlerindeki değişim eğilimleri aynıdır. Şekil 3a
0.05 mm/dev ilerleme değerinde ölçülen kesme kuvvetlerini göstermektedir. Tüm talaş açısı değerlerinde
kesme hızındaki artış kesme kuvvetlerinde azalmaya sebep olmuştur. Kesme hızının artması takım-talaş
sürtünmesinin artması ve dolayısıyla kesme sıcaklığının artmasına yol açmıştır. Kesme bölgesinde artan
sıcaklık iş parçasında termal yumuşama etkisi yaratarak daha kolay talaş kaldırılmasına yardım etmiştir. Bunun
sebebi talaş kaldırma esnasında artan ısı nedeniyle malzemenin kristal yapısındaki atomların kinetik
enerjilerinin artmasıdır. Bir diğer eğilim ise talaş açısı değerlerinin pozitiften negatife doğru değiştikçe ölçülen
kesme kuvvetlerinde meydana gelen düzenli artıştır. En düşük kesme kuvvetleri 6° pozitif talaş açısı değerinde
ölçülmüştür. En yüksek kesme kuvvetleri ise -6° negatif talaş açısı değerinde ölçülmüştür. Bunun sebebi talaş
kaldırma işlemi esnasında oluşan kayma düzlem açısı ve dolayısıyla alanının oluşumunda talaş açısı değerinin

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doğrudan ilgili olmasındandır. Çünkü büyük talaş açısı büyük kayma açısı oluşturur. Kayma açısının büyük
olması kesme birinci deformasyon bölgesinde kayma düzlem alanının küçük olmasına yol açar. Sonuçta kayma
düzlem alanının küçük olması talaş kaldırmak için daha az kuvvet harcanmasına yol açar. Görüleceği üzere
pozitif talaş açısı değerlerinde ölçülen kuvvetlerin negatif talaş açısı değerlerindeki kuvvetlerden az olması bu
durumu desteklemektedir. En yüksek kesme kuvveti 50 m/dak kesme hızında ve -6° talaş açısı değerinde 540N
olarak ölçülmüştür. En düşük kesme kuvveti ise 334N olarak 350 m/dak kesme hızında ve 6° talaş açısı
değerinde ölçülmüş olup aradaki fark %62 kadardır. Şekil 3b’ de gösterilen 0.15 mm/dev ilerleme değerinde
ölçülen kuvvetler ise 0.05 mm/dev ilerleme değerindeki kuvvetlerin iki katı civarında seyretmiştir. Talaş açısı
ve kesme hızı bakımından benzer eğilimlerin geçerli olduğu görülmektedir. En yüksek kesme kuvveti olan
1212N ile en düşük kesme kuvveti olan 835N arasındaki fark %45 kadardır. İlerleme değerinin büyümesi talaş
kesit alanının artmasına neden olmaktadır. Bu durumda birim zamanda kaldırılan talaş miktarının artmasıyla
daha fazla kesme kuvvetinin harcanmasına yol açmaktadır. Dolayısıyla 0.15 mm/dev ilerleme değerinde
ölçülen kuvvetler daha fazladır.

(a) (b)

Şekil 3: Dik kesme deneylerinde ölçülen kesme kuvvetleri a)f=0.05 mm/dev, b)f=0.15 mm/dev
Değişken kesme hızları ve talaş açılarında yapılan dik kesme deneylerinde ölçülen itme kuvvetleri 0.05
mm/dev ilerleme değeri için Şekil 4a’ da ve 0.15 mm/dev ilerleme değeri için Şekil 4b’ de gösterilmiştir. Kesme
kuvvetlerindeki eğilimler itme kuvvetlerinde de aynen geçerlidir. En yüksek itme kuvveti 0.05 mm/dev ve 0.15
mm/dev ilerleme değerlerinde sırasıyla 50 m/dak kesme hızı ve -6° talaş açısında 397N ve 781N olarak
ölçülmüştür. En düşük itme kuvvetleri ise 350 m/dak kesme hızı ve 6° talaş açısı değerinde 0.05 mm/dev ve
0.15 mm/dev ilerleme değerlerinde sırasıyla 192N ve 356N olarak ölçülmüştür.

(a) (b)
Şekil 4: Dik kesme deneylerinde ölçülen itme kuvvetleri a)f=0.05 mm/dev, b)f=0.15 mm/dev

14 Kesme Sıcaklığı
Şekil 5’ te 0.05 mm/dev ilerleme değerinde değişken kesme hızı ve talaş açısı değerlerinde yapılan dik kesme
deneylerinde ölçülen maksimum kesme sıcaklıkları gösterilmiştir. Tüm talaş açısı değerlerinde en düşük
sıcaklıklar 50 m/dak kesme hızında ölçülmüştür. Kesme hızının artmasıyla sıcaklık değerlerinde de artış söz

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konusudur. Ayrıca tüm kesme hızı değerlerinde de en düşük sıcaklıklar 6° pozitif talaş açısında elde edilmiştir.
Talaş açısı pozitiften negatife doğru değiştikçe sıcaklıktaki artış eğilimi açıktır. Talaş kaldırma esnasında en
çok ısı birinci deformasyon bölgesinde oluşur. Bu bölge de kayma düzlemine denk gelmektedir ve asıl elasto-
plastik deformasyon burada gerçekleşmektedir. Dolayısıyla negatif talaş açısında daha büyük kayma düzlemi
oluştuğundan burada ki deformasyonun pozitif talaş açısına göre daha büyük olması ve dolayısıyla takım-talaş
arasına tekabül eden ikincil deformasyon bölgesinde ki sürtünmenin daha fazla olması beklenir. Nitekim termal
kamera ile ölçülen sıcaklık değerlerinin negatif talaş açısında en yüksek değerler olduğu görülmektedir. 50
m/dak kesme hızında 6° ve -6° talaş açılarında ölçülen maksimum kesme sıcaklıkları sırasıyla 242°C ve 324°C
olup arada %34 fark vardır. Ayrıca 350 m/dak kesme hızında ise en düşük ve en yüksek sıcaklıklar ise sırasıyla
300°C ve 391°C olup arada ki %30 dur. Buradan anlaşılacağı üzere kesme hızı değişse bile talaş açısı
değerlerine bağlı olarak yaşanan sıcaklık değişim oranı benzerdir.

50 m/dak 150 m/dak 350 m/dak

450
Kesme Sıcaklığı, Tmax (°C)

400

350

300

250

200
6 3 0 -3 -6
Talaş açısı, γ (°)

Şekil 5. Dik kesme deneylerinde ölçülen maksimum kesme sıcaklıkları (f=0.05 mm/dev)
İlerleme değeri 0.15 mm/dev olduğu durumda değişken kesme hızı ve talaş açısına bağlı olarak ölçülen
maksimum kesme sıcaklıkları Şekil 6’ te gösterilmiştir. İlerleme değerinin artması sonucu ölçülen sıcaklık
değerlerinde artışlar belirgindir. Ayrıca kesme hızına ve talaş açısına bağlı eğilimlerin değişmediği
görülmektedir. 50 m/dak kesme hızında ölçülen en düşük vee n yüksek sıcaklık değerleri sırasıyla 260°C ve
368°C dir. 350 m/dak kesme hızında ise en düşük ve en yüksek sıcaklıklar ise sırasıyla 313°C ve 435°C dir.

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50 m/dak 150 m/dak 350 m/dak

450
Kesme Sıcaklığı, Tmax (°C)

400

350

300

250

200
6 3 0 -3 -6
Talaş açısı, γ (°)

Şekil 6. Dik kesme deneylerinde ölçülen maksimum kesme sıcaklıkları (f=0.15 mm/dev)

3.5Mikrosertlik
Talaş kaldırma operasyonlarında takım-iş parçası arasında meydana gelen mekanik, termal ve hatta kimyasal
reaksiyonlar sonucu iş parçasının işlenmiş yüzeyinde plastik deformasyonlar meydana gelebilmektedir. Bu
durum işlenmiş yüzeyin ve yüzeyaltının sertlik özelliklerini değiştirmekte ve ortaya çıkan ürünün başta
yorulma olmak üzere kullanım performansını doğrudan etkilemektedir. Bu hususta işlenen malzemelerin
mikrosertlik değerleri incelenmiştir. Şekil 7’ te değişken talaş açısı değerlerinde 0.05 mm/dev ilerleme
değerinde ölçülen sertlik değerleri gösterilmiştir. İşlenmiş yüzeyden 15 µm derinlikte ölçülen sertlik değerleri
arasında en yüksek sertlik 135 HV ile -6° talaş açısında ölçülmüştür. İşlem görmemiş malzeme sertliğine
kıyasla %69artış söz konusudur. En düşük sertlik artışı ise 122 HV ile 6° talaş açısında ölçülmüştür. Bu durum
açıkçası kesme kuvvetleri sonuçlarıyla örtüşmektedir. Çünkü negatif talaş açısı değerindeki kuvvetler daha
yüksek olduğundan meydana gelen plastik deformasyon oranının da yüksek olması malzemenin sertliğini
etkilemiştir. Tüm talaş açısı değerlerinde sertlik değerleri işlenmiş yüzeyden 100 µm derinliğe ulaşıldığında
işlem görmemiş malzeme sertliğine düştüğü görülmektedir.

6º 3º 0 -3º -6º
170
160
150
Sertleşme
Mikrosertlik, HV

140
bölgesi
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
İşlenmiş yüzeyden derinlik, μm

Şekil 7. Değişken talaş açısı değerlerinde işlenen malzeme sertliği (Vc=350 m/dak, f=0.05 mm/dev)

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Şekil 8’ te ise değişken talaş açısı değerlerinde ve 0.15 mm/dev ilerleme değerinde ölçülen mikrosertlik
değerleri gösterilmiştir. En yüksek sertlik değeri işlenmiş yüzeyden 15 µm derinlikte -6° talaş açısında 158 HV
olarak ölçülmüştür. Aynı noktada en az sertlik artışı ise 6° talaş açısında 132 HV olarak ölçülmüş olup benzer
eğilim ilerleme değeri artsa bile devam etmiştir. İşlenmemiş malzeme sertliğine ise 150 µm derinlikte
ulaşılmıştır.

6º 3º 0º -3º -6º
170
160
Sertleşme
150
bölgesi
Mikrosertlik, HV

140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
İşlenmiş yüzeyden derinlik, μm

Şekil 8. Değişken talaş açısı değerlerinde işlenen malzeme sertliği (Vc=350 m/dak, f=0.15 mm/dev)

5.1Deformasyon Hızı
Talaş açısı ve kesme hızı parametrelerinin malzemenin işlenebilmesine etkisinin daha iyi anlaşılması için
analitik hesaplama yöntemi kullanılmıştır. Merchant teorisine göre Denklem 1-4 kullanılarak malzemenin
farklı kesme parametrelerindeki deformasyon hızı davranışı incelenmiştir.
𝐹 tan 𝛾+𝐹𝑡
𝜇 = 𝐹𝑐 −𝐹 (1)
𝑐 𝑡 tan 𝛾

𝛽 = tan−1 𝜇 (2)

𝜋 𝛾 𝛽
𝜙= 4+2−2 (3)

10𝑣𝐶 ×cos 𝛾
𝜀̇ = 𝑡 (4)
0 cos(𝜙−𝛾)

Burada µ sürtünme katsayısı, γ talaş açısı, β sürtünme açısı, t0 ilerleme değeri, 𝜙 ise kayma açısıdır. Şekil 9’te
0.05 mm/dev ilerleme değerinde ve Şekil 10’ te 0.15 mm/dev ilerleme değerinde hesaplanan deformasyon
hızları paylaşılmıştır. Her iki ilerleme değerinde de deformasyon hızı 105 s-1 olarak gerçekleşmiştir. İlerlemenin
0.05 mm/dev değerinde deformasyon hızının 0.15 mm/dev değerine kıyasla tüm kesme parametrelerinde daha
yüksektir. En yüksek deformasyon hızı 350 m/dak kesme hızında elde edilmiştir. Ayrıca negative talaş açısı
değerlerinde deformasyon hızı daha fazladır.
Deformasyon hızı genelde kesme hızı ve malzeme özelliklerinden etkilenmektedir. Kesme hızının artması
deformasyon hızının artması için zemin oluşturmaktadır.
Aslında, 103 s-1'den büyük deformasyon hızları, deformasyon oranının yüksek bölgede olduğunu gösterir ve
bu aynı zamanda deformasyon hızının gerilim-gerinim üzerindeki etkisinin de büyük olduğunu gösterir.
Aslında, sıcaklık ve deformasyon hızı birbirini tetikleyen iki faktördür. Yüksek deformasyon hızı önemli ısı
üretimine neden olur. Bu nedenle, ortaya çıkan yüksek sıcaklık, adiabatik kayma bantlarının oluşumunun

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önünü açar ve talaş oluşumu gerçekleşir [34]. Yüksek deformasyon hızlarında oluşan deformasyon
mekanizmasının, düşük deformasyon hızlarına göre daha karmaşık olması da bir diğer konudur. Düşük
deformasyon hızlarındaki deformasyon mekanizması kayma ve eğilmeden oluşurken, yüksek deformasyon
hızlarında mikroyapı, kusurlar ve mekanik özellikler gibi malzeme özellikleri etkilidir. Hesaplanan
deformasyon hızlarının yüksek sınıfta olduğu düşünüldüğünde, yüksek kesme hızında düşük kesme kuvveti
ve yüksek sıcaklık ölçülmesi bu durumu desteklemektedir.

50 m/dak 150 m/dak 350 m/dak

20
Deformasyon Hızı, x105 s-1

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
6 3 0 -3 -6
Talaş açısı, γ (°)

Şekil 9. Farklı kesme parametrelerinin deformasyon hızına etkisi (f=0.05 mm/dev)

50 m/dak 150 m/dak 350 m/dak

6
Deformasyon Hızı, x105 s-1

0
6 3 0 -3 -6
Talaş açısı, γ (°)

Şekil 10. Farklı kesme parametrelerinin deformasyon hızına etkisi (f=0.15 mm/dev)

15 Sonuç
Bu çalışmada CW551L kurşunsuz pirinç malzemenin farklı kesme parametrelerinde dik tornalama deneyleri
yapılmıştır. Özellikle farklı talaş açılarının malzemenin işlenebilirliği ve deformasyon hızına etkisi ortaya
konmuştur. Bazı dikkat çekici bulgular şu şekildedir;

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• Malzeme -6° talaş açısı değerinde işlendiğinde tüm kesme hızları ve ilerleme değerlerinde en yüksek
kesme kuvveti ve kesme sıcaklıkları elde edilmiştir.
• Pozitif talaş açısına sahip kesici takımlar işlenebilme performansı açısından daha verimlidir.
• CW551L malzemenin işlenmesi 105 S-1 deformasyon hızında gerçekleşmiştir.
• Deformasyon hızına etki bakımından talaş açısı nispeten etkili bir parametreyken kesme hızının etkisi
daha barizdir. En yüksek deformasyon hızı maksimum kesme hızı ve -6° talaş açısı değerinde elde
edilmiştir.
Bu çalışma kurşunsuz pirinç malzemelerin işlenebilirliğinin kesme parametreleri ile control
edilebileceiğini ve talaş kaldırma operayonlarında karşılaşılan problemlerin çözülebileceğini
göstermektedir.

16 Kaynakça
1. Nobel, C., U. Hofmann, F. Klocke,D. Veselovac (2016) Experimental investigation of chip formation, flow, and
breakage in free orthogonal cutting of copper-zinc alloys. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technology 84:1127-1140
2. Vilarinho, C., J. Davim, D. Soares, F. Castro,J. Barbosa (2005) Influence of the chemical composition on the
machinability of brasses. Journal of materials processing Technology 170 (1-2):441-447
3. Nobel, C., F. Klocke, D. Lung,S. Wolf (2014) Machinability enhancement of lead-free brass alloys. Procedia
Cirp 14:95-100
4. Hofmann, U., M. Ababneh, M. Scharf,H. Vogt (2005) Messing und Stahl auf dem Prüfstand: Ein Vergleich der
Zerspanbarkeit. Werkstatt und Betrieb 7:93-97
5. Imai, H., H. Atsumi, Y. Kosaka, A. Kojima, J. Umeda,K. Kondoh (2009) Mechanical properties and
machinability of extruded Cu-40% Zn brass alloys with bismuth via powder metallurgy process. Transactions of
JWRI 38 (1):25-30
6. Saigal, A.,P. Rohatgi (1996) Machinability of cast lead-free yellow brass containing graphite particles.
Transactions of the American Foundrymen's Society 104:225-228
7. Gane, N. (1981) The effect of lead on the friction and machining of brass. Philosophical Magazine A 43 (3):545-
566
8. Nobel, C., U. Hofmann, F. Klocke,D. Veselovac (2016) Experimental investigation of chip formation, flow, and
breakage in free orthogonal cutting of copper-zinc alloys. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing
Technology 84 (5-8):1127-1140
9. Chen, X., A. Hu, M. Li,D. Mao (2008) Study on the properties of Sn–9Zn–xCr lead-free solder. Journal of alloys
and Compounds 460 (1-2):478-484
10. Atsumi, H., H. Imai, S. Li, K. Kondoh, Y. Kousaka,A. Kojima (2011) High-strength, lead-free machinable α–β
duplex phase brass Cu–40Zn–Cr–Fe–Sn–Bi alloys. Materials Science and Engineering: A 529:275-281
11. Directive, E. (2011) Directive 2011/65/EU of the European Parliament and of the Council of 8 June 2011, on
the restriction of the use of certain hazardous substances in electrical and electronic equipment (recast). Official
Journal of the European Communities
12. Hofmann, U.,E. El-Magd (2005) Behaviour of Cu-Zn alloys in high speed shear tests and in chip formation
processes. Materials Science and Engineering: A 395 (1-2):129-140
13. Klocke, F., D. Lung,C. Nobel (2012) Ansätze zur Hochleistungszerspanung bleifreier Kupferwerkstoffe. Metall-
Clausthal 66 (11):496
14. Taha, M.A., N.A. El-Mahallawy, R.M. Hammouda, T.M. Moussa,M.H. Gheith (2012) Machinability
characteristics of lead free-silicon brass alloys as correlated with microstructure and mechanical properties. Ain
Shams Engineering Journal 3 (4):383-392
15. Kato, H., S. Nakata,N. Ikenaga (2014) Improvement of chip evacuation in drilling of lead-free brass using micro
drill. International journal of automation technology 8 (6):874-879
16. Klocke, F., C. Nobel,D. Veselovac (2016) Influence of tool coating, tool material, and cutting speed on the
machinability of low-leaded brass alloys in turning. Materials and Manufacturing Processes 31 (14):1895-1903
17. Toulfatzis, A.I., G.A. Pantazopoulos,A.S. Paipetis (2014) Fracture behavior and characterization of lead-free
brass alloys for machining applications. Journal of materials engineering and performance 23 (9):3193-3206

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CRYOGENIC MACHINING OF WAAMed IN625: TiAlN versus TiAlSiN

COATED CARBIDE DRILLS
Parth Ravala,b ,Tarang Lotwalaa , Navneet Khannaa

aAdvanced Manufacturing Laboratory, Institute of Infrastructure, Technology, Research and Management,

Ahmedabad-380026, India, parth.raval.20pm@iitram.ac.in, lotwala.tarang.22m@iitram.ac.in,
navneetkhanna@iitram.ac.in
bAssistant Professor, Mechanical Engineering Department, Shankersinh Vaghela Bapu Institute of Technology,
Gandhinagar-382650, India, parth.raval@bapugkv.ac.in

Abstract: This research evaluates the machining performance of IN625 plates produced via the WAAM
process, focusing on cryogenic machining with two coated carbide drills : D1 (TiAlN coating) and D2 (PVD
TiAlSiN coating). The study conducted on a 3-axis vertical machinig center, revealed that the D1 drill
exhibited superior performance, with a 190.67% higher thrust force, 195.58% greater torque and 79.9% higher
tool wear compared to D2 drill. Despite D2’s rapid wear and catastrophic failure after six holes, D1 maintained
consistent performance over 27 holes. Surface roughness and hole quality assessments showed the D1 drill
had a 297.06% higher surface roughness due to D2’s failure, while maintaining superior cylindricity (554.57%
higher CIRE) and circularity (443.3% higher CYLE). The findings highlight the importance of selecting
appropriate tool coatings and optimizing cutting conditions to enhance machining performance and tool life,
especially in cryogenic environments for additively manufactured materials.

Keywords : Inconel 625, Cryogenic Machining, Tool Geometry

1.Introduction
Manufacturing industries are essential to the global economy, but they also have a substantial environmental
impact because of high energy consumption and the utilization of cutting fluids derived from carbon-based
sources. According to the reports, machining procedures alone account for 25% of the entire global industrial
energy usage.[1] Carbon based traditional cutting fluids are used in 600 million gallons of work across the
world, and 54% of that is employed in machining.[2] The environmental impact of cutting fluid disposal is
estimated to be 12 million metric tons. Used cutting fluids have treatment and disposal costs that are 1-2 times
higher than their production costs. If they are disposed off improperly, they contaminate land and water.
Cutting fluid costs account for 7-17% of overall manufacturing costs, and for materials that are challenging to
cut, they reach 20%.[3] When machining materials with low thermal conductivity, dissipating heat from the
cutting zone becomes more difficult with flood cooling, rendering it unsustainable economically,
environmentally and with adverse effects on worker health.[4]

Additive Manufacturing (AM) in contrast to traditional subtractive manufacturing methods, employs a process
of layer-by-layer production using a common feedstock, ususally in the form of powder of wire. This material
is melted or fused by a heat source then solidifies to create the desired shape, following a digitally determined
path for the heat source.[5] Additive Manufacturing (AM) technologies have revolutionized modern
manufacturing by enabling the production of complex geometries and reducing material waste. Among these
technologies, Wire Arc Additive Manufacturing (WAAM) stands out for its ability to fabricate large-scale
metal components with high deposition rates. WAAM has gained particular attention for producing nickel-
based superalloys, such as Inconel 625, which are widely used in aerospace, marine and energy sectors due to
their exceptional mechanical properties, corrosion resistance and high temperature performance.[6] It has good
weldability and brazeability, making it suitable for various applications. IN625 also has high thermal stability
and resistance to oxidation. However, its low thermal conductivity can lead to increased cutting zone
temperatures during machining due to hindrance in heat dissipation from the cutting zone to the chips. This
result in elevated temperatures in the cutting region, often reaching up to 1000°C, which accelerates various
tool wear mechanisms such as adhesion, diffusion, and oxidation. [7] This combined effect with its high
strength and work hardening tendency, makes IN625 challenging to machine.[8] Adhesion tool wear in
machining Inconel 625 is primarily due to its high temperatures generated during machining, which cause the
workpiece material to soften and adhere to the tool. Additionally, IN625’s chemical affinity for common tool

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materials and its tendency to work harden further excerbate the adhesion process. Despite these challenges,
In625 is a robust and versatile material for high-stress applications. [9]

Typically, emulsion-based cutting fluids containing carbon are commonly employed to mitigate tool wear
issues by dissipating heat. The extensive utilization of it poses a significant risk to the quality of air, land, and
water resources.[10] Furthermore, around 80% of skin-related problems caused by occupational activities are
attributed to the use of traditional coolants.[11] In addition, these machines lack the ability to efficiently
dissipate heat from the cutting area when working with low thermally conductive materials. This leads to
increased manufacturing costs due to the need for coolant maintenance and disposal. Therefore, their lack of
sustainability is attributed to the emergence of environmental, economic, and worker's health-related
problems.[12] As an alternative to the coolants mentioned above, different methods of cutting fluid such as
cryogenic coolants (LN2 and LCO2), Minimum Quantity Lubrication (MQL), and high-pressure coolant
(HPC) are being developed to offer long-lasting solutions.[13]

Drilling is considered as one of the primary metal removal processes constituting about 33% of all machining
processes. Although drilling operations are crucial, several factors including the drill geometry, drill point
angle, the properties of the drill materials, and the characteristics of the workpiece significantly influence the
machining processes. With larger point angles, the chip removal area per tool revolution in the workpiece is
reduced, leading to improved surface quality, reduced thrust force, decreased tool wear, and extended tool
life.[14] Drilling Inconel alloys, such as IN625 and IN718, presents significant challenges due to their high
strength, toughness, and low thermal conductivity, which lead to high temperatures at the cutting zone. These
conditions accelerate tool wear mechanisms, including adhesion, abrasion, and diffusion, thereby reducing tool
life and increasing production costs.[15] Research has shown that using cryogenic cooling, such as liquid
nitrogen (LN2) and liquid carbon dioxide (LCO2), can significantly enhance machinability by reducing the
cutting zone temperature and improving tool wear resistance. Additionally, cryogenic cooling has been found
to produce better surface finish and dimensional accuracy compared to conventional cooling methods. Despite
these advantages, there is a need for further studies to optimize process parameters and assess the
environmental impacts of cryogenic machining for Inconel alloys.[16]

The development of titanium-based metal nitride coatings, such as TiN, began in the early 1970s. The initial
TiN coatings were enhanced by adding aluminum, resulting in the development of TiAlN coatings. TiAlN
coatings are particularly noted for their exceptional wear resistance at high speeds, thermal stability, and
corrosion resistance. These coatings have proven to be highly effective for high-speed machining, remaining
popular in various machining operations. The key advantage of TiAlN coatings is the formation of an oxide
layer at the tool–workpiece interface, which provides excellent oxidation resistance. [17] TiAlSiN coatings
enhanced with titanium interlayers significantly improve the performance of cemented carbide tools, notably
in high-performance machining due to their unique microstructure which enhances hardness and grain
refinement through the Hall-Petch effect.[18]

Cryogenic coolants are important options for machining difficult-to-machine IN625 due to their ability to
quickly remove heat from the cutting zone, therefore providing sustainable cutting fluid strategies. Unlike wet
cooling, cryogenic coolants leave no residue on chips, thus avoiding the chip recycling process. A number of
literary works have been discovered that evaluate the machining performance of cryogenic coolants (LN2 and
LCO2). Shah et al.[19] conducted a comparative investigation of flood, dry, and cryogenic environments using
LCO2 and LN2 for drilling VT-20, a titanium alloy. The analysis focused on evaluating torque, thrust force,
chip analysis, microhardness, power consumption, and hole quality indicators. The results of all machinability
indices showed that cryogenic fluids were superior. The cryogenic environment with LN2 exhibited the least
amount of tool wear. Polvorosa et al.[20] conducted a comprative machinability analysis of turning Waspaloy
and IN718 with small and large grains. They used cooling with both low and high pressure. When compared
to standard flood coolant, using high pressure coolant led to lower cutting forces and less wear on the notch
and flank.

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While extensive research has been conducted on the benefits of cryogenic cooling and the use of advanced
tool coatings in machining, there remains a significant gap in understanding the comparative performance of
TiAlN versus TiAlSiN coatings with varying Helix angle of drilling tool when drilling WAAMed IN625 under
identical cryogenic cutting conditions. Addressing this gap is crucial for optimizing machining processes,
improving tool life, and enhancing the quality of WAAMed components in high-performance applications.
This study aims to perform a comparative analysis of TiAlN and TiAlSiN coated cemented carbide drills’
performance during the cryogenic machining of WAAMed IN625. By maintaining consistent cutting speed,
feed rate, and cryogenic conditions, this research seeks to evaluate the differences in tool wear, thrust force,
and surface finish between the two coatings. The findings are expected to provide valuable insights for
selecting optimal tool geometry and coatings combination in the machining WAAMed components, ultimately
contributing to more efficient and sustainable manufacturing processes.

2. Experimental Methodology and Machinability Tests

2.1 Experimental Methodology

The research work comprises three phases : 1.Producing an IN625 workpiece using the WAAM process,
2.Conducting cryogenic machining with two different cutting tools under identical cutting conditions and
3.Analyzing machining responses for detailed machinability analysis. A GMAW-based wire arc additive
manufacturing setup was utilized to fabricate IN625 workpiece (150mm x 35mm x 7mm) used for the drilling
experiments. The chemical composition of WAAMed IN625 is detailed in Table 1. Two coated cemented
carbide drills- D1 (TiAlN coating) and D2 (PVD TiAlSiN coating) were tested with experimental and cutting
conditions provided in Table 2. The diameter, type drill tool’s coating, coating thickness, helix angle, feed rate
and cutting speed were selected based on previous research and pilot tests for comparative analysis. Liquid
CO2 (LCO2) stored at 60 bar in a pressurized cylinder was directed to the cutting zone via a siphon tube and
delivered through nozzle using a thermoplastic hose (120 bar capacity). Cryogenic coolant flow rates remained
constant throughout the experiments.

The Titanium Aluminum Nitride (TiAlN) coating consist of titanium, aluminum and nitrogen. This coating is
notable for its ability to form an aluminum oxide layer at high temperatures, which provides a thermal barrier
that enhances tool performance under thermal stress, whereas Titanium Aluminum Silicon Nitride (TiAlSiN)
ads silicon to the TiAlN matrix, leading to an even tougher coating with enhanced properties. The inclusion of
silicon creates a coating that is more resistant to oxidation and provides improved hardness and thermal
stability. TiAlN and TiAlSiN coatings are essential for enhancing the durability and performance of cutting
tools, each with distinct benefits. TiAlN, composed of titanium, aluminum and nitrogen forms a protective
alumina layer at high temperatures, aiding thermal stability up to 800oC and is suited for machining high-
temperature alloys. TiAlSiN with added silicon, provides superior oxidation resistance and thermal stability,
supporting temperatures up to 1000oC, which makes it ideal for high-speed machining of tough materials. The
inclusion of silicon in TiAlSiN not only improves hardness and wear resistance but also reduces power
consumption and increases cutting speeds. The difference in helix angle of drill-D1 and drill-D2 are indicated
in the Figure 1 (a) and (b).

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(a) D1 (b) D2
Figure 1: Cemented Carbide coated twist type drill bits with different coatings (a) TiAlN coating and (b)
PVD TiAlSiN coating

Table 1: Chemical Composition of Inconel 625

Elemen Ni Cr Mo C Si Mn P S Nb+T Fe Al Ti
t a
% (wt) 64.7 21.9 8.7 0.00 0.1 0.05 0.00 0.01 3.63 0.1 0.1 0.2
4 2 1 2 7 5 1 0 7 3 0

Table 2: Experimental Setup and Cutting Conditions

Material Component Technical Specifications
Workpiece IN625 (Wire Arc Additively Manufactured)
Dimension: 150 × 35 × 7 mm; Hardness: 186 HBW
Machine 3-axis vertical machining center (VMC) V 544 (Macpower made) equipped with
Maximum cutting feed rate: − 10000 mm/min and Motor capacity: − 7.5 kW;
Maximum spindle speed: − 8000 rpm
Drill Drill Tool1: D1 coated solid carbide (TiAlN) drill, Type: Twist, No. of flute: 2,
Drill diameter: 5 mm Helix angle: 30◦, Point angle: 140◦
Drill Tool2: D2 coated solid carbide (TiAlSiN) drill; Type: Twist, No. of
flute:2, Drill diameter: 5mm, Helix angle: 20.45◦ Point angle: 140◦
Hole Drilling method: Direct (Blind hole with 3.5mm depth)
Cutting conditions LCO2: Flow rate: 50 kg/h, Nozzle diameter: 2mm, workpiece to nozzle tip
distance: 20 mm, Nozzle angle: 45° for both approaches
Cutting parameters Cutting speed: 50 m/min, Feed: 100 mm/min
Responses considered Tool wear, Torque, Thrust Force, hole quality (Ra, CIRE and CYLE)

Table 3: Positive Material Identification of Drill Tools

Drill tool (D1)
Element Cr Fe Co Ta W Remarks
% 0.50 0.23 9.5 1.1 88.00 Cemented Carbide tool with TiAlN coating
Drill tool (D2)
Element Cr Fe Co Ta W Remarks
% 0.52 0.25 9.6 0.85 88.50 Cemented Carbide tool with PVD TiAlSiN
coating

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2.2 Machinability Tests

To evaluate the effects of tool geometry and its coatings on machining performance of WAAMed IN625 under
the cryogenic environment (CO2), indicators such as thrust force, torque, tool wear and hole quality (Ra,
cylindricity and circularity) were measured, maintaining a constant cutting speed and feed. Thrust force, a key
machinability indicator, reflects energy needed for chip formation, system stability and tool wear. Data on
thrust force were collected using a Kistler 4-component tool dynanometer-type 9272A, which converts force
into voltage signals via piezometric rings and a multichannel charge amplifier, then processes and stores them
digitally. Tool flank wear was measured using a Mitutoyo tool maker’s microscope connected to a QM Data
200 unit, with a study limit of 0.2mm tool wear or 27 holes, whichever occurs first. Surface roughness, critical
for corrosion resistance and fatigue strength, was measured using a Sutronic S-128 surface roughness tester
following ISO 4288-1996 standards.

Figure 2 : Machining tests with response parameters measurement plan

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3.Results and Discussion

3.1Torque and Thrust Force

The thrust force is a critical factor in influencing the material’s machinability. The thrust force values are
indicative of the energy required for chip formation, the extent of tool wear and the overall stability of the
machining system. The WAAMed IN625 workpiece’s composition, rich in nickel (64.74%), chromium
(21.92%) and molybdenum (8.71%) posed significant machining challenges due to its exceptional strength and
corrosion resistance. As shown in Figure 3(a), the D1 drill exhibited a gradual increase in thrust force,
indicating a controlled wear pattern and consistent performance. Conversely, the D2 drill showed higher initial
thrust force, suggesting rapid wear and higher resistance. The D2 drill experienced a catastrophic failure after
completing 6 holes, wheresas the D1 drill met the tool wear criteria after 27 holes. Consequently, the thrust
force for the D1 drill was 190.67% higher than that of the D2 drill. The TiAlN coating on the D1 drill
effectively reduced friction and wear, resulting in lower thrust force and slower wear progression. In contrast,
the PVD TiAlSiN coating on the D2 drill, despite its superior thermal stability and hardness, faced greater
initial resistance, possibly due to differences in coating adhesion on material interaction.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

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(e) (f)
Figure 3: Evaluation of Machining Performance Parameters Using D1 and D2 Drills: (a) Thrust Force, (b)
Torque, (c) Tool Wear, (d) Surface Roughness, (e) Cylindricity, (f) Circularity
As shown in Figure 3(b), the D1 drill demonstrated a gradual decrease and stabilization of torque values,
indicating effective wear resistance and performance consistency. Whereas, the D2 drill showed significantly
higher initial torque values, indicating rapid wear and higher resistance. The torque values recorded for D1
drill were 195.58% higher than those for the D2 drill. Table 1 indicates that parts fabricated using WAAM
have a higher Nickel (Ni) content. The formation of γ" precipitates (Ni3Nb), crucial for the strain hardening
of Inconel alloys, is enhanced by the high nickel content. The same effect of higher values of torque and thrust
force during the drilling of WAAMed specimens was observed during past experiments on similar
workpieces.[5] The TiAlN coating on the D1 drill effectively reduced friction and wear, aided by cryogenic
cooling, resulting in lower torque values and a gradual wear pattern. Conversely, the PVD TiAlSiN coating on
the D2 drill faced greater initial resistance and rapid tool wear, potentially due to differences in coating
adhesion or interaction with the WAAMed IN625. The D1 drill with TiAlN coating demonstrated more
consistent performance and durability, making it a preferable choice for drilling WAAMed IN625 under the
given conditions.

3.2 Tool Wear

The characteristics of tool wear are determined by a number of factors, such as the conditions of cooling and/or
lubrication, the parameters of the drilling process, and the types of wear mechanisms that are involved.
Research has shown that tool wear does not usually result from a singular mechanism, like abrasion, but is
instead the result of a complex combination of multiple mechanisms, such as adhesion, chipping, and abrasion.
Tool designers and researchers are continuously working to mitigate these wear mechanisms and remove
unwanted wear types, like chipping, to ensure predictable and manageable progressive tool wear. Figure 3 (c)
shows that the D1 drill exhibited a gradual increase in tool wear, indicating effective wear resistance and
performance stability of the TiAlN coating. In contrast, the D2 drill observed higher initial tool wear and then
increasing rapidly just by 6th hole, suggesting rapid wear and reduced tool life despite its thermal stability and
hardness. As a result, the D1 drill exhibited 79.9% higher tool wear compared to the D2 drill. The cryogenic
environment was crucial in reducing thermal effects and maintaining tool integrity. The LCO2 penetrates the
tool-chip interface more effectively as it exits the nozzle at a pressure of 60 bars. The decreased friction
between the tool and the chip interface results in reduced tool wear.[23] It has been found in previous research
that chipping on the flank face is the primary cause of tool wear in cryogenic machining, and this phenomenon
was also noted during the machining process. This chipping is primarily caused by the increasing thrust force
that results from the solidification of chips at extremely low temperatures.[24] During the D2 drill drilling
process, chipping is discovered at the final step before the drill fails. The literature indicates that the TiAlN
coating experienced abrasion wear largely from the rubbing induced by harder particles such as TiN, NbC, and
TiC present in the workpiece. By weakening the cobalt binder phase, the larger size of these precipitates
compared to cobalt and the small difference in hardness between these precipitates and WC resulted in
increased abrasion wear. When the hardness and integrity of the cutting tool decrease, the harder particles
break the cutting edge into smaller fragments, which is known as chipping.[25,26]
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3.3 Hole Quality

3.3.1 Surface Roughness

Figure 3 (d) compares the surface roughness of the machined holes two different drill geometries (D1 drill and
D2 drill) under cryogenic cutting condition. The D1 drill exhibited gradually increased surface roughness
values till the tool wear criteria was reached which indicates progressive tool wear. In contrast, the D2 drill
showed higher initial surface roughness values which suggests rapid wear ended up at catastrophic failure
before the tool wear criteria. The D1 drill displayed 297.06% higher surface roughness due to the catastrophic
failure. The TiAlN coating on the D1 drill provided effective friction reduction and wear resistance, resulting
in lower initial roughness and a more controlled increase over time. Conversely, the D2 drill's PVD TiAlSiN
coating, despite its excellent thermal stability and hardness, led to higher initial roughness and faster
degradation. The cryogenic cooling played a crucial role in both cases by reducing thermal effects and
maintaining tool integrity. However, the more stable surface roughness values for the D1 drill highlight its
superior wear resistance and performance consistency.

3.3.2 Cylindricity and Circularity

Figure 3 (e) shows that the D1 drill demonstrated a steady increase in CIRE values over 27 holes, indicating a
controlled wear pattern and consistent performance due to the TiAlN coating's effectiveness in reducing
friction and wear. In comparison, the D2 drill initially had lower CIRE values but deteriorated quickly due to
rapid wear and higher initial resistance. Both drills benefited from cryogenic cooling, which maintained tool
integrity, but the D1 drill's stable circularity values highlighted its superior performance and durability. The
chipping observed in the D2 drill reinforced the conclusion that the TiAlN-coated D1 drill is better suited for
high precision and extended tool life when drilling WAAMed Inconel 625. The D1 drill observed 554.57%
more CIRE values as compared to D2 drill, because of the catastrophic failure of D2 drill after 6th hole.

As depicted in Figure 3 (f), the D1 drill exhibited varying CYLE values across 27 holes, further demonstrating
a controlled wear pattern and reliable performance. The TiAlN coating effectively minimized friction and
wear, preserving good hole quality and tool stability. Conversely, the D2 drill showed lower initial CYLE
values but experienced rapid wear and higher initial resistance, leading to a quicker decline in performance.
Despite the superior thermal stability and hardness of the PVD TiAlSiN coating on the D2 drill, it struggled to
maintain cutting edge integrity, leading to increased degradation and reduced tool life. The cryogenic
environment was crucial in reducing thermal effects and maintaining tool integrity for both drills, but the D1
drill's consistent performance emphasized its advantage for high-precision and long-lasting applications when
drilling WAAM Inconel 625. The D1 drill recorded a 443.3% higher number of CYLE values compared to the
D2 drill due to the complete failure of the D2 drill after drilling the sixth hole.The greater deviation in CIRE
and CYLE for AM-ed is due to the higher cutting forces observed during the drilling operation. These increased
cutting forces lead to greater vibrations during drilling, resulting in poor hole quality.[8]

4.Conclusions
The research work involved a comprehensive study on the machining performance of IN625 workpiece
produced through the WAAM process. The utilization of wire arc additively manufactured IN625 workpiece
provided a robust framework for evaluating the effectiveness of cryogenic machining under controlled
conditions. The study investigates the performance of two different coated carbide drill bits, D1 with TiAlN
coating and D2 with PVD TiAlSiN coating, during drilling operations on a wire arc additively manufactured
Inconel 625 workpiece. The following conclusions have been derived from the observations.

• The drilling experiments highlighted the performance differences between two coated carbide drill bits,
D1 with TiAlN coating and D2 with PVD TiAlSiN coating. The D1 drill exhibited superior performance
in terms of thrust force, torque, and tool wear compared to the D2 drill. Specifically, the D1 drill
demonstrated a gradual increase in thrust force, indicating controlled wear and consistent performance,
whereas the D2 drill showed higher initial thrust forces, leading to rapid wear and catastrophic failure

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after only six holes. This resulted in the D1 drill having a thrust force 190.67% higher than that of the D2
drill, underlining its effectiveness in reducing friction and wear.

• Torque measurements further corroborated the superiority of the D1 drill. The D1 drill showed a gradual
decrease and stabilization of torque values, indicating effective wear resistance and performance
consistency. In contrast, the D2 drill exhibited significantly higher initial torque values and rapid wear,
resulting in a catastrophic failure after drilling just six holes. Consequently, the torque values for the D1
drill were 195.58% greater than those for the D2 drill, showcasing the benefits of the TiAlN coating in
maintaining lower torque values and a gradual wear pattern.

• Tool wear analysis revealed that the D1 drill exhibited a gradual increase in tool wear, indicating effective
wear resistance and performance stability. Conversely, the D2 drill experienced higher initial tool wear
and rapid increase, resulting in reduced tool life. The D1 drill showed 79.9% higher tool wear compared
to the D2 drill, despite the latter's superior thermal stability and hardness. The cryogenic environment
played a crucial role in reducing thermal effects and maintaining tool integrity, as evidenced by the
increased penetrability of LCO2 at the tool-chip interface and the reduced friction between the tool and
chip interface.

• Surface roughness and hole quality assessments reinforced the findings from the thrust force and torque
measurements. The D1 drill exhibited lower initial surface roughness values and a more controlled
increase over time, while the D2 drill showed higher initial roughness and faster degradation. The D1 drill
demonstrated 297.06% higher surface roughness due to the catastrophic failure of the D2 drill. Similarly,
the D1 drill's performance in maintaining cylindricity (CIRE) and circularity (CYLE) values was superior,
with 554.57% higher CIRE and 443.3% higher CYLE values compared to the D2 drill.

Overall, the study concluded that the TiAlN-coated D1 drill demonstrated more consistent performance,
durability, and better hole quality under cryogenic machining conditions. The greater deviation in CIRE and
CYLE for AM-ed specimens was attributed to the higher cutting forces and resulting vibrations during the
drilling operation, which negatively impacted hole quality. The findings underscore the importance of selecting
appropriate tool coatings and optimizing cutting conditions to enhance machining performance and tool life,
particularly in challenging environments such as cryogenic machining of additively manufactured materials.

Acknowledgement

The authors acknowledge the Government of India’s SERB-DST for the financial support provided under the
"Design and Development of Energy Efficient Cryogenic Machining Facility for Heat Resistant alloys and
carbon fibre composites" project (ECR/2016/000735). The authors are also obliged to the Gujarat
Technological University (GTU) for the financial support granted under the "Machanibility analysis of Wire-
arc additive manufactured Inconel 625" project (GTU/IQAC/RPS-MRP-C1/Sanction Letter/2022/5937).

5.References
[1] Shokrani, A., Dhokia, V., & Newman, S. T. (2018). Energy conscious cryogenic machining of Ti-6Al-4V
titanium alloy. Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part B: Journal of Engineering
Manufacture, 232(10), 1690-1706.
[2] Khanna, N., Shah, P., Maruda, R. W., Krolczyk, G. M., & Hegab, H. (2020). Experimental investigation
and sustainability assessment to evaluate environmentally clean machining of 15-5 PH stainless steel. Journal
of Manufacturing Processes, 56, 1027-1038.
[3] Katna, R., Suhaib, M., & Agrawal, N. (2020). Nonedible vegetable oil-based cutting fluids for machining
processes–a review. Materials and Manufacturing Processes, 35(1), 1-32.

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[4] Pusavec, F., Deshpande, A., Yang, S., M'Saoubi, R., Kopac, J., Dillon Jr, O. W., & Jawahir, I. S. (2014).
Sustainable machining of high temperature Nickel alloy–Inconel 718: part 1–predictive performance models.
Journal of Cleaner Production, 81, 255-269.
[5] Khanna, N., Raval, P., Patel, D., Prajapati, R., Schoop, J., & Gajrani, K. K. (2023). Assessment of additive
and subtractive sustainable manufacturing of Inconel 625. Tribology International, 186, 108655.
[6] Yangfan, W., Xizhang, C., & Chuanchu, S. (2019). Microstructure and mechanical properties of Inconel
625 fabricated by wire-arc additive manufacturing. Surface and Coatings Technology, 374, 116-123.
[7] Datta, S., Biswal, B. B., & Mahapatra, S. S. (2019). Machinability analysis of Inconel 601, 625, 718 and
825 during electro-discharge machining: on evaluation of optimal parameters setting. Measurement, 137, 382-
400.
[8] Raval, P., Patel, D., Prajapati, R., Badheka, V., Gupta, M. K., & Khanna, N. (2022). Energy consumption
and economic modelling of performance measures in machining of wire arc additively manufactured Inconel-
625. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 32, e00434.
[9] Salvi, H., Vesuwala, H., Raval, P., Badheka, V., & Khanna, N. (2023). Sustainability analysis of additive+
subtractive manufacturing processes for Inconel 625. Sustainable Materials and Technologies, 35, e00580.
[10] Agrawal, C., Khanna, N., Gupta, M. K., & Kaynak, Y. (2020). Sustainability assessment of in-house
developed environment-friendly hybrid techniques for turning Ti-6Al-4V. Sustainable Materials and
Technologies, 26, e00220.
[11] Ghosh, S., & Rao, P. V. (2019). Comparison between sustainable cryogenic techniques and nano-MQL
cooling mode in turning of nickel-based alloy. Journal of cleaner production, 231, 1036-1049.
[12] Sarikaya, M., Gupta, M. K., Tomaz, I., Danish, M., Mia, M., Rubaiee, S., ... & Khanna, N. (2021). Cooling
techniques to improve the machinability and sustainability of light-weight alloys: A state-of-the-art review.
Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 62, 179-201.
[13] Patel, T., Khanna, N., Yadav, S., Shah, P., Sarikaya, M., Singh, D., ... & Kotkunde, N. (2021).
Machinability analysis of nickel-based superalloy Nimonic 90: A comparison between wet and LCO 2 as a
cryogenic coolant. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology, 113, 3613-3628.
[14] Demir, Z. (2018). An experimental investigation of the effects of point angle on the high-speed steel drills
performance in drilling. Measurement and Control, 51(9-10), 417-430.
[15] Attanasio, A., Ceretti, E., Outeiro, J., & Poulachon, G. (2020). Numerical simulation of tool wear in
drilling Inconel 718 under flood and cryogenic cooling conditions. Wear, 458, 203403.
[16] Pervaiz, S., Kannan, S., & Subramaniam, A. (2020). Optimization of cutting process parameters in
inclined drilling of inconel 718 using finite element method and taguchi analysis. Materials, 13(18), 3995.
[17] Sousa, V. F., Da Silva, F. J. G., Pinto, G. F., Baptista, A., & Alexandre, R. (2021). Characteristics and wear
mechanisms of TiAlN-based coatings for machining applications: A comprehensive review. Metals, 11(2),
260.
[18] Yu, D., Wang, C., Cheng, X., & Zhang, F. (2009). Microstructure and properties of TiAlSiN coatings
prepared by hybrid PVD technology. Thin Solid Films, 517(17), 4950-4955.
[19] Shah, P., & Khanna, N. (2020). Comprehensive machining analysis to establish cryogenic LN2 and LCO2
as sustainable cooling and lubrication techniques. Tribology International, 148, 106314.
[20] Polvorosa, R., Suárez, A., De Lacalle, L. N. L., Cerrillo, I., Wretland, A., & Veiga, F. (2017). Tool wear
on nickel alloys with different coolant pressures: comparison of alloy 718 and Waspaloy. J Manuf Process 26:
44–56.
[21] Farid, A. A., Sharif, S., & Namazi, H. (2009). Effect of machining parameters and cutting edge geometry
on surface integrity when drilling and hole making in Inconel 718. SAE International Journal of Materials and
Manufacturing, 2(1), 564-569.
[22] Demir, Z., & Yakut, R. (2018). An investigation of the effect of parameters and chip slenderness ratio on
drilling process quality of AISI 1050 steel. Advances in Materials Science and Engineering, 2018(1), 9753464.
[23] Jerold, B. D., & Kumar, M. P. (2013). The influence of cryogenic coolants in machining of Ti–6Al–4V.
Journal of manufacturing science and engineering, 135(3), 031005.
[24] Uçak, N., & Çiçek, A. (2018). The effects of cutting conditions on cutting temperature and hole quality
in drilling of Inconel 718 using solid carbide drills. Journal of Manufacturing Processes, 31, 662-673.

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[25] Imran, M., Mativenga, P. T., Gholinia, A., & Withers, P. J. (2014). Comparison of tool wear mechanisms
and surface integrity for dry and wet micro-drilling of nickel-base superalloys. International Journal of
Machine Tools and Manufacture, 76, 49-60.
[26] Thrinadh, J., Mohapatra, A., Datta, S., & Masanta, M. (2020). Machining behavior of Inconel 718
superalloy: Effects of cutting speed and depth of cut. Materials Today: Proceedings, 26, 200-208.

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SURFACE MACHINING OF STEEL DEFECTS DETECTION USING DEEP

LEARNING AND COMPUTER VISION

Aya A. A. Ramadan1a, Mahmoud Khaled1b, Sachin Salunkhe*2c, Gökhan Küçüktürk2c

Hussein M.A. Hussein1,3d
1
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Helwan University, Cairo
11732, Egypt.
2c
Department of Biosciences, Saveetha School of Engineering, Saveetha Institute of Medical and
Technical Sciences, Chennai, India
2c
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Gazi University Faculty of Engineering, Maltepe,
Ankara, Turkey
3
Mechanical Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Ahram Canadian University, Egypt
a
ayaabdalla@h-eng.helwan.edu.eg, bmahmoud97khaled@gmail.com,
c
sachinsalunkhe@gazi.edu.tr, dhussein@h-eng.helwan.edu.eg

*Corresponding Author: sachinsalunkhe@gazi.edu.tr

Abstract: The surface machining inspection of steel pipes during manufacturing is the primary
procedure to ensure their quality. Established inspection systems incur substantial maintenance costs
and offer minimal flexibility. This article proposes using a rapid-retraining convolutional artificial
neural network for detecting surface machining defects in steel pipes. Our solution decreases
production and repair costs compared to a manually coded steel surface defect identification
classification scheme. Authentic defects represent a novelty in the production of steel pipes.
Nonetheless, developing a structured dataset requires substantial time and financial resources. The
system, when combined, enables us to train our system more efficiently and at a lower cost than
current systems. We can illustrate that our robot can be trained in minutes, reducing interruption in
output and allowing for highly accurate identification of defects.

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EFFECT OF ASYMMETRIC CUTTING TOOLS ON SURFACE QUALITY

M. Kubilay Askerdena, Fatih Karpatb, and M. Cemal Çakırc
a, Bursa Uludag University Engineering Faculty Mechanical Engineering Department, Bursa/TURKEY,
kubilayaskerden@uludag.edu.tr

b, Bursa Uludag University Engineering Faculty Mechanical Engineering Department, Bursa/TURKEY,

karpat@uludag.edu.tr

c, Bursa Uludag University Engineering Faculty Mechanical Engineering Department, Bursa/TURKEY,

cemal@uludag.edu.tr

1. Introduction
The notion of variable-angle milling has been a focus of investigation for more than forty years [1, 2]. In
contrast to conventional regular interval milling processes, variable-angle milling cutters have been employed
to mitigate the impact of undesirable regenerative vibrations. Variable-angle milling cutters enhance surface
quality and tool longevity by mitigating the occurrence of undesirable vibrations [3,4,5,6].

a
b
Figure 1. a- symmetrical cutting tool center b- asymmetrical cutting tool center

In the plastic and metal die industry, surface quality is paramount throughout the production process of all dies.
Currently, regenerative vibrations have the potential to produce adverse consequences. This study examined
the impact of asymmetric spherical end mills with altered center points on surface quality, utilizing asymmetric
tools designed to enhance mold surface quality. Figure 1 illustrates the centers of symmetric and asymmetric
cutting tools.

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2. Experimental
This study utilized 1.2379 steel, commonly employed in die manufacture because of its high hardness. To get
the requisite surface quality in the finishing process, milling was conducted using both asymmetric and
symmetrical cutters under identical cutting circumstances. The need for high surface quality, the fact that the
material is very hard, and its wide use in making dies all make asymmetric center milling more important.

45°

Figure 2. a- asymmetrical cutting tool center b- symmetrical cutting tool center

Table 1. Cutting Parameters

Cutting
S (rev/min) F (mm/min) Ae (mm) Ap (mm)
Parameters

Asymetric
9500 1200 0.04 0.04
Cutting Tool

Symetric Cutting
9500 1200 0.04 0.04
Tool

Figure 2 illustrates that the milling operation was conducted utilizing die material featuring a sloped surface.
Table 2 illustrates the cutting parameters.

3. Conclusions

The study presents the surface roughness values in Table 2 for both the symmetric center milling cutter and
the asymmetric center milling cutter. The milling cutter with an asymmetric center achieved a 156%
improvement in surface roughness. Figure 3 presents the microscope images obtained from the surface after
the milling operation.
Table 2. Surface Roughness (Ra)

Cutting Tool Surface Roughness(µm)

Asymetric Cutting Tool 0,321

Symetric Cutting Tool 0,502

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Figure 3. After machining surface roughness quality a- asymetric tool surcafe b- symetric surface

References
1. Slavicek, J. (1965, September). The effect of irregular tooth pitch on stability of milling. In
Proceedings of the 6th MTDR Conference (Vol. 1, pp. 15-22). Pergamon Press London.

2. Tobias, S. A. (1965). Machine-tool vibration. (No Title).

3. Tlusty, J., & Ismail, F. (1983). Special aspects of chatter in milling.

4. Altintas, Y. (2012). Manufacturing automation: metal cutting mechanics, machine tool vibrations, and
CNC design. Cambridge university press.

5. Olgac, N., & Sipahi, R. (2007). Dynamics and stability of variable-pitch milling. Journal of Vibration
and Control, 13(7), 1031-1043.

6. Baumann, J., Wirtz, A., Siebrecht, T., & Biermann, D. (2020). Disturbance of the regenerative effect
by use of milling tools modified with asymmetric dynamic properties. Journal of Manufacturing and
Materials Processing, 4(3), 67.

Acknowledgment
I would like to thanks Budmil Makina, Aylazer, BKT Mühendislik, YG-1 Turkey, HKT Tools Deniz Metal for
their support.

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EFFECT OF TOOL HOLDER RIGIDITY ON MACHINING

M. Kubilay Askerdena, Fatih Karpatb, and M. Cemal Çakırc
a, Bursa Uludag University Engineering Faculty Mechanical Engineering Department, Bursa/TURKEY,
kubilayaskerden@uludag.edu.tr

b, Bursa Uludag University Engineering Faculty Mechanical Engineering Department, Bursa/TURKEY,

karpat@uludag.edu.tr

c, Bursa Uludag University Engineering Faculty Mechanical Engineering Department, Bursa/TURKEY,

cemal@uludag.edu.tr

4. Introduction
It is known that the quality of machined surfaces in machining is significantly affected by the machine
vibrations caused by the cutting process.[1,2] There are many studies on this subject in both milling and turning
operations. However, tool holder rigidity has a very important place in cutting, tool wear and the quality of
machined surfaces.[3,4,5]
In this study, a ball collet chuck holder and a standard collet holder were compared. In order to increase the
rigidity of the ball collet holder, the number of balls was increased and the gaps between the balls were reduced.
The effect of two different holders on the machined surface quality was examined.

Figure 1. Effect of tool holders on damping behavior in machine tools [1]

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grip pressure
point width

Figure 2. standard collet chuck and ball collet chuck grip pressure point width

5. Experimental
The most commonly used material group in industrial machine manufacturing is SAE 1050 steel. The most
commonly used tool holder type in end milling operations is collet holders. While standard collet holders
clamp the end mill from almost a single point, in ball collet holders, the balls clamp the end mill equally
from everywhere during clamping and provide a more rigid processing opportunity. In Figure 2, you can
see the gripping areas in the standard collet holder and ball collet holder structure.

Figure 3. a- ball collet holder b- standard ER collet holder

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In this study, the surface quality of the standard collet holder and the ball collet holder were examined in lateral end
milling operations using different collet holders. You can see the images of the collet holders and the part to be machined
in Figure 3.

6. Conclusions
The differences in surface roughness during machining under the same cutting conditions are shown in Figure
4. Due to the more rigid holding of the ball collet chuck compared to the standard ER collet chuck, %264 better
surface quality was achieved. You can see the surface roughness measurements in Table 1. A rigid tool holder
not only positively affects surface roughness but also cutting tool life and dimensional accuracy. The positive
aspects of rigid manufacturing have been proven in many studies.
Table 1. Surface Roughness (Ra)

Tool Holder Surface Roughness(µm)

Ball Collet Holder 0,65

Standar ER Collet Holder 1.72

Figure 4. 200X and 1200X magnified surface images a- ball collet tool holder b- standard ER collet tool holder

References
7. Slavicek, J. (1965, September). The effect of irregular tooth pitch on stability of milling. In
Proceedings of the 6th MTDR Conference (Vol. 1, pp. 15-22). Pergamon Press London.

8. Tobias, S. A. (1965). Machine-tool vibration. (No Title).

9. Tlusty, J., & Ismail, F. (1983). Special aspects of chatter in milling.

10. Altintas, Y. (2012). Manufacturing automation: metal cutting mechanics, machine tool vibrations, and
CNC design. Cambridge university press.

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11. Olgac, N., & Sipahi, R. (2007). Dynamics and stability of variable-pitch milling. Journal of Vibration
and Control, 13(7), 1031-1043.

12. Baumann, J., Wirtz, A., Siebrecht, T., & Biermann, D. (2020). Disturbance of the regenerative effect
by use of milling tools modified with asymmetric dynamic properties. Journal of Manufacturing and
Materials Processing, 4(3), 67.

Acknowledgment
I would like to thanks Budmil Makina, Aylazer, Nikken, YG-1 Turkey, for their support.

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PASLANMAZ ÇELİK KESME BIÇAKLARINDA MEKANİK GERİLME

DAĞILIMININ ANALİZİ
Onur Çimena* , Tahsin Topbaşoğlua, Y.Yağız Şimşeka, Oğulcan Söğüt a
a
KANSAN MAKİNA KAĞIT SAN. TİC. LTD. ŞTİ AR-GE MERKEZİ
*onurcimen@kansanmak.com

Özet
KANSAN, ıslak mendil makinalarının tasarımını ve imalatını yapmakta olup bu makinalardaki en önemli sarf
giderlerinden birini kesici ünitede ıslak mendillerin kesilmesi amacıyla kullanılan örs ve bıçak takımı
oluşturmaktadır. Bıçaklar zaman içinde aşınarak kesme kabiliyetini kaybetmektedir. Islak mendil, hijyen
amaçlı kullanılan ve insan sağlığını doğrudan etkileyebilecek bir ürün olduğundan, üretim koşullarından
kaynaklı aşınma partiküllerinin kabul edilemeyeceği bir sektördür. Öte yandan kesici takımlardaki aşınma,
yüksek hızlarla çalışan makinelerimizin durmasına ve üretim kayıplarına sebep olmaktadır. Firmamızda halen
bıçak ve örs imalatında paslanmaz çelik malzeme ısıl işlem ile sertleştirilerek kullanılmakta ancak gerek
aşınma gerekse paslanma nedeniyle yaklaşık 1 haftalık sürekli kullanımda değiştirilmesi gerekliliği ortaya
çıkmaktadır. Bu durum önemli düzeyde ekonomik kayıplara sebep olmaktadır.
Bu çalışmada, ıslak mendil kesme bıçaklarının takım ömrünün arttırılması amacıyla, kesici takıma gelen
mekanik yüklerin ve gerilme dağılımının analiz edilmesi hedeflenmiştir.
Bu çalışmanın temel amacı, ıslak mendil kesme makinelerimizde kullanılan kesme bıçaklarının mekanik yük
etkisi altındaki gerilme dağılımının ortaya konularak yük etkisi altındaki deformasyon davranışının
incelenmesidir. Çalışma kapsamında, kesici takımlarda oluşan aşınmanın takıma gelen mekanik yüklerle ilgisi
araştırılmıştır.
Keywords: Kesme Teknolojisi, Mekanik Gerilme Dağılımı, Paslanmaz Çelik

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OPTIMISATION OF SANDING PARAMETERS OF ST37 PLATE SURFACE

Melih Sarılıgila , Yunus Emre Nehrib , and Ali Oralc

a, Kemal Başaran Endüstri Company, Balıkesir/TURKIYE, melihsariligil@gmail.com,

b, Balıkesir University Faculty of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering, Balıkesir/TURKIYE,
yunusnehri@balikesir.edu.tr
c, Balıkesir University Faculty of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering, Balıkesir/TURKIYE,
a.oral@balikesir.edu.tr

Abstract
It is of significant importance that the surface quality of the components manufactured within the industry is
of a high standard, with a low surface roughness. In the event that the surface roughness exceeds the desired
value, the surface is treated with abrasives in order to achieve the desired range. Abrasion processes are
commonly employed in sanding and grinding operations. The process of sanding is often based on trial and
error, with estimates and experience forming the basis for decisions. This results in a loss of time and cost. It
is planned to avoid time and cost disadvantages by creating mathematical models using Response Surface
Method (RSM). In this study, commonly used St37 structural steel was sanded with coated mineralized Kb
Gold Premium P60, P100, P180, and P320 grits. The surfaces were sanded with 4 different grit sizes and 4
different application times as sanding parameters affecting surface roughness. Following the sanding process,
the Ra surface roughness values were obtained from five different points on the surface, and the average surface
roughness was obtained. The results obtained and the results of the mathematical model support each other.
While the grit size is the most effective parameter on the surface roughness, the effect of application time was
found to be lower. Decreases in surface roughness were observed with the increase in grit number and
application time. As a result of the optimization with RSM, it was found that P320 grit size was the most
effective parameter in a 60-second sanding process. With the mathematical models created, the loss of time
and cost was prevented.

Keywords: Sanding, grit size, RSM.

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FABRICATING AND MACHINING OF ALUMINUM METAL MATRIX

COMPOSITE REINFORCED WITH GRAPHITE BASED ADDITIVES
Erkan BAHÇE a , Cebrail ÖLMEZ b, Mustafa Cemal ÇAKIR c, Süleyman KÖYTEPE d and
Oğuz KURT e

a,b,Inonu University Engineering Faculty Mechanical Department, Malatya/TURKEY, erkan.bahce@inonu.edu.tr

d,Inonu University Arts and Science Faculty Faculty Chemistry Department,Malatya/TURKEY,
c,e Uludağ University Engineering Faculty Mechanical Department, Bursa/TURKEY, cemal@uludag.edu.tr

Introduction
Aluminum alloys are important in the aerospace and military sectors due to their low weight and mechanical
properties. Unlike other metals, aluminum chips adhere to the cutting tools during milling, which affects
cutting forces [1]. Cooling and lubrication have a significant impact on machining efficiency, as they facilitate
chip removal while minimizing friction and heat. While cutting fluids are necessary for metal cutting, they
presents environmental risks and have substantial recycling costs, accounting for 16% of overall manufacturing
expenses [2]. As an alternative to conventional cooling methods, cryogenic cooling and Minimum Quantity
Lubrication (MQL) come to the front [3].
In this study, self-lubricating Aluminum Metal Matrix Composites (AMMC) production was carried out
by reinforcing graphite material with solid lubricant feature into Al6061 alloy. Self-lubricating composites
were turned in a dry environment without the use of cutting fluid (Figure 1). The effects of solid lubricant
reinforcement on cutting temperatures, tool wear and surface quality turning of composites within the scope
of sustainable and green production were investigated.

Figure 1: Temperature measurement by thermal camera

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Experimental
Graphite, a solid lubricant material, was used as a reinforcing material in this study. Graphites to be used in
composite manufacturing were commercially available and pulverized in ball grinder at 350 rpm before being
used in composite production. Then, in order to control the dust sizes, it was sieved through sieves of 40 µm
scale (Figure 2). Besides, turning is simulated using the Finite Element Analysis (FEA) method in order to
make comparisons with the experimental process (Figure 3).

Figure 2: Metal matrix composite preparation steps

Figure 3: FEA simulation of turning process

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The microstructure of the graphite-doped Al composite structure was carried out by SEM analysis (Figure4).
Backscattering detector was used during these analyses. In this way, the distribution and size of the doped
graphite regions in the Al matrix were investigated.

Figure 4: Backscattered SEM images of Al6061 + 4% graphite composite surface

Conclusion
Figure 5 depicts the effect of different graphite ratios and cutting speeds on the temperature generated during
machining. The highest temperature measured using a thermal camera during metal cutting is 386 °C at 4%
graphite reinforced sample at 87.96 m/min and 0.18 mm/rev machining parameters, and the lowest temperature
is at 56.54 m/min and 0.09 mm/rev machining parameters at 15% graphite reinforced sample.

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Figure 5: Effect of graphite ratios and speed on temperature

Measurements were taken to analyze the effect of graphite volume and machining parameters on the work
piece surface roughness (Figure 6). The best surface roughness (Ra) value was calculated at 87.96 m/min, 0.09
mm/rev for 15% graphite workpiece as 1.685 µm.

Figure 6: Effect of graphite content and cutting speed on surface roughness

It was concluded that machining aluminum alloy as AMMC with a solid lubricant contributes to dry machining,
temperature reduction between tool and workpiece, and environmentally friendly chip removal.

References:

1. Pereira, O., Rodríguez, A., Fernández-Abia, A. I., Barreiro, J., de Lacalle, L. L. (2016). Cryogenic
andminimum quantity lubrication for an eco-efficiency turning of AISI 304. Journal of Cleaner
Production, 139,440-449.
2. Aurich, J. C., Zimmermann, M., Schindler, S., &amp; Steinmann, P. (2016). Turning of aluminum
metalmatrix composites: influence of the reinforcement and the cutting condition on the surface layer
of theworkpiece. Advances in Manufacturing, 4, 225-236.
3. Teti, R., D’Addona, D. M., Segreto, T. (2021). Microbial-based cutting fluids as bio-integration
manufacturing solution for green and sustainable machining. CIRP Journal of Manufacturing Science
and Technology
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NEW ASSESMENT TO ENHANCE EFFICIENCY OF CRYOGENIC TURN-

MILLING
Amin Bagherzadeha, Mahzad Sarghassabib, Erhan Budakc

a, Sabanci University, Engineering and Natural Science Faculty, Manufacturing Department, Istanbul/TURKEY,
bagherzadeh@sabanciuniv.edu
b, Sabanci University, Engineering and Natural Science Faculty, Manufacturing Department, Istanbul/TURKEY,
mahzads@sabanciuniv.edu
c, Sabanci University, Engineering and Natural Science Faculty, Manufacturing Department, Istanbul/TURKEY,
ebudak@sabanciuniv.edu

Abstract
The turn-milling operation is emerging as an alternative to conventional milling and turning. This process
offers high-performance machining, resulting in lower cutting forces, reduced temperatures, longer tool life,
and improved final part quality. Although cryogenic and hybrid cooling/lubrication methods have
demonstrated marginal and positive effects on machinability, quality, and productivity in milling and turning
operations, their specific impact on turn-milling has not been thoroughly investigated. This paper presents the
first study on the effects of cryogenic and hybrid cooling/lubrication methods on tool life in turn-milling. The
findings reveal that these methods are not effective in enhancing machinability in turn-milling. Consequently,
a new method using a plug-and-play system is proposed, which significantly reduces tool wear compared to
flood cooling, CO2, MQL, and hybrid methods.
Additionally, finite element simulations have been used to optimize the plug-and-play method by analyzing
the stresses applied to the cutting tool under different cooling/lubrication environments. These results have
been generalized across various cutting tool sizes and parameters.

Keywords: Cryogenic, Turn-milling, Plug-and-play system.

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INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECT OF CHIP SEPARATION ZONE

AND CUTTING SPEED VARIATION ON CHIP FORMATION IN
ORTHOGONAL CUTTING OPERATIONS

Kadir Özdemira , M. Cemal Çakırb

a, Bursa Uludag University Faculty of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering,

Bursa/TURKIYE, kadirzdemir@gmail.com
b, Bursa Uludag University Faculty of Engineering Department of Mechanical Engineering,
Bursa/TURKIYE, cemal@uludag.edu.tr

Introduction
Chip separation has always been a subject of debate among researchers in the field of chip removal. Numerical
simulation studies have shown that these debates have not resulted in agreement on a clear or general method.
It is very important to verify the modelling of orthogonal chip removal by finite element method and to model
the chip separation zone correctly in terms of chip formation. In this study, the chip separation zone is used,
which is often used in the literature and helps in chip separation (Soliman et al, 2020; Thean, 1998).
Therefore, as shown in Figure 1, chip growth and tool-chip relationship could be ensured throughout the entire
cutting process.
AISI 1117 material is taken as reference in this study. The cutting tool used is SCMW 12 M508-12F produced
in accordance with ISO 1832 standard and is a cemented carbide cutting tool without chip breaker. The rake
angle of the tool is 0º and the clearance angle is 7º

Figure 1. Chip separation region modelling

2. Design Issues
The Johnson-Cook material model is one of the most accurate material models used to describe material
behavior and chip formation in machining processes. The yield stress model for this model was defined by
Johnson and Cook, and the model includes appropriate parameters for high strain rates, strain hardening, and
temperature dependent properties. This model is well suited for high strain rates from 10 2 s-1 to 106 s-1 (Thekdi,
2019).
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Shaw (1984) considered that the chip separation criteria for the formation of the new surface in the chip
removal process require energy on the order of J/m2 , which is negligible in the chip removal process compared
to plastic and friction forces. This region is modeled with a low damage criterion to achieve chip separation.
The orthogonal shear finite element model is shown in Figure 2. The workpiece is defined as LAG and ALE
elements and the cutting tool is defined as rigid. By defining the cutting speed for the cutting tool, the chip
removal towards the workpiece is ensured.

Figure 2. Orthogonal cutting model

e)

Figure 3. Chip curvature for various cutting speeds a) 50 m/min b) 75 m/min c) 100 m/min d) 125 m/min
e) 150 m/min

3. Conclusion
In the parting zone method used, the state of damage on the chip surface affects the tool-chip relationship and
the stability of the results. By examining Figure 2, Figure 3 and Figure 4, it can be seen that the chip shape
changes with the increase in cutting speed and that micro damage on the chip does not occur at high cutting
speeds (125 m/min and 150 m/min). This indicates that the material becomes more ductile and formable at
high strain rates.

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Despite the criteria based on feed rate, all these chip separation criteria require a predefined separation line
and this method is not realistic. This is because in real chip removal the material does not separate in a straight
path. Furthermore, it is not certain that the simulation will follow a predefined path under high deformation
and damage to the workpiece and chip surface may occur.
In this study, both methods were considered and the chip separation criterion was used by defining the
separation zone as shown in Figure 4. Therefore, chip development and tool-to-chip relationship could be
ensured throughout the chip removal process as shown in Figure 5.

Figure 4. Chip seperation zone modelling Figure 5. Tool-chip relationship

References
4. Thekdi, P. N. (2019). Finite Element Studies of Ortogonal Machining of Aisi 1045
Steel. [Doctoral dissertation, The University of North Carolina]. Available from
ProQuest Dissertations & Theses Global.
(2301477840).https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-theses/finite-element-studies-
ortogonal-machining- aisi/docview/2301477840/se-2
5. Thean, W. K. (1998). Finite element analysis of chip formation in grooved tool metal
cutting. [Master’s Thesis, Iowa State University].
https://dr.lib.iastate.edu/handle/20 500.12876/70460
6. Soliman, H., Shash, A., El Hossainy, T., & Abd-Rabou, M. (2020). Investigation of
process parameters in ortogonal cutting using finite element approaches. Heliyon, 6(11),
e05498. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2020.e05498

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