BIO 101:ECOLOGY

Introduction

Ecology is a new science and is considered an important branch of biological science,having only
become prominent during the second half of the 20th century.Ecological thought is derivative of
established currents in philosophy, particularly from ethics and politics.

Its history stems all the way back to the 4th century.One of the first ecologists whose writings
survived may have been Aristotle or perhaps his student,Theophrastus, both of whom had an
interest in many species of animals and their environment as early as the 4th century BC. Ecology
developed substantially in the 18th and 19th century. it began with Carl Linnaeus and his work with
botanical geography. Alexander even Humboldt and Karl Mobius then contributed to the notion of
biocoenosis. Eugenics Warming's work with ecological plant geography led to the founding of
ecology as a discipline. Charles Darwin's work also contributed to the science of ecology, and
Darwin is often attributed with thought expanded even more in the early 20th century.

Ecology influenced the social sciences and humanities. Human ecology began in the early 20th
Century and it recognized humans as an ecological factor.Later James Lovelock advanced views on
Earth as a macro-organism with the Gaia hypothesis. Conservation stemmed from the science of
ecology.

Timeline of ecologist
A list of founders, innovators, and their significant contributions to ecology, from Roman

Notable figure Lifespan Major contribution

& Citation

Antonie Van Leeuwenhoek 1632-1723 First to develop concept of

Food chain

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Carl Linnaeus 1707-1778
Influential naturalist,
inventor of science on the
economy of nature

Alexander Humboldt 1769-1859

First to describe ecological
Gradient of latitudinal
biodiversity increase

Alexander Humbolt toward the tropics in 1807

1809-1882 Founder of the hypothesis of

evolution by means of natural
selection, founder of ecological
studies of soils.

Elizabeth Catherine Tomas 1817-1873

Cane

Geologist,mineralogist and philosopher

who observed rural and urban
living,spatially and culturally,finding
incounting best attack on suffocating
divides,healthier living and access to
natural education.

Herbert Spencer 1820-1903

Early founder of social

ecology,coined the phrase
'survival of the fittest'

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Karl Mobius 1825-1908 First to develop concept of
ecological community
biocenosis, or living

Ernst Haeckel community

1834-1919 Invented the term

ecology,popularized
research links between
Victory Hensen ecology and evolution.

1835-1924 Invented term

plankton,Developoed
Eugenius Warming
quantitative and statistical
measures of productivity in the
seas

1841-1924
Early founder of Ecological plan
Ellen Swallow Richards Geography

Pioneer and educator who

1842-1911 linked urban ecology to human
health.
Stephen Forbes

Early founder of
1844-1930
entomology and ecological
concepts in 1887
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Vito Volterra

1860-1940 Independently pioneered

mathematical populations
models around the same
time as Alfred J. Lotka.
Henry C.Cowless

1869-1939 Pioneering studies and

Conceptual development
in studies of ecological
succession

Jan Christiaan Smuts

1870-1950 Coined the term holism in a

1926 book Holism and
Arthur G. Tansley
Evolution

1871-1955
First to coin the term
ecosystem in 1936 and
Charles Christopher Adams
notable researching

Animal ecologist,
1873-1955
biogeographer,author First
American book on animal
ecology in 913. Founded
ecological energet
Friedrich Ratzel 1844-19040
Germ an geo grapher who
first coined the term
biogr aphy in 1891.

Frederic Clements 1874-1945 Autho red the first

influe ntial American

ecolo gy book in 1905.

Victor Ernest Shelford 1877-1968 Foun ded physiological

ecolo gy,Pion eered food -
web and Bio me concepts,
found ed T he Nature
Conse rvancy

Alfred J. Lotka 1880-1949 First to pioneer

math matica populations
mode ls expla ining trophic
ator-
(pred y)
pre
intera ctions using logistic
equat ion

Henry Gleason 1882-1975 Early ecolo gy pioneer,

Quan titative theorist,
autho r, and f ounder of the
indivi dualistic concept of
ecolo gy.

Charles S. Elton 1900-1991 'Fathe r' of an imal ecology,

Pioneered food-web and

Pioneered food-web and

niche concepts and
authored influential
Animal Ecology
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G. Evelyn Hutchinson

1903-1991 Limnologist and

conceptually advanced the
niche concept
Eugene P. Odum

1913-2002 Co-founder of ecosystem

ecology and ecologica
thermodynamic concepts
Howard T.Odu

1924-2002 Co-founder of ecosystem

ecologyand ecological
Robert MacArthur thermodynamic concepts

1930-1972 Co-founder on Theory of Island

biograph

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Ecological Influence on the Social Science and Humanities.

Human ecology
Human ecology began in the 1920s, through the study of changes in vegetation
succession in the city of Chicago. It became a distinct field of study in the 1970s.This
marked the first recognition that humans, who had colonized all of the Earth's
continents, were a major ecological factor. Humans greatly modify the environment
through the development of the habitat(in particular urban planning),by intensive
exploitation activities such as logging and fishing, and as side effects of agriculture,
mining, and industry. Besides ecology and biology, this discipline involved many other
natural and social sciences, such as anthropology and ethnology, economics,
demography, architecture and urban planning, medicine and psychology, and many
more. The development of human ecology led to the increasing role of ecological
science in the design of management of cities.

in recent years human ecology has been a topic that has interested organizational
researchers. Hannan and Freeman (Population Ecology of Organizations
(1977),American Journal of Sociology) argue that organizations do not only adapt to
an environment. Instead, it is also the environment that selects or rejects populations
of organizations. In any given environment (in equilibrium) there will only be one form
of organization (isomorphism). Organizational ecology has been a prominent theory in
accounting for the diversities of organizations and their changing composition over
time.

History and relationship between ecology and conservation and environmental

movements
Environmentalists and other conservationists have used ecology and other sciences
(e.g., climatology) to support their advocacy positions. Environmentalist views are
often controversial for poliical or economic reasons. As a result, some scientific work
in ecology directly influences policy and political debate;these in turn often direct
ecological research.
The history of ecology, however, should not be conflated with that of environmental
thought. Ecology as a modern sciencetraced only from Darwin's publication of Origin
of Species and Haeckel's subsequent naming of the science

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needed to study Darwin's theory. Awareness of humankind's effect on its environment has
been traced to Gilbert White in the 18th Century. Ecology before Darwin, however, is
analogous to medicine prior to Pasteur's discovery of the infectious nature of disease.
Roosevelt & American Conservation
Theodore Roosevelt was interested in nature from a young age. He carried his passion for
nature into his political policies. Roosevelt felt it was necessary to preserve the resources of
the nation and its environment. In 1902 he created the Federal Reclamation Service, which
reclaimed land for agriculture. He also created the Bureau of Forestry.This organization,
headed by Gifford Pinchot, was formed to manage and maintain the nation's timberlands.
Roosevelt signed the Act for the Preservation of American Antiquities in 1906. This act
allowed him to "declare by public proclamation historic landmarks, historic and prehistoric
structures, and other objects of historic and scientific interest that are situated upon lands
owned or controlled by the Government of the United States to be national
monuments."Under the act, he created up to 18 national monuments. During his
presidency.Roosevelt established 51 Federal Bird Reservations, 4 National Game
Preserves,150 National Forests, and 5 National Parks. Overall, he protected over 200 million
acres of land.

Ecology and Global Policy

Ecology became a central part of the World's politics as early as 1971, UNESCO launched a
research program called Man and Biosphere, with the objective of increasing knowledge
about the mutual relationship between humans and nature.A few years later it defined the
concept of Biosphere Reserve.

In 1972, the United Nations held the first International Conference on the Human
Environment in Stockholm, prepared by Rene Dubos and other experts. This conference was
the origin of the phrase "Think Globally,Act Locally".The next major events in ecology were
the development of the concept of the biosphere and the appearance of the term
"biological diversity"-or now more commonly biodiversity -in the 1980s. These terms were
developed during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in 1992, where the concept of the
biosphere was recognized by the major international organizations and risk associated with
reductions in biodiversity were publicly acknowledged.
The Environments depict the network of relations between living organisms at different scales.
Since the environment has different forms of biodiversity,scientists research everything from
little microbes in nutrient recycling to the impacts of tropical rain forests on the Earth's
environment. Researchers who study ecology are called ecologists.
Ecology has to do with:

· Distribution and abundance of organisms

·The movement of materials and energy through living communities

·The successional development of ecosystems

·The abundance and distribution of biodiversity in the context of the environment.

Branches of Ecology

There are two branches of Ecology:

1. Autecology
2. Synecology
Autecology-It is the study of ecology at the level of species. It is the study of the interactions of
an individual life form or a single species with the living and non-living components of its
environment.

Synecology-It is the study of ecology at the level of communities. It is a study of the

development,distribution, and structure of ecological communities.

Types of Ecology

There are various kinds of ecology and they are given below:

·Global Ecology-Global ecology is the study of the interactions among Earth's

environments, land air and seas.

Landscape Ecology- it deals with the study of the exchange of vitality,materials,living

beings, and various other parts of the ecosystem. It also depicts the role of human
impacts on landscape structures and functions.

Ecosystem Ecology-Ecosystem ecology is the integrated study of living and non-living

components of biological systems. It also deals with their
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Then,in 1997, the dangers the biosphere was facing were recognized all over the world at the
conference leading to the Kyoto Protocol. In particular, this conference highlighted the
increasing dangers of the greenhouse effect - related to the increasing concentration of
greenhouse gases in theatmosphere, leading to global changes. In Kyoto, most of the world's
nations recognized the importance of looking at ecology from a global point of view, on a
worldwide scale, and to take into account the impact ofhumans on the Earth's environment.

Ecology was formed from two Greek words [GK: oikos; home and logos; the study of] to denote
the relationship between organisms and their environment.Ecology therefore means the study
of an organism in its natural home. Odum (1963)defined ecology as the study of the structure
and function of nature or the study of inter-relationships between organisms and their
environment. It has to do with the relationship between living organism (biotic factors) and
their physical environments (abiotic factors).

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 interactions inside an ecosystem.
Community Ecology -It is the study of the function and organization of communities
between organisms.

Population Ecology-It deals with components that change and affect the hereditary
composition and the size of the population of life forms.Biologists are fascinated by the
variations in a population, the development of a population, and any other interactions with
the population
Organismal Ecology - Organismal ecology is the study of an individual organism's
conduct,morphology, physiology, etc. to natural changes.
Molecular Ecology-Molecular ecology is the study of the environment on
the generation of proteins and how these proteins influence life forms and their
environment. This happens at the molecular level. DNA shapes the proteins that are
connected with the environment. These interactions give rise to a few complex living things.

Concepts of Ecology
Ecological Levels of Organizations: Ecological hierarchy follows the below order with an increase in
size and complexity

Organism - Species (population) - Biotic community - Ecosystem - Biome -Biosphere

Organism:Individual living entties. It includes all the living organisms unicellular or multicellular
having a fixed lifespan.

A living thing has to have eight features:

1. It is made of at least one cell.

2. It can reproduce, either asexually or sexually
3. It contains DNA that can be inherited from its parent or parents,and can pass on genetic
information to offspring.
4. It grows and develops
5. It uses energy.
6. It maintains its internal environment.
7. It is involved in evolution.
8. It can respond to its environment.

If a thing has all of these features, it is a living thing.

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 Levels of Biological Organization:Organism

Levels of Biological Organization:Ecosystem

What is an ecosystem?
An ecosystem includes all the biotic (living) and abiotic

(non-living) factors within a specific region.All these elements

interact with one another to create a balanced system.

How is it different from a community?

A community consists of only the living parts of a specific

region,like the plants and animals, and how they interact. The

abiotic factors are not included.

How is it different from a biome?

A biome spans a large geographical area and is defined by

species can survive in it. In a biome, the biotic factors are

specifically adapted to the given set of abiotic factors.

Population or Species: Group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular area
and interbreeding. A species is a group organism that has a common gene pool and can
interbreed to produce fertile offspring.

Endemic Species are found only in a particular area,e.g. Kangaroos found in Australia

Keystone species is mostly a predator species,which is not present in large numbers but
has a major influence on the characteristics of a community,e.g. lion in the forest.

Critical Link species, which help other species in vital activities, e.g.pollinators for plants,
parasitic and symbiotic relationships

Community:All the populations of different species that inhabit a particular

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 area and interact with each other

Ecosystem: A biological community of organisms and their physical environment. Biotic

components and abiotic components constitute an ecosystem.

Biome: Consists of communities present in a large geographical area.

Biosphere: The global sum of all ecosystems. It can also be referred to as the zone of life
on Earth. It involves all the living organisms, their relationships, and interactions with the
elements of the atmosphere,hydrosphere,and lithosphere.

Habitat: It is the natural environment of an organism where it grows, lives, and reproduces. A
host organism inhabited by parasites is as much a habitat as a terrestrial place such as a grove
of trees or an aquatic locality such as a small pond.Life exists not only in the most favorable
habitat but also in the most extreme harsh environment.

THE CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEM

DEFINITION OF ECOSYSTEM

An ecosystem is a system consisting of biotic and abiotic components that function together
as a unit.

Ecosystem Structure

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The ecosystem structure consists of two major components:

1. Biotic Components
2. Abiotic Components
 BYJU'S
The Laring Acs

Biotic Components refer to all living components in an ecosystem.The ecosystem contains the
following

· Primary producers (plants) are capable of taking energy from the sun through the
process called photosynthesis. This energy then flows through a food chain. They are also
called autotrophs.

·Consumers or heterotrophs are organisms that depend on other organisms for food.
Consumers are further divided into primary consumers, secondary consumers, and
tertiary consumers
·Primary consumers are herbivores because they depend on producers (plants) for
food.

Secondary consumers depend on primary consumers for energy.They can either

be carnivores or omnivores.

Tertiary consumers are organisms that depend on secondary consumers for

food. Tertiary consumers can also be carnivores and omnivores.
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 · Decomposers: Decomposers work at the bottom of the food chain and this

includes saprophytes such as fungi and bacteria. They directly thrive on the dead

and decaying organic matter. Decomposers are essential for the ecosystem as

they help in recycling nutrients to be reused by plants.

Abiotic Components

Abiotic components are the non-living component of an ecosystem.These includes air,

water, soil, minerals, sunlight temperature, nutrients, wind, altitude, turbidity,etc.

Lists of Abiotic Factors

The abiotic factors play a major role in the environment. The lists of abiotic factors
include soil-edaphic factors, water, sunlight, clouds, weather, latitude,
temperature,oxygen, salinity, air, humidity, topography, pH, and Atmospheric gases.

Soil- edaphic factor: edaphic factors that relate to the structure and composition
of the soil. Soil is a very complex medium and a good fertile soil contains mineral
matter of about 40%, organic matter of 10%, water of 15%, and air of about 25%.
Under edaphic factors, we will be looking at some important factors

Soil texture: Soil texture refers to the relative proportion (sizes) of the
various particles of the soil. The particles that make up a soil sample
include sand, gravel, silt, and clay. Sand,silt, and clay are usually referred to
as the primary particles. Sandy soils drain quickly but may not retain
nutrients, while clayey soils hold water but can become compacted. The
right balance of soil texture is crucial for water retention and nutrient
availability

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 Importance of Soll Texture: Soll texture plays a crucial role in nutrient supplies,
aeration,root development, and moisture content.

Soil profile: Soil profile is defined as the vertical section of the soil showing series of
horizontal layers of different types of soil. These horizontal layers are called horizons. If a
pit is dug in the soil at least 1m deep, various layers, different in color and composition
can be seen. These layers are called horizons,This succession of horizons called the
profile of the soil.

LAYERS OF SOIL

www.shutterstock.com·714652237

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 Importance of Soil Profile

The suitability of the soil for agriculture is determined by looking at the soil profile. The
importance of soil profile includes:

Level of soil fertility: Soil profile determines the level of soil fertility.A thick topsoil
represents a high level of soil fertility.

To Know the Kind of crop to grow: Shallow-rooted crops like cowpeas, and groundnuts are
grown in the topsoil, while deep-rooted crops are grown where the subsoil is thick.

Penetration of roots: a loosely packed sub-soil allows for easy penetration of roots of
crops.

Soil Air: Soil air can be defined as the air that fills the soil p... spaces not occupied by
water.Soil air determines the firmness of the soil.

Importance of soil air on agriculture

1. Soil air is necessary for the growth and development of plant

2. Oxygen in the soil promotes easy germination of seeds.

3. Soil organisms require oxygen for respiration

Soil Water:Soil water is defined as the water present in the soil which is usually obtained
either through rain or irrigation. Water represents 25% of the total volume of the soil.Soil
water is classified

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 into three types- Hygroscopic water, gravitational water, and
capillary water.

Hygroscopic water: This type of water is tightly held by the small particles such
that it is never available to the plants.

Gravitational water: Water moving down freely due to gravity.

Capillary water:This is the water that rises above the water table in the soil and it
is held in the fine and medium pores of foil particles by surface tension.

Soil pH: The word pH is defined as the measure of the degree of acidity or
alkalinity of the soil. A higher concentration of hydrogen ions indicates soil acidity
while a lower concentration of hydrogen ions shows soil alkalinity.

Soil Organisms: This refers to the animals that inhabits the soil.They range from
microscopic organisms to bigger organisms.

Light: Light is the primary source of energy for almost all ecosystems. The light energy is by
plants to manufacture their food through the process called photosynthesis.Sunlight is
necessary for photosynthesis, the process by which plants convert carbon dioxide (CO2) and
water to oxygen (020 and sugar-food for the plants that later becomes food for
animals.Without the sun,plants cannot live, and without plants,animals cannot live.

Temperature:Temperature is an abiotic factor that is strongly influenced by sunlight.

Temperatures play an important role for animals that cannot

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regulate their body temperature, such as reptiles, The temperature of the air and the water affects
the animals, plants, and humans in nature. A temperature rise is capable of changing the way of
living thing develops.This is because it changes the metabolic rate of the organism.The blooming of
flowers either in the day or night is due to the temperature difference between day and night.

Water: Water is essential for life and all the biotic components of the ecosystem at directly
are directly dependent on water for survival. About 70% of our body is made up of water.
·Water is the most abundant natural resource on the earth's surface.It is also the most important
need of all living things
The presenceof water is necessary for several life processes, such as the germination of seeds,
the digestion and absorption of food, the removal of waste products, the absorption of nutrients,
and the circulation of substances
The amount of water in the habitat affects the types of flora and fauna found in the habitat

For example, there is less vegetation in desert areas where water is scarce.

On the other hand, in areas with high rainfall, a wide variety of plants grow thickly,forming
tropical rainforests. This provides a very rich environment animals with a wide variety of
animals thriving

Water can dissolve gases such as oxgen and carbon dioxide. Water.....contains dissolved salts
and minerals. Both plants and animals can survive water.

Land animals are prone to desiccation and these animals show

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 various types of adaptations to this. Some of the adaptations are

Based on their requirements plants are classified based on the follow

Hydrophytes:Plants that are adapted to live in aquatic environments called

hygrophytes. They might be fully submerged, partially submerged floating in water.
These plants have special adaptations that help them to survive in water. Example
water lily

Mesophytes:A majority of plants living on this planet are mesophytes.These are the
plants that can survive in moderate environments that are neither particularly dry nor
particularly wet. They thrive in soil that is not swamped in water and has moderate salt
content and humidity. Example:corn,rose, clover, squash,

Xerophytes: Plants that are adapted to survive in physiologically dry conditions are
called xerophytes. They have special adaptions to prevent the loss of water. And also
store some water. Plants that store water are called succulents, e.g. cacti, and agave.
They have thick and fleshy stems that can store water. This water can be used whenever
required.

MEANING AND TYPES OF HABITAT IN ECOLOGY

A habitat is a place where an organism lives or makes its home.

Habitats must meet all the requirements for an organism to survive, such as having enough
resources to sustain populations of organisms that can mate and reproduce.

Traditionally, when we think of habitats, we think of a place we inhabit or live in.While this
is true, habitats often include many types of organisms that can survive

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in the same area because of their adaptations.

We need to consider abiotic and biotic factors when we talk about habitats. Abiotic factors are
non-living things such as water the sky, and other physical surroundings of the environment.
In contrast, biotic factors are comprises living things, such as the different organisms in the
habitat.

We also must consider that almost any space on earth can be a habitat. Habitats can range
from microscopic, such as intestinal flora and fauna, to biomes, such as land or terrestrial.

Microhabitats are tiny areas that differ from the surrounding environments.Microhabitat's
distinctive features allow it to house unique habitats. An example a microhabitat could be an
overturned log, an organism's gut, etc.

Generally, we think of terrestrial, land, and water or aquatic habitats when referring to
habitats.The following sections will review some of the different terrestial and aquatic
habitats.
Terrestrial habitat
Aquatic habitat

Terrestrial Habitat

Terrestrial habitat are exclusively land-based ecosystems. There are different types of
terrestrial habitat distributed around various geological zones. They are follows:

1.Forest Habitat

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There are different types of forests and these include:tropical forest, temperate (examples
are Temperate Deciduous Forest, Temperature Coniferous Forest habitat)forest,boreal forest.

1. Savanna forest habitats.

2. Grassland habitat

3. Tundra habitat

4. Taiga habitat

Of the three major types of habitats, terrestrial is the most variable. In altitude, it ranges
from below sea level (Death Valley) to mountain peaks more than 28,000feet in height. A
considerable variation of temperature is encountered in terrestrial habitats.

(i) Tundra:

The Arctic region of North America, Europe, and Asia is known as the Tundra region.The
Tundra region consists of two types; arctic and alpine. The Arctic tundra is
located in the Arctic Circle, north of the boreal forests. Alpine tundra occurs on mountain tops.

Both types experience cold temperatures throughout the year. This region is treeless and is

characterized by long-cold winters with little or no sunlight.The summer is cool,short, and is with

long daylight hours.

(ii) Taiga:

Thebroadband just south of the tundra of Europe and North America is known as the taiga region.
The taiga region is in the southern hemisphere and is poorly developed because of the absence of
land mass. This region has evergreen coniferous forests.

The climatic condition of this region is represented by bleak winters and cool summers.
Precipitation is of moderate type.The summer lasts from three to six months. Spruce, Firs, Pines,
and Cedars are the common vegetation.

(iii) Grasslands:

Grassland habitats can be found in many places around the world, both in the temperate and

tropical regions and in a variety of climates. These are sometimes called other names, such as

prairies, savannahs, steppes, or pampas, depending on where in the world they are and the sort of

climate there. Large areas in both temperate and tropical regions do not support trees but remain

covered with heavy growth of grass.

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(iv) Deserts:

Deserts are the driest places on Earth. Deserts cover at least 20% of the Earth.They get fewer than
10 inches (25 centimeters) of rain a year. Deserts occur both in temperate and tropical regions.
The plants of the deserts are highly modified to conserve water. The leaves are reduced or absent
or modified into thorns.The roots are long and go deep inside the soil. The plants of the deserts
are highly modified to conserve water. The leaves are reduced or absent or modified into thorns.
The roots are long and go deep inside the soil.

Cacti and yucca are the dominant plants. Kangaroos, rats, Foxes, Coyotes,many lizards, several
snakes and toads are the common vertebrates present in the desert.Deserts may be snowy too.

(vi) Rain Forests:

As the name implies, it is an area that gets a lot of rain.The presence of tropical and temperate
rainforests on our planet plays a huge role in maintaining the ecological balance and the
environment of the whole planet. These forests are the source of oxygen, plants and other
species, minerals, etc. Without these equatorial

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forests, survival on the Earth would not be possible. Characteristic vertebrates of these
regions are Monkeys,Sloths, Ant-eaters, Bats, many colorful birds, frogs and salamanders,
turtles, and snakes.

AQUATIC HABITAT

The aquatic habitat is divided into marine, estuarine, and freshwater.

Aquatic habitats are habitats found in water. These areas are usually always covered in water
or at least seasonally. Examples include marine, estuaries, and fresh water areas. Aquatic
habitats are crucial as about 70% of the earth's surface is covered in water.

Marine Habitat

Marine habitats are areas located in the sea or ocean. Marine habitats are split into the open
ocean and the coastal regions. A coastal zone is a region between land and water. Even
though these zones only occupy about 7% of the earth's oceans,they are essential because
most of the world lives in these zones. The open sea,or the pelagic zone, is the deeper area
outside the coastal zone.

The open ocean comprises 99% of the earth's inhabitable spaces and it is divided into the
following segments:

Epipelagic zone: This part is the upper part of the ocean and enough sunlight
characterizes it for photosynthesis. It's around 2-3% of the open sea; beyond
this level, it's too dark for hotosynthesis.Generally,this zone begins at the
ocean's surface till around 600 ft or 200 meters. Algae in the epipelagic area
are responsible for about 50% of the oxygen in the earth's atmosphere and
create most of the original nutrients for other organisms.

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 Mesopelagic Zone: This zone is also called the middle part of the ocean or the
twilight zone. It begins from the end of the epipelagic area to around 3000 ft or
1000 m deep.Most vertebrate fishes live here and migrate up to the epipelagic
zone at night in search of food.

Bathypelagic zone: This zone can also be referred to as the lower open ocean.This
zone begins at the bottom of the mesopelagic area till 13,000 ft or 4000 meters. It's
the largest ecosystem on our planet, and there's no sunlight. Some specieshere
have lost the ability to see and use bioluminescence to attract prey. Animals that
commonly live here are anglerfish and bristle mouths.

Abyssal zone: This zone has almost no life and stretches from the bathypelagic area
to the bottom of the ocean floor.

Ocean habitats generally include intertidal, mangroves, mudflats, estuaries, kelp

forests,seagrass meadows, coral and oyster reefs, the open ocean, tidewater glaciers, and
salt marshes.

· Intertidal environments occur where the shore or land meets the water or usually
where coastal zones occur.

Mangroves are trees and shrubs that grow near coastal areas; they serve as nursing
grounds for marine life.

Mangroves are trees and shrubs that grow near coastal areas;they serve as
nursing grounds for marine life.

Mudflats are muddy parts of water created by slit and mud brought in by
the seas and oceans.

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 Estuaries are areas with mixtures of fresh and salt water.

Kelp forests are forests of brown algae; its home to many species due to the canopy
they create.

Seagrass meadows consist of underwater plants and serve as an essential food

source and habitat for many species.

Coral reefs contain the most biodiversity out of any aquatic habitat. They support
around 25% of all marine life, protect our coastal communities from storms, etc.

Oyster reefs consist of many oysters. They provide habitats for many organisms,
protect coastal areas from erosion, and filter particles in water,improving water
quality.

Estuarine Habitat

Lots of coastal habitats can be found where there are estuaries. Estuarine habitats are
partly enclosed bodies of water where freshwater from rivers and streams mix with salt
water from the ocean, resulting in brackish waters. Brackish waters have higher salinity
levels than fresh water but not as high as ocean water. Estuaries attract many migratory
organisms. Water quality in estuaries has been affected by runoff contaminated by urban
and agricultural development. Structures such as dams that control drainage,
electricity,etc., have also affected freshwater flow.

Types of estuaries:

Tectonic estuaries are formed by tectonic or volcanic activity. When plates shift
about,they create tectonic estuaries. An example of a tectonic estuary is San
Francisco Bay. The San Francisco Bay lies between the Hayward and

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 San Andreas fault lines which interreact and cause the downward

movement of land or down warping.

Fjord estuaries occur when glaciers make steep valleys and waters fills the area. An
example of a fjord estuary is Glacier Bay in Alaska. Fjord estuaries are usually cold
and narrow; water flows seasonally from rivers and streams.
Coastal plain estuaries are made when water levels rise and fill river valleys and
glacier troughs. The Chesapeake Bay was formed when massive glaciers retreated at
the end of the last ice age. Afterward, the Atlantic Ocean filled the space with water
and created a coastal plain estuary.
Bar-build estuaries occur when barrier islands or sandbars protect them from the
ocean. Barrier islands are long islands parallel to an island's mainland and usually
protect if from storms and erosion. Bar- build estuaries are common along the coast
of Texas and Florida, such as the Matagorda Bay in Texas.

Freshwater Habitat

Freshwater habitats are places with low or less than 1% salinity content. Plants and animals
here are adapted to low salt content and would not be abe to survive in areas with high
salinity, such as oceans. The different freshwater areas are ponds lakes, rivers, and wetlands.

Pound and takes can differ in size from a few meters to kilometers. Ponds are usually
seasonally lasting a few months, while lakes usually last much longer. Both often have limited
species diversity because they are not close to rivers and oceans
They are divided into three zones:littoral, limnetic, and profundal

·The Littoral Zone is the shallow surface of lake or pond, making it the warmest part due
to the sun's rays. Organisms here include algae,crustaceans, fishes, and other aquatic
plants.Turtles, ducks,etc.,consume
 the animals and plants here.
The Limnetic zone is the oen and well-lit area of a lake or pond with mostly
plankton and freshwater fish. Plankton is an essential base of the food chain that
allows many organisms to exist.
The profundal zone is colder and denser than the limnetic and littoral zone.The
organisms here are heterotrophs who consume other organisms, such as dead
plankton, to survive.
Temperatures in ponds and lakes can differ seasonally. The surface is always
warmer than the bottom; during the spring and fall, the top and bottom layers
usually mix, circulating oxygen around

Rivers and Streams are water that flows in one direction. The water is cooler in
temperature and fresher at the source than at the mouth. Freshwater fish are usually
found at the source. Toward the middle, rivers and streams widen leading to more spcies
being here, such as algae and other aquatic plants. Near the mouth,the water becomes
less clear, resulting in less sunlight and less flora and fauna Organisms near the mouth,
such as carp and catfish, require oxygen.

Wetlands are areas made up of marshes, swamps, and bogs. Hydrophytes, or aquatic
plants that have adapted to low oxygen levels, dominate here. Hydrophytes include pond
lilies, cattails, etc. They have the highest levels of species diversity compared to other
ecosystems and are not connected to the oceans, unlike estuaries.

Food Chains and Food Webs

Food chains and food webs are diagrams that represent the feeding relationship from
producers to consumers to decomposers. They show who eat whom.In this way, they
model how energy and matter move though ecosystems.

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Food Chains

A food chain represents a single pathway through which energy and matter flow through an ecosystem.
An example is shown in the figure below

Showing a full-length food chain.Image Credit:Media Wiki.

Food Chains are generally simpler than what really happens in nature, Most organisms consume-
and are consumed by-more than one species.

EXAMPLES O FOOD CHAIN

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1. TERRESTRIAL FOOD CHAIN
Butterfly-small birds-fox

Carrots-rabbits-snake-man

Corn-Chick-snake-man

Grass-grasshopper-grog-snake-eagle

2. AQUATIC FOOD CHAIN

Crayfish-catfish-humans

Insect-fish-humans

Plankton-snail-mackerel-shark

A food chain is a simple diagram that shows one-way energy flows through an ecosystem.
Producers from the base of all food chains. The consumers that eat producers are called
primary consumers. The consumers that eat primary consumers are secondary
consumers.

At each level of a food chain, a lot of energy is lost. Only about ten percent of the energy
passes to the next level. Where does that energy go? Some energy is given off as head,
some energy goes into animal wastes, energy also goes into growing things that another
consumer cannot eat, like fur. It's because so much energy is lost that most food chains
have just a few leveIs. There's not enough energy left for higher levels.

What does this mean for the range of the osprey (or lion, or other top predator)?A top
predator must have a very large range in which to hunt so that lt can get enough energy
to live. Why do most food chains have only four or five trophic levels?There is not
enough energy to support organisms in a sixth trophic level. Food chains of oceans
animals are longer than those of land-based animals because

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ocean conditions are most stable. Why do organisms at higher trophic levels tend to be larger than
those at lower level? The reason for this is a simple" a large fish must be able to eat a small fish, but
the small fish does not have to be able to eat the large fish

Food Webs

A food web represents multiple pathways through which energy and matter flow through an
ecosystem. It includes many intersecting food chains.It demonstrates that most organisms eat, and
are eaten, by more than one species. An example is show below

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Even food webs are interconnected. All organism depends on two global food webs.The base of
aquatic food webs is phytoplankton and the base of terrestrial food webs is land plants. How are
these two webs interconnected? Birds or bears that live on land may eat fish, which connects the
two food webs. Humans are an important part of both these food webs; we are at the top of a
food web,since nothing eat us. That means that we are top predators.

Trophic Levels and Energy

The feeding positions in a food chain or web are called trophic level. The different trophic levels
are defined in the table below. All food chains and webs have at least tow or three trophic levels.
Generally, there are at maximum of four trophic levels.

Table 1: Trophic Levels

Trophic Level Where it Gets Food Example

1st Trophic Level: Makes its own food Pants make food
Producer

2nd Trophic Level: Consumes producers Mice eat plant seeds

Primary consumer

3rd Trophic Level: Consumes Primary

Snakes eat mice
Secondary Consumer Consumers

4t Trophic Level: Consumers secondary

Hawks eat snakes
Tertiary Consumer consumers

Many Consumers feed at more than one trophic level. Humans, for example are primary

consumers when they eat plants such as vegetables. They are secondary consumers when they

eat cows.They are tertiary consumers when they eat salmon.Energy flows through an ecosystem

in one direction. Energy is passed from organisms at one tropic level or energy level to organisms

in the next trophic level

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which organism do you think are the first trophic level. Producers are always the

first on the trophic level, herbivores the second, the carnivores

Types of Ecological Interactions

Interaction is necessary for all living beings to survive. Lie human

relationships,ecological interactions which involve animals, plants, microbes, etc.
also have negative and positive interactions. These biotic interactions may be intra-
specific (Interactions between the same species) or interspecific (Interactions
between distinct species),

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Predation

Predation is an ecological interaction in which one organism kills and feeds on the other.
The killer organism in this interaction is called the predator, and the unfortunate
organism that is eaten is called the prey. Example: wild animals like tigers, and lions
attacking the zebra, deer, cattle,etc.

Competition

Competition is a type of ecological interaction in which two different species fight or

compete with each other for the same resource, this form of interaction is termed
competition. The animals could compete for resources like food, support,shelter space,
etc. Organisms are compelled to follow this type of ecological interaction for their
survival and existence. Such ecological interaction could with lead to the extinction of
one of the parties or the extinction of both parties.

Parasitism

It is an interaction in which one organism, the parasite, benefits while the other
organism, known as the host, is harmed. In such an association, the parasite is found to
live in or on the host's body. Depending on the type of parasite involved,the parasitism
may be termed ecto-parasitism or endo-parasitism.

Example:Ticks present on the fur of dogs. Harmful ticks reside on the dog's fur and
obtain shelter from the fur. The ticks harm the dog by lavishly feeding on its blood and
causing it to itch. In some cases, these ticks are a source of the carrier of disease
infecting the animals they live on..

Commensalism

It is a one-sided beneficial relationship between two living organisms,where one

organism reaps benefits like food or shelter from the other organism without benefiting
or harming it. The partners that profit from such a kind of association are commensal,
while the latter organism is the host species. A well-known illustration of a commensal is
the.remora (family Echineidae), a fish that travels in

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close proximity to sharks and other fish.

Example:Remoras have developed a flat, oval-sucking dis structure on top of their head that
attaches to the bodies of their hosts.

Mutualism

Here, the living beings benefit from each other's company. This is a positive,friendly relationship.
A mutualistic interaction comprises two species of organisms that work together,each benefiting
from the relationship.A classic example of Mutualism is pollination, as the hungry bee gets it
nectar from the flower,and in return, the flower is pollinated by the bee so it can reproduce

Symbiosis

Symbiosis is a relationship in which both parties are benefited and the organisms live in close
contact. A well-known exampleof symbiosis is seen in lichens. Lichens are made up of algae and
fungi. The fungus provides the habitat, while the algae provide food. This way, both organisms
benefit from each other. When they continue to interact, they change each other over time. This
is called coevolution

A lichen is a symbiotic association between algae and fungi

Saprophytism

This is a mode of life exhibited by some fungi and bacteria in which their energy-

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