Andrea Coppola

BLENDER
The Ultimate Guide

VOLUME 4
© 2017 Blender High School, Lulu Roma
First edition Blender High School, Lulu 2017

Cover: Andrea Coppola

Cover project: Francesco Andresciani
Development: Andrea Coppola
Translation from Italian: Giovanni Caruso

It is forbidden to duplicate this book, either by digital or analogue, by

unauthorized sending via email or other telematic ways, and the
publication, if not expressly authorized.

ISBN:
978-0-244-94770-5

Find Blender High School on:

Web: http://www.blenderhighschool.it
Facebook: Blenderhighschool Roma
Youtube: Blender High School
 Summary

VOLUME 4

1. Introduction 1

1.1. Advanced functionalities 3

1.2. Text Editor 5

2. Animation 15

2.1. Generalities 17

2.1.1. The Timeline 18

2.1.2. The Keyframes 22

Exercise n. 1 23

2.2. Animating using the modifiers 28

Exercise n. 2 29

2.3. The constraints 31

Exercise n. 3 31

2.3.1. The Follow Path constraint 35

2.3.2. The Tracking constraints 36

Clamp To 37

Damped Track 39

Inverse Kinematics 40
I
 Locked Track 42

Spline IK 43

Stretch To 45

Track To 47

Exercise n, 4 49

2.4. Dope Sheet 54

2.4.1. Actions List Area 55

2.4.2. Keyframes Area Editing 57

2.4.3. The header 58

2.5. Graph Editor 69

2.5.1. The Curve Editor Area 70

2.5.2. The Channel Region 73

2.5.3. The Properties sidebar 74

The View Properties panel 75

The Active F-Curve panel 76

The Active Keyframe panel 77

The Modifiers panel 81

2.5.4. The header 85

Exercise n. 5 95

2.6. NLA Editor 101

2.6.1. Tracks and Strips 101

2.6.2. The Tracks Region 103

II
 2.6.3. The Strips Area 104

2.6.4. The Properties sidebar 104

The Animation Data panel 104

The Active Track panel 105

The Active Strip panel 105

The Action Clip panel 106

The Evaluation panel 107

The Modifiers panel 108

2.6.5. The header 108

2.6.6. Strips Editing 113

3. Character modeling 115

3.1. Introduction 117

3.2. Modeling by extrusion 119

Exercise n. 6 119

3.3. Modeling with topology 139

3.4. Modeling with the Skin modifier 142

Exercise n. 7 142

4. Rigging and Inverse Kinematics 153

4.1. Introduction 155

4.1.1. The Specials menu 160

III
 4.1.2. The Tools Shelf relevant to riggings 162

4.1.3. The Properties Bar relevant to riggings 163

4.1.4. The 3D view header menu relevant to riggings 165

4.2. The rigging modality 171

4.2.1. Object Mode 171

4.2.2. Edit Mode 171

4.2.3. Pose Mode 171

4.2.4. The Tools Shelf in Pose Mode 173

4.2.5. The Properties Bar in Pose Mode 176

4.2.6. The 3D view header in Pose Mode 177

4.3. The constraints 183

4.3.1. Constraining the bones 183

4.4. Character Rigging and inverse kinematics 185

Exercise n. 8 186

4.5. Facial Rigging 204

4.6. Motion Capture (MOCAP) and movement personalization 208

Exercise n. 9 213

4.7. The Properties editor relevant to the armatures 223

4.7.1. The Data tab 223

The Skeleton panel 224

The Display panel 225

The Bone Groups panel 227

IV
 The Pose Library panel 228

The Ghost panel 228

The Motion Paths panel 230

The Inverse Kinematics panel 232

The Rigify Layers Name panel 235

The Rigify Buttons panel 235

4.7.2. The Bones tab 237

Object Mode and Edit Mode 238

The Transform panel (only in Edit Mode) 238

The Relations panel 239

The Display panel (only in Object mode) 239

The Deform panel 240

Pose Mode 242

The Transform panel 242

The Relations panel 242

The Display panel 242

The Deform panel 242

The Transform Locks panel 243

The Inverse Kinematics panel 244

The Rigify Type panel 244

5. Sculpting 247

V
5.1. Introduction 249

5.2. Sculpt Mode 251

5.2.1. The Tools Shelf in Sculpt Mode 251

Tab Tools 254

The Brush panel 254

The texture panel 256

The Stroke panel 258

The Curve panel 258

The Dyntopo panel 259

The Symmetry/Lock panel 261

The History panel 263

Options tab 264

The Overlay panel 264

The Options panel 264

The Appearance panel 266

Exercise n. 10 266

5.2.2. The 3D view header in Sculpt Mode 282

6. Motion Tracking and Videoediting 287

6.1. Introduction 289

6.1.1. Converting a video in an image sequence 291

6.1.2. Motion Tracking with fixed camera with a marker 296

VI
 Exercise n. 11 296

6.1.3. Photogrammetry and Motion Tracking 311

Exercise n. 12 313

6.1.4. Camera Tracking in sequences with moving camera 323

Exercise n. 12 323

6.2. Movie Clip Editor 338

6.2.1. The Movie Clip Editor header 339

Graph Type and Dopesheet Type 339

6.2.2. The masks 346

6.2.3. The Movie Clip Editor Tools Shelf 348

The Clip panel 348

The Marker panel 350

The Tracking Settings panel 350

The Track panel 351

The Plane Track panel 354

The Solve panel 354

The Clean Up panel 355

The Geometry panel 355

The Orientation panel 356

The Scene Setup panel 357

6.2.4. The Properties Bar in the Movie Clip Editor 357

The Objects panel 358

VII
 The Track panel 359

The Plane Track panel 360

The Tracking Settings panel 361

The Camera panel 361

The Lens panel 361

The Display panel 364

The marker Display panel 366

The 2D Stabilization panel 367

The Proxy / Timecode panel 369

The Footage Settings panel 370

The Footage Information panel 371

The Grease Pencil panel 371

6.2.5. Some definitions 371

6.3. Video Sequence Editor 373

6.3.1. Introduction 373

6.3.2. The header of the Video Sequence Editor 375

6.3.3. The Properties Bar of the Video Sequence Editor 389

The Edit Strip panel 390

The Strip Input panel 391

The Filter panel 392

The Proxy / Timecode panel 393

The Scene Preview/Render panel 394

VIII
 The View Settings panel 395

The Safe Areas panel 395

The Modifiers panel 397

The Grease Pencil panel 398

7. Concluding remarks 399

7.1. Conclusions and Acknowledgments 401

7.2. Bibliography 402

7.3. About the Author 404

IX
X
 1
INTRODUCTION

1
2
1.1. Advanced functionalities

Welcome!

This fourth volume is part of a very complex series which required

a great effort, constant study, research and much time with, with
proudness, gave us much satisfaction.

With this volume we believe to have analyzed at least the 90% of

all the Blender functionalities.

We have excluded two very wide topics, which we will

eventually discuss in a future work.

More specifically, they are the Blender Game Engine,

fundamental for the creation of videogames and interactive
environments, and the Scripting in Python language. These two
topics are so wide to require a very deep knowledge of the
programming and separate scientific publications.

In this volume we will meanly deal about the object animation in

the ambient and their rigging, i.e. the functionality allowing the
setting on the scene and the dynamic play of objects and
characters.

We will also deal with Motion Tracking, learning how to make the
objects modeled in blender to interact with images and real
videos, and we will enter the Sculpting artistic environment,
where the meshes can be sculpted and modeled, with
dedicated brushes, like they were made of plasticine.

In conclusion, we will briefly describe the mode interesting

Addons, internal or external, very useful and sometimes essential
in the computer graphics with Blender.

3
fig. 1 The Sculpt Mode allows you to build very detailed models, similar to sculptures

4
1.2. Text Editor

Before starting to discuss the fascinating topics off this

th volume, we
will give a brief description of a little used and kno
nown editor, the
Text Editor.

This editor, whose icon represents a written page,

e, is often used
by the programmers as internal interface for making the
scripting, command lines useful for generating spe
pecific functions
or, even, addons.

Like already said, in this treatise the scripting will

ill n
not be treated
but, if you like and are interested to the programm ming, we need
to mention this editor, illustrating the available men
enus.

Beside this, this editor can be used also as block

ck note, where
noting down about the ongoing project.

This editor comprises a text area where you can n write with any
text editor, and a header from which, using the me
menus, you can
recall functions related to it.

fig. 2 the Text Editor with a new activated script area

When opening the editor, the text area is not yet

et active. This is
because you need to upload in the header an n existing script
(clicking on Open) or create a new ne by clicking
goon New).

5
The available menus in this phase are three: View, text
tex and
Templates, in addition to three buttons allowing you to
o fformat
the script base syntax.

fig. 3 the header of the empty Text Editor

In the View menu you can find the commands similar to other
editors allowing you to manage the visualization of the
e whole
editor.

fig. 4 the View menu

fig. 5 the Text menu

6
In the Text menu the commands are available relevant
re to the
Run Script, ALT +
compilation of the text and the command lines (Ru
P), the saving (Save and Save As), the command d lline uploading
after a change (Reload, ALT + R), the opening off tthe saved text
(Open Text Block, ALT + O), or the script saving a
as a text block
(Create Text Block, CTRL + N).

fig. 6 the Templates menu

In the Templates menu you can open specific and

d preset Shader
Data Block (Open Shading Language) or Tex ext Data Block
(Python) in Python programming language.

fig. 7 a preset script uploaded from the Shader Data Block named
ed Noise

Each command line is defined by a number att theth left (in red,
when activating the row) and a text. The vertic
rtical red cursor
define the position where inserting the text.

7
fig. 8 command line n. 2

The three buttons at the right of the Open command d

define,
from left to right:

fig. 9 the buttons of the script syntax

- The visualization of the row index in a column at the

he left of
the script rows;

- The possibility to wrap the command lines longer tha

than the
horizontal space of the text field;

- The visualization in highlight format of the script such

ch that it
is visibly subdivided in colored blocks.

fig. 10 scripting highlight format

When uploading a script or creating a new one, two

o further
menus containing some commands are activated.

8
fig. 11 the Edit menu

The Edit menu contains the commands related

ted to the text
modification.

- Text to 3D Object opens a submenu with tw two commands

where the first (One Object) allows you to tra
transform all the
text into a single 3D object; whereas the e second (One
Object Per Line) to transform each textt lineli into a 3D
object.

- Text Autocomplete is an automatic correctotor useful for the

automatic completion of the text during typi
yping;

- Find (CTRL + F) allows you to find one or m

more words (or
commands) in the text, in the textbox of the Sidebar (see
in the foregoing) of the text Editor;

9
fig. 12 text To 3D Object

- Jump (CTRL + J) is used to place the cursor on the specific

sp
command row defined in the Jump editor;

fig. 13 the Hump editor

- Move Line(s) Up and Move Line(s) Down allow y you to

move the selected command row/rows, respec ectively,
above or under the previous of following row;

- Duplicate Line (D), Paste (CTRL + V), Copy (CTRL + C) and

Cut (CTRL + X) are used for duplicating, parting, copying
co
or deleting one or more selected command lines;

- Undo (CTRL + U) and Redo (SHIFT + CTRL + U) undo

ooor redo
the last assigned command.

10
fig. 14 the Format menu

The text selection occurs by dragging the mou

ouse along the
command row/rows holding the LMB pressed. The
he selected text
is highlighted in pink.

fig. 15 the text selection

In the Format menu the following commands are a

available:

- the Convert Whitespace menu defines how

w to format the
selected white spaces in the text;

- Uncomment (SHIFT + CTRL + D) and Comme ment define the

ting the script or
selected row respectively as text integrating
as a note (in this case a harsh # is added at the beginning
of the command line). A note is not conside
dered as integral
part of the script (thus as command).

11
fig. 16 the selected text row is a note (#)

- Unident (SHIFT + TAB) and Ident (TAB) respectively

ly format
f
or move the selected command lines toward righ ight of a
tab.

fig. 17 Ident of the selected command line

fig. 18 the Run Script button, and the Register flag

Net, the Run Script button, which can be recalled also typin
ping ALT
+ P or from the Text menu, is used to launch the uploaded
ed script.
Once a text has been modified, the button changes its name
into Script Node Update.

fig. 19 the Script Node Update button

s, iin *.py
Checking Register, you can save the text as modulus,
format.

The above commands are proposed also in the Sidebar of the

Text Editor, distributed in the Properties and Find panels.

The sidebar can be enabled or disabled dragging the edi

ditor left
margin rightward and resizing it as you like.

12
fig. 20 opening and resize of the Sidebar

fig. 21 Sidebar of the Text Editor

13
14
 2
ANIMATION

15
16
2.1. Generalities

With this chapter, we start dealing with a very complex topic,

since the animation cover a wide range of applications.

In general, the animation plays a role very often, and in

particular every time a time event occurs.

We than should not limit ourselves to believe the animation is

only for objects moving in time from a point to another one. Even
some modifiers, almost all the Physics simulations and the particle
system, to make some examples, undergo time variations and
thus are animated applications.

And, as we will see in the foregoing, the topic does not finish
here: even the mesh geometric structure may undergo time
variations. Think to a walking character. He modifies, while
moving, his polygonal shape.

The topic is so wide and affecting also other functions that it is

really hard to fully describe it in two chapters of the fourth
volume of this series. Necessarily, we have already dealt with it
while describing functions related to this topic, though
superficially.

We already know, for example, how to insert a keyframe, we

know what is the Timeline and how to start an animated process.

Thus in this chapter we will summarize the fundamental concepts

and we will analyze them in detail, in more specific cases, with
the help of practical examples.

We will recall the citation to the previous volumes for the topics
already specifically described before.

17
2.1.1. The Timeline

One of the main ingredients of the animation is the Timelin

eline, the
window managing the frame sequence.

It has been widely described in the first chapter of the

th first
volume and many times used in other applications.

fig. 22 the Timeline

This we will limit ourselves to recall the main parts comprising

sing it.

The main area depicts the time flow, represented in the chosen
c
time unit (frame, seconds…) with a green cursor defininining the
instant of the animated scene in the time.

The bar of the dragging buttons and the text boxes,, nnamed
Frame Control Counter, start and stop the animation, while
wh the
animation duration is defined though the frame number (250
(2 by
default) in the window header (Start and End).

fig. 23 commands Frame Control Counter in the Timeline header

The View menu has the following options:

- Toggle Fullscreen Area (key combination ALT + F10)

maximizing the Timeline Fullscreen dimensions;

- Toggle Maximize Area (CTRL + UP ARROW) maximizin

izing the
Timeline in the Blender window (CTRL + DOWN ARRO
ROW for
restoring);

18
 - Duplicate Area into New Window duplicating the Timeline
with an identical copy;

- Bind Camera To Markers (CTRL + B) binding the camera to

the active markers;

- Cache showing the cache of the various physics applied

to an object;

- Only Keyframes to Selected Objects which, if checked,

shows only the keyframes relevant to the selected object;

- Show Frame Number Indicator indicating in a green box

downright the time flow cursor the present frame index;

- View All maximizing all the frames of the full animation in

the Timeline horizontal space;

- Lock Time to Other Windows allows you to synchronize in

time all the windows having this kind of option;

- Show Seconds showing the seconds instead of the frames.

If checked, the Show Frame Number Indicator option
shows the seconds on the dragging cursor.

The Marker menu collects the options referring to the markers

inserted in the animation. We recall that a marker is not a
keyframe, but only a visual effect which can be inserted by
typing M. The menu has the following options:

- Jump to Previous Marker jumps to the position (frame) of

the marker previous to the selected one;

- Jump to Next Marker jumps to the position (frame) of the

next marker;

19
 - Grab/Move Marker allows you to shift and move the
selected marker. It operates like the mouse dragging;

- Rename Marker allows you to name or rename a marker

for highlighting on the Timeline or on the other related
windows the type of event starting with that frame. Once
the marker has been selected, you can also type CTRL +
M for performing the same operation;

- Delete Marker (X) deletes the selected marker;

- Duplicate Marker To Scene allows you to copy the

selected marker in another scene;

- Duplicate Marker duplicates the selected marker in the

same scene;

- Add Marker (M) adds a new marker.

The Frame menu contains the options relevant to the frames:

- Auto-Keyframing Mode controls the keyframes automatic

insertion methodology, i.e.: Add&Replace or Replace.

- Set Start Frame (key S) sets the frame on which the cursor
is placed as animation start;

- Set End Frame (key E) sets the frame on which the cursor is
placed as animation end;

- Set Preview Range (key P) activates a reduced selection

of the frames in the Timeline. The animation un preview will
occur within this range;

- Clear Preview Range (ALT + P) deletes the selection in the

Timeline.

20
Finally, in the Playback menu:

- Audio Scrubbing allows to listen to the audio channels

during the manual dragging of the Timeline;

- Audio Muted disables the audio in the Timeline;

- AV-Sync synchronizes audio and video during the

reproduction with the audio clock;

- Frame Dropping makes the reproduction dropping the

frames when too slow;

- Clip Editor updated the Movie Clip editor during the

reproduction;

- Node Editors updated the nodes in the Node Editor during

the reproduction;

- Sequencer Editor updates the sequencer during the

reproduction;

- Image Editors updates the Image Editor during the

reproduction;

- Property Editors updates in real time the preference editor

values during the reproduction;

- Animation Editors updates the Timeline, Graph Editor and

Video Sequencer Editor during the reproduction;

- All 3D View Editors updates the Timeline and the 3D View

during the reproduction;

- Top-Left 3D Editors updates the Timeline during the

reproduction if Animation Editors and All Vista 3D Editors
are disabled.

21
The two Range Control buttons define:

- Use Preview Range allows to visualize animationss with

w an
alternative range. It works for the reproduction in the
th user
interface, but not for the animation rendering.

- Lock Time Cursor to Playback Range limits the time

e in the
reproduction range.

fig 24 the Range Control buttons

The drop-down menu Sync Mode defines the synchron

onization
modality (AV-Sync; Frame Dropping; No Sync)

The Keyframe Control buttons manage the keyframes, ass we

w will
see next.

2.1.2. The Keyframes

We have already worked with the keyframes.

They activate events and record them in the Timeline.. Blender

B
operates such that almost each button, counter and curso
rsor can
be automatic and this can affect the animation an and the
transformation of the objects in the 3D scene.

For adding a keyframe in a frame, you need to place e in the

desired frame, and save the event typing the I key wiwith the
mouse pointer placed in correspondence of the modified
d value.

22
The box or the button will be colored in yellow w and a yellow
keyframe will appear on the Timeline as a verticall b
bar.

fig 25 the boxes of the Location counters will appear in yellow whe
hen typing the I key

EXERCISE n. 1: AN OBJECT MOVING FROM ONE

O POINT TO
ANOTHER ONE

In this first exercise we will show how simple itt is to move an

object in time from one point to another one.

Create a plane and a cube lying on it near a plane

ne corner.

fig 26 the cube on the plane in the starting position

23
As we have already tried, define first the frame numb ber, for
example 100, in the End counter of the Timeline header.

fig 27 set the last animation frame to 100 frame

This will result in an animation lasting 100 frames, i.e. in sec

seconds,
knowing that the animation frame rate is 25 fps, the e whole
sequence will last 100 : 25 = 4 seconds.

Fix a keyframe relevant to the cube position typing I afterr h

having
placed the mouse pointer on one of the Location coun unters of
the Transform panel, with the cube selected. The three co counters
x, y and z will be colored in yellow.

fig 28 first keyframe insertion

A vertical yellow segment will appear in the Timelin

eline, in
correspondence of the frame n. 1.

fig 29 the keyframe in the Timeline in correspondence of the frame n. 1

24
Move now the cube near the opposite corner er in the plane,
move the cursor of the Timeline to the frame n. 100
00 and fix a new
keyframe with the key I.

Launch the animation with ALT + A, the cube will

ill be
b shifted from
a frame to the other.

You can place in correspondence of the frames

es between the
first and the last one more keyframes, such as to create a
nonlinear path.

fig 30 new keyframe insertion for creating animations in a more

m complex and
defined path

Obviously, you can regulate also the movementt a

acting on other
transformers (and not only), for example on the Rotate
transformer, forcing the cube to rotate around iitself during its
path.

g a keyframe
fig 31 rotation of the cube of 15° to the frame n. 20 and inserting

25
To do this, fix a keyframe to the frame n. 1 with the cube in initial
position. Click the key I, with the mouse pointer place ced on
Rotation. The Rotation counters will be colored in yellow.

Go, for example, to the frame 20 and rotate the cube be of 15

degrees typing R, 15. Type again I on the Rotation counters
ers.

Repeat the procedure in the key frames, then launc

nch the
animation.

The cube will move along the path, rotating around itself.

It is interesting to notice how Blender compute the move

ovement
interpolation between a keyframe and the other, makinking the
animation fluent.

Try to create new animations, acting also on the sca cale, for
example, such that an object changes its scale in time,, or try to
model the car wheel operating such it rotates around d its
i axis
while reaching a target.

fig. 32 the wheel.blend file shows the animation of a wheel moving from a point A
to a point B while rotating

26
Another method allowing a keyframe insertion is to type the key I
inside the 3D view and choose from the options a available in the
menu (Insert Keyframe Menu) which will app ppear the one
relevant to the desired transformer on which h to insert the
keyframe.

fig. 33 Insert Keyframe Menu

27
2.2. Animating using the modifiers

We said that the largest part of the counter parameter

ters and
many buttons can be fixed with some keyframes in c certain
moments of the Timeline.

This means that not only the transformers can become keyey points
of a sequence, but also, for example, the modifiers themse
selves.

To be more clear, at a certain frame a modifier can be switched

sw
on because the object to which is applied is framed by b the
camera, and then is switched off is it is over. This is usefull to save
useless computations which Blender should perform also o for
f not
represented or visible objects.

fig. 34 keyframe on the visualization button of the Subdivision Surface modifi

difier

Let us consider an example about how to animate portions

ons of an
object using the Hook modifier.

Recover the project with the starfish, made during the study
stu of
the first volume.

28
EXERCISE n. 2: WALKING STARFISH

With this method you will animate the starfish suc

uch that it starts
walking moving the tentacles.

First, you must fix the general position to the frame

e n.
n 1.

To do this, assign a keyframe not on the starfish, bu

but on the Hooks
associated to each tentacle and to the centrall b body. You will
need to operate a hook at once, since the he keyframe is
activated only on the active object, also in a selec
ection.

fig. 35 keyframe on the Hooks

After fixing the starting position with the keyfram

rames to all the
hooks, drag the Timeline cursor on the last frame,, th
then select the
starfish and the associated hooks and move the hem in the final
position fixing, hook by hook, the keyframes releva
vant to the final
animation position.

Of course, you can add intermediate keyframe e for generating

nonlinear paths with accelerations and slow down.
n.

29
By launching the animation from the frame n. 1, the starf
arfish will
start moving from point A to point B, but without movin
ving the
tentacles.

Some dashed lines indicate the bind of the hooks between

en point
A and point B.

fig. 36 primary animation of the starfish from point A to point B

Now, with much patient, you will need to work by interme rmediate
key frames on each hook related to the corresponding ten tentacle,
rising it up, rotating or slightly moving it and fixing time by
b time
the relevant keyframe.

Launching the animation, the starfish will move, frame by

y frame,
f
walking on its tentacles.

fig. 37 the starfish walks moving the tentacles

30
2.3. The constraints

In the sixth chapter of the second volume we alre

lready discussed
about constraints and parent relationships.

As we already saw, some of these constraints (in particular,

pa those
belonging to the Transform and Relationship group
oups, which can
be recalled from the Constraints menu, are used ed in the simple
animations (parenting objects to others), in the rigging, the
armature and in the Motion Tracking.

fig. 38 the Constraints modifiers related to the animation (Mo

otion Tracking and
Tracking)

In addition, in the second volume we learned ho

how to animate
an object along a path, in particular a camera along a Bézier
a a
curve, parenting the two objects.

EXERCISE n. 3: THRILLS ON THE ROLLER COASTERS

ERS: ANIMATION
ALONG A PATH

Place the camera in correspondence of the startin rting point of the

Bézier curve, slightly rising it up for simulating the vis
visualization of a
person staying on the train on the rail.

31
fig. 39 camera placement on the path

Select the camera, then the Bézier curve, and type CTR
CTRL + P,
choosing from the menu of the Set Parent To option ons and
selecting the Follow Path item.

fig. 40 Follow Path

Select now the curve and set, in the Duplication menu

u of the
Data tab, the value 250 in the End counter. This opera
ration is
needed to indicate to Blender that the animation du duration
should coincide with the whole frame sequence sett in the
Timeline.

In fact, reducing the value, a quicker animation effect wo

ould be
achieved, whereas for higher value a rallenty.

32
fig. 41 the Duplication panel in the Data tab

Launching the animation with ALT + A, the camera

ra will run along
the rail.

fig. 42 the camera runs along the path of the roller coasters

Try to digit 0 NUM to view what the camera is framin

ming.

fig. 43 animated scene framing

You will notice the camera framing will not rema

main still on the
curve center.

33
This is because the camera has not a fixed target to be followed,
foll
for example the rail center or an object moving around.

The observer, instead of following the rail path, could

uld look
around looking to the landscape.

You then need to insert a target object, permanently fram

amed by
the camera.

Two different methods are available to get the same result.

ult.

Method 1

Insert an Empty and place it a little apart in front to the camera,

ca
rising it up with respect to the Bézier curve.

Operate such that also the empty follows the path (CTRL + P).

Then select the camera and, from the Constraints tab,

b, select
Track To from the Tracking group.

fig. 44 Track To

Enforce Empty as Target Object and –Z as framing direc ection in

the panel which will be activated, keeping in mind tha hat in a
camera the Z direction indicates the vector pointing towa
ward the
observer in the framing.

34
fig. 45 the Track To panel

Launching the animation, the camera will perma

rmanently follow
the path of the Empty object.

Method 2

In the second method, in case you want to get

et more general
framings, you need to use the keyframes.

You could assign different keyframes to the Emp

mpty object, for
example, some along the path and some out of it, if you were
interested to move the camera observation pointt out
o of the rail.

2.3.1. The Follow Path constraint

Remind the parameters of the Follow Path panel,

pa which is
located in the Constraints tab among the he Relationship
constraints:

- Checking Follow Curve you can however fix the e framing

f on the
target, i.e. on the curve origin. The camera, in this case, will
rotate permanently framing the origin, following the path.

35
- Curve Radius allows the object (the camera in our case)
ca to
rescale according to the curve curvature radius.

- Offset allows you to move the object position along the path
relevant to the animation starting frame.

- Forward defines the object orientation with respectt tto the

curve, aligning it according to the path advancing directio
ction, i.e.
depending on the tangent to the curve in that point.

- Up defines the object axis aligned with the world z axis. is. This, in
case of the camera, is set on Z, since it is normal to the fram
aming.

fig. 46 the Follow Path panel

2.3.2. The Tracking constraint

In this paragraph we will analyze the constraints of the Tracking

Tra
group located in the Constraints tab.

36
fig. 47 the Constraints Tracking constraints

CLAMP TO

The Clamp To constraint binds an object to a cu curve. It is very

similar to the Follow Path constraint but, insteadad of using the
evaluation time of a target curve, it is based on the properties of
the present position of its reference, though not ver
ery accurate.

The longest axis of the curve selection rectangle

le is chosen, as
preset setting, as principal axis.

The object position is compared with the curve

cu selection
rectangle in the principal axis direction.

37
fig. 48 the Clamp To constraint panel

In the Clamp To panel the following options are available:

The Target field indicates along which curve the obje ject will
follow the path. If this field is not specified or does not
ot have
enough information, the Clamp To item will be highlighted
ed in red
and its effect will be ignored.

The Main Axis switch controls that the global axis (x, y or z)) be
b the
path main direction. The Auto default option automa matically
chooses the longest curve axis.

By default, once the object has reached an end d of its

e Cyclic
destination, will be constrained in that point. When the
option is checked, the object is instantaneously shifted
d to the
opposite end whenever reaches a curve end. This is obviously
ob
designed mainly for closed curves, like in the case of the roller
coaster rail of the previous example.

Influence is a cursor defining how much the constraint influ

fluences
the bind between the object and the curve. 0 is the min minimum
value, whereas 1 is the maximum.

38
 DAMPED TRACK

The Damped Track constraint forces a local axis of the reference

object to permanently point according to a directi
ction.

fig. 49 the Damped Track constraint panel

Targed defines the target, which can be a curve o also a mesh

e or
(in this case it is possible to define as target also a Vertex Group
of the mesh itself) or an armature (in this case the Bone option
will appear, allowing you to point a single bone o or the head or
tail of a bone Head/Tail).

fig. 50 the Vertex Group option appears in case the Target is a mesh
me

To defines the pointing direction of the Targed obje

bject.

fig. 51 in this image, the camera permanently points along the –ZZ direction

39
Influence defines how much the constraint influences the
e bind
b
between the object and the curve. 0 is the minimum value
ue,
whereas 1 is the maximum.

INVERSE KINEMATICS

fig. 52 Inverse Kinematic (IK) constraint panel

We will deal with inverse kinematic in the next chapters relevant

re
to the armature, to the rigging and the limb movement.

This constraint adopts the inverse kinematic in setting an n object

o
in the scene. It is, then, a constraint available only for the
e bones
in order to rapidly create a IK constraint with a target, se select a
bone in pose modality, then typing SHIFT + I.

This constraint will be exhaustively discussed later, when d

dealing
with the inverse kinematic.

40
By now we will only describe the available options:
s:

The target should necessarily be an armature.

Bone defines a bone of the armature.

Pole Target determines the object acting as rotatio

tion pole.

Iterations defines the maximum iteration number;

Chain Length indicates how many bones are intere

erested to the IK
effect. Set to 0 for including all the bones.

Use Tail includes the bone tail as ending elementt of the chain.

Stretch enables the stretch in the inverse kinematic

tic.

fig. 53 the inverse kinematic affects several bones in the displac

lacement such as to
regulate the setting in the scene more smoothly and reliably. Thin
hink to the rise up of
a foot. This will influence the toes and knee position.

The Weight section has two parameters:

41
 - Position determines the weight control (defined by Weight
W
Paint) for the position;

- Rotation defines the target rotation.

The flag Target enables or disables the target influence

e on
o the
inverse kinematic.

The flag Rotation enables or disables the possibility for the

e object
to follow the target rotation.

Influence defines how much the constraint influences the bind

between the object to the curve. 0 is the minimum value,
whereas 1 is the maximum.

LOCKED TRACK

fig. 54 the Locked Track constraint panel

This constraint prevents an axis of the constrained object

ct to be
locked in its movement and be free only for rotating. The
Then the
object can point to its target, without reaching it, rotating
ro
around this axis.

The more classic example is the compass. It can rotate and

nd point
to the magnetic north, or to a near magnet, but cannot ot move

42
directly toward it, because constrained only to rotate around an
axis.

The available options are:

Target defining an object as a target. In case you define a mesh

as a target, a further parameter will be available, Vertex Group,
allowing you to define as a target a group of vertices of the
selected mesh.

To defines the tracing local axis.

Lock sets the locked local rotation axis (Z by default).

Influence defines how much the constraint influences the bind

between the object and the curve. 0 is the minimum value, 1 the
maximum.

SPLINE IK

The Spline IK constraint aligns a bone chain along a curve,

exploiting the simplicity and flexibility of curves in realizing nice
shapes and the reliability and well integrated control of the
bones.

Spline IK is a precious tool in the toolbox of the riggers. It is

particularly suitable for managing the body flexible parts like
tales and tentacles, or inorganic elements like strings.

In order to set Spline IK, you need to have a connected bone

chain and a curve.

With the last bone of the chain selected, add a Spline IK

constraint from the Bone constraint list in the Properties editor.

43
Set Chain Length for defining the number of bones in the he chain
(starting from the selected bone, which is included in the
ecchain),
which should be influenced by the curve.

Finally, set Target to the curve.

fig. 55 Spline IK constraint panel

The other options are:

Even Division ignores the relative length of the bones

es while
mounting them to the curve;

Chain Offset deviates all the chain relevant to the conn

nnected
root.

In the Chain Scaling section:

- Y Stretch stretches the bone y axis to adapt to the curve;

cu

44
 - XY Scale Mode opens a menu where you can ca define one
of the following scaling options: None (no o scaling along
the x and y direction); Bone Original (use ses the original
scale of the bones); Volume Preservation (sets
(se the scale of
the x and z axes such they are the inverse of the y scale).

The flag Use Curve Radius established that the point p average
radius is used for regulating the bone x and z scalin
ling.

Influence defines how much the constraint influen

uences the bind
between the object and the curve. 0 is the minimu
um value, 1 the
maximum.

STRETCH TO

fig. 56 The Stretch To constraint panel associated to a mesh

The Stretch To constraint operates such that the constrained

object rotates and rescales its y axis in its target dire
irection.

45
It can arbitrarily force some object volume characteristics, such
that it can be compressed downward when the target is
approaching, or elongated if it is leaving far away.

Note however that not the real object volume is preserved, but
the virtual one, defined by the scale values.

This constraint operates also with non-volumetric objects, like

surfaces and curves.

Obviously, it can be associated to an armature or to specific

bones.

In the control panel, Target defines the constraint target,

whereas Vertex Group allows you to assign a mesh vertex group
only as target.

The Rest Length counter sets the resting distance between the
object and its target, i.e. the distance for which no object
deformation (elongation or compression) is achieved.

Pressing the Reset button, the resting distance is recomputed,

such that it corresponds to the real distance between the object
and its target.

These x and z axis control buttons allow you to keep the virtual
volume while extending along the y axis. If you activate the
None button, the volumetric variations are disabled.

The X and Z buttons referred to the Plane section are equivalent

to those Up relevant to the Track To constraint: they control
which of the x or z axes should be kept (as much as possible)
aligned to the global z, while the target is followed with the y
axis.

Influence defines how much the constraint influences the bind

between the object and the curve. 0 is the minimum value,
whereas 1 is the maximum.

46
In case the Target is an armature, the Bone optio
tion is visualized,
where you can define which bone of the armatur ture is subjected
to the constraint, whereas Head/Tail allows you to choose what
should be considered as deformation point (head d or root) along
this bone.

fig. 57 the Stretch To constraint panel associated to an armature

TRACK TO

This constraint forces the object on which is applied

lied to follow the
movement of a target. This means that the object ct will be always
directed according to the preset axis, toward thee target.
ta

It is usually used to force a camera to frame alw

lways the same
target even if moving.

47
fig. 58 the Track To constraint panel

It is also often used for videogames of shooter type and

d for
f the
armatures.

In the panel, Target defines the target, which can be any y object,
o
or also an armature. In case the target is a mesh a Vertexx Group
option will be also available, whereas in case of an armatu ature the
Bone options are available, for defining a specific bone ne, and
Head/Tail, like for the other constraints previously described
ed.

To determines the tracking local axis (Y by default), i.e

i.e. the
object axis pointing to the target.

Up defines the upward direction relevant to the object.

In case of a camera, whose framing is defined by the x and y

axes, the upward direction is defined by y whereas the
e target
pointing (To) must be set as –Z.

The Target Z button, by default, aligns the target up

upward
direction with the z global axis.

48
The Space option allows you to choose the spatia
tial coordinates
(World Space or Local Space).

Influence defines how much the constraint influen

uences the bind
between the object and the curve. 0 is the mi minimum value,
whereas 1 is the maximum.

In the next exercise a moving camera will permane

nently frame an
object moving along a path.

EXERCISE n. 4: FIX FRAMING ON A MOVING OBJECT

CT

Insert a Bézier curve in the scene and modify it as you like in Edit
Mode.

Select the curve ending vertex and place on it the 3D Cursor

with SHIFT + S.

fig. 59 placement of the 3D Cursor on the curve end

Return in Object Mode and insert a sphere, suitab

ably rescaled, in
correspondence of the 3D Cursor.

49
fig. 60 insertion of the sphere which is constrained to follow the curve

Constrain the sphere to the curve, selecting them in sequ

quence,
and typing CTRL + P and choosing the Follow Path option.

Launching the animation with ALT + A, the sphere will run

un along
the path.

fig. 61 animation of the sphere along the path

Insert now a camera and place it such as to frame the sphere

sph in
frame n. 1.

50
fig. 62 camera placement

Fix the camera position on frame n. 1 inserting a keyframe on

Location and on Rotation.

fig. 63 keyframe to frame n. 1

Go to frame n. 10 and place the camera such h that it moves

independently from the sphere path and fix new keyframes.
ke

51
Repeat the operation for all the necessary key frames.

Fig. 64 keyframe insertion on the frames relevant to the camera displaceme

ment

Select the camera and assign to it the Track To constraint,

t, setting
s
the sphere as Target, -Z as framing direction (normall tto the
camera framing, pointing out) and Up as Y.

Go in camera view typing 0 NUM and launch the animatio

tion with
ALT + A.

The camera will permanently follow the moving sphere

re path,
moving along a path defined by the keyframes.

52
Fig. 65 settings of the Track To panel assigned to the camera

Fig. 66 framing

53
2.4. Dope Sheet

fig. 67 Dope Sheet Editor

In the traditional animation techniques, the operators drawing

dr
freehand, were used to represent on a sheet the event nt graph
(video, audio, effects, camera movements…) which wou ould be
occurred in time.

This graphical scheme has been named Dopesheet.

Blender has at disposal a homonym editor (Dope Sheet)

inheriting a structure similar to the classic setting.

fig. 68 the Editing Context Being Displayed menu

54
In the header of this editor there is a menu (Editing Context
Being Displayed) allowing you to define the preferred graphic
visualization.

5 different modalities are available:

- Dopesheet allows you to modify several actions at the

same time.

- Action Editor, by default, is more complete than the

previous one, since it is possible to define and control the
actions.

- Shape Key Editor is not so useful since it allows you to

modify and use only the datablocks of the previous
modality.

- Grease Pencil allows you to use a grease pencil on the

data.

The Dope Sheet interface is comprised by three main parts:

- an area (on the left side), named Action List Area where
all the actions referred to each object are listed.

- a main working area, named Keyframes Area Editing,

where all the time actions are represented;

- a header where the editor specific menus are enclosed.

2.4.1. Actions List Area

This area, placed on the editor left, is similar, somewhat, to the

Outliner editor.

55
In this area you can find the whole list of the actions app
pplied to
each single object of the 3D view.

The action list is subdivided into a well-defined ch

channel
hierarchy:

object – action – keyframe.

For example, referring to the Camera object, above the Camera

Ca
Action you can find listed all the recorded keyframes X, Y and Z
Location (referring to the displacement) and X, Y and d Z Euler
Rotation (referred to the rotations).

Each action is defined by a name (for example X Locatio tion), by

the parameter assigned by the keyframe in the selected d frame,
the lock which does not allow for changes and the loudsp speaker
allowing you to enable and disable that specific action.

fig. 69 the action list with their hierarchy

56
The triangle at the left of the channel allows you
ou to show the
hierarchy chain of the actions related to it.

The channel or action selection will automatically

ly make
m active in
the 3D view the object referring to.

2.4.2. Keyframes Area Editing

In correspondence of each action in the keyfra frame List Area,

along the abscissa axis defining the time, in the Keyframs
K Area
Editing, all the events are visualized, represente
ted by a small
white diamond.

fig. 70 the events represented in the working area

These events can be selected with the LMB, making

ing also multiple
selections with SHIFT and LMB, or with B. Whenn selected, the
events become orange.

57
fig. 71 rectangular selection (B) of events

Interconnected events are represented by dark green en strips

(orange if selected). They define also the event duration.

Each event can be dragged (with G), copied or remove oved. Of

course, each change will influence also the Timeline.

A cursor represented by a green vertical segment and by a box

on the bottom indicating the current frame number, indi dicated
the animation progress, similarly to the Timeline cursor. The
he cursor
can be dragged by clicking on the frame number with the he RMB.

2.4.3. The header

fig. 72 the header of the Dope Sheet editor

In the header all the menus and specific tools are containe
ined, for
managing the events.

There are 5 drop-down menus and several buttons whic

hich are
going to describe.

The View menu has options dedicated to the visualization:

58
 - The Realtime Updates flag, when you mod
odify keyframes,
operates such that the animation dataa changes are
transferred also to the other views;

- Show Frame Number Indicator visualize

lizes the frame
number down to the green cursor;

- Show Sliders shows the cursors with value

lues defined for
each event;

fig. 73 the View menu of the Dope Sheet header

- Show Group Colors uses specific colors forr the

th events and
the sub-events;

- Automerge Keyframes automatically merg

erge very close
keyframes;

59
 - Sync Markers synchronizes the markers with the modified
mo
keyframes;

- Show Seconds (CTRL + T) shows the seconds instead

d of the
frames on the abscissa;

fig. 74 second visualization

- Lock Time To Other Windows locks the time setti

ttings in
other windows;

- Set Preview Range (P) interactively defines the e frame

range used for reproduction. Allows you to define a series
of temporary previews to be used during the realrea time
reproduction;

- Clear Preview Range (ALT + P) deletes the preview

w above
a
mentioned;

- Autoset Preview range (CTRL + ALT + P) automatica

cally sets
the preview range to reproduce the whole event;

The other options are the same of those previously describ ribed for
other editor and refer to the editor general visualization.

The Select menu the same selection options referred to other

editors, like for example the 3D view.

60
fig. 75 the Select menu of the Dope Sheet header

The Marker menu is identical to that in the header

h of the
Timeline.

fig. 76 the Marker menu of the Dope Sheet header

61
fig. 77 the Channel menu of the Dope Sheet header

The Channel menu contains the control options of the channels

ch
(or events) present and defined by the keyframes.

- Revive Disable F-Curves disables the Clear label in all the

channels;

- Move opens a submenu where you can define iff moving m

the actions in the Actions List Area at the hierarchy
y ttop (To
Top, SHIFT + PAGE UP), up (Up, PAGE UP); down ((Down,
PAGE DOWN) or at the list bottom (To Bottom,, SHIFT S +
PAGE DOWN);

- Collapse Channels minimizes the event;

- Expand Channels extends the event hierarchy;

62
 - Extrapolation Mode modifies the extrapolatio
ation among the
selected keyframes. Several options are available
av in the
graphical editor;

- Toggle Channel Editability (TAB) locks or

o unlocks a
channel (event) for modifying it;

- Disable/Enable Channel Settings enabless o

or disables the
settings of a selected channel;

- Toggle Channel Settings locks or unlock

cks a channel
(event) for modifying it;

- Ungroup Channels (ALT + G) and Group Ch Channel (CTRL +

G) drags out of a group or groups the electe
ted events;

- Delete Channel (X) deletes the selected eve

vent.

fig. 78 the Move submenu

The Key menu contains all the tools for modif

difying selected
keyframes.

- Transform opens a submenu where you can ca choose the

main transformation options of the selecte cted keyframes:
Grab (G), Extend (E), Slide (SHIFT + T) and Scale
Sca (S);

- Snap (SHIFT + S) allows you to set the magn

gnet options of
the selected keyframe, such as to hook k them: to the
current frame (Current Frame), to the n nearest frame

63
 (Nearest Frame), to the nearest second (Nearest Second)
Se
or to the nearest marker (Nearest Marker);

fig. 79 the Key menu of the Dope Sheet header

fig. 80 Snap

- Mirror (SHIFT + M) mirrors the selected keyf eyframes

according to: the green vertical line (cursor) plac
aced on
the current frame (By Times over Current Frame me), the
inverse of the values set to a certain keyframe (By
y Values
V

64
 over Value), the green vertical line placeced on the first
selected marker (By Times First Selected Mark
arker);

fig. 81 Mirror

- Insert Keyframes (I) inserts a keyframe in the current

position;

- Jump To Keyframe (CTRL + G) jumps to the selected

keyframe or to the center relevant to sev
several selected
keyframes;

ed keyframes;
- Duplicate (SHIFT + D) duplicates the selected

- Delete Keyframes (CANC or X) deletess the selected

keyframes;

- Keyframe Type (R) sets the selected keyfra

yframe typology
assigning them a reference color: keyfram
ame (standard),
Breakdown, Extreme and Jitter.

fig. 82 Keyframe Type

- Handle Type (V) defines the handle typo ypology for the
keyframes, similarly to the handles used for
f the curves
(function visible on the Graph Editor);

65
 - Interpolation Mode (T) defines the interpo rpolation
methodology among keyframes (options which c can be
assigned in the Dopesheet, but can be used in thee Graph
Editor);

fig. 83 Interpolation Type

- Clean Keyframes allows you to clean the animation

tion from
duplicate keyframes or too close among those selec
lected;

- Sample Keyframes (SHIFT + O) adds keyframes on

n all the
frames between the selected keyframes;

- Copy Keyframes (CTRL + C) and Paste Keyframes (CTRL

(C +
V) copies and pastes the selected keyframes to the
current one.

Besides the previously described menus and the Editing Co

Context
Mode drop-down menu, you can find in the header er some
buttons.

The Summary button adds a further event row where e a

all the
keyframes present in the scene are generically summarized
ed.

fig. 84 the Summary button

66
The three buttons represented by a white ar arrow, a small
phantom and a life preserver allow to visualize in the
th Dopesheet,
respectively:

- the keyframes relevant to the objects selec

lected in the 3D
view (arrow);

- the keyframes relevant to the hidden or not

ot visible objects
(phantom);

- the keyframe relevant to data and objec

jects containing
mistakes (life preserver).

fig. 85 the buttons for keyframe visualization and selection

The magnification lens activates a textbox wherere you can write

the data relevant to objects or keyframes to be visu
visualized.

The Filters button (if the + symbol is pressed) activates

ac some
buttons allowing you to visualize the options and nd data of the
keyframes relevant to specific object and sce cene typologies
(objects, World environment settings, relations, ns, transformers,
modifiers, materials, lights, textures, camera and Linestyle).
Lin

fig. 86 the selection buttons for objects

67
Analogously to the Proportional Editing of the 3D view ew, that
relevant to the keyframes is present in the header and c can be
activated by the button with the circle, choosing the Fallof
lloff type
and the Snap.

fig. 87 Proportional Editing, Falloff and Auto Snap

The last buttons allow you to copy and paste the selected se
keyframes in the buffer to be exported into a different proje
roject.

fig. 88 Copy and Paste in the buffer

68
2.5. Graph Editor

The Graph Editor represents the main tool for the animation
management. It allows you to modify the data relevant to the
animations like, for example, in keyframes, using curves named
F-Curve.

These F-Curve join the keyframes according to an interpolation

principle defined by the user.

fig. 89 the Graph Editor

The graphical editor has two modalities, F-Curve and Driver,

which can be recalled in the drop-down menu in the header.
Both are very similar.

The Graph Editor is subdivided in regions, analogously to the

Dope Sheet.

69
fig. 90 Graph Editor Mode

2.5.1. The Curve Editor Area

The central area is named Curve Editor Area and grap aphically
depicts the settings on the scene animation through control
c
points (keyframes) and curves interpolating them (F-Curve).

fig. 91 Curve Editor Area

The area is represented as a Cartesian system where,, on o the

abscissa you can find the frames or, in general, the time;
e; o
on the
frame).
ordinates the numerical value of the selected event (keyfra

70
The central space hosts a grid with the events.

The current frame is represented by an intersection of two green

moving lines, like a viewfinder, named 2D Cursor, where the
vertical line shows the frame number, whereas the horizontal one
graphically define the event value.

fig. 92 the 2D Cursor

The navigation system of the 2D Cursor and of the view of the

Curve Editor Area is summarized in 6 modalities:

- WM (mouse wheel): forward and backward zoom of the

Curve Editor Area;

- MMB: free navigation of the view of the Curve Editor Area;

- SHIFT + WM: vertical translation of the view of the Curve

Editor Area;

- CTRL + WM: horizontal translation of the view of the Curve

Editor Area;

- RMB: free displacement of the cursor of the Curve Editor

Area;

- ALT + WM: fine horizontal displacement of the cursor.

Moreover, the following visualization options are available:

71
 e Curve
- HOME: global visualization of all the events in the
Editor Area;

- . NUM: view maximization and centering of the keyfeyframes

or of the elements selected in the Curve Editor Area
a.

The eventual presence of markers in the animation is visual

alized in
the Graph Editor with orange triangles placed on the abscscissa, in
correspondence of the frame together with the name whic hich has
been given to them.

fig. 93 marker

Each keyframe is defined by a vertex and two handl

ndles (or
control points), like for the curves.

fig. 94 handles and keyframes manipulation

The element selection (keyframe) occurs with a simple clclick on

the LMB. The multiple selection can occur with the box selection
sel

72
(B key and dragging) or holding pressed SHIF
HIFT during the
element selection.

All the elements can be dragged or shifted (keys

ys G and R) like
any element of the 3D view.

fig. 95 by selecting the handle and typing R (and eventually the degree number)
the latter will rotate around the reference vertex (keyframe)

2.5.2. The Channel Region

at of the Action
The structure and functionality is very similar to that
List Area in the Dope Sheet. Each event is group ouped in a root
related to the relevant objects. The events relevan ant to an object
can or cannot be visualized clicking on the eye near ne the object
name, or locked clicking on the lock near ea each event (or
action).

A different color is associated to each evenent (and as a

consequence to the corresponding F-Curve in the Curve Editor
Area), such as to be readily identified.

73
fig. 96 the Channel Region

2.5.3. The Properties sidebar

The Properties sidebar can be found inside the Curve Edito

itor Area
and can be enabled and disabled with the key N.

It is composed of 4 panels containing the specific propert

erties on
the view, the keyframes, the F-Curves and the modifiers.

Like all the panels in Blender, these can be maximiz ized or

minimized clicking on the black arrow next to the title and
nd freely
displaced, by dragging them

74
fig. 97 the Properties sidebar

and clicking on the two horizontal dashes on the to

top-right side.

The View Properties panel summarizes the visualiza

ization properties
of the 2D Cursor inside the Curve Editor Area.

Checking Show Cursor the visualization of the horiz

rizontal element
of the 2D Cursor is enabled.

75
The Cursor From Selection button places the 2D Cursor
Cur in
correspondence of the selected element (for exammple a
keyframe).

fig. 98 Cursor From Selection

The Cursor X and Cursor Y counters allow you to type the

he exact
coordinates of the 2D Cursor. Next to the two counters rs the To
Keys keys are present (associated to the x and y coordin
dinates).
They move the selected keyframe or keyframes alon long the
current x and y position of the 2D Cursor.

fig. 99 To Keys moves the keyframe on the 2D Cursor along x and y

The Active F-Curve panel supplies information on the

interpolation curve of the selected keyframe.

76
The ID Type and RNA Array Index boxes supply information on
the selected event typology and on the index assigned to the
datablock. They are two not-modifiable boxes.

The Color palette defines the color automatically assigned by

Blender to the curve, whereas the Display Color drop-down
menu allows you to adopt the curve color according to the
three options:

- Auto Rainbow increases the color tone of the F-Curve

based on the channel index;

- Auto XYZ to RGB, based on the xyz position of the F-Curve

points, automatically sets the color tone varying it,
respectively, from red to green to blue;

- User Defined allows you to define a personalized color for

the active F-Curve, allowing the personalized color
change, clicking on the colored square of the palette.

The Active Keyframe panel supplies information about the active

keyframe.

The Interpolation drop-down menu is very useful for defining the

behavior of the F-Curve between a keyframe and the next one.

Think, for example, of simulating the oscillating behavior of a

boat on the waves. It will be possible, regulating the F-Curves
relevant to the rotation with respect to the boat moving
direction and with respect to the vertical axis (z), to achieve a
very realistic effect.

Or, by setting the interpolation as Bounce, a behavior will be

reproduced similar to a bounce damped in time useful, for
example, in case you want to simulate the bounces of a ball.

77
Clicking on Interpolation a menu will open, subdivided in three
sections.

fig. 100 the Interpolation menu

- Interpolation defines three interpolation typo pologies

between the keyframes: Constant, Linear and Bézier
ier;

fig. 101 the interpolation set to Constant generates a sharp quote jump between
b
the two keyframe values

78
 - Easing (by Strength) defines the mathe hematical type
interpolation (sinusoidal, quadratic, cubic,
c, fourth power,
fifth power, exponential and circular);

fig. 102 the interpolation sets to Exponential generates an exp

xponential behavior
between the two keyframe values

- Dynamic Effects simulates a dynamic effe

ffect like Back,
Bounce and Elastic.

fig. 103 the interpolation between the two keyframes sets to Bou
ounce simulates, on
the F-Curve line, a bouncing behavior damped in time

79
Choosing the interpolation between Easing (by Strength
gth) and
dynamic Effects, a second menu will be activated, Auto
utomatic
Easing, from which you can choose how the F-Curve shou
hould be
linked to the final keyframe of a selection.

fig. 104 the Automatic Easing menu

Moreover, depending on the interpolation typology,, further

specific options can be activated.

fig. 105 additional control options related to the Elastic interpolation

The Key section allows you to manually set the values relev
levant to
the horizontal (Frame, in time) or vertical (Value) placem
ment of
the selected keyframe.

fig. 106 the placement options of the keyframe in the Graph Editor

80
 Curves some non-
In the Modifier panel you can add to the F-Curv
destructive modifiers (likewise the modifiers on
n the objects),
named F-Modifiers, such as to get more complex effects.
e

Selecting a curve, clicking on the icon with the shape of a

loudspeaker in the Channels Region, relevant to a specific event
(and thus to the curve representing its behavi vior), it will be
colored in light gray.

fig. 107 curve selection clicking on the loudspeaker

Now a modifier can be applied, chosen among those

th present in
the Modifiers panel.

fig. 108 the Add Modifiers menu

81
Clicking on the Add Modifiers menu you can choose a among
Generator, Built-In Function, Envelope, Cycles, Noise,, P
Python,
Limits and Stepped Interpolation.

Like for all the modifiers, you can create a cascade off two
t or
more effects on the curve.

fig. 109 the two images show the selection of a curve where the Elastic
interpolation has been set and the same curve with the Cycles modifier
ier applied
determining a cyclic behavior of the elastic effect

- The Generator modifier creates a polynomial fu function

factorized or extended. These are mathematical fo
formulas
representing lines, parabolas, and other more co
complex
curves, depending on the values defined in the
parameters:

- Additive operates such that the modifier is added

d to the
curve, instead substituting it;

- Poly Order specifies the polynomial degree, i.e.i.e the

highest power of x appearing in the polynomial.

- The Build-In Function modifier adds further mathem

ematical
formulas to the interpolation. The following onenes are
available: sine, cosine, tangent, square root, n natural

82
 logarithm (ln), normalized sine (sin (x) / x). The following
regulation parameters are available:

- Amplitude, regulation of the y scale;

- Phase Multiplier, regulation of the x scale;

- Phase Offset, regulation of the x offset;

- Value Offset, regulation of the y offset.

- The Envelope modifier allows you to regulate the overall

shape of a curve with control points.

- Reference Value: sets the y value;

- Min: minimum value of the distance from the

reference value;

- Max: maximum distance from the reference value;

- Add Point: adds a series of control points;

- Fra: sets the frame number for the control point;

- Min: specifies the position of the lower control point;

- Max: specifies the position of the upper control

point.

- The Cycles modifier allows you to add the cyclic

movement of a curve having two or more control points.
The options can be set first and after the curve. In the
Cycle Mode section:

- Repeat Motion: repeats the curve data, though

keeping their values in each cycle;

83
 - Repeat With Offset: repeats the curve data, but
compensate the first point value to the last point
value;

- Repeat Mirrored: in each cycle the curve data are

reversed with respect to the x axis;

- Before / After Cycles: sets the number of times for

the data cycle.

- The Noise modifier modifies the curve according to a noise

formula. This is useful for introducing randomness in the
animated movements reproducing, for example, the
trembling or the camera vibrations. You can find the
following parameters:

- Replace: adds a noise function to the curve, setting

a value between - 0.5 and 0,5;

- Add: adds a noise function to the curve with a

value from 0 to 1;

- Subtract: subtracts a noise function to the curve

defined by a value from 0 to 1;

- Multiply: multiplies a noise function for the curve for

a value from 0 to 1;

- Scale regulates the noise overall dimension. The

values higher than 0 yield less frequent noises;

- Strength regulates the y scale of the noise function;

- Phase regulates the noise random behavior;

- Depth regulates the detail level of the noise

function.

84
 - The Limits modifier limits the curve to values
es in a range of
values in x and in y.

- Minimum / Maximum X: enforcess a range in x

between the two limit values;

- Minimum / Maximum Y: enforcess a range in y

between the two limit values;

- the Stepped modifier enforces to the curv

urve a rounded
stepped behavior.

- Step Size: specifies the step number for

fo each frame;

- Offset: defines the reference number

er o
of frames;

- Use Start Frame: limits the modifier to act only once

before being closed;

- Use End Frame: enforces the modifie

ifier to act only
after the start.

2.5.4. The header

fig. 110 The header of the Graph Editor

The header of the Graph Editor does not differ muc

uch from that of
the Dope Sheet.

The View menu has all the tools necessary for the visualization.
vi

85
fig. 111 the View menu

- Properties (key N), enables or disables the Properties

ies bar.

Next, there is a group of 6 flags relevant to the visual

alization
of some options.

- Realtime Updates updates realtime the anim nimation

depending on the keyframes and of the F-Curves;

86
 - Show Frame Number Indicator shows the e fframe number
indicator at the bottom of the 2D Cursor;

- Show Cursor shows the horizontal segme

ent of the 2D
Cursor;

- Show Sliders shows the cursors next to the

e events of the
Channels Region;

fig. 112 Show Sliders activated

- Show Group Colors shows groups and c channels with

corresponding colors compared to each oth
other;

- Automerge Keyframes automatically merge

rges overlapped
or too close keyframes.

- Use High Quality Drawings (CTRL + N) impro

roves the curve
graphical quality.

- Show Handles shows the handles in corres

respondence of
each keyframe selection.

- Only Selected Curve Keyframes operatess such

s that only
the keyframes relevant to the selected curve
rves are visible.

- Only Selected Keyframes Handles shows only

nly the selected
keyframe handles.

- Show Seconds (CTRL + T) shows the sec

seconds on the
abscissa.

87
 - Lock Time to Other Window locks the time on all the other
project windows.

- Set Preview Range (P) defines a region with a dra

ragging
selection where you can visualize the animation preview
pr
between a frame and another one. The selected d area
a is
colored by light gray.

fig. 113 Set Preview Range

- Clear preview Range (ALT + P) deletes the previous

pr
selection.

- Auto Set Preview Range automatically defines a range

ran for
the animation preview.

- View All (HOME) shows maximized each keyframe

me and
each F-Curve belonging to the animation.

- View Selected (. NUM) maximized the visualization

n of the
selected keyframes.

- View Frame (0 NUM) maximizes and visualizes in close

clo up
view the animation portion where the 2D Cursor is pla
placed.

88
 - Duplicate Area Into New Window, Toggle Maximize
M Area
and Toggle Fullscreen Area are tools for the window
visualization already discussed.

fig. 114 the Select menu

The Select menu contains the tools related to the se

selection.

- Select All (A) selects each keyframe of the animation.

a

- Invert Selection (CTRL + I) inverts the selection

tion.

- Border Select (B) allows the rectangularr sselection (box

selection).

- Border Axis Range (ALT + B) makes a selecti

ction in a range
(like the homonym function in rendering envi
nvironment).

89
 - Border (Include Handles) (CTRL + B) makes a rectangular
selection including the handles of the keyframes inside the
selection.

- Column On Selected Keys (K) and Column Of Current

Frame (CTRL + K) select all the keyframes applied on a
specific frame.

- Column Of Selected Markers (ALT + K) selects all the

keyframes at a specific marker.

- Before Current Frame and After Current Frame select all

the keyframes first or after the current frame (where the
2D Cursor is placed).

- Select Less (CTRL – NUM) and Select More (CTRL + NUM)

makes one more unselection or selection with respect to
the active keyframe.

- Select Linked (L) select all the frames linked to the

selected ones.

The Marker menu is identical to that relevant to the Timeline.

The Channel menu contains the tools useful for controlling the
single events (or channels) present in the Channels Region.

- Delete Channel (X or CANC) deletes the event selected in

the Channels Region and all the keyframes linked to it.

- Group Channels (CTRL + G) groups the selected events.

- Ungroup Channels (ALT + G) extract from a group the

selected events.

90
 - Toggle Channel Settings (SHIFT + W) allowss you
y to protect
or switch off (the same functions of the e lock and the
loudspeaker) one or more selected channelsels.

fig. 115 the Channel menu

- Enable Channel Settings (SHIFT + CTRL + W) W enables the

protection and switch off of the selected cha
hannels.

- Disable Channel Settings (ALT + W) disable

les the previous
functions.

91
 - Toggle Channel Editability (TAB) prevents any modification
of the channel, until you press TAB again.

- Extrapolation Mode (SHIFT + E) defines the input and

output behavior of a F-Curve first or after a keyframe.

- Hide Selected Curves (H) hides from the view the selected
curves.

- Hide Unselected Curves (SHIFT + H) hides from the view the

unselected curves.

- Reveal Curves (ALT + H) makes visible the hidden curves.

- Expand Channels (+NUM) expands a channel showing all

the events in the Channels Region.

- Collapse Channel (-NUM) collapse all the events inside a

channel, hiding them from the view of the Channels
Region.

- Move opens a submenu defining where to place the

selected channel of event in the cascade, with respect to
the others.

- Revive Disabled F-Curves enables all the modification

functionalities of the locked curves.

The Key menu contains the tools for the keyframe managing.

- The tools Transform, Snap, Mirror, Insert keyframes, Jump To

Keyframe, Duplicate, Delete Keyframes, Clean Keyframes,
Copy Keyframes, Sample Keyframes and Paste Keyframes
have been already described in the homonym menu of
the Dope Sheet.

92
fig. 116 the Key menu

- Add F-Curve Modifier (SHIFT + CTRL + M) adds

ad a modifier
to the F-Curve, analogously to the same fun
function present
in the Properties Bar.

93
 - Bake Sound to F-Curve freezes a sound assigned
ed to a
selected F-Curve.

- Handle Type (V) defines, like for the handle-type curves,

c
among Free, Vector, Alligned, Automatic and nd Auto
Clamped.

fig. 117 Handle Type

- Interpolation Mode (T) allows you to choose fro

from the
menu the type of keyframe interpolation, like already
a
seen in the Properties Bar.

- Easing Type (CTRL + E) for some interpolation typo

pologies,
defines the interpolation method.

- Smooth Keys (ALT + O) applies a weighted smo oothing

algorithm to the selected curve to reduce the cur
urvature
of the angular points.

- Bake Curve (ALT + C) bakes the F-Curve shape

pe in a
sequence of points defining a curve.

- Discontinuity Eurler Filter adjusts to large quote jumps

jum of
the keyframes coming from the rotation values.

Next to the menus, a series of buttons can be found, ma many of

them identical to those already seen in the Dope Sheet.

The three buttons represented by a white arrow, a small

phantom and a life preserver allows you to visualize
e in the
Dopesheet, respectively:

94
 - the keyframes relevant to the objects selec
lected in the 3D
view (arrow);

- the keyframes relevant to the objects hidden

en or not visible
(phantom);

- the keyframes relevant to objects and data

da containing
errors (life preserver).

The lens activates a textbox where you can w write the data
relevant to objects or keyframes that you want to
o visualize.
v

The Filters button (if you press +) activates some bu

buttons allowing
you to visualize the options and data of the keyfrayframes relevant
to specific typologies of objects and of the scene sc (objects,
settings of the World environment, relations, s, transformers,
modifiers, materials, lights, textures, camera and Linestyle).
Lin

The Normalize flag tries to flatten the selected curve

rve keyframes.

Analogously to the Proportional Editing in the 3DD view, the one

relevant to the keyframes is present in the headeder and can be
oosing the Falloff
activated by the button with the small circle, choo
type and the Snap.

The last buttons allow you to copy and paste

te the selected
keyframes in the buffer for exporting them int
into a different
project.

EXERCISE n. 5: A BOUNCING BALL

he Graph Editor
A simple exercise to understand the utility of the
and the keyframe use can be represented by a bouncing
bo ball.

If the dynamics effects of the Rigid Body are not en

enough for you,
you can work on the keyframe manipulation.

95
Insert into the scene a plane and a sphere suitably scaled.
d.

fig. 118 insertion of a sphere and a plane.

Fix a keyframe on the sphere position at the frame n. 1,, ty

typing i
with the mouse pointer on one of the Location counters.

The boxes will be colored in yellow.

fig. 119 keyframe insertion to frame n. 1

Go to frame n. 100 and move the sphere such as it layss o

on the
plane.

Fix a new keyframe with the I key on the Location counters

ers.

96
fig. 120 second keyframe to frame n. 100

re along x of a
Go now to frame n. 150 and move the sphere
certain amount.

Fix also now a new keyframe.

Launching the animation, the sphere will fall from

m above hitting
the plane at frame n. 100 and will move along x,, till stopping at
frame n. 150.

97
fig. 121 sphere displacement along x and third keyframe at frame n. 150

Open now the Graph Editor and select the z channel

el (blue
curve), then the first two keyframes.

From the Key menu, click on Interpolation Mode and c

choose
Linear.

fig. 122 from the Key menu and the Interpolation Mode submenu, selecting
ting Linear,
the F-Curve behavior is modified

98
The curve portion will assume a linear behavior, yie
yielding a sharp
fall off, not smoothened.

fig. 123 Linear Interpolation Mode

Select now the second and third keyframe of the same

sa curve.

fig. 124 Interpolation Mode on Bounce and Easing Type on Ease

eOOut

From the Key menu, choose Bounce from the

he Interpolation
Mode submenu.

99
Then, from the Easing Type submenu, choose Ease Out for
drawing the sphere bounces along y along the portion where it
moves horizontally.

Launching the animation, the sphere will fall off and while
bouncing, will damp its dynamics until stopping.

Of course you can regulate the position of the keyframes and

the relevant values, obtaining different fall off velocities (scaling,
for example, the keyframes along x).

100
2.5. NLA Editor

The last editor relevant to the animation is name

med NLA Editor,
where NLA means Non-Linear Animation.

This editor allows you to handle and reuse the ac

actions, without
requiring to operate on the single keyframes.

It is often used to significantly modify whole scen

ene animations,
quite simply.

The editor structure is similar to that of the Dope

e Sheet, with a
Tracks Region (on the left) and a Strips Area, where
wh you can
open, if needed, the relevant Properties Bar by typi
yping N.

fig. 125 NLA Editor

2.6.1. Tracks and Strips

As you should have already realized, all the even

ents caused by
the keyframes are grouped in a track allowing you
ou to control all
of them together without needing to make modifie
ifies.

101
Each object of the scene, where keyframes have been
associated to its dynamics, is here represented, in the Tracks
Region, divided in tracks.

On the other hand, the Strips are graphical representations of

the groups of events contained in the track and visualized in the
Strips Area. There are three types: Actions, Transitions and Meta.
The actions contain real data of the keyframes, the transitions
execute computations among the actions, and Meta group
together different Strips.

To make a parallel example concerning the operation of the

NLA Editor, if you know the music, think to an audio of MIDI
sequencer, for example Cubase, Pro Tools and Logic; but also to
the editing software and video compositing like Premiere, Final
Cut and Screen Flow... They are almost similarly organized: a
region where you can upload the tracks and an editing and
compositing area where horizontal strips are represented,
containing the data (audio, MIDI or video).

fig. 126 the Cubase graphical interface is organized analogously to the NLA Editor
with a region hosting the various tracks and, in correspondence of these, the strips
containing the audio data

102
fig. 127 tracks and strips containing the data in the NLA Editor

Each action, transition or Meta can derive from f previous

keyframe insertions or can be created from the me
enu.

2.6.2 The Tracks Region

The Tracks Region structure is organized accordin

ing to the logic
“object – action – track”.

By expanding the object, the action will appear,

ar, where all the
tracks are contained.

fig. 128 organization of the Tracks Region

Like for all the events, also the tracks of the NLA
A Editor can be
locked or disabled clicking on the icons with ith a lock or a
loudspeaker on the right.

fig. 129 tracks and strips

103
2.6.3. The Strips Area

As previously said, inside this area the strips containing the data
are present.

Like for the Dope Sheet, you can navigate inside the Strips
ips Area,
using the mouse. You can zoom, select and drag the panning
pa
and the Strips.

These strips can be edited, joint, copied and removed usin

using the
tools available in the header, as we will next see.

2.6.4. The Properties sidebar

La Properties sidebar can be visualized or hidden typing N inside

the Strips Area.

In this subeditor all the information and the propertie rties are
contained relevant to the tracks, the actions and the strips
ips in the
NLA Editor.

Let us analyze the panels and functionalities.

The Animation Data panel contains all the inform

ormation
concerning the selected action.

fig. 130 the Animation Data panel

104
In the panel top-box you can visualize and/or rena
name the name
of the action, eventually recalling it among exist
isting actions or
duplicating one and modify it later, with a method
od similar to that
applied to materials.

The Action Extrapolation menu defines the action

n to
t be taken to
fill possible gaps.

The Action Blending menu defines the method

d used for the
solution to the identified problem.

Action Influence determines how much the a

action will be
corrected.

The Active Track panel defines the name of the sele

selected track,

fig. 131 the Active Track panel

The Active Strip panel defines the properties of the

e current strip.

You can visualize and define the name and the typ
type.

In the Strip Extents section (Start Frame and End Fra

Frame) you can
define the start and end of the event (strip) exp xpressed by the
initial and final frame.

Extrapolation and Blending have the same

e functionalities
already defined for Animation Data.

105
Auto Blend In/out (Blend In and Blend Out) set the frame nu
number
at the start and end of a strip having a fade in and fade
fad out
effect.

In the Playback Settings section, you can check two o options:

Muted (for not considering the strip events) and Reverse
rsed (for
inverting the order of the events inside it).

fig. 132 the Active Strip panel

In the Action Clip panel, the strip data are contained like,
e, for an
object, the transformation data are visualized.

Action visualizes the action name.

The Action Extents parameters have the same functiona

nality of
those previously analyzed.

106
The Sync Length flag executes the update,, after
a the strip
modification.

In the Playback Settings section, you can define th

the scale factor
epeat). Think for
(Scale) and the number of action repetitions (Rep
example to the cyclic motion of a walk which will
wil be repeated
several times.

fig. 133 the Action Clip panel

In the Evaluation panel, you can determine e the influence

amount of the strip on the animation (Animated
d Influence)
In and
the strip duration (Strip Time).

fig. 134 the Evaluation panel

107
In the last panel, Modifiers, you can apply to the strips the
he same
modifiers already explained in the Graph Editor, globally lly acting
on all the events contained in them.

fig. 135 the Modifiers panel

2.6.5. The header

fig. 136 the header of the NLA Editor

Except the Data Block button, including in the strip visual

alization
the object and event data blocks, all the other too ools are
identical to those already analyzed in the Graph Editorr and in
the Dope Sheet.

fig. 137 the Data Block button

On the other hand, some functionalities and the o

options
contained in the header menus are different.

While the View, Select and Marker menus contain the he same
options present in the analogous editors Dope Sheet and d Graph
Editor, the Edit and Add menus are specific for the NLA Edit
ditor.

The Edit menu contains the tools useful for modifying the strips.
str

108
fig. 138 the Edit menu

- The submenu Transform contains the

th standard
transformation tools of any object;

- The submenu Snap defines the way the e selected

s strips
should bind to the frames and the other strip
rips;

- Duplicate (SHIFT + D) allows you to duplicate

ate the selected
strips in a new track;

109
fig. 139 the Strip duplication

- Linked Duplicate (ALT + D) creates a linked duplic

licate of
the original;

- Split Strips (Y) operates a cut of the selected ed strip,

subdividing it in two separate parts in corresponden
ence of
the green cursor;

fig. 140 split of the strip in two parts

- Delete Strips (X or CANC) deletes the selected strips;;

- Toggle Muting (H) enables or disables the selected strips;

st

- Apply Scale applies the scaling executed on a strip;;

- Clear Scale executes a reset on the original scale

ale of a
strip;

- Sync Action Length automatically synchronizes the e length

of the actions contained in a strip with the length
th of the
strip itself;

- Make Single User (U) operates such that each action

ac is
used only once in the selected strip;

110
 - Swap Strips (ALT + F) changes the order
er of the strips
selected in a track;

- Move Strips Up (PAGE UP) and Move Strips

ips Down (PAGE
DOWN) moves up or down the selected strip
trips with respect
to those non selected;

- Track Ordering places the selected tracks

ks in the Tracks
Region with respect to the unselected ones,
es, according to
the options available in the submenu;

- Remove Empty Animation Data allows you

u tto remove the
empty data in the animation;

- Start (Stop) Editing Stashed Action (SHIFT + TTAB) enters (or

exits) in editing modality of a hidden strip;

- Start (Stop) Tweaking Strip Action (TAB) ente

nters (or exits) in
editing modality of a strip.

fig. 141 the Add menu

111
Finally, the Add menu collects all the commands useful for
adding actions, transitions and Meta.

- Add Action Strip (SHIFT + A) allows you to insert a new strip

of Action type;

- Add Transition (SHIFT + T) executes a specific transition

between two adjacent strips in the same track,
analogously to the audio or video transitions of the
compositing programs;

fig. 142 a transition between two adjacent Strips

- Add Sound Clip (SHIFT + K) adds a strip dedicated to the

sound control;

- Add Meta-Strip (SHIFT + G), if you are in the condition of

visualizing a very high number of strips, by selecting the
desired ones, you can collect them in a single strip,
named Meta-Strip, which can be moved and duplicated
like a normal strip;

fig. 143 Meta-Strip

- Remove Meta-Strips separates the strips contained in a

selected Meta-Strip;

- Add Tracks adds in the Tracks Region a new track first or

after the selected one;

112
 - Add Tracks Above Selected adds a new track
tra above the
one selected in the Tracks Region;

- Include Selected Objects operates such that

tha the objects
selected in the 3D view appear in the Tracks
ks Region of the
NLA Editor.

2.6.6. Strips editing

All the selected strips can be modified, but in orde

der to make the
changes you need to be in Tweak Mode, choo oosing the Start
Tweaking Action Strip option from the Edit men enu or with the
shortcut TAB.

Selecting a strip and typing TAB, it becomes green

en, indicating to
be in editing modality.

fig. 144 a strip in editing modality (Start Tweaking Action Strip)

In this modality, all the keyframes contained in th

the strip will be
subjected to the strip modifications (the displ splacement, for
example).

If you need to preserve the keyframe original posit

sition during the
strip movement, you need to click on the icon with
ith the shape of
a pin next to the track.

For exiting the editing modality, you only need to type

ty TAB again
or choosing the Stop Tweaking Action Strip optionion from the Edit
menu.

113
114
 3
CHARACTER
MODELING

115
116
3.1. Introduction

You can model by using many methods. No precise rules are

available.

The 3D artist, depending on the morphology of the object to be

reproduced in 3D and on his own experience, should be able to
decide the base line to be adopted.

The experience itself will provide the fundamental rules. The

expertise will allow him to immediately find the key elements of
the modeling of a certain object.

Until that time, don’t be afraid to schematically write on a paper

the guidelines you want to adopt, graphically or with the help of
notes.

It is likely to be difficult to correct a bad initiated model and you

may need to start again from the beginning.

The character modeling, either human or animal, either realistic

or caricatural, requires a precise initial choice regarding the
method to be used.

There are dozens of effective methods, and it is very hard to

mention all of them.

We will limit ourselves, in the next pages of this dedicated

chapter, to highlight three working methodologies for creating a
character, all of them effective.

These methodologies are deeply and conceptually different to

each other, but they all have a common element of
fundamental importance: the reference.

117
As we have previously seen, during a glass modeling, the help of
a reference model, named blueprint has been of great help.

A character, in particular, requires a great amount of

information to be reliably reproduced.

fig. 145 the blueprint of the character

The character depicted in the blueprint must be represented at

least in frontal and in lateral view, better if also from the back
and the top.

The more information we have, the better the precision will be.

The reference model (Sackboy blueprint.jpg) will be very simple

and will be represented in frontal and lateral view.

The first method we will describe is said “by face extrusion”.

118
3.2. Modeling by extrusion

For realizing the model, we will begin from a simpl

ple primitive, as
explained in the following exercise.

EXERCISE n. 6: CHARACTER MODELING BY EXTRUSIO

ION

First, insert the blueprint as background image in th

the 3D scene.

Center the image such that the frontal view is spec ecular in 1 NUM
visualization and the lateral view in 3 NUM visualizat
zation.

Be sure that they are identically scaled.

From the Properties sidebar, in the Background panel, upload

the image and set it in Front view.

fig. 146 background insertion of the image in front view

119
Click on the Flip Horizontal flag to mirror the image and d drag
d it
horizontally by 2.35, such that the figure is centered with respect
re
to the z axis.

fig. 147 Blueprint placement in Front view (1 NUM)

Open a second Background image and upload the

e same
image, setting it now as Right view.

Click again on Flip Horizontal and shift it, horizontally aga

gain, by
2.8.

Now the reference is set and we can start modeling on it.

First choose the Wireframe visualization typing Z.

Duplicate the 3D view. In that on the left set the frontall v

view (1
NUM), whereas in that on the right the lateral view (3 NUM)
M).

Insert in the scene a cylinder with a 6 side base and scale

le it such
that it contains the character body.

120
fig. 148 cylinder insertion and placement in correspondence of the
th torso

Enter in Edit Mode and horizontally subdivide the cylinder in 5

loops.

Then adequately scale the vertices such as to ge

get a gross and
angular shape of the torso.

This operation must be performed in front and later

teral view at the
same time.

Since the character is symmetric, you can delete te half cylinder,

(for example the right part) and apply to the mesh
m the Mirror
modifier on x, checking Clipping to avoid vertex ov
overlapping.

lf character.
In this way it will be more simple to model only half

121
fig. 149 body modeling

fig. 150 half mesh elimination and application of the Mirror modifier

122
Add two loops between the shoulder and the he armpit, and
adequately place the vertices such that to obtain
ob an area
ready to be extruded for the arm modeling.

fig. 151 arm modeling by extrusion

Extrude the two areas that have been created ted. Move and
rotate the extruded faces, following the arm directi
ction.

Externally scale toward y the central vertices of the elbow to

enlarge them as shown in the figure.

fig. 152 scaling of the elbow vertices

123
Proceed now with another extrusion (rotation and scaling)
g) of the
faces until the wrist.

fig. 153 face scaling until the wrist

Extrude again until the hand margin in 3 NUM view.

Since the two orthogonal projections of the blueprint area not

reliable concerning the hand, you will need to use some fa
fantasy,
following only one of the two views, for example the later
teral one
(3 NUM).

fig. 154 hand extrusion

124
Execute on the harm some vertical loops, such ththat to define a
hand subdivision for the 4 long fingers (index, mid
middle, ring and
little finger).

fig. 155 arm loop for fingers definition

Before extruding the fingers, rise up the externall vertices

v on the
right and the left by few pixels, enough to avoidid the alignment
with the others.

Then lower down by few pixels also the central one

nes.

125
fig. 156 modification of the vertex height

Select now the 4 external faces from which the long g fingers
originate and, in the Tools Shelf, click on the Extrude Ind
ndividual
button. By individually extruding the faces downward.

fig. 157 Extrude Individual

fig. 158 extrusion of the finger faces

Now let us pass to the thumb.

126
Before extruding, we need to model the rest of the hand shifting
upward the vertices at the down end.

You will shift the vertices such as to correctly

y dimension
d the
extrusion area for the thumb.

fig. 159 transformation operation of the hand vertices

Extrude further both the long fingers and the thumb

mb, scaling and
translating the vertices such as to assume a more natural
n pose.

Take into account that the character chosen in tthis exercise is

not for sure a realistic character.

It would be useless, in this case, to operate in too

oo much detail,
like modeling all the phalanxes.

fig. 160 thumb second extrusion

127
fig. 161 second extrusion of the other fingers and vertex translation

In this phase the arms and the hands have been de defined,
though with a bit of freedom with respect to the original.

fig. 162 torso and arms completed

You can further work and refine the hand and finger geo
eometry,
translating some vertices and individually scaling the
e faces
relevant to the fingertips.

128
fig. 163 placement of some hand vertices and individually scalin
aling of the fingertip
faces

fig. 164 Individual Origin

Proceed now with the leg modeling.

Insert in Object Mode a circle with 16 sides and,

d, in Edit Mode,
type F to fill the area.

Place and scale the circle near the foot.

129
fig. 165 circle insertion at the foot base

Reset the scale and the Location with CTRL + A and, again
ag in
Edit Mode, proceed by extrusion sequence followin ing the
dimensioning in x and in y of the two views.

fig. 166 completion of the leg modeling

130
At the process end, in Object Mode, select the leg,
leg then the rest
of the body and join the meshes typing CTRL + J.

ergo the Mirror

Also the vertices belonging to the leg will under
influence.

fig. 167 joining of the legs with the body

Enter again in Edit Mode and add a vertical loop

op on the front
and the back for better defining the character body
bo geometry
and curvature. Once inserted, move them towa ward the body
exterior for rounding the torso.

fig. 168 loops for the geometry definition

131
In order to close the mesh on the top part, with the goal g of
avoiding ennagonal faces, select the 4 lateral vertices off the
th top
part and extrude them till to meet the y axis.

Close with F the remaining faces by selecting the 4 vertices

es.

fig. 169 closure of the torso top faces

Analogously, operate on the lower part, by extrudin ing the

vertices, dividing the new areas in two with a loop and cr
creating
the new quadrangular faces.

fig. 170 vertex extrusion of the torso lower part

132
fig. 171 quadrangular face closure

Finally, with the proportional editing, round the mesh lower

curvature.

fig. 172 rounding of the lower curvature with the proportional edit
diting

133
The insertion of a further vertical loop will supply a better
definition of the body curvature.

fig. 173 loops for the torso definition

Before realizing the head, you must lengthen the neck with
w an
extrusion of the top faces and a scaling.

fig. 174 neck extrusion and scaling

134
In order to model the head, it will be very importa
rtant to frontally
and laterally visualize the model and proceed by extrusion and
scaling sequence of the neck top faces.

fig. 175 extrusion and scaling of the faces for modeling the head

With few, small, adjustments, the outcome will

ill be definitely
satisfying.

fig. 176 face completion

135
If you observe the head in the original model, you can not ote that
it presents a single dissimilarity concerning the symmetry.. In fact,
it appears inclined in correspondence of the wrapping.

In order to correct the mesh, we should first permanently

tly apply
the Array modifier, then select the top loops and perform
m a brief
rotation around the y axis.

Before doing this, we however recommend to make a copy

co of
the model and move it in another layer.

fig. 177 modification of the position of some vertices of the head

Add the Subdivision Surface modifier at 3 divisions and

an the
Smooth.

136
In Edit Mode, add two loops near the foot basess tto make them
flat.

fig. 178 loops near the foot bases

The model is completed.

fig. 179 finished model

137
In order to make the mouth, the eyes, the wrapping andd the
t zip
we can adopt several methods, ranging from the sculpting
scu
which will be explained next, to the specific modelingg of the
elements or, for example, to the paining on the mesh.

You choose!

fig. 180 final render of the model painted with the Texture Paint method

138
3.3. Modeling with the topology

This method is normally used for the definition of very complex

surfaces, like for example a realist human body.

Also in this case we will use the blueprint, normally of a model,

photographed in high definition in frontal, lateral and back view
and, if necessary, also from the top.

The procedure is however different from the previous one.

In fact, the starting point is not a surface or a solid, but a point,

which is extruded depicting the body contours (especially of the
face).

As a matter of facts, you can follow the main model topology,

paying attention to realize quadrangular faces and well-defined
loops.

fig. 181 the model topology is perfectly defined (in this case the faces defining the
main lines have been colored to be better seen

139
It is usually convenient to select the topology and the curves
depicting them with a pencil on the original photo or using the
Grease Pencil.

This is a very precise and refined method, though laborious and

demanding, also for the computer resources.

This method is often very useful as base for the sculpting in order
to obtain very realistic and defined models, with wrinkles, scars,
pores and skin signs.

fig. 182 the model is very refined (and definitively heavier)

A suitably complex and complete exercitation concerning this

technique can be found in the dedicated videotutorial named
“Blenderella” which can be found in the Blender Cloud. We
highly recommend to subscribe (www.blender.org).

You can access to this special Cloud dedicated to the Blender

productions and very advanced tutorials, upon subscription and
fee payment of 10 dollars every three months (or 10 euro every
month).

140
Blenderella is modeled starting from the blueprints of a model.

fig. 183 Blenderella modeling

Starting from the eyes, by point and face extrusions in front and
lateral view, the face and body guidelines are individuated,
creating a very detailed geometry, useful for definitively precise
and realistic representations.

fig. 184 face modeling

141
3.4. Modeling with the Skin modifier

This third method, perhaps less used, is very effective.

Using the Skin modifier to give body in non-uniform way

ay to a
silhouette, you can create characters in few steps.

Try, for example, to reproduce the previous character.

EXERCISE n. 7: MODELLING OF THE CHARACTER WITH THE

EUUSE OF
THE SKIN MODIFIER

Also in this case insert the blueprints as 3D scene backg

kground
image, placing and scaling them in Front (7 NUM) and Right
R (3
NUM) view, like done previously.

fig. 185 blueprint insertion

142
Now insert a vertex at the scene center, in Front view,
v almost at
the head base.

Proceed by vertex extrusions, placing new vertiertices near the

character vey nodes (neck shoulders, hip, knee etc…).
etc

fig. 186 vertex extrusions

Proceed then with the head, extruding it at leas

ast three times,
near the chin, nose and head top.

fig. 187 head vertex extrusions

143
Apply now a Mirror modifier to the mesh, mirroring it with respect
re
to the x direction, remembering to check Clipping to merg erge the
duplicate vertices and avoid interpenetrations beyon ond the
symmetry axis.

fig. 188 Mirror modifier

Now, in front view (3 NUM) move the vertices such as to

o modify
m
the posture and extrude the feet (tip and heel).

fig. 189 foot extrusion and modification of the posture

Add the Skin modifier to the cascade.

144
The line will become thicker (with quadrangular
lar cross section
and uniform).

fig. 190 Skin modifier effect

In Edit Mode, with the key combination CTRL + A andan moving the
mouse, you can regulate the thickness on the sele elected vertices,
so on all the mesh if you select all of them, or on
n a part of it, by
selecting only some of them.

Select the head vertices (chin, nose and top) and

d type CTRL + A
moving the mouse and enlarging the head.

145
fig. 191 head thickening

Apply a Subdivision Surface modifier with two subdivisio

isions at
least.

Proceed now analogously with the body, the arms and the
th legs,
eventually regulating the Branch Smoothing parameter.

fig. 192 body thickening

146
You can extrapolate in another mesh the legs,
s, selecting the
vertices with P and modeling the fingers and the
t phalanxes
extruding the hand vertices.

fig. 193 modeling phase of the hand fingers

At the process end, and with some patient, you wi

will permanently
apply the modifiers.

This technique is very useful for modeling rods, boards,

bo fences,
but also wire-shaped objects and worms.

147
Other programs are available, perfectly compatible with
Blender, able to supply the tools for creating characters and
personalize them.

Once they have been defined, they can be exported in *.fbx or

*.obj format and uploaded in Blender with all the materials.

In iClone Character Creator, for example, you start from a basic

model whose physical characteristics, which can all be
regulated and personalized later, can be directly dragged on
the model, which will change aspect every time. Wide libraries
are available, with characters and assets.

fig. 194 iClone

DAZ Studio, widely used together to Unreal Engine 4, works

analogously, but contains huge libraries including also other
asset types, like architecture, animals, or fantasy creatures.

Both the interface, and the creation system are similar to iClone:
after the choice of the basic creature, which can be modified

148
and personalized in detail, you can add assets, like dresses,
accessories and other.

fig. 195 DAZ Studio

In Blender you can freely download and install Manuel Bastioni

Lab, an excellent free addon, allowing you to create a
character starting from some basic models (male, female, elf,
dwarfs, manga...) and work on the parameters getting the
ethnicity (also mixed), the masculinity or femininity, the body size,
the age, and the body proportions. For creating a character you
only need to choose the starting preset from the
ManuelBastioniLab panel in the Tool Shelf and click on the
Create Character button. After few seconds, the character will
be positioned in the Viewport and you will able to operate on
the characteristics.

The character is provided with materials (in Cycles) and rigging,

without dresses, and can be exported in your desired format.

149
fig. 196 Manuel Bastioni Lab

fig. 197 Makehuman

Makehuman is a really advanced program for creating

humanoids. It is similar to Manuel Bastioni Lab (who collaborated
to the project), and allows you to create the character choosing
the sex, the ethnicity (also mixed), the age, the body size
(modeling in anatomic detail the shape of the hands, the breast,

150
the eyes, the genitals, the tongue and the teeth, the hairs,
etc...), the dresses and obviously the rigging.

The interface is really user friendly.

Fuse, lately acquired by Adobe, but previously free with Mixamo,

is very simple to be used.

It starts from preset models, adding, step by step, the head, the
torso, the limbs, ending with the dresses and the accessories. All
the elements are however configurable and can be
personalized, both in dimensions and color.

fig. 198 Fuse

Once the project is completed, it can be saved and exported

online on the Mixamo website, where the autorigging occurs
and where you can add the animations chosen from a wide
choice of free models on the website, which can be regulated
and personalized. Each animation can then be exported and
saved on the disc.

151
fig. 199 the interface of the Mixamo website

Unfortunately, starting from august 22 2017, the 1.3 version of

Fuse 1.3, free and downloadable through the Steam platform,
cannot anymore directly export on the Mixamo website and ask
for the program updating under Adobe with a free license
lasting 500 days. The problem is that the Adobe version is less
stable and includes less presets, and so we recommend you to
keep on using the previous version, saving the project in *.obj
format on the disc, compressing it together to the textures and
the *.mtl files and uploading the *.zip file on the Mixamo website.

152
 4
RIGGING AND
INVERSE
KINEMATICS

153
154
4.1. Introduction

The Rigging represents the most complex step of a character

creation.

It is the method allowing a character (even if it is reductive to

apply this technique only to a character) to transition from a
static position to a dynamic one, up to moving.

As a matter of facts, a character is a mesh, more or less detailed,

endowed of one (or more) head, limbs, and in some cases of a
tail and wings.

Like any living being, a character, for moving or laying, needs a

skeleton named, in Blender, rig or armature, able to deform the
body (the skin) in a harmonic and reliable manner.

Likewise, it is possible to deform the face parts to get face

expressions.

fig. 200 rigging of a character

155
For better understanding the armature operation, let us analyze
a
the parts comprising it.

The armature, like a skeleton, is composed of a series off bones,

b
the more numerous, the more detailed the movementt of the
body components.

Some bones can be part of a system strongly interconn nnecting

them. Think, for example, to a leg comprising the femu mur, the
fibula and the foot bones. It can be very useful that this
is group
could be controlled in turn by a bone whose function ion is to
govern the other bones.

fig. 201 bone parts

Moreover, some bones are constrained concerning g some

movements. The head, for example, cannot rotate aroun
und itself
by an angle of 360° or more.

The great innovation brought by the armatures in Blender er is that

they are like a single object, related to the mesh, favoring
ing some

156
global transformation operations like the sc
scaling or the
duplication.

ents: the Head,

Each bone is composed of three different elemen
the Bone and the Tail.

Each bone is specifically unidimensional. This mean

ans that it has a
well-defined direction and that, in a sequence o of bone chain,
the bone head can only be connected to the e tail
t of another
bone.

A bone can be included into the scene like any

ny other object,
i.e.:

sing Single Bone

- with the combination SHIFT + A and choosin
in the Armature menu;

- from the Add menu of the 3D view;

- from the Create tab of the Tools Shelf.

fig. 202 bone insertion in the 3D view using the shortcut SHIFT + A (on the left) or the
Add menu (on the right)

The bone will be included in the 3D view in corre

rrespondence of
the cursor.

157
In order to create a new bone chain (remember to start rt always
a
from the tail), you only need, once the bone has been sele
selected,
to enter in Edit Mode, select the tail and extrude itt w with E.
Likewise for the extrusion of a mesh element, from the tailil a new
bone will be created, which can be freely dimensione oned by
dragging the mouse and confirming with the LMB.

fig. 203 bone extrusion in Edit Mode

158
A configuration of two or more interconnected bo
bones is named
chain.

Note that moving, rotating or scaling (in Edit Mo

ode) the node
connecting two bones (tail of the former coincinciding with the
head of the latter), will affect the movement and
nd dimensioning
of both.

The first bone will the parent of the second one an

and so on in the
cascade.

A bone (or a chain), like any other object, can n be renamed,

shifted, rotated, scaled or duplicated using the
e same already
known commands.

Analogously, (in Edit Mode) the children boneses can depend

from the parent with the same parent relationsh
nships previously
described, with the key combination CTRL + P.

By selecting the head and tail of two different bon

ones, typing F a
bone will be created, connecting these two ends.

fig. 204 creation of a bone connecting the ends (head and ta

tail) of two distinct
bones

159
fig. 205 the Specials menu and the Subdivide function

4.1.1. the Specials menu

Analogously to other objects, W (in Edit Mode) activate

ates the
Special menu by which, among the other functions, you can:
ca

- subdivide (Subdivide) a bone in several “pieces” d

defined
by as many bones;

- invert (Switch Direction, ALT + F) the direction o

of the
selected bones;

- automatically rename (AutoName Left/Right) one o or more

bones according to the format name_bone_Left / Right
according to the position with respect to the left/right
lef
mirroring axis (for example, femur_Left and femur_Rig
Right);

- automatically rename (AutoName Front/Back) oone or

more bones according to the format name_bone_F
e_Front /

160
 Back according to the position with respect
re to the
front/back mirroring axis;

fig. 206 Switch Direction

- automatically rename (AutoName Top/BoBottom) one or

more bones according to the format namme_bone_Top /
Bottom according to the position with respect
re to the
top/bottom mirroring axis;

- exchange (Flip Names) the name suffixess o

of the related
bones. For example, two bones named Bone_001
B and
Bone_002 will be, respectively, renamed Bone_002
B and
Bone_001;

- force the bone symmetry (Symmetrize).

161
4.1.2. The Tools Shelf related to the armatures

Like for any object in the 3D scene, also for the armature
ures you
can find some transformation tools located in the Toolss Shelf
S of
the 3D view, which can be activated with T.

This is divided in several tabs, depending on the modality.

fig. 207 the Tools tab and the relevant panels in Object Mode (on the left)
ft) and Edit
Mode (on the right)

In particular, the Tools tab is divided in the Transform and

an Edit
panels in Object Mode and in the Transform and Armature ture Tools
panels in Edit Mode.

In Edit Mode, you can find a tab dedicated only tto the
armatures, Armature Options, containing the X-Axis Mirro
irror flag,
very useful for assigning the same modifications also tto the
bones generated by the mirroring, like for example, in cas
ase of a
character limbs.

162
fig. 208 the Options tab in Edit Mode

All the other panels, either in Object Mode or in Edit Mode

contain the same tools previously highlighted for other object
typologies.

4.1.3. The Properties Bar relevant to the armatures

Also the Properties Bar, which can be recalled with

wit N, does not
exhibit particular differences with respect to the selection of
other object typologies.

You can find the only peculiarity in Edit Mode de and in the
Transform panel, where specific counters for bones
es are located.

163
fig. 209 the Transform panel of the Properties Bar in Edit Mode

nd Tail.
In particular, the panel is divided in two sections: Head and

In the Head section the X, Y and Z counters are ava vailable,

defining the placement of the bone head in the 3D space
ce; and
Radius (Parent), defining the radius between the head an
and the
tail of the parented bone.

In the Tail section, in addition to the X, Y and Z placemen

ent, you
can find the Radius counter, defining the radius of the bo
bone tail
(in case of chain); Roll, rotating the selected bone arouround its
axis; and Envelope, regulating the distance of the e bone
deformation.

164
fig. 210 bone rotation around its axis (Roll)

4.1.4. The menus of the header of the 3D view for the

th armatures

The header of the 3D view remain essentially unchanged

u in
Object Mode, with respect to a mesh selection.

With an armature selected in Edit Mode, other tha han unchanged

menus View and Select, two specific menus appear ap for the
armature modification: Add, where the only Sing ingle Bone entry
appears (SHIFT + A) allowing you to insert a bone;; a
and Armature,
whose options will be described in detail later.

fig. 211 the Add menu in Edit Mode with the only available entry Single
S Bone

165
fig. 212 the Armature menu in Edit Mode

166
 - Bone Settings (SHIFT + W) launches a subme enu where you
can define the settings relevant to the bonones according
to 6 different methods (Draw Wire, Deform,, Multiply Vertex
Group with Envelope, Inherit Rotation, Inherit
rit Scale, Lock);

fig. 213 the Bone Settings submenu

- Parent opens a submenu where you can an choose one

between the following two available options
ns:

- Make (CTRL + P) sets, in a bone selectio tion group, the

active bone as parent of the other selected
d bones;

- Clear (ALT + P) cancel the parent relation

ionship between
bones;

- Change Bone Layer moves one or more sele

elected bones in
another layer dedicated to the bones;

fig. 214 when choosing the Change Bone Layer option, an editditor appears where
you can choose the layer where inserting the selected bones

- Change Armature Layer moves one or more m selected

armatures in another layer dedicated to the
he armatures;

167
- Flip Names exchanges the name suffixes of the
connected bones. For example, two bones named
Bone_001 and Bone_002 will be respectively renamed
Bone_002 and Bone_001;

- AutoName Left/Right automatically renames one or more

bones according to the format name_bone_Left / Right
according to the position with respect to the left/right
mirroring axis (for example, femur_Left and femur_Right);

- AutoName Front/Back automatically renames one or

more bones according to the format name_bone_Front /
Back according to the position with respect to the
front/back mirroring axis;

- AutoName Top/Bottom automatically renames one or

more bones according to the format name_bone_Top /
Bottom according to the position with respect to the
top/bottom mirroring axis;

- Symmetrize forces the bone symmetry;

- Switch Direction (ALT + F) inverts the direction of the

selected bones;

- Subdivide subdivides a bone in different “pieces” defined

by as many bones;

- Separate Bones (P) separates the selected bones from the

armature and move them into a separate armature;

- Split (Y) divides the selected bones from the other

unselected connected bones;

- Delete Selected Bone (s) (X) deletes the selected bones;

- Fill Between Joints (F) joins the head and tail of two
different bones creating a new bone;

168
 - Merge Bones (ALT + M) merges one on or more
interconnected bones directly in a single bon
one;

fig. 215 the effect of the Merge command

- Duplicate (SHIFT + D) duplicates the selected

ed bones;

- Extrude (E) extrudes a bone from the tail,, cr

creating a new
chain (armature);

- Bone Roll opens a submenu containing two

o options:
o

- Recalculate Roll (CTRL + N), automatica ically fixing the

alignment of the selected bones accordin ing to the axes
specified in the Positive, Negative and Other
er submenu;

fig. 216 the Recalculate Roll submenu

169
 - Set Roll (CTRL + R), rotating around the respective a
axis the
selected bones;

- Snap (SHIFT + S) activates the snap functions to the

t 3D
Cursor;

- Mirror mirrors the selected bones according to the

th axis
specified in the submenu;

- Transform opens a submenu where all the transform

ormation
tools are summarized.

fig. 217 the Transform submenu

170
4.2. The armature modalities

Differently from the other objects, the armatures can be edited

according to three different modalities: Object Mode, Edit Mode
and, specific modality, Pose Mode.

Let us seen when using the different modalities.

4.2.1. Object mode

This is the modality for bone initial insertion. Using this modality,
the bones comprising the armature cannot be modified, but
they must be considered as a set, likewise for a mesh, in Object
Mode, you cannot modify vertices, edges and faces. However,
in Object Mode you can transform the bone or the armature as
a whole, operating with the main transformation tools
(displacement, rotation, scaling, mirroring, copy, etc.).

4.2.2. Edit Mode

Using this modality, you can control and modify each bone
comprising the armature. In Edit Mode you can also define the
relationships parent-children and place each single bone in the
resting pose, following the pose of the reference character.

4.2.3. Pose Mode

This is the specific modality for the armatures.

171
fig. 218 Object Mode, Edit Mode and Pose Mode modalities

Once the hierarchy and the bones has been defined d in Edit
Mode, in Pose Mode you can define possible constraints ts ffor the
bones and, finally, mode and rotate the bones, accord rding to
some key frames, setting in the scene the character to which
they are related for creating the animation. In this modali
ality, the
unelected bones will be represented in blue, wherea reas the
selected ones in pale blue.

fig. 219 a bone in Object Mode modality (on the left), Edit Mode (at the
he center)
and Pose Mode (on the right)

The shortcuts for readily switching from a modality to an

another
one are:

172
 - TAB moves from Object Mode to Edit Mode
Mo and vice
versa;

- CTRL + TAB moves from Object Mode to Pose

Po Mode and
vice versa, or from Edit Mode to Pose Mo
Mode and vice
versa.

4.2.4. The Tools Shelf in Pose Mode

fig. 220 the Data tab relevant to the armatures

173
In Pose Mode, specific tabs are activated in the Tools Shelf
elf of the
3D view.

In the Tools tab, the main Pose Tools panel is present, defini
fining:

- In the Transform section, the transformations on

o the
selected bones: Transform, Rotate and Scale;

- In the In-Betweens section, the pose incidence,, oor Push

(tending to overstate the pose, shortcut CTRL + E); Relax
(rending the current pose as close as possible tto the
previous one, shortcut ALT +E); and Breakd kdowner
(creating a suitable pose interpolated in a certain
in frame
between two poses, shortcut SHIFT + E);

- In the Pose section, Copy and Paste copy and pas aste the
selected poses in the buffer; Add To Library add dds the
current pose in the pose library; Propagate openss a drop-
down menu where you can define:

fig. 221 the Propagate menu

- Propagate Pose, copying the current pose with th the next

poses already synchronized with the frames, if blocke
cked;

- To Next Keyframe, copying the current pose in the next

frame;

174
 - To Last Keyframe (Make Cyclic) coping the
ec current pose in
the last frame of the animation, making it c
cyclic. Think to
the walk of a character;

- On Selected Keyframes coping the curren

rent pose in the
selected frame;

- On Selected Markers coping the curr urrent pose in

correspondence of the selected marker;

- In the Keyframes section, Insert and Remov

ove respectively
insert and remove keyframes in correspo pondence of a
certain frame, fixing the current pose;

- Finally, in the Motion Paths section, Calcula

ulate calculates
the path of the selected bones; Clear del eletes from the
cache the path associated to a bone.

In the Pose Options panel, you can enable, chec hecking Auto IK,
the inverse kinematic function (see in the foregoing
ing) to the bone
chain.

fig. 222 the Pose Options panel

175
4.2.5. The Properties Bar in Pose Mode

In Pose Mode, the Properties Bar does not present par

articular
further tools.

fig. 223 the Properties Bar in Pose Mode

176
4.2.6. The 3D view header in Pose Mode

The header of the 3D view presents the same cocontrols already

defined for the other objects and two menus in c
common: View
and Select.

fig. 224 the Pose menu

177
A third menu, Pose, is dedicated to the poses of the arm
rmatures
and contains the following options:

- Bone Settings (SHIFT + W) launches a submenu whe here you

can define the settings relevant to the bones acc ccording
to 6 different methods (Draw Wire, Deform, Multiply ly Vertex
Group with Envelope, Inherit Rotation, Inherit Scale,, Lock);

- Show/Hide (H, ALT + H) hides or restore the bone view

iew;

- Change Bone Layer moves one or more selected bones

bo in
another layer dedicated to the bones;

- Change Armature Layer moves one or more selectedsel

armatures in another layer dedicated to the armatu
tures;

- Flip Quats flips the quaternion values to realize d

desired
notations, preserving the same bone orientation;

To this end, we define quaternion a complex number with ith shape

w + xi + yj + zk, where w, x, y, z are real numbers and i, j,
j k are
imaginary units satisfying certain conditions. They supply
sup a
mathematical notation suitable for the representati ation of
orientations and rotations of tridimensional objects.

- Flip Names exchanges the name suffixes o of the

connected bones. For example, two bones namedn
Bone_001 and Bone_002 will be respectively ren
enamed
Bone_002 and Bone_001;

- AutoName Left/Right automatically renames one or more

bones according to the format name_bone_Left / Right
according to the position with respect to the mirrorin
oring axis
left-right (for example femer_Left and femer_Right);

- AutoName Front/Back automatically renames o one or

more bones according to the format name_bone_F
e_Front /

178
 Back according to the position with respect
re to the
mirroring axis front-back;

- AutoName Top/Bottom automatically renenames one or

more bones according to the format namme_bone_Top /
Bottom according to the position with respect
re to the
mirroring axis top-bottom;

- Constraints opens a submenu where you can ca define, add,

copy or delete a constraint to the selected
dbbones;

fig. 225 the Constraints submenu

- Inverse Kinematics adds the functions ns of inverse

kinematics (IK) to the selected bone, ore rem
emove them;

fig. 226 the Inverse Kinematics submenu

- Parent sets the parent relationship on the sele

selected bone.

- Bone Groups (CTRL + G) assigns the selecte

cted bones to a
new group;

- Motion Paths

- Pose Library

- Paste X-Flipped Pose (SHIFT + CTRL + V)

- Paste Pose (CTRL + V)

179
 - Copy Pose (CTRL + C)

- Propagate (ALT + P) opens a drop-down menu whe

here you
can define:

- Propagate Pose, coping the current pose togethe ther with

the next poses synchronized with the frames, if block
cked;

- To Next Keyframe, coping the current pose in the next

frame;

fig. 227 the Parent submenu

- To Last Keyframe (Make Cyclic) coping the currentt p

pose in
the last animation frame, making it cyclic. Think
k to the
walk of a character;

180
 - On Selected Keyframes coping the curren
rent pose in the
selected frame;

- On Selected Markers coping the curr urrent pose in

correspondence of the selected marker;

- In-Betweens the pose incidence is defined,

d, according to
the three options:

- Push (tending to exaggerate the pose, shortc

rtcut CTRL + E);

- Relax (making the current pose as much sim

imilar as possible
to the previous one, shortcut ALT +E);

- Breakdowner (creating a suitable pose inte

nterpolated in a
certain frame between two poses, shortcut SHIFT
S + E);

- Animation opens a submenu where you c

can define the
addition of deletion of a keyframe, or baking the
animation (Bake);

fig. 228 the Animation submenu

o tthe 3D Cursor;
- Snap (SHIFT + S) defines the snap options to

- Apply (CTRL + A) opens a menu where you can choose

between two options:

- Apply Pose as Rest Pose defines the curr

urrent pose like
resting pose;

181
 - Apply Visual Transform To Pose applies the finall p
position
constrained to the current pose to the re relevant
transformations;

fig. 229 the Apply submenu

- Transform and Clear Transform apply or delet

lete the
transformations on the bones;

- Undo History and Redo undo or redo le last operatio

tions.

182
4.3. The constraints

The constraints regulate the interaction between a bone and

other bones. For example, while you want to move a bone, a
certain reaction could occur in another part of the skeleton.

First, you need to know that most of the constraints have a

target, which means that when a constraint is applied to a
bone, this involves at least another bone, creating a bind
between the two.

You can apply the constraints to any object in the scene, but
there is a difference between the constraints applied in Object
Mode and those in Pose Mode: in Object Mode, when adding a
constraint, this will affect the whole chain. On the other hand, in
Pose Mode, when a constraint is added, a new panel will
appear in the Properties editor, as we will see later, named Bone
Constraints, characterized by an icon depicting a small chain.

4.3.1. Constraining the bones

a) Selecting the bone, you want to add a constraint to. In the

Bone Constraints tab in the Properties editor, click on Add Bone
Constraints and select the constraint typology you want to add.
Note that the constraint is then added in cascade, like the way
the modifiers are applied to an object. Inside the Constraints
panel there is a field named Target. Insert the armature name
and a new field for the bone name will appear in
correspondence of the name of the bone you want to have as
destination for the constraint.

b) Another method usually faster for adding a constraint is to

select the destination bone before and then the bone to which

183
you want to apply the constraint holding SHIFT pressed ed. Then
press SHIFT + CTRL + C to open the Constraints menu an and add
the constraint. Alternatively, you can go to the Armaturere menu
in the header of the 3D view and select the Constraints menu.
me In
this way, when a constraint is added, the first selected bone
bo will
be automatically revealed as target.

fig. 230 the Constraints tab

184
4.4. Character rigging and inverse
kinematics

Up to now, we have considered the numerous notions regarding

the rigging, without however have done any exercise.

We believe that the notions analyzed up to now are essential for

the comprehension of this complex topic.

In order to avoid going on with a further long and boring

theoretical discussion (it is still necessary to analyze in detail the
Data and Bones tabs relevant to the bones and the armatures,
located in the Properties editor), we believe do to a break and
propose a first practical exercise on the rigging.

The Properties editor will be considered again in the next

chapters, as conclusion and clarification of all the concepts.

In the next exercise we will go step by step according to this

scheme:

- modeling of a simple character;

- creation of a base skeleton;

- rigging and parenting between bones;

- rig mirroring;

- skinning;

- Inverse kinematics (IK)

- Cyclic animation of the character walk.

185
EXERCISE n. 8: CHARACTER RIGGING

a) simple character modeling

First, let’s start with the modeling of a simple character,, similarly

si
to what we have already seen in the exercise n. 6. Alternarnatively,
you can use the same character.

Start from a cube, and proceed by loop subdivisions, ext xtrusions

and mirroring of the mesh with the Mirror modifier, as you
u should
already be perfectly able to do.

The first operation is to insert in the cube, in Edit Mode, a vvertical

loop at mid-span and delete all the vertices on the right side.
sid

Horizontally subdivide the cube with two horizontal loops,

loo in
correspondence of the chest and the waist, and one vert
ertical, in
correspondence of the neck end.

fig. 231 character modeling

186
Then extrude the left arm, the leg, the neck and the head.

We recommend to duplicate the 3D view, setting g the front view

(1 NUM) and the lateral one (3 NUM), and proceeded step by step,
extruding and moving the vertices in the two views
ws.

With a little of experience you should succeed

d in creating a
simple character by memory. However, you ca can consider a
mode, as previously done, exploiting the Backg
kground Image
technique.

Do not worry about looking for the extreme pr precision in this

phase. You will need few loops and vertices to get
et a first draft of
the character.

fig. 232 model completion

At the end of the operation, assign to the mesh

me the Mirror
modifier, such as to get a copy mirrored with respect
res to the z
axis.

Remember to check Clipping and Merge to av

avoid duplicate
vertices and interpenetrations.

187
Then add the Subdivision Surface modifier, with at least
le 3
divisions and the Smooth to smoothen the surface.

For security, create a mesh copy (SHIFT + D) and move it in the

last layer typing M.

Finally, permanently apply the Mirror and Subdivision Surface

Su
modifiers.

b) base skeleton creation

The model built is very simple and does not require a partic
rticularly
accurate rigging. For example, since you did not mod odel the
fingers and toes you will avoid, in this example, to crea
eate the
bones corresponding to all the phalanxes.

Consider that the skeleton is quite similar to the real one

ne, with
elongated bones and articulations.

The latter are represented by the bone head and tail.

fig. 233 insertion of the first bone

188
We will realize the model base skeleton only on the left side,
meaning as left side the one referred to the char
haracter, i.e. the
left side of the character. In front view of the 3D
3 view these
bones will appear on the right.

Insert the first bone, in correspondence of the torso,

to in such a
way that the bone head will coincide with the diaphragm
dia area
and the tail with the neck base.

Let us anticipate a function of the Properties edito itor. In the Data

tab, in the Display panel activate the X-Ray optio tion. This option
will make visible the bones also in Solid visualization
on modality.

fig. 234 the flag on the X-Ray option

Extrude the bone tail, creating a new bone extextending up the

head base, the extrude again, getting a unique bo
bone controlling
the character head.

Note that an actual “skull” bone does not exist.

189
fig. 235 extrusion of the neck and head bones

Then extrude downward the torso bone head, getting

g a new
bone for the area of the abdomen and pelvis.

fig. 236 pelvis bone

Duplicate now a bone, rotate and place its he head in

correspondence of the character left shoulder, then mov
ove the
tail up to the elbow.

Extrude again up to the wrist, then up to the basic hand.

Operate analogously with the left leg, creating a bone e for

f the
tibia, one for the fibula, one for the foot neck and one
e ffor the
toes.

190
fig. 237 left arm extrusion

fig. 238 left leg extrusion

191
c) Rigging and bone parenting

Select the left forearm, then the torso and type CTRL + P,
choosing the Keep Offset option, for parenting the two
elements. A dashed line will indicate parenting.

fig. 239 parenting the forearm with the torso

Operate analogously with the leg, parenting the tibia with

wi the
pelvis bone (or abdomen).

fig. 240 parenting the tibia with the abdomen

192
Now you need to have much patient and rename me all the bones
by adding the suffix _L (for left), for example bon
one_name_L, in
the Properties Bar or in the Bones tab.

fig. 241 rename the bones

Finally rename, in the Data tab of the Properti

rties editor, the
armature.

d) Rig mirroring

fig. 242 mirroring by negative scaling of the arm and leg bones

193
fig. 243 Filp Names

In order to insert the bones also in the character right part,

pa the
fastest method is to select the bones of the arm and leg,, already
a
parented with the torso and the abdomen, duplicate them em with
SHIFT + D and scale them with respect to x by the value va -1

194
(typing S, X, -1), after having placed the pivot in
correspondence of the 3D Cursor at the character center.

Upon selecting the right bones, automatically rename them,

choosing the Flip Names command from the Armature menu.

The right bones will be automatically renamed with the suffix _R

(right).

e) Skinning

For skinning it is meant the bind between mesh and armature.

Unless particularly complex meshes, usually the skinning is

performed with a very simple and automatic method.

In Object Mode, select first the mesh, then the armature (which
will become the active object in light orange).

Type CTRL + P and choose the With Automatic Weights option.

In this way, you chose to parent the armature to the mesh with a
weight automatically assigned to the vertices closest to the
single nodes (head and tail) of the bones.

Already now, entering in Pose Mode, selecting a bone and

applying a transformation (for example the rotation), the mesh
will be affected and will be bent according to the new bone
position.

195
fig. 244 parenting the armature to the mesh

fig. 245 in Pose Mode, the selected right tibia has been rotated, autom
tomatically
inducing the rotation of the whole leg

196
For manually adjusting the weight to be assigned
d tto the vertices
near the armature junctions, select the mesh, enter
en in Weight
Paint Mode and, in the Options tab of the Toolsls Shelf
S check X-
Mirror to force the same changes in the mesh symmmetric part.

Holding pressed CTRL, with the LMB you can seleclect a bone and
operate with the “painting” of the vertex weight.

fig. 246 vertex weight correction in Weight Paint modality

197
f) Inverse kinematics (IK)

Before going on, we need to give a definition to what is known

k
as IK, Inverse Kinematic.

If you try to rise up a foot from the ground, you will surely
ly notice
that the hip will rotate and rise up the thigh and conseq equently
also the fibula. Inversely, if you try to squat all the skeleton,
ske
whose bones are interconnected, will undergo a rotation on and a
translation.

In the rigging it can be much more convenient, setting in pose

p a
character, working with the inverse kinematics inste stead of
manually moving and rotating each bone.

In Pose Mode, enter the Options panel of the Options tab

b of the
Tools Shelf, check Auto IK

fig. 247 Auto IK

Select a foot bone and rise it up with G, Z. The who

hole leg
automatically will be bent in a natural fashion.

198
fig. 248 rising up a foot, the knee will be bent

In the underlying sequence the movementt of a kick is

reproduced.

fig. 249 sequence simulating the movement of a leg kicking

g) Cyclic animation of the character walk

Now we only need to simulate a simple animation.

n.

We will make our character walking with a seque

uence of cyclic
poses.

199
First, fix the character resting pose. Lower the arms and, fro
from the
Pose menu, choose the Apply Pose as Rest Pose option fro from the
Apply submenu.

fig. 250 resting pose

In the Timeline, click on Record to record each bone move

vement,

fig. 251 the Record button of the Timeline

fig. 252 first pose and keyframe insertion

200
Open now the Dope Sheet editor and set it in Action Editor
modality. Click on new eventually renaming tthe action as
“Walk”.

Go in lateral view (3 NUM) and rotate and move the

th bones such
as to get a first pose of the character.

A keyframe series will be automatically created re

relevant to the
transformations made on the armature.

Go now to the frame n. 5 and move the legs and

an the arms as
illustrated in the figure.

fig. 253 second pose to frame n. 5

Go on with the poses every 5 frames till the n. 25.

The first cycle of our character walk has been defin

fined.

For creating a cyclic sequence of these frames, open the NLA

s, o
Editor.

201
fig. 254 poses at frames10, 15, 20 e 25

Expand the trace and duplicate by the number of time

imes you
want the region containing all the events.

fig. 255 event copy in the Dope Sheet Editor

Finally, launch the animation.

We invite you to subscribe the website www.blendswap ap.com,

where you can find and freely download hundreds of excellent
exc
models in *.blend format and already rigged characters,, like
li the
beloved Sintel.

202
fig. 256 Sintel rigging

203
4.5. Facial Rigging

The facial rigging, allowing character face expressions,, lik

like the
smile, the eye movement, the mouth opening and closure, re, etc. is
achieved with the same previous technique, with the diffe
ifference
that the parts of the face undergoing deformation mu must the
connected to specific bones.

Blender, also in this case, help us giving us the possibility to insert

an armature already comprising all the facial boness (which (
maybe, in this case, we should call facial muscles, due to their
function).

fig. 257 Pitchipoy Human (Meta Tag)

Typing SHIFT + A in the 3D view, from the Armature men

enu, you
can choose Human (Meta Tag) for inserting a completee rigging

204
of all the body bones, except the facial ones es, or Pitchipoy
Human (Meta Tag) for inserting a really complex ar
armature.

The facial bone structure (or musculature, if you wish)

wi is definitely
complex and precise and adapted to the face.

fig. 258 facial bone structure

ple, the rigging

We invite you to practice completing, for examp
operation (on the body and face) of Sintel S in the
sintel_facial_rigging.blend attached file.

Analogously, the hand and foot bones can control c all the
phalanxes, likewise the ocular bulbs can be easily
ly rotated
r thanks
to a control bone.

205
fig. 259 facial rigging on Sintel

fig. 260 Sintel expression n

206
fig. 261 the hand bones

207
4.6. Motion Capture (MOCAP) and
movement personalization

The Motion Capture technique is widely used for the acting of

animated characters in the 3D graphics.

With this technique you can capture the movements of a

character, an animal or a robot, thanks to the use of movement
sensors, and then save the data and import them in the 3D
modeling software, to be applied on any character having ha
skeleton (or armature, or rigging).

Several techniques and technologies exist very professional, or

other less professional, but not necessarily of quite lower quality.

Think, for example, to the acting of actors for characters created

by computer (Andy Serkis making acting Gollum in the Lord of
the Rings).

fig. 262 Andy Serkis and Gollum

208
In the more professional cases or in the filmmakinking, usually the
actors are equipped with special suits with move ovement sensors
capturing any configuration variation in real-time.

Less expensive solutions consist of the use o of homemade

equipment, used in game consoles for motion capt
pture.

An example is the Kinect 360 or Kinect One sensor f XBox which

or for
can be used, connected to a pc with Windows ws, thanks to a
special cable and Microsoft driver, for the Motion
ion Capture with
good results.

fig. 263 Kinect One

In addition to plug-in (like Ni-Mate for Blenderer), very good

programs for the motion capture with Kinect are available.
av

Among these you can find the Brekel software,, operating

o also
together, and specific for the general capture
re of the body
movements, of the facial movements and of the ha
hands.

209
fig. 264 the leap sensor

We highlight, since they are valid and we personally tested

them, Brekel Pro Body 2 (for Kinect One) for the general capture
of the body or the torso, Brekel Pro Face 2 (for the facial
movement capture, like eyes, mouth, eyebrows and mandible)
and Brekel Pro Hands for the capture of the finger and hand
movements (operating with another capture device, Leap
Motion Sensor).

fig. 265 Brekel Pro Body 2

210
fig. 266 Brekel Pro face 2

The motion capture can be saved in the *.bvh format,

containing the skeleton animation.

This animated skeleton (rigging) can be then applied to a

character modeled in 3D, using a procedure named
retargeting.

However, wide libraries exist (not for free) of *.bvh preset files,
containing thousands of animation for humanoids and animals
ready to be retargeted using programs like Maya, 3D Studio Max
or Blender.

The *.bvh files can be previously viewed with freeware programs

like BVHViewer.

An addon for Blender exist, MakeWalk, available for free on the

Makehuman website, automatically managing the retargeting,
but in case of Unreal Engine 4 this is not necessary, since the
program is able to associate movements externally loaded on
characters having similar skeleton. We will see how to operate in
a short.

211
fig. 267 BVHView

fig. 268 Constraint Copy Transforms

In practice, Makewalk generates the source arm rmature

retargeting (for example a *.bvh file) on the desti stination
armature (of the modeled character), provided the arm rmatures
are congruent and with similar structure. This operation can
c be
manually performed using the Constraint Copy Transform rms. This

212
must be applied to the source object, whereas th
the source must
be inserted in Target, specifying the correspondi
ding bone. This
operation must be performed in correspondence eoof each bone.

EXERCISE n. 9: FACIAL MOTION CAPTURE USING A CAMERA AND

THE RIGGING

Not having at disposal suites equipped with sens ensors, Kinect or

other capture devices, in this exercise we will prac
ractice on facial
motion capture using a simple camera, for exa xample the pc
webcam.

In this exercise the Motion Capture technique will ill b

be associated
to that of the Motion Tracking, which will be discu scussed in detail
later. By now, you may only limit yourself to follow the
th exercise.

We wish to thank Davide Scarpiello for this exercise

ise.

For the purpose of this exercise, we invite you

ou to model or
download a much detailed human face and d place, like in
figure, some bones around the eyebrows.

In order to place a bone we remind you need to type SHIFT + A

and choose Add Bone. Each bone can be rotate ted and scaled.
Remember to reset the transformations with CTRLL + A.

The goal is to animate the face expressions, using

g the
t capture of
our motions.

After having simply drawn on your face, and in pa

particular, along
the eyebrows some markers with a pen, you willll need
n to record
a brief animation of yourself where you move e the eyebrows
changing expression.

213
fig. 269 the 3D model with the bones

fig. 270 points depicted on your face

214
These markers will be a reference to be associated
ted to the bones
previously inserted in the model.

fig. 271 detail

We anticipate the Motion Tracking interface, choosing

ch it from
the Screen layout menu in the Info editor.

fig. 272 Motion Tracking

In the largest editor, Movie Clip Editor, upload the

e video
v clucking
Open.

fig. 273 Movie Clip Editor

Go to the start frame in the Timeline.

215
In Tool Shelf, in the marker panel, click on Add. In this wa
ay, you
can insert markers on the image or on the selected frame.

fig. 274 the Marker panel

Click with the LMB on the last colored point at the eyebrow
ow right.

The marker will be inserted appearing as a rectangle whic hich you

can also rescale (S), rotate ® or shift (G), or modify, dragg
gging its
vertices.

Place it at the drawn point center.

fig. 275 first added marker

Proceed analogously and place the other marke

rkers in
correspondence of the points.

216
fig. 276 markers associated to the points

In order to make the tracking, i.e. the identification

ion of the marker
position with respect to the points, frame by fram rame, go to the
starting frame, select all the markers and, in the Tracking
Tr panel,
click Play (rightward arrow). Immediately Blender er will compute
the position of all the markers drawing a contrail.

fig. 277 marker tracking

Once the procedure is finished, you can go in the Timeline and

notice that the contrails preceding the presentt fr
frame are red,
whereas the ones following it are blue.

217
fig. 278 fine regulation

You can finely regulate the marker position, frame by fram me, use
the fine regulation, in the Track panel of the Properties Bar..

Now you must associate (“link”) Empty objects to the markers,

m
visible in the 3D View.

Upon selecting all the markers, in the Geometry panel

el of the
Tools Shelf, click Link Empty to Track.

fig. 279 Link Empty to Track

Return to the 3D View and look at the Empty positioning.

218
fig. 280 Empty in the 3D View

Note how they are related to the camera, since

ce derived from
the markers.

fig. 281 Empty bound to the camera

219
If you try to launch the animation in the Timeline (ALT + AA), the
Empties will move like the markers, and accordingly like lik the
points drawn around the eyebrow.

The relation of each Empty to the camera is demonstrat rated by

the Constraint of Follow Track type, automatically inserted
ed inside
the Properties editor.

fig. 282 Constraint Follow Track

220
fig. 283 Empty and markers in Background Image

Once Background Image has been activated in the Properties

Bar in the 3D View and uploading the video or one
ne of the frames
(in case of sequence), go in front view (1 NUMPAD)
NU and,
launching the animation, you can notice how thee Empties move
synchronized to the markers and the eyebrow.

Select the head, then the bones and type TRL + P, choosing With
Automatic Weight to bind each bone to the closeosest vertices for
the deformation.

Selecting the bones, in Pose Mode (see in the foregoing),

fo you
can try to move them to determine the model mo eyebrow
movement.

We recommend you to give meaningful names

es to the bones
and the Empties.

Select the first bone and, in the Bone Constrainaints tab of the
Properties editor, apply the Copy Location constrai
raint.

Set the name of the corresponding Empty to target

et.

221
fig. 284 the bones in Pose Mode

fig. 285 Copy Location

Repeat the same procedure for all the bones.

Launching the animation, the character eyebrows will

ill move
analogously to ours.

222
4.7. The Properties editor relevan
ant to the
armatures

lete the rigging

After this nice exercitation, in order to complet
description, we need to describe all the command
nds, the options
and the tools contained in the Data and Bones tabs
ta dedicated
to the bones and the armatures.

4.7.1. the Data tab

fig. 286 the Data tab

223
The Data tab has 9 panels dedicated to the armatures. The
Th icon
resembles a small character in frontal pose.

Let us analyze, as usual, all the panels available one by one

ne.

First, like for all the objects, you can rename the selected
sel
armature using the text box on the tab top.

The Skeleton panel summarizes all the armature g

general
characteristics, i.e.:

fig. 287 the Skeleton panel of the Data tab

- the Pose Position/Rest Position switch visu isualizes,

respectively, the armature pose of the initial configu
iguration
(at rest);

- the Layer boxes define with an orange spot the he layer

hosting the selected armature. 32 layers are availabl
ble;

- the Protected Layers boxes (32) define the connec

ection of
the selected armature inside a scene different fro
from the
current one;

224
The Display panel supplies information relevant to the armature
and bone visualization in the 3D ambient.

fig. 288 the Display panel of the Data tab

- The 5 buttons switch defines the visualizatio

tion style for the
armature bones in the 3D view, i.e.:

fig. 289 the 5 visualization styles for bones. From left to right: Ocataedral,
Oc Stick, B-
Bone, Envelope, Wire

- Octaedral, default visualization, showsws the bone

composed of two end nodes (Head and d Tail) and of a
central body having a lengthened octahedr
dron shape;

- Stick, simplified visualization for very comple

plex situations or
during the character pose setting, showss the th body as a
two-dimensional object and the nodes as two tw vertices;

225
 - B-Bone, geometric visualization, shows the bone
ne as a
simple parallelepiped;

- Envelope, visualization useful for revealing the influence

infl
area of each bone on the mesh, it is defined by a conic
(or cylindrical) central body and by its spherical end
nds;

- Wire, shows the bone like a wire;

- The Names flag visualizes in the 3D view the name of each

bone;

fig. 290 visualization of the bone name in the 3D view

226
 - Axes visualizes the bone axes;

- Shapes visualizes the bone specific shapes;

- Colors visualizes the colors given to the bone

ne groups, such
as to make more evident the group (for example,
ex all the
arm bones in red, the leg bones in yellow,, the
th torso bones
in blue and the head bones in green);

en in Solid mesh
- X-Ray shows the bones in X-ray vision, even
visualization;

- Delay Refresh prevents the visualization of the children

bones during the modification in Pose Mode
de.

In the Bone Groups panel, the selected bones ca can be grouped

in a specific group, according exactly to the samee methodology
used to group the vertices (Vertex Group). Accor ordingly, a new
group can be added or removed (+ and - keys) s) and
a renamed.
The bones can be assigned or removed from rom the group
respectively clicking the Assign and Remove button
tons; selected or
deselected in the group clicking on the Select and Deselect
buttons.

fig. 291 the Bone Groups panel of the Data tab

227
 Name)
Once a group has been created a textbox will appear (N
where you can rename the group (for example “arm bones”
b
and the color (Color Set).

In the Pose Library panel, you can save the poses associa iated to
the object in a specific library, such as to be recalled orr reused
r
for other objects.

In the Ghost panel, you can visualize a series of different

di
consecutive poses as a path, as a trace or as a contrai
trail, very
useful during the animations, named ghosting, i.e. the he pose
interpolation between a frame and the next one. It can be used
only in Pose mode.

fig. 292 the Ghost panel of the Data tab

228
You can choose three different methods: Arou ound Frame, In
Range and On Keyframes. Depending on the chosen ch method,
different options are enabled. The first two are very
ve similar and
define the frame range to be used.

For the first method, the following parameters are available:

a

- Range, defining the step numbers around

und the current
frame to be shown as a ghost;

- Step, defining the step number for each fram

ame;

In the second:

- Start, defining the animation starting frame;;

- End, defining the end frame;

- Step, defining the number of steps for each

h frame.
f

fig. 293 the bone contrail drawn in In Range modality in the keyfra
frames

229
For the last method (showing the bone position o only in
correspondence of the keyframes) only the Selected Only nly flag is
available (available also for the other two methods) showin
wing the
ghosting only for the selected bones.

fig. 294 the bone contrail drawn in On Keyframe modality in the keyframes

The Motion Path panel is conceptually very similar to the previous

pr
one.

Instead of drawing a contrail of the bones with respect

ct to the
frames, this panel draws the path of the bone durin ring the
animation.

230
fig. 295 the Motion Path panel of the Data tab

fig. 296 the path drawn by the bone in the keyframes

- Start, End and Step have the same functio

tion seen in the
Ghost panel;

231
 - The Show Frame Number flag writes in the 3D view,
vi in
correspondence of the curve, the frame nu number
corresponding to each pose;

fig. 297 the Calculate button

- Clicking on the button Calculate with the bone,, Blender

B
executes the bake and the curve compu putation
depending on the poses associated to the bone nes and
activates the From, To and Update Paths countersrs (in the
Cache from Bone section) where you can defin fine the
frame range where you can perform new bakes;

- The Keyframes flag draws on the curve ve vertices

corresponding to the pose position, to the framess where
an event is recorded;

- The + Non-Grouped Keyframes flag, for the e bone

movement paths, searches the action for the keyf
eyframes
of the bone groups;

- Finally, the Keyframes Numbers flag writes nextt tto the

vertices indicating a keyframe on the curve rve, the
corresponding frame number.

The Inverse Kinematics panel defines all the param rameters

controlling the behavior and the response of the bones
es when
the inverse kinematics is activated.

232
The IK Solver menu defines inverse kinematics typology adopted.
Standard is the default option, not needing any parameter.

Instead, in the iTaSC modality a series of buttons and options are

activated.

The first parameter to be defined in this modality is a switch

indicating if you are dealing with an Animation or a Simulation.

- Under Animation, the following parameters are activated:

- Precision, defining the convergence precision in case of

re-iterations;

- Iteration, setting the maximum number of iterations for the

convergence in case of re-iterations;

- Solver activates a drop-down menu where you can

define the damping manual (DLS) or automatic (SDLS). In
the first case you can regulate the Damping and Eps
(sensibility) parameters;

- Under Simulation the following parameters are activated:

- The Reiteration switch, allowing you to choose the re-

iteration typology for the simulation, among Never (none),
Init (initial) or Always;

- Precision, defining the convergence precision in case of

re-iteration;

- Iteration, setting the maximum number of iterations for the

convergence in case of re-iterations;

- The Auto-step flag automatically sets the step number for

a better movement accuracy;

233
 - Min and Max determine the upper and lower limit
it for
f the
steps;

fig. 298 the Inverse Kinematics panel of the Data tab

- Also in this modality the Solver menu is present, defining

de
the damping manual (DLS) or automatic (SDLS). In n the
t first
case, you can regulate the Damping and Eps (sen ensibility)

234
 parameters. In addition to Damp and Eps ps, with the DLS
method 2 further options are activated:

- Feedback (set by default to 20), defining

ng a correction
coefficient for the mistakes;

- Max Velocity (set to 50 by default), defining

g the maximum
damping dynamics in the node, expressed in rad/s.

In the Rigify Layer Names panel, you can su summarize the

organization of the various armatures in layers.

Each layer can be enabled or disabled, renamed

ed and you can
also assign to it an index.

fig. 299 the Inverse Rigify Layer Names panel of the Data tab

In the last panel, Rigify Buttons, you can generat

rate, clicking on
the Generate button, a graphic controller of the rigging
rig (named
Metarig) relevant to the active armature.

fig. 300 the Inverse Rigify Buttons panel of the Data tab

235
fig. 301 the metarig applied to the current armature

This amounts at associating to the selected armature a bobone or

a preset bone configuration (finger, single bone etc.),, chosen
c
from the list, and confirming clicking Add Sample, whic hich will
appear in the Rgify Buttons panel in Edit Mode modality.

fig. 302 the Inverse Rigify Buttons panel of the Data tab in Edit Mode

236
fig. 303 clicking Add Sample and selecting from the finger list, a b
bone configuration
suitable for a finger is associated to the armature

4.7.2. the Bones tab

In this tab all the properties relevant to the boness a

are collected.

The panels contained in this tab vary and are adapted

depending on the modality referred to bones in the 3D view, i.e.,
Object Mode, Edit Mode and Pose Mode.

Let us see them in detail first in Object and Edit modality

mo (where
very similar panels are activated) and, then, in Pose
ose Mode.

237
fig. 304 the Bones tab in Object Mode (on the top) and in Edit Mode
e (on the
bottom)

OBJECT MODE AND EDIT MODE

The Transform panel (available only in Edit Mode) contains ins all the
information relevant to the placement along the x, y and d z axes
of the head and the tail, of the rotation of the selected ed bone
around its axis (Roll). The Lock flag lock any transformation.
n.

238
fig. 305 the Transform panel of the Bones tab in Edit Mode

The Relations panel summarizes the information relevant

re to the
layer containing the selected bone, the parent re relationship with
other bones selected in the relevant field and the
he relation type:
connection (Connected), relation on the rotation rot (Inherit
Rotation), on the scale (Inherit Scale) and on the
e lo
location (Local
Location).

fig. 306 the Relations panel Bones tab

The Display panel (available only in Object Mode

de) contains the
information on the bone visualization.

- The Hide flag hides the selected bone/bone

nes;

- The Wireframe flag visualizes in wireframe;

239
 - The Custom Shape menu takes the shape of another an
object in the scene. The pipette, on the right, allow
llows you
to select the object in the 3D view.

fig. 307 the Display panel of the Bones tab in Object Mode

The Deform panel allows you do deform the bone and define
de its
influence (weight).

When disabling with a flag this panel, the bone will not hav
ave any
influence on the mesh.

fig. 308 the Envelope panel of the Bones tab

tance) is
- In the Envelope section, the action distance (Distan
defined, visualized with a light gray oval around the
he bone
and the weight (Weight), or influence. The flag on Multiply
M
multiplies the influence effect;

240
 - In the Radius section, the head and taill dimensions
d are
graphically defined, relevant to the bonene in Envelope
visualization. Note that when one of th these nodes is
connected to another bone, you will nott bbe allowed to
modify its dimensions;

fig. 309 modification of the influence area (gray oval), of the weig
ight (bone colored
in red) and of the tail dimensions of the selected bone

- In the Curved Bones section, you can defo

eform the bones
(only in B-Bones modality, subdividing th
them in many
segments (Subdivide), and managing thee c
curvature with
the Ease In and Ease Out parameters.

241
fig. 310 subdivision and deformation of a bone in B-Bones modality

POSE MODE

Upon selecting the bone/bones in Pose Mode modalit ality, the

panels contained in the Bones tab further change an and are
adapted to supply information and define the properties
ies in this
special modality.

7 panels are available, where Transform, Relations, Displa

play and
Deform contain the same information of the correspo ponding
panels in Object Mode and Edit Mode modality.

242
fig. 311 the Bones tab of the Properties editor in Pose Mode moda
dality

In the Transform Locks panel, you can lock, clicking

c in the
relevant boxes with a lock, the locations, the rota
otations and the
scale, along the x, y and z axes.

fig. 312 the Transform Locks panel of the Bones tab in Pose Mode

243
The Lock Rotation flag automatically locks each ro rotation,
whereas the button with the lock W locks the editing of all
al the 4
rotation angular components.

In the Inverse Kinematics panel the information relevant

nt to the
stiffness parameters are contained, separately for fo the
displacement components X, Y and Z.

These parameters are very useful for defining displacemenent limits

in certain directions, like for example of the maximum rota
tation of
the character head, of the arm, knee rotation, etc.

fig. 313 the Inverse Kinematics panel of the Bones tab in Pose Mode

In the last panel, Rigify Type, you can set preset rigs chose
sen from
the Rig Type list, for the selected bone/bones.

Once the typology has been chosen, for example Fing nger, an
Option section in the panel appears, where you can define
fine:

244
 - the layer or the layers of the separate controls
c of the
selected bones (Separate Secondary Contro
trol Layers);

- the bone principal rotation axis, defined in

n the
th drop-down
menu Bend Rotation Axis;

- the possibility of generating a bone conf

nfiguration with
double twist (Digit Twist).

fig. 314 the Rigify Type panel of the Bones tab in Pose Mode

245
246
 5
SCULPTING

247
248
5.1. Introduction

The Sculpting is an advanced functionality very useful for the

mesh detailed modeling.

Usually used to sculpt the character details, it reaches a very

high complexity degree, almost at the same level of the most
famous software devoted to the sculpting, like the famous
ZBrush.

fig. 315 a dragon realized and sculpted in Blender (from www.blender.org)

Technically, it is an alternative version, or better, an additional

version of the Edit Mode, operating on the vertices of a mesh
with the use of brushes, or maybe for the present case it would
be more appropriate to call them chisels, analogously to the
work system in Texture Paint modality.

Of course, as we have already mentioned in this course, the

more detailed is the mesh geometry, the better and more
satisfying will be the achieved results.

249
For the mesh subdivision, ready to be sculpted, we recom
ommend
the Multiresolution modifier, since it allows us to get dif
different
precision levels depending on the working environments used.
us

fig. 316 the Multiresolution modifier is very useful in Sculpt Mode ambient

250
5.2. Sculpt Mode

The Sculpt Mode modality (the last available w which can be

recalled from the Mode menu of the 3D view head ader) allows you
to sculpt and model the details of the selected meeshes.

fig. 317 Sculpt Mode

2.5.1. The Tools Shelf in Sculpt Mode

In this modality, the Tools Shelf and the menus oof the 3D view
header supply commands, tools and functionalitie
lities devoted to
the sculpting.

The largest part of the commands are located just ju in the Tools
Shelf and, as already mentioned, are identical to those already
seen in Texture Paint ambient, with the only differe
erence that with
the selected brushes you will not paint on the e mesh, but will
sculpt it, stretching or squashing the vertices ins
inside the brush
influence area.

251
For example, with this method you can add details ls to
t the
character itself, like the horns, bubbles and bubo, surface
ce veins,
scratches and asperities, but also orbits, roughness and sca
cales on
the skin, like for the dragon case.

fig. 318 with the brush the horns on Suzanne head can be readily extrapol
olated, as
well as the superficial veins on the forehead.

We want to stress that the detail quality directly dependss on

o two
factors:

1) the mesh geometry;

2) the brush distance from the surface to be sculpted

ed.

In the last Blender version this volume refers to, 18 preset brushes
b
are available, with additive functions (mesh expansio sion) or
subtractive (depression).

These tools are located in the Tools Shelf of the 3D view (in Sculpt
Mode).

252
fig. 319 the Tools Shelf of the 3D view in Sculpt Mode ambient

253
The specific tabs for the sculpting are two: Tools and Option
tions.

A) TAB TOOLS

Inside the Tools tab 7 panels can be found, dedicated

d to the
tools for sculpting.

The Brush panel has, like for the brushes in Texture Paint mo
odality,
all the main tools for the sculpting, the chisels, which c can be
recalled from the box depicting a brush.

By clicking on the box a graphic browser appears, wher

here you
can select the desired brush.

fig. 320 the brushes in Sculpt Mode

The images clearly illustrate the effect and functionality of each

brush.

254
Each brush has a name (which can be modif dified from the
underlying text box) and can be copied and d
deleted like a
normal brush or material.

Next, you can find three important cursors:

- Radius, defining the brush influence radius,

s, highlighted in
the video with a red circle;

- Strength, defining the strength impressed by the brush on

the surface to be sculpted;

- Autosmooth regulating the auto smoothing,

g, like you were
working in proportional editing;

The Sculpt Plane menu defined the directionality of o the sculpting

operation, i.e. if you want to operate in the forceded direction of a
certain axis (x, y or z), according to the current view
iew (View Plane)
or according to the surface normal (Area Plane).

fig. 321 the Sculpt Plane menu

The flag on Front Faces Only forces the brush to operate

op only on
the faces in view.

255
The Add and Subtract switch defines the direction, with re
respect
Add) or
to the surface, for the brush sculpting, i.e. outward (Ad
inward (Subtract).

The Accumulate flag forces to accumulate material on wh

what has
been already sculpted, function very useful especially wi
with the
additive brushes (Add).

fig. 322 the Texture panel of the Tools Shelf in Sculpt Mode

256
 d in Texture Paint
In the Texture panel, the same tools already used
are available, useful to sculpt, in this case, according
ac to a
texture uploaded from the browser.

You can see the details of these tools in the desc

scriptions made
for the homonym panel in Texture Paint modality lity, unless three
specific options for the sculpting:

- the Rake flag, enforcing that the angle spe

specified above
the flag meets as much as possible the direction
di of the
brush line;

- the Random flag, adding a random comp

mponent to the
angle;

- the Sample Bias cursor, adding samples to the selected

texture, improving its detail.

fig. 323 the Stroke panel of the Tools Shelf in Sculpt Mode

257
Also regarding the Stroke panel, defining the param rameters
relevant to the line, i.e. the method used for the sculptin
ting, the
parameters have been already analyzed in the chapter re relevant
to the Texture Paint.

e Stroke
In particular, the sculpting technique is defined in the
Method menu where you can choose: Dots, Drag Dot,, Space
(by default), Airbrush, Anchored, Line, Curve.

fig. 324 the Stroke Method menu

The Curve panel too is identical to that relevant to the texture

t
Paint and allows you to control the “paint” decay produc
uced by
the brush. The modification of the curve shape will mak ake the
brush softer or harder.

258
fig. 325 the Curve panel of the Tools Shelf in Sculpt Mode

For topology, we mean the composition and the

e drawing
d of the
lines and polygons of a certain mesh.

o the Enable
The Dyntopo panel must be enabled clicking on
Dyntopo button.

In this panel, you can dynamically change the mesh m topology

during the sculpting operation. In practice, it allow
ws you to sculpt
while, in real time, you assist to the dynamicall repositioning
re of
the mesh vertices.

259
fig. 326 the Dyntopo panel of the Tools Shelf in Sculpt Mode

fig. 327 Tolopogy Sculpting Dynamic

260
 - Detail Size (expressed in pixel) defines the maximum length
of the edges generated by the sculpting;

- the Detail Refine Method menu opens a drop-down menu

where you can specify one of the following options:

- Subdivide Collapse, dividing the too long edges and

collapsing the too short ones, such as to obtain a
geometry the most regular as possible;

- Collapse Edges, only collapsing the too short edges;

- Subdivide Edges, only subdividing the too long edges.

- the Detail Type Method menu opens a drop-down menu

where you can specify how the resize of the sculpted
mesh should be recomputed (Relative Detail, Constant
Detail, Brush Detail);

- the Smooth Shading flag smoothens the surface shading;

- Optimize re-computes and optimizes the sculpted mesh

geometry;

- Direction specifies the direction of the eventual sculpting

symmetry (with respect to x, y, or z);

- Symmetrize generates symmetry in the sculpting

operations.

The Symmetry/Lock panel manages the symmetry of the

sculpting operations.

261
fig. 328 the Symmetry/Lock panel of the Tools Shelf in Sculpt Mode

- The Mirror three choice switch (X, Y, Z) define

ines the
symmetry direction for automatically mirroring oon the
opposite side the sculpting operations made on a mesh
side.

- Radial (X, Y and Z) works like an Array and defin

fines the
repetition number of the sculpting along the specified
spe
directions;

- The Feather flag automatically reduces the brush strength

str
in case of overlapping near the symmetry axis;

- Lock (X, Y, Z) locks the symmetry along the selected

d axes.

262
fig. 329 sculpting the horn on the left side (right for Suzan zanne), this will be
automatically sculpted also on the symmetric side along the x direction
dire

The History panel contains the Undo and Redo fun

unctions.

fig. 330 the History panel of the Tools Shelf in Sculpt Mode

263
A) OPTIONS TAB

3 panels are present inside the second Options tab.

fig. 301 the Options tab

In the Overlay panel, you can personalize and balanc nce the
curve visualization and the brush line thickness, according
g to the
percentage values relevant to Curve and Texture.

In the Options panel, the Gravity cursor assigns the gravity

ity force
to the brush in–Z direction, whereas you can choose e the
t –Z
direction from the Orientation textbox, relevant to an n object
o
present in the 3D scene.

264
fig. 302 the Options panel of the Tools Shelf in Sculpt Mode

- The Threaded Sculpt flag take advanta tage from the

g the sculpting
presence of multiple processors during
operations;

- The Fast Navigate flag visualizes, releasing th

the system, the
mesh which is being sculpted in low re res during the
displacement or rotation;

- The use Deform Only flag uses for the sculp ulpting only the
modifiers associated to the meshes off deform type,
disabling the others, except the Multiresolutio
tion modifier;

- The Show Diffuse Color flag shows the mesh

sh sculpted with
the temporary and auxiliary assignment off a diffuse white
color;

265
 - The last three flags (Size, Strength and Color) reg
regulate,
respectively, the radius, the strength and the color
lor of the
brush around it.

In the Appearance panel, you can personalize the color

or of the
brush contour (Show Brush) in Add and Subtract modality
lity, and
specify a personalized icon.

EXERCISE n. 10: MODELING AND SCULPTING OF A BRANCH

fig. 303 vertex extrusion

266
In this exercise we will explain how to modell in few steps a
veined and gnarled branch (or a trunk), using the Sculpt
S Mode.

We will show how simple is to create the trunk base ase structure, i.e.
its axis, if we can say like this, extruding a vertex several
se times, in
a not too linear way.

Analogously, you can define the silhouette with a curve

provided that, at the procedure end, the latter is retransformed
into a mesh with the combination SHIF + CTRL + ALT
LT + C.

By extruding the intermediate vertices, we can

an freely insert
branches.

fig. 304 the trunk silhouette in Object Mode

267
Add to the mesh the Skin modifier then, in Edit Mode, select
sel all
the vertices with CTRL + A and then, holding pressed CTRL,
L, rotate
WMB getting the desired thickness.

Selecting only some vertices, you can vary the thicknes

ess only
around them and not in all the mesh.

fig. 305 silhouette thickening with the Skin modifier

268
Apply permanently the Skin modifier and add the Multiresolution.
M

Increase the subdivisions up to 6, specifying only

nly 3 of them in
preview and 6 in sculpting and in rendering.

The trunk will appear rounded, but too much near

nea the branch
ends.

The reason is that there is not a loop (even a sing

ingle vertex can
be considered a loop) near the ends.

fig. 306 insertion of a new loop between the vertex at the trunk branch
br end and the
next one

269
It will be simple, with CTRL + R, add a vertex between the
eoone at
the trunk branch end and the next one.

Alternatively, you can select the two vertices and

d select
Subdivide from the Special menu (W).

Finally, typing G twice, you will move the new vertex alon
long the
axis (the segment between the vertices), making it closer
er to the
extreme one.

The curvature will appear definitely less rounded, simula

lating a
section.

fig. 307 moving the new vertex (loop) closer to the trunk branch end a section
sec will
be achieved

You can operate analogously for all the trunk branches.

Now we can enter in Sculpt Mode and start the scu sculpting
operations for the trunk details, creating cracks ks and
accumulating material such as to generate nodes, bub
ubo and
deformities, typical of an old trunk.

270
fig. 308 the in trunk Object Mode

If you applied also the Multiresolution modifier, you would get a

detailed mesh, but final. We are not in a hurry, anand we can use
the modifier later, at the end of the sculpting proce
cess.

fig. 309 the Multiresolution modifier application would define a c

complex geometry,
but final

271
Enter in Sculpt Mode and select the Crease brush, very useful
us to
excavate the mesh.

Regulates the radius and the strength, then start to excava

vate the
trunk longitudinally, creating deep veins.

fig. 310 brush settings

272
Work on all the branches, modifying their geo
eometry also in
correspondence of the beach sections.

fig. 311 veins inside the trunk and the branches

Change now the brush and select Blob, starting

ng to sculpt the
mesh getting the excrescences, the protuberanc
nces and nodes
typical of old trunks.

273
fig. 312 selection of the Blob brush

Operating with the brush with different Radius and Strength

Str
values and with a difference distance from the surface e to be
sculpted, you will get protuberances variable in elevatio
tion and
intensity.

Operate especially near the ramifications between

en the
branches and at the trunk base.

274
fig. 313 protuberance sculpting with the Blob brush

Once the sculpting is finished, go back in Edit Modode, where the

geometry subdivision number with the Multiresoluti
lution is definitely
lesser. Reduce further them or disable the modifier.
er.

Then select the loop around a branch end section

tion and then all
the vertices inside it.

275
fig. 314 selection of the branch end section

Open the Vertex Group panel in the Properties Bar and d assign
the selection to a new Vertex Group, renaming it “section
n11”.

fig. 315 Vertex Group

276
Execute the same operation for all the trunk nk and branch
sections, suitably renaming the Vertex Groups.

At the end, select all the Vertex Groups with thee Select button
Only the mesh
and then, typing CTRL + I, invert the selection.. O
vertices comprising the trunk and branch surfacface will remain
selected.

Assign these vertices to a further Vertex Group,, which

w you will
rename “trunk”.

Now you can create a plane, assigning to it you favorite

material and lighting.

Finally, select the trunk and create a new mate

aterial. It will be
defined by a mix between two different brown ton
tones, balanced
with a random Wave Texture suitably scaled.

The same Noise Texture, in black and white, will w operate as

bump for the trunk surface, further depicting the ba
bark veins.

Add a Glossy and a Fresnel node acting as bal

alancing factor
with the Diffuse.

fig. 316 node configuration of the trunk material

277
The outcome is really nice.

fig. 317 the bark made with the Wave procedural texture as balancing between
b
two colors and as bump

In Edit Mode deselect all (CTRL + A) and select only the

e Vertex
Groups of the branch sections.

fig. 318 selection of the Vertex Groups of the branch sections

278
Execute the unwrapping typing U.

Assign a new material, made through the mix between a Diffuse,

to which you will apply the “trunk_section.jpg” texture, and a
Glossy with balancing factor determined by the Fresnel node.

If you have the correct Bump texture, you can use it as

Displacement, otherwise you will use, in black and white version,
the texture used for the bump, suitably modified in the color with
a ColorRamp.

Inside the UV/Image Editor, place the branch sections not

uniformly, on the uploaded image and suitably scale it.

Eventually, you can upload images of different sections.

fig. 319 “trunk_section.jpg” image

279
fig. 320 section Unwrapping

Regulate the texture contrast and color such as ther

ere are
compatible.

fig. 321 texture color regulation

280
You got it. You can place the camera and regula
ulate the focus,
before launching the rendering.

fig. 322 rendering of the sculpted trunk

281
5.2.2. The header of the 3D view in Sculpt Mode

fig. 323 the header of the 3D view in Sculpt Mode

We end the chapter relevant to the sculpting analyzing also

al the
header of the 3D view in Sculpt Mode ambient.

The buttons are identical to those you can find in Object

ct Mode
and in Edit Mode, though reduced, likewise the View menu
nu.

There are 3 dedicated menus which we are going to illustra

strate.

fig. 324 the Sculpt menu of the header in Sculpt Mode

282
In the Sculpt menu, the same options are repepeated, already
described in the Symmetry/Lock and History pane
nels of the Tools
tab and in the Options panel of the Options tab of the Tools
Shelf.

Also in the Brush menu, the same commandss are a available,

which can be recalled from the panels of the Tools
To tab of the
Tools Shelf.

fig. 325 the Brush menu of the header in Sculpt Mode

In the Hide/Mask menu, some functions are availa ilable, useful for
visualizing specific areas of the mesh. These functio
tions are used to
delete from the visualization areas presently not mo
modifiable.

283
fig. 326 the Hide/Mask menu of the header in Sculpt Mode

- Lasso Mask (SHIFT + ALT + RMB) allows you to exec ecute a

lasso selection (free hand) of the mesh portion whe
here you
want to do the sculpting, hiding the other;

fig. 327 lasso selection

284
 - Box Mask (B) makes a rectangular selection
tion (a mask) on
the mesh to be sculpted;

fig. 328 Box Mask selection

- Clear Mask (ALT + M) deletes the selection (m

(mask);

- Fill Mask fills all the mask with a certain valu

alue, or invert its
value;

- Invert Mask (CTRL + I) inverts the mask afterr a selection;

fig. 329 Invert Mask

285
- Hide Masked hides the selections (mask);

- Show Bounding Box (SHIFT H) restores the view

ew of a
selected area previously hidden;

- Hide Bounding Box (ALT + H) hides a selected area

ea;

fig. 330 Hide Bounding Box

- Show All (ALT + H) selects or deselect all the vertices.

es.

286
 6
MOTION TRACKING
AND VIDEOEDITING

287
288
6.1. Introduction

With this wide chapter, dealing with Videoediting and Motion

Tracking, we close this fourth volume of our Blender guide.

In the last years, Blender was improved release after release, and
has become a fantastic tool for the video editing and the
camera tracking, offering to the user the possibility of inserting 3D
objects in real scenes or objects in virtual scenes.

With the movie “Tears Of Steel”, produced and distributed by the

Blender Foundation, this complex technique has been already
successfully used.

fig. 331 an image from the movie Tears Of Steel

Today, after some years, the system has become even more
fluid, precise and stable.

Blender supports very powerful tools for the 2D tracking and the
3D motion tracking, such as the camera revelation and the
object monitoring.

289
Among the advanced function, as we will see, Blender has tools
for managing the lens calibration and the lens distortion
compensation, supplying the specific parameters of the used
cameras (Open CV).

With the Motion Tracking, a 3D object inserted in a real scene will

be perfectly integrated according to the perspective, the
framing, the color and the natural instability of the manual
framings (2D and 3D stabilizer).

With the last releases, starting from the 2.64, some new nodes
dedicated to the motion tracking have been added to the
Compositing, for managing in a simpler way the videos. We then
find nodes for the 2D stabilization, the distortion and the lens
correction.

fig. 332 the mocap technique used for Gollum in the Lord of the Rings

Finally some operations, like the motion capture (or mocap), that
specific system where the movements of a real object (or
animated body, like a person) framed by a camera are
recorded and applied to a corresponding 3D model, have not
yet been permanently implemented in Blender, but can be
developed using the same iter and the same tools of the motion

290
tracking. Think, for example, to the great animation movies
where sensors applied to the body of an actor are then
elaborated and associated to a virtual actor.

Before dealing in detail with the editors and commands, we will

perform some exercises where some tools will be obviously
anticipated, but will be useful to make more understandable
and clear this complex topic.

6.1.1. Converting a video in an image sequence

Like the largest part of the softwares allowing the motion

tracking, like Maya or NUKE, for example, also Blender, in
mounting 3D objects on videos, prefers the use of image
sequences instead of the traditional video formats.

The reason resides in the better quality and lesser computing

time for the rendering engine to manage the former with respect
to the latter.

Blender has an interesting Video Sequence Editor (which we will

deal with later), where you can upload and modify videos.

It can be identified through the icon depicting audio-video

tracks.

From this simple editor, typing SHIFT + A, or, in the Add menu of
the header, choose the Movie option and, from the browser,
upload the video file to the decomposed in frames.

291
fig. 333 opening the Video Sequence Editor

292
fig. 334 Add Movie

Uncheck the sound flag from the panel on the low-left

lo area of
the browser, if you do not want to import also the audio.
a

the sequencer
Once confirmed, a blue track will appear in th
representing the uploaded video. Delete the au
audio track (in
green) if not necessary.

fig. 335 the video track in the sequencer

Like all the editors managing the animation, also al the Video
Sequence Editor has a cursor. The video can be startedst with ALT
+ A or clicking in the transport bar of the Timeline.

293
Clicking on the icon on the right among the three definin
ining the
preview mode in the header, the video preview will be visu
isualized
on the top.

fig. 336 the preview icons in the header

In this way, it will be simple to manage the video track

ck in the
sequencer, cutting or mounting it with other videos, con
onstantly
looking to the result in realtime.

The Video Sequence editor has a sidebar Properties, on the

th right,
which can be enabled or disabled typing N.

We recommend to check the De-Interlace option from fro this

sidebar, in the Filter panel, to get a more fluid transition
ion from
frame to frame.

fig. 337 video track preview

In the Render tab of the Properties editor, you need too sset the
dimensions, the format, the compression, the frame ext xtension
(for example *.png) and the folder where to save the imag
age files.

294
fig. 338 format settings in the Render tab of the Properties editor

ation render by
Finally, you will only need to launch the animat
clicking on the Animation button of the Render panel
p and wait
the process end.

fig. 339 the Render Animation button

295
6.1.2. Motion Tracking with fixed camera with a marker

One of the many application of the motion tracking con onsists of

inserting a moving object overlapped to a video, or to an
n image
sequence, with fixed camera, tracing the moving points ts of the
video.

The method consist of finding a moving point of the vide deo and
track it using a marker, assigning an object to its position.

With the Motion Tracking technique, Blender analyzess and,

a if
needed, contributes to automatically place markers, or trackers,
tra
used to virtually reconstruct the object movementss o or the
movements of the camera used to record the video.

Similarly, tridimensional objects can be realistically integra

rated in
the real world (footage).

In the next exercise, we will explain in detail this

is simple
procedure.

EXERCISE n. 11: THE MAGIC WAND

In this simple but impressive exercise, a magic wand d nicely

n Emitter
moving will leave a luminous contrail realized with an
particle system.

The working environment dedicated to the motion tracking

ing is the
us Video
Movie Clip Editor, not to be confused with the previous
Sequence Editor, represented by the icon depicting a small
clapperboard.

Clicking the Open button in the header of the editor,, you

yo will
recall the video sequence (magic wand bkg.mov), selecting
sel
from the browser the first image of the sequence (the fr
frames)
and confirming.

296
fig. 340 Movie Clip Editor

fig. 341 the Open button in the header

297
In the Dimensions panel of the Render tab of the Prop
roperties
editor, sets 25 fps.

The sequence will be considered by Blender like a normal

al video,
which can be started typing ALT + A.

The blue horizontal bar at the video bottom will be crossed

c
during the animation by the green cursor, indicating thee frame
number in real time. During the animation, it will become
e darker
while the movie is played.

fig. 342 the uploaded video and the blue bar

The darker color of the light bar indicates the progress

ss of the
video rendering, such as to upload it in the RAM and save
sav it in
the cache of Blender.

However, it can happen that your system do not succe

ceed to
save all the video in the cache clearing time by time
tim the
memory during the animation, with a consequentt fluidity
worsening.

In order to solve this problem, increase the Memory Cach che Limit
value in the User Preferences editor of the System tab, indi
dicating
to Blender the limit of the RAM to be used.

298
fig. 343 memory Cache Limit

For speeding up the procedure, you can click ck the Prefetch

button of the Clip panel in the Tools Shelf.

Let us analyze the video, we can think to delete

te from the final
rendering the last frames of the sequence, where
re the hand and
the magic wand are exit from the scene.

Go to frame 160 and type E.

The last frame will the automatically se in the Timeline

Tim to 160,
while a keyframe will be inserted in the Movie Clip
ip Editor.
E

Now we can insert the marker (or tracker) tracing

g the contrail of
the magic wand tip in all the sequence, depicting
g a nice curve.

Click the Add button in the Marker panel of the Tools

To Shelf, then
click with the LMB on a point (or a pixel to be more
mo precise) at
the magic wand tip.

fig. 344 Add Marker

A marker will be inserted, represented by a white

ite small square,
which can be dragged with the LMB or typing G; G rotated and

299
scaled, dragging the external handle or typing S or R, or simply
scaled typing S; or modified in shape dragging the vertices
es.

The area inside the marker highlights the area where to

o search
s
for the pixel.

fig. 345 marker transformation

For finely collocating the markers, you can use a zoom window
w
placed in the Track panel of the Properties Bar.

In this area you can move the markers in a much more precise
p
way.

300
fig. 346 marker fine positioning

In the Track panel of the Tools Shelf, you can fin

find the tracing
arrows.

The two central ones, opposite to each other, r, automatically

track the whole selected marker path, whereas as the external
ones on the same line manually track, frame by fra
frame, the path.

fig. 347 marker track buttons

Click on the first button on the top right.

301
The video sequence will go to frame 2 and the marker will ill move
from the absolute original position, staying anchored to the pixel
on the magic wand tip, from which a red segment will ap appear,
indicating the marker path portion between the first two frames.
fra

fig. 348 tracing interruption

Click now on the second track button on the right (a (arrow).

Blender will compute the whole marker tracing up to fram
rame 42,
where the pixel, too blurry due to the high movement ve
velocity,
will not be visible anymore.

Manually shift the marker until the desired position, going o

on with
the tracing procedure.

fig. 349 manual tracing of the marker at frame 42

302
Click again on the button for the manual draggin ging and place
the marker until, repeating the process, will nott st
start again the
automatic tracing and the pixel recognition.

At frame 144 you will have to perform again

ain the manual
placement until frame 146 where the marker will leave the
framing.

fig. 350 last frame for the marker tracing

Go now to the frame at the middle of the video o ssequence. The

marker will highly visible with the marker tracing a
at the previous
positions (red piecewise line) and next (in blue)) tto the current
position.

303
fig. 351 marker path

Return to frame 1. Click the Link Empty to Track button n in the

Geometry panel in the Solve tab of the Tools Shelf, for inser
serting in
the 3D scene (visible in the 3D view) an Empty object par arented
to the camera.

fig. 352 Link Empty to Track

304
Next click also the Set as Background button in the Scene Setup
underlying panel, to set the video sequence ass b background of
the camera framing in the 3D view.

This operation amounts at inserting the video seq

sequence in the
Background Images panel in the Properties Bar off the
t 3D view.

fig. 353 Set as Background

Launch the animation with ALT + A, the Empty will

ill stay attached
to the magic wand tip along all the path, th, following its
movement.

fig. 354 3D Cursor placement on the magic wand tip

305
Select the Empty object in the 3D view and type SHIF HIFT + S,
choosing the Cursor To Selected option for placing the 3D
D Cursor
on the Empty.

Then insert a sphere and scale it until you make its diameter
dia
equal to the diameter of the magic wand cross section.

fig. 355 sphere insertion and scaling

First, select the sphere, then, holding pressed SHIFT, also

als the
Empty, and type CTRL + P to parent them.

Launching the animation, the small sphere will stay attach

ched to
the magic wand tip, according to the Empty movement.

Insert a second small sphere in the layer 2, suitably rescaled

led.

Then switch off the layer 2 and, gone back to layer 1, sele elect the
first sphere, adding to it a particle system of Emitter type.

Set 2000 emissions and click on Object switch in the render

er panel
of the Particle System.

Launching the animation, the main sphere will emit the

he other
ones which, however, will tend to fall down.

306
fig. 356 emissions subjected to the gravity force

This is because they are subjected to the gravity ity force, which
you will disable in the Field Weight, Gravity panel.

Reduce to 0,1 also the Normal parameter of the Velocity

Ve panel.

Then define the animation duration, specifying the

he starting frame
(Start = 1) and the ending one (End = 161) of the animation in
the Emission panel and the particle life before re disappearing
(Lifetime) to 50.

Finally, select the second sphere (object of the Particle

Pa System)
in the layer 2 and assign a new material of Emission
ion type with red
color and Strength 10.

The emitted particles will be now luminous, butt launching the

render the background will not be visualized.

307
fig. 357 luminous particle emission

Compositing the render and the image sequence

To solve the problem, you need to face with the Compositi

siting.

Launch the animation render, and at its end, the first fram
rame will
be visualized in the UV Image Editor.

Click on the Compositing icon in the header and chec

eck Use
Nodes and Backdrop.

fig. 358 Compositing options

In the central region, two interconnected nodes will be already

a
present: Render Layer and Composite Output.

You will have to add an Input Movie Clip node (on which you
y will
upload the original sequence and an Output Viewer er node,
which will make possible the scene preview in background
nd.

308
fig. 359 the first nodes in Compositing

You will need to add the background imagess tto that of the
animation frames of the particle system.

Add a Color Mix node (set as Add) on which to inse

insert in the input
socket Color the Movie Clip and Render Layer nodes.
no The two
images will be overlapped.

fig. 360 overlapping of Movie Clip and Render Layer

309
However, the particles result too much defined, tough lum
luminous.
They lack of a natural halo making them more realistic.

Duplicate the Add node and place it between its origina

nal copy
and the Output Viewer node.

Then add a Blur node, choosing Gaussian as Filter Type ype and
setting to 15 the horizontal blurry value along the x direction
tion.

fig. 361 Blur node

The outcome is improved, but not enough.

Repeat the operation of Add node duplication and in insert a

further Blur node, whit x and y values definitely higher (100
100) and
put it between the previous Blur and the last Add.

A new blurry, this time a real halo, will be added to the emitted
e
particles.

Do not forget to connect the last node of the chain wi with the
Composite Output node, set MOV MPEG-2 as output ut video
format and launch the rendering clicking on Animation.

310
fig. 362 animation final render

6.1.3. Photogrammetry and Motion Tracking

The photogrammetry is a survey technique, mainly m used in

topography, in architecture and in cartography,, allowing
a you to
acquire metric data relevant to an object (shap ape and space
position) through the acquisition and analysis of a couple of
frames. So it allows you to identify the spatial pos
osition of all the
interest points of the considered object.

Obviously, in this book, we will omit the mathe thematical and

trigonometric notions. You will only need to kn know that the
information concerning the position with respectt tto a Cartesian
reference system (or polar system) of any point in
n the
t space can
be collected framing it from two differentt p positions and
considering the camera distances from the point int, the azimuth
angles between the point and the cameras, and nd the distance
between the two cameras.

311
In topography, the two cameras are represented by the sp
specific
tools for the trigonometric survey.

fig. 363 schematic representation of the trigonometric survey of the point

int P in the
space

Blender is able to simulate the tachometer operation andd detect

d
the position of points in the space, highlighted by markers
ers, using
two frames of the same scene recorded from two dif different
angles, thus reconstructing the camera positions (tachome eter) of
the two frames.

312
fig. 364 a tachometer

EXERCISE n. 12: SUZANNE IN THE ABANDONED FACTO

CTORY

In this second exercise, we will show how to insert

rt a 3D object in
a real scene, using only two frames of the same me scene taken
from different angles.

313
fig. 365 the two frames of the same scene framed from two different angles
les

First enter in Movie Clip Editor and, clicking on Open, uploa

load the
two frames “Frame 1 Factory.png” and “Frame 2 Factory.p .png”.

Click on Set Scene Frames in the Clip panel of the Track k tab of
the Tools Shelf, for setting the two frames and base sequen
ence.

314
fig. 366 Set Scene Frames

The two frames will be visualized in the lower part

art of the image
through horizontal bars numbered 1 and 2.

fig. 367 the two frames of the sequence

The bar relevant to the active frame will appea

ear in green. To
quickly jump from a frame to the other one, you
ou only need to
type LEFT and RIGHT ARROW.

Go to frame 1.

Before inserting the marker, we introduce a new w concept: the

search area. You can enable it checking Search ch in the Marker
Display panel of the Properties Bar referred to a maarker.

315
fig. 368 activation of the Search Area

This visualizes a second box (which can the placed, scale

led and
rotated as the previous one) defining the area between a frame
and the other one where Blender should look for the he point
referred to by the marker.

fig. 369 Search Area

Insert a marker and clamp it on a point of the floor, whe

here you
can see a recognizable element.

You can operate according to two methods: select the marker

m
and automatically track the path, after having evaluate
ated the
Search Area size jumping from a frame to the other o one, or
manually move the marker in frame 2.

316
fig. 400 marker track between the two frames

With the same method insert at least 7 markers more

m and find
the relevant paths.

fig. 401 the 8 markers

317
After having set the Keyframe B to 2 in the Solve panel el of the
Tools Shelf, select all the frames and click Solve Camera
aMMotion
to perform the computation.

The tracing has revealed optimal, since (on the bottom,

m, in the
header) the error number, expressed in pixel, hass been
estimated to 0.0001, so almost zero.

Then duplicate the window and set the interface ass in the
example, visualizing the camera view and the 3D scen
ene (3D
view).

Select the camera and choose the Camera Solve constr straint in
the Constraints tab of the Properties editor, to bind the camera
ca
to the markers in the 3D scene.

fig. 402 Solve Camera Data and application of the Constraint Camera Solv
lver to the
camera

Then set as background the sequence of two frames.

You have two possibilities: click on Set As Background in the

Scene Setup panel of the Tools Shelf or insert the sequen
ence as
background Images in camera view in the Properties Bar ar of the
3D view.

318
fig. 403 Set As Background

The sequence will be framed by the camera, but

ut not correctly
aligned with respect to the reference axes.

riori which is the

The reason is that Blender does not know a-prior
sequence reference horizontal plane, the axis orientation,
or the
origin, and the scale. You need to readily y set all these
information, starting from the xy reference.

It is well known that three not aligned points identify

ide a single
plane.

Accordingly, select three markers placed on the scenesc floor and

click on Floor in the Orientation panel of the Tools
ls Shelf.
S

fig. 404 identification of the horizontal xy plane.

319
The camera and the related markers will automatically rotate
rot in
the 3D view, such as to place the three markers on the xy plane.
p

Set now a marker as origin, clicking on Set Origin in the

he same
panel.

fig. 405 Set Origin

fig. 406 Set Y Axis

320
The third step is to orient one of the two referenc
nce axes on the
horizontal plane x, or y.

Choose for example the two markers at the base se of the beams
longitudinally aligned and click on Set Y Axis in th
the Orientation
panel.

We want to stress that these operations can be p

performed also
by means of the Reconstruction menu in the Mo ovie Clip Editor
header.

The last step consists of defining the scale. Knowing

ing the distance
between two known points, select the reference ce markers and
click on Set Scale, setting the distance in the Sett SScale panel of
the Tools Shelf.

For example, the known distance between the two beams

identifying the y axis is 6 meters. Type 6 in the Distan
tance counter of
the Set Scale panel.

fig. 407 Set Scale

The camera appears finally perfectly placed in the 3D view and

reconstructed scene.

321
You now only need to delete the cube and, for example
le, insert
Suzanne.

fig. 408 Suzanne correctly inserted in the scene

In the next paragraphs, you will learn how to realis alistically

integrate the 3D object in the real scene, working o on the
illumination, the materials and most of all the shadows, tha
thanks to
the essential use of the Compositing.

322
6.1.4. Camera Tracking in moving camera sequenc
nces

The third example we are going to propose will illus

llustrate how you
can reconstruct, in a more complex video (with several
se frames),
with moving camera, not only a single frame off th the real scene,
but a whole sequence, reliably reproducing the camera
movement.

In this case, the markers will track the pixels for the whole
duration of the video.

EXERCISE n. 13: VIDEO WITH SUZANNE IN THE FACTO

TORY

The goal of this exercise is then to reproduce ce the camera

movement for all the video duration and insert a 3D object in the
scene such that, also during the motion, it will app
ppear perfectly
integrated.

lick on Prefetch
Upload the file factory_01.mov, set 25 fps and clic
for saving the frames in the cache and visualizee the sequence
more smoothly.

Set 250 also in the keyframe B of the Tools Shelf.

Now, you will learn how to automatically insertert the markers,

leaving to Blender the decision about which reference
ref pixels
tracing, clicking on Detect Features in the marker
ker panel of the
Tools Shelf.

You can however set the number of markers to be inserted and

their mutual distance in the Detect Features pane
nel which will be
activated when pressing the homonym button, n, or typing F6,
regulating the window parameters.

The markers will be automatically inserted into the

e scene.
s

323
Of course, you have the possibility of deleting them orr a
adding
additional ones as you like.

Now you can start the tracking.

fig. 409 setting of the automatic markers

fig. 410 marker tracking

324
You will clearly see what is well known as paral
rallax effect, for
which the objects far away move slower with respe
pect to the ones
in close up view.

At the process end, activate the Grease Pencil andnd draw a close
line on the floor right side. Then click again on Detect
De Features
selecting the Inside Grease Pencil option from th the Placement
menu of the Detect Features panel.

Set a lower frequency (0.3) and a distance small

aller than120 by
default, for example 33.

Further markers will be inserted inside the drawn perimeter.

pe

fig. 411 marker inside the Grease Area

Go now to the last frame, and click again Detect De Features,

launching the tracing backward. This operation willw be useful to
track other pixels different from the ones already set.
se

Finally, click on Solve Camera Motion.

325
fig. 412 automatic insertion of other markers tracing the path backward
d from
f the
last frame

Select the camera and bind it to the markers from rom the
Constraints tab of the Properties editor, choosing the
e Solve
Camera option.

fig. 413 Constraint Solve camera

326
As previously seen, this operation will recreat
ate the virtual
environment and the camera motions in the spapace, frame by
frame.

After having defined three markers on the floor, flo set as xy

horizontal plane, the axis origin, the x or y orienta
ntation and the
scale, delete the default cube and insert a plane ne scaled in the
floor dimensions, checking that the vertices coincncide with those
of the walls and a Monkey, suitably placed in closlose up view, on
the right part of the scene.

Launch the animation with ALT + A. The 3D o objects will be

correctly framed by the virtual camera and inte
tegrated in the
real scene.

fig. 414 3D objects integrated in the real scene

Launch the rendering in preview with SHIFT + Z. Obviously,

O the
current frame of the video sequence will nott be visualized,
because it is, as a matter of facts, of a simple back
ckground.

Add a Sun Lamp and incline it such as the Monk

onkey shadow is
casted on the plane with the same direction and
nd inclination of
the real scene.

327
fig. 415 Lamp Sun

Compositing and Render layer

The scope of this second part of exercise is to realis alistically

complete the Monkey integration in the video sequ quence,
assigning to it a material and operating such that it recei
eive the
correct illumination and adequately cast the shadow on th the real
floor.

Obviously, though Blender is able to recognize the e scene

orientation and perspective thanks to the markers, we d
do not
have a real 3D scene, but a sequence of two-dimen ensional
images, and accordingly the shadows cannot be reallyy casted
c
on the street and on the other objects.

Here play a role the miracles that the Compositing tool, together
tog
with the Render Layers, can give us.

You will need to separately render the scene in backgroun und, the
3D object and its casted shadows. The plane you u have
previously inserted will be helpful for the shadow extrapolat
lation.

First, apply a material to the Monkey. Assume it is made e of cut

stone, with two colors, much irregular and poorly reflective.
ve.

328
Open the Node Editor and set a black and white noise
n texture as
displacement.

Define as diffuse color a mix between two RGB colors

co randomly
balanced. Also in this case a Noise Texture, conne
nected with the
Fac of the Mix RGB node, will help you.

Add a Mix Shader and a Glossy to be mixed with the

th Diffuse and
set a Fresnel node as balancing factor.

fig. 416 the material associated to the Monkey

Now select the sun and type M to open the layer editor.
e

Hold SHIFT pressed and click on layer 11. Operatin

ating like so, the
sun will be both inside layer 1 and layer 11. You w
will understand
the reason in a short.

Then select the plane where the Monkey shadow

w will be casted
and typing M, move it in layer 11.

329
fig. 417 the sun will be found both in layer 1 and layer 11

fig. 418 move the plane to layer 11

Now you can use the Render Layers.

The goal is to achieve different specific steps durin ring the

rendering, such as to differentiate the channels of shadow
ows and
visible or invisible objects (like the plane).

Create two Render Layers in the Render Layers tab oof the
Properties editor, which you can rename “foreground
nd” and
“background”.

330
Select the former and set it such that the layers
rs 1 e 11 of the
scene are rendered in the render layer 1.

Select the latter and set it such that the two layer
ers in the scene
are rendered in the render layer 11, paying attentio
ntion to activate
in the Passes panel the Shadows and AO (Ambie bient Occlusion)
filters.

fig. 419 Render Layer 1

Before launching the rendering, set as black in the World tab of

the Properties editor the background color of the
e33D scene, such
as it does not interfere in the illumination.

331
fig. 420 Render Layer 11

fig. 421 Background of the scene set to black

332
Moreover, you need to check Transparent in the he Film panel of
the Render tab of the Properties editor, to enable transparencies.
tra

fig. 422 checking Transparent

mage rendering
Go now in a central frame and launch the ima
typing F12.

he Combined in
The procedure will consist of several steps with the
addition.

fig. 423 Render Layer. From left to right: foreground; back

ckground shadows;
background AO

Enter the Node Editor and select the Compositing modality.

m

Activate Use Nodes and Backdrop, then insert the Viewer node
for visualizing in normal time the background image
ge.

The first step consists of visualizing the background,

d, then a frame
of the sequence. Add the Input Movie Clip node de and upload
the video clicking on Open.

with the Viewer

Connect the Image output socket of the node w
input socket.

333
Insert a Distortion Scale node set as Render Size, to sca
cale the
video up to the same dimensions of the render.

You remember you that the shortcuts for the zoom of the
background visualization in the Node Editor are V to make
smaller and ALT + V to make larger.

fig. 424 the sequence visualized in the compositing.

Select from the menu the Background item in the Render

er Layer
node, already present. Remember that this has two passes:
p
Shadows and AO.

Insert a Mix Color node and set it as Multiply.

Connect the output of the Scale node and the Shadow output
of the Render Layer node to the two input sockets of Image
ge.

The next step is to make transparent the plane, separating

g it from
the shadows. You can exploit the Alpha output channel el of the
Render Layer node but, since the black color is conside dered as
transparency, you will need to invert the image coming from
fro the
Alpha output channel with a Color Invert node.

334
fig. 425 Color Multiply at 60% between Shadow and Movie Clip

Next you can add the Alpha and Shadow channe nels with a Color
Mix node, set to Add, sending the output to the Image
Im second
input socket of the Multiply node.

fig. 426 separation of the transparency from the shadows

335
Now you have to repeat the same operation with th the AO,
duplicating the Add node and connecting in input Inve
vert and
AO. Duplicate again the Multiply node and place it be
between
the original and the Add node, adding together the shadow
sh
and the AO.

Inserting the AO in the top socket of the Multiply node an

and the
shadow in the lower one, you will be able to give ve more
importance to the former, getting darker shadows nea near the
Monkey surface.

Balance the Fac up to get a satisfying balancing.

fig. 427 mixing between shadows and the AO

You only need now to insert the Monkey.

Insert a new Render Layer node and set it to foreground.

In order to avoid that the 3D object definition is too muchh higher

than that of the background and thus results too sharp,, add a
Blur node where very low values will be set (1 or 2) to the X and Y
parameters.

336
Add a further Color Add node or, in order to improve the
Monkey contour, an Alpha Over node.

fig. 428 node final configuration

You only need to connect the output of the Alpha

ha Over node to
the Composite node and save with F3 the finall ou
outcome in the
UV/Image Editor.

fig. 429 final render

337
6.2. Movie Clip Editor

As already seen in the previous exercises, the tool ol (work

environment) used in Motion Tracking is the Movie Clip
ip Editor,
whose icon is depicted like a clapperboard.

fig. 430 Movie Clip Editor

In this section, we will analyze in detail, like for all the B

Blender
editors, the functionalities and commands present in the header
h
of the editor and in the two sidebars.

You should already have familiarized with the Movie Clip Editor
and many functions are already known.

Like the 3D view, also the interface of the Movie Clip Editor
Ed is
very simple, composed of a central area where the prev eview of
the video sequence is visualized, two sidebars (Tools She
helf and
Properties Bar) and a header.

338
6.2.1. the header of the Movie Clip Editor

fig. 431 the header of the Movie Clip Editor

The header appears with menus and buttons summ mmarizing all the
available functionalities for this work environment.

In the View and Select menu you can find all a the options
common to many windows and already analy alyzed, relevant
respectively to the visualization in the work area
rea and to the
marker selection methods.

The Clip menu contains the specific options forr the

t sequence
uploaded in the editor.

fig. 432 the Clip menu

- Open Clip (ALT + O) opens a new seque uence from the

browser. In case of image sequence, fromom the browser,
you only need to select the first frame of the list in the
folder and confirm for uploading in the Mo
ovie Clip Editor
the whole sequence;

339
 - Prefetch Frames (P) saves in the cache all the sequence,
favoring a smoother preview;

- Reload Clip reloads and updates the video sequence in

case of changes;

- Proxy opens a submenu of two items, from which you can

regenerate the sequence proxies and timecodes (Rebuild
Proxy and Timecode Indices) or delete (Delete Proxy).

fig. 433 the Proxy menu

The Track menu has all the tools for the management of the
tracks and markers.

- in the Transform submenu the items Translate (G) and

Resize (S) are available, allowing you, respectively, to
move and scale the markers;

- Show/Hide opens a submenu with three choices, from

which you can hide (H) or restore (ALT + H) the marker
visualization;

- Add Marker and Move add and place a marker in the

preview area of the video sequence;

- Delete Marker (SHIFT + CANC) deletes the selected

markers;

340
 - Delete Track (CANC) deletes the computed track of the
selected markers;

- Track Frame Forwards (ALT + RIGHT ARROW) creates the

track of the selected markers from the current position to
the next frame, in positive direction;

fig. 434 the Track menu

- Track Forwards (CTRL +T) creates the track of the selected

markers from the current frame up to the sequence end
where the associated pixels are recognizable;

341
- Track Backwards (SHIFT + CTRL + T) creates the track of the
selected markers from the current frame up to the
sequence start where the associated pixels are
recognizable;

- Track Frame Backwards (ALT + LEFT ARROW) creates the

track of the selected markers from the current position to
the next frame, in negative direction;

- Paste Tracks (CTRL + V) pastes the tracks previously

copied;

- Copy Tracks (CTRL + C) copies the selected tracks;

- Clean Tracks cleans the tracks presenting possible solving

errors;

- Join Tracks (CTRL + J) joins the selected tracks;

- Clear Track Path (SHIFT + ALT + T) deletes the previous track

computed by the selected markers;

- Clear Before (SHIFT + T) deletes the tracks in all the frames

preceding the present position of the selected markers
(red tracks);

- Clear After (ALT + T) deletes the tracks in all the frames

next to the present position of the selected markers (blue
tracks);

- Solve Camera (SHIFT + S) executes the track solving,

computing possible errors;

- Clear Solution deletes the solving.

342
In the last menu, Reconstruction, all the commands for the
orientation and reconstruction of the 3D scene are collected. As
seen for the previous exercises, the same commands can be
found also in the Tools Bar, in the Geometry panel of the Solve
tab and can be used for defining the xy horizontal plane (Floor),
given three coplanar points (marker); the xz or yz vertical plane
(Wall); the direction of the x or y axis; the origin (Origin); the scale
(Scale); or for linking to the markers Empty objects or a mesh.

fig. 435 the Reconstruction menu

The next box allows you to import the sequence and, eventually,
to rename it, delete or duplicate (F).

fig. 436 the Mode menu

343
The Mode drop-down menu goes from the Tracking to the Mask
modality, allowing you to insert a mask for the sequence cutting,
c
obviously trackable, useful for creating several levels els and
interpose it between the sequence and other objec ects, for
example in case of a 3D object passing behind a tree.

fig. 437 a rectangular mask

fig. 438 the Type switch

The Type switch allows you to set the Movie Clip Editor as
a Clip
(standard modality), as Graph (modality with graph repres
resenting
the path of the tracked markers), or as Dopesheet (mo modality
visualizing the events in a Dopesheet window).

The events and the vertices comprising the tracks and the
e curves
can be manually moved and copied, with the goal go of
correcting errors and movements too sharp, which can n cause
orientation problems.

344
fig. 439 Graph Type

fig. 440 Dopesheet Type

The last drop-down menu defines the position of the pivots for
the marker and track transformations.

345
fig. 441 Pivot Point menu

6.2.2. The masks

Adding a mask (Mask) on objects which must be subst stituted,

deleted, must become transparent or must be recogni nized in
close-up view with respect to 3D objects, is simple.

fig. 442 a mask manually drawn around the arm

The masks can be automatically inserted clicking on Add d Circle

or Add Square (circular or squared masks) in the Tools She
helf and
then manually modified or by means of the commands ds in the

346
Transform panel of the Tools Shelf; or drawn along a complex
contour, point after point holding CTRL pressed and clicking
several times the RMB.

The masks must be closed to define an area, typing ALT + C.

fig. 443 the mask in three keyframes

347
Once the mask has been drawn at the first frame (we
recommend not to use a too large vertex number), you can set
a keyframe by typing l.

Skipping some frames, you need to manually place the spline

points comprising the mask and type I again, operating
analogously until the sequence end.

Between a keyframe and the next one, you operate by

successive approximations. Blender will take care to operate the
interpolation between keyframes.

6.2.3. The Tools Shelf of the Movie Clip Editor

The Tools Shelf relevant to the Movie Clip Editor has two main
tabs, Track e Solve, in addition to the Grease Pencil, each one
subdivided, as usual, in several panels.

The available functions and commands are essentially the

repetition of those already seen in the header menus.

A) The Track tab contains all the functions related to the markers
and the tracking during the animation.

It is subdivided in 4 panels.

3 buttons are available in the Clip panel.

- Prefetch can be used to perform the frame computation

and save it in the cache for a more effective visualization;

- Reload reloads the animation;

- Set Scene Frames automatically define the first and last

frame of the sequence.

348
fig. 444 the Track tab of the Tools Shelf

349
Three commands can be found in the Marker panel allowing
you to manually insert (Add) or delete (Delete) a marker, or
allowing Blender to automatically insert them (Detect Features),
according to the parameters defined in the dedicated
homonym panel.

In the third panel, Tracking Settings, all the settings concerning

the marker tracking are contained.

4 preset are available (default; Blurry Motion, suitable for blurry

sequences; Fast Motion, for fast sequences; and Planar for
planar sequences). Obviously, you can create personalized ones
and save them, renaming them, with the + button, or delete a
preset with the X button.

The R, G, B buttons enable or disable the color three main

channels for a more detailed search.

Pattern Size and Search Size define, respectively, the marker and
search area dimensions, expressed in pixels.

The Motion Model menu controls the search method of the

markers, based on the sequence perspective type.

fig. 445 Motion Model

350
The Match menu allows you to choose the markerma insertion
method, based on the keyframe or successive fram
ames.

The Prepass flag forces the dragging during the tracking

tra in order
to detect as much as possible a marker new positi
sition in the next
frames.

The Normalize flag performs a more precise and

nd soft tracking
with a consequent decrease of the computation speed.
sp

Copy From Active Track copies the information of

o the selected
marker tracks.

Extra Settings contains some additional parameters

ters useful for the
regulation of the frame margins, beyond which the
th tracking will
be stopped; and for the masks. Weight defines the
th influence of
these parameters on the markers.

fig. 446 Extra Settings

ming the marker

The last panel, Track, contains buttons for performi
tracking.

fig. 447 the Track buttons

351
The four Track buttons, essential for the marker tracking, fro
from left
to right, are:

- Track Frame Forwards (ALT + RIGHT ARROW), for creating

cr
the track of the selected markers from the currentt p
position
to the next frame, in positive direction;

- Track Forwards (CTRL +T), for creating the track

k of the
selected markers from the current frame unt ntil the
sequence end where the associated pixels can ca be
recognized;

- Track Backwards (SHIFT + CTRL + T), for creating the track

of the selected markers from the current frame until
un the
sequence start where the associated pixels can ca be
recognized;

- Track Frame Backwards (ALT + LEFT ARROW), for cr creating

the track of the selected markers from the currentt p
position
to the next frame, in negative direction;

fig. 448 the Clear buttons

The two Clear buttons delete, respectively, the tracks prev

evious to
the present frame (red tracks) and the ones next to (blue tracks).
tr

fig. 449 the Refine buttons

fig. 450 the Join Tracks button

352
The two Refine buttons respectively improve the positions
p of the
markers previous and next to the position of the present
pre frame.

The last button, Join Tracks, joins the selected tracks

cks.

fig. 451 the Solve tab of the Tools Shelf

353
B) The Solve tab collects all the data and parameters relev
levant to
the tracking and the 3D scene reconstruction.

In the Plane Track panel only a button is present, allowing

g you to
insert a plane in the 3D view not connected with the markerkers.

In the Solve panel, you can find the parameters necessa

ssary for
performing the computation of the track solving, of the
he errors
and the identification of the original focal.

fig. 452 the Refine menu in the Solve panel

- Checking Tripod, Blender will assume that the original

o
camel has been placed on the tripod;

e solving
- The Keyframe flag generates keyframes during the
process;

354
 - Keyframe A and Keyframe B must be set according to the
sequence initial and final frame inside which you want to
perform the computation;

- Refine opens a menu allowing Blender to detect the

characteristics of the original camera (focal length,
optics, lens type), with the goal of a more precise and
correct simulation;

- the Solve Camera Motion button performs the solving

procedure and, when finished, possible errors will be
revealed expressed in pixels, in the window header. Errors
less than 1 pixel are considered more than acceptable,
whereas less than 3 pixel admissible. For higher values, you
will need to operate deleting problematic markers or
manually correcting the path.

The Clean Up panel contains the tools useful for cleaning the
tracks with errors. In particular, Clean Tracks deletes the tracks
with many errors starting from the frame indicated in the Frames
counter.

- Error specifies the threshold for considering a error;

- The Action menu defines the action to be undertaken,

among Delete Segments, Delete Tracks, Select;

- Filter allows you to filter the tracks exhibiting sudden peaks

in the path.

The Geometry panel puts in direct connection the selected

markers of the video sequence with the 3D view and, in
particular, it offers two options:

355
 - 3D Markers To mesh, inserting in the 3D view a clo
cloud of
vertices in the space in correspondence of the mark
arkers;

- Link Empty To Track, assigning to the selected mark

arkers as
many Empty objects parented to the virtual camer era. This
system is useful for the tracking of 3D objects besid
side that
of the markers.

fig. 453 Link Empty To Track

The Orientation panel has the tools necessary for orientin

ting and
scaling the sequence reconstruction in the 3D scene, detec
tecting:

- The horizontal plane (xy) or a vertical plane (xz o yz),

selecting 3 markers and clicking respectively the Floor
Fl or
Wall button;

- The origin (or the center) of the scene, selecting a marker

m
and clicking on Set Origin;

- The orientation along the x or y direction selec ecting a

cking Set
vertex, once the origin has been defined, and clicki
X Axis or Set Y Axis;

- The scale of the 3D scene as a function of thee video

sequence, selecting two markers set on two point
ints with
known distance and clicking Set Scale, then typin
ping the

356
 distance (Distance). You need to define the metric scales
in the World tab of the Properties editor;

This panel is essential for the correct reconstruction of the 3D

scene and of the Camera Tracking.

In the last panel Scene Setup, there are two buttons.

Set As Background defines as background of the camera view

(0 NUM) the video sequence. This operation is equivalent to the
insertion on an image in background using the Properties Bar in
3D view, from the Background Images panel.

Setup Tracking Scene sets the Compositing for the insertion of

the 3D objects in the video sequence (footage).

6.2.4. The Properties Bar of the Movie Clip Editor

Like for the 3D view, the Properties Bar supplies the information
relevant to all the topics present in the work area of the Movie
Clip Editor, i.e. concerning the markers, the tracks, the video
sequence and the original camera. It can be enabled and
disabled with N.

It has 14 specific panels for each typology of the elements

related to the video sequence.

357
fig. 454 the Properties Bar

In the Objects panel you can visualize, rename, add

d (+) or
delete (X) 3D objects having connections with the e video
sequence, for example the camera.

fig. 455 the Objects panel

358
fig. 456 the Track panel

The next panel, Track, supplies information co

concerning the
marker tracking and their placement.

On the top you can define the marker name me and its fine
placement on the sequence frame, the visualiz alization options
d tthe lock (lock
(visible or invisible, icon depicting an eye) and
icon) preventing the selection and transformation.

The R, G and B buttons are used to exclude a colo

olor component
from the preview, whereas the B/W button visuali
alizes the frame
straight in black and white.

The Weight cursor (set to 1 by default) defines th

the influence of
the track on the tracking final outcome.

359
From the Color Presets drop-down menu you can choo oose the
track color as a function of the background, wherea reas the
Custom Color flag forces the personalized coloration inste
stead of
the default one.

If you insert a Plane Track enclosing the maximum amo ount of

space occupied by at least 4 markers, in the Plane Trackk panel,
you can insert an image inside the area defined by the e plane
(Image), and track the whole plane (and so the assoc sociated
image) with the automatic insertion of keyframes (Auto
Keyframe).

fig. 457 a Plane inserted by 4 vertices with an image included inside

The Opacity cursor regulate the image opacity.

This plane is useful, for example, for inserting a still backg

kground
image in the scene (like a landscape or a sky), like it wer ere in a
separate layer. This background will follow the tracking g of the
camera, achieving a very realistic panoramic outcome.

360
fig. 458 the Plane Track panel

In the Tracking Settings panel the same funcunctions of the

homonym panel in the Tools Shelf are contained
ed, which have
been already explained and analyzed.

fig. 459 the Tracking Settings panel

The Camera and Lens panels are essential becaus use they collect
all the information relevant to the real camera whic
hich has framed
the sequence.

361
All the parameters can be automatically recompute uted by
Blender in the Solve panel of the Tools Shelf, such h as to
determine the focal length, the sensor (sensor), the len ens type
(optics) and the lens distortion (K1, K2 and K3 parameters).
s).

fig. 460 the Camera panel

Moreover, a preset list is available (Camera Presets me enu) of

commercial cameras. If the used camera corresponds to o one
o of
the preset models, this can be selected, thus avoidin ding the
computation of the simulation for the camera identification
ion.

362
fig. 461 Camera Presets

363
fig. 462 the Lens panel

The Display panel contains all the information concernin

rning the
visualization of the video sequence.

fig. 463 the Display panel

364
It can be visualized with colors or filtered by the R, G and B,
components straight in black and white (B/W) or even not
visualized (removing the flag from the icon depicting an eye).

Other available options are:

- Render Undistorted, visualize the sequence not taking into

account the distortions due to the objective lens;

- Lock To Selection, centers and locks the selected marker

position at the center of the visualization area, shifting the
sequence frame view;

- Display Stabilization, shows the stabilization of the video

sequence in the preview, if activated in the dedicated
panel;

- Grid, visualizes a red grid overlapped to the image, useful

for the marker alignment;

- Calibration, applies the distortion model to the lines drawn

with the Grease Pencil. This option allows you also to
perform the manual calibration;

fig. 464 visualization options, from left to right and from top to bottom: standard
visualization, black and white; disabled (you can see only the markers and the
tracks); Lock To Selection; Grid; scaling of x

365
 - Display Aspect ratio, allows you to scale the e image
independently along the x and/or y direction, varyin
rying the
sequence aspect ratio.

In the next panel, Marker Display, the information relevant

nt to the
element visualization comprising the markers is available.

fig. 465 the Marker Display panel

Of each selected marker you can visualize:

- the Pattern, i.e. the search area of the pixel;

- the Search Area, the pixel search area to the next frame;
fra

- the information on the maker, (Info), like the name;

- the dashed and less evident contour (Thin).

fig. 466 from left to right: Pattern; Search Area; Info; Thin

366
Moreover, you can visualize:

- the Path and determine the length (expresse

ssed in frames);

- the disabled markers (Disabled);

- the 3D Markers, i.e. the projection on the foot

ootage.

fig. 467 track visualization (Path) of the selected marker

The 2D Stabilization panel, if enabled, allows you

u tto stabilize the
camera movements in the uploaded seq sequence and
accordingly the marker path defined in the top p insertion
i area,
according to an influence algorithm defined in the Location
Influence cursor.

367
fig. 468 the 2D Stabilization panel

- The Autoscale flag automatically rescales the seq

equence
frames (footage) after the stabilization;

- Max Scale and Scale Influence regulate respective

tively the
scaling maximum limit and the influence alg lgorithm
devoted to it;

- Stabilize Rotation, if checked, allows you to stabili

bilize the
footage also for the rotation defining the marker rotation
ro
center from the menu and the influence alg lgorithm
(Rotation Influence);

- The Filter drop-down menu defines the method used

us for
the stabilization (Bilinear, Bicubic, Nearest).

368
The Proxy / Timecode panel, if the flag is activated, contains the
options used for the image proxy and the video timecodes.

The proxy allows you to visualize the images with a lower

resolution in the Movie Clip Editor. This can be useful if the video
monitoring in 4K is performed on a computer with a low RAM
amount.

- The first 4 options are used for defining the image

resolutions with whom the proxy should be realized.
Presently, you can visualize the images at 25%, 50%, 75%
and 100% of the original image dimension. The proxy
dimensions at 100% can be used for videos which cannot
be decoded.

- The Build Undistorted section collects also data of original

images without distortions for the dimensions previously
written. This helps in suppling a faster reproduction of non
distorted videos. The generated proxy images are coded
using the *.jpg format and the relative codec quality can
be defined through the Quality cursor.

- By default, all the generated proxy images are recorded with

the path <original path>/BL_proxy /<clip name>, but this position
can be manually recomputed, using the Proxy Custom Directory
option.

- Use Timecode Index is recommended in case you want to

insert videos instead of frame sequences. As a matter of
facts, the timecode perform a faster and more accurate
search. Depending on the used camera and the codec,
different timecodes can provide a better result.

- Proxy Render Size defines the resolution of the proxy

imagines used for the visualization.

369
fig. 469 the Proxy / Timecode panel

fig. 470 the Footage Settings panel

In the Footage Settings panel you can find the settings relevant
re
to the uploaded sequence, i.e., to the path (File Path), the color

370
(Color Space), the starting frame (Start Frame)) and
a the Offset
Frame.

The Footage Information panel supplies the informrmation relevant

to the uploaded files (dimensions, color space, curr
urrent frame).

fig. 471 the Footage Information panel

The last panel, Grease Pencil, is identical to the

e corresponding
c
panel in 3D view and allows you to draw directly on the footage.

6.2.5 Some definitions

We conclude this section introducing som

ome definitions
concerning the optics.

We want to remark that this is not a photograph

phy course, and
the related topics can be found elsewhere by y the interested
reader.

We than limit ourselves to provide some basic inform

ormation.

Focal Length

It is the distance between the lens optical centre

re and the focus
plane (camera sensor, film) generally measured in millimeters, or

371
rarely expressed in centimeters or inches, or in the case
se of the
CG, in pixels.

Sensor length

Defines the width of the camera CCD sensor. This value can
c be
read in the camera technical sheets.

Pixel proportions

They represent the aspect of the CCD sensor pixels. This

his value
can be read in the camera technical sheets, but can beb also
guessed.

Optic center

It is the lens center used by the camera. In almost alll cases

c it
coincides with the image center, but can be differentt is some
particular cases.

K1, K2 and K3

These are coefficients used for compensating the lens dist

istortion.
Presently, in Blender, these values can be modified ied only
manually (there are not yet calibration tools) using the tools
available in Distortion modality.

372
6.3. Video Sequence Editor

6.3.1. Introduction

In addition to the modeling and animation, Blendeder has a Video

Sequence Editor totally operative, and an adv dvanced node
editor which can handle a video sequence. The compositing
nodes work on images or video sequencess as well. The
compositing nodes are useful for improving g the images,
regulating the colors and adding special effects in the scene.

fig. 472 Video Sequence Editor

The Video Sequence Editor is thus a complete editing system

allowing you to combine several video chann nnels and add
effects and fades.

Tough having a more limited number of operation ions with respect

to dedicated editors like Premiere or Final Cut, you
ou can use them
to combine videos, audios, effects, images, 3D m models and the
animations made in Blender.

373
The Video Sequence Editor interface appears with a header
(where menus are shown with the visualization tools and
modalities) and a work area containing the tracks in the
channels.

The sequencer work area is organized in horizontal stripes

representing the tracks. Each track is inserted in a channel
numbered on the left side, starting from 0.

The tracks (stripes) in the top area are dominant with respect to
the ones on the bottom.

The animation time in seconds or in frames is visualized on the

abscissas (you can choose the format typing CTRL + T), whereas
the sequence dragging (which can be started with ALT + A) can
be visualized with the position of a green vertical cursor where,
at the base, the current frame and the time (in seconds) are
reported, in sec+frame format.

For exporting the mixed video you only need to click on Render
Animation in the Render tab of the Properties editor.

Obviously, you can navigate inside the area where the tracks
are represented, translating or scaling the view in horizontal or
vertical direction and moving the cursor.

More specifically:

- WM: makes a zoom in horizontal;

- MMB (or SHIFT + MMB): makes a free panning;

- CTRL + MMB: makes a free zoom;

- SHIFT + WM: makes a vertical scrolling;

- CTRL + WM: makes a horizontal scrolling;

374
 - ALT + WM: makes a cursor fine grab;

- ALT + A: starts or stops the animation.

6.3.2. The header of the Video Sequence Editor

In the header all the tools for the Videoediting g are collected.
Like for the other editors, it is subdivided in menuss a
and buttons.

fig. 473 the header of the Video Sequence Editor

In the first two menus (View and Select) all the tools useful,
respectively, for the object visualization and d selection are
present, identical to those defined in the other hea
eaders.

fig. 474 the Marker menu

375
The tools of the Marker menu allow you to insert and manage
ma
the markers, useful for defining specific events in time.
e. These
markers, both in the Timeline and in the Video Sequence e Editor,
are represented by yellow triangles and with an index,, d
defined
by the syntax F_frame_number.

fig. 475 a marker at frame 24 (F_24)

- Add Marker (M) inserts a marker in the animation

n c
current
position;

- Duplicate Marker (SHIFT + D) duplicates the se selected

marker and places the copy to the frame defined w
with the
LMB;

fig. 476 marker duplication

- Duplicate Marker To Scene duplicates the selected

d marker
m
in a scene defined among those present in the menu
enu;

376
 - Delete Marker (X) deletes the selected marker;

- Rename Marker (CTRL + M) renames the selected marker;

- Grab/Move Marker moves the selected marker in a new

frame;

- Jump to Next Marker selects the marker next to the

selected one;

- Jump to Previous Marker selects the marker previous to the

selected one;

- the Lock Markers flag locks the selected markers,

preventing any possibility of modification or displacement.

fig. 477 the Add menu

377
Add (or the shortcut SHIFT + A) is probably the main menu
nu of the
Video Sequence Editor. It is used for adding audio or video
contents, but also special effects, fades or images. Each inserted
in
event is defined by a specific color and, in detail:

- a movie, preferably in *.avi or *.mov format, defined

ed by a
blue track (strip);

- a fixed image (or an image sequence) in *.jpg,, *.png,

*.bpm, *.tga etc. format, defined by a track of violet
color. The images are automatically represented by tracks
of 50 frames length (2 seconds to 25 fps);

- an audio file in *.wav, *.mp3, *.aif, etc. format, defin

fined by
a track of turquoise green color;

- a rendered scene of the current file in *.blend format,

fo
defined by a track of light green color;

- a fade of an effect, defined by a track of variable color.

co

fig. 478 different track types

Moreover, you can insert a mask or a clip.

378
The track copies are visualized in gray color.

Use of effects and fades

Two effect categories are available: Built-in and Plug-in (file

available in a Plug-in Sequence Directory which are upload
since necessary). The incorporated effects are listed in the Effect
Strip submenu.

For adding an effect track, you only need to select a base track
(image, video or scene) clicking on it with the LBM. For some
effects, like the Cross fade effect, for example, two sequential
tracks must be selected typing SHIFT + LMB, and then the desired
effect must be chosen from the drop-down menu. The effect
track will be inserted in a channel above the selected tracks.

For all the other effects, the duration will be equal to that of the
track where they are applied. This means that the effect tracks
cannot be moved, but are influenced by the original track.

Finally, for some effects, like AlphaOver, the order for the strip
selection is extremely important.

fig. 479 the Cross fade effect between two videos

The Frame menu has two only items: Set Preview Range (P),
defining the range between two frames for setting playback;

379
and Clear Preview Range (ALT + P), deleting the previous
operation.

fig. 480 the Frame menu

fig. 481 the Strip menu

380
The Strips menu contains all the tools regarding the
he tracks.

- Grab/Move (G) move the selected tracks;

- Grab/Extend from Frame (E) performs a track

tra stretching
started from the selected frame. The extens
nsion generates
a track segment of gray color;

fig. 482 Grab/Extend from Frame

- Insert Gaps (SHIFT + =) and Remove Gaps ps (BACKSPACE)

insert or remove respectively a range in the
th track in the
frame position;

- Cut at Frame (K) performs a separation of the

th track at the
frame position, suppling two independent segments;
se

fig. 483 Cut at Frame

- Slip Strip Contents (S) shifts the content inside

de a track;

fig. 484 Slip Strip Contents

- Separate Images (Y) operates on a track

k c
comprising an
image sequence, and separates the image
ges in separate
consecutive tracks;

381
 - Clear Strip Offset (ALT + O) deletes the offset betwee
een the
tracks going from the initial and final frame;

- Deinterlace Movies deinterlaces the video;

- Rebuild Proxy and Timecode Indices rebuilds the proxies

and the timecodes of the sequence;

- Duplicate Strip (SHIFT + D) duplicates a selected track

ck;

- Erase Strips (X) deletes the selected tracks;

- Set Render Size resizes the rendered scene depend

nding on
the dimensions of the active sequence;

- Make Meta Strip (CTRL + G) groups in a meta str

strip the
selected tracks;

fig. 485 a meta strip

- UnMeta Strip (ALT + G) unfolds the meta strip and re

restores
the original separate tracks;

- Reload Strip (ALT + R) reloads the data in the selected

sel
tracks;

- Reload Strip and Adjust Length (SHIFT + ALT + R)) reloads

re
the data in the selected tracks and restores the ooriginal
length;

- Reassign Inputs (R) reassigns the effect in the effectt track;

t

382
 - Swap Inputs (ALT + S) swaps the first two
o inputs in the
effect track;

- Lock Strips (SHIFT + L) locks the selected trac

racks preventing
modifications and movements;

- Unlock Strips (SHIFT + ALT + L) unlocks the selected

se tracks
previously locks, enabling modifications and
d movements;

- Mute Strips (H) mutes the selected trackss preventing

p the
playback;

- UnMute Strips (ALT + H) removes the mute

e condition
c from
the selected tracks;

- Mute Deselected Strips (SHIFT + H) mutes all the tracks not

selected;

fig. 486 the Change submenu

- Snap Strips (SHIFT + S) moves the selected tra

tracks such that
their start snaps to the frame where the curso
rsor is;

- Swap Strips swaps the positions between tw

two consecutive
tracks;

383
 - Swap Sequencer Strips swaps the position of
o two
sequence tracks;

- Change opens a submenu where you can dec

ecide to
modify:

- The effect input;

- The effect type;

- the file path (Path/Files).

The two following buttons in the header determine the e cursor

behavior with respect to the sequence initial and final fram
me.

fig. 487 The cursor behavior buttons

Il primo, la cui icona raffigura un orologio, consente di utilizzare

ut
un range alternativo di inizio e fine sequenza;

Il secondo, raffigurante un lucchetto, impedisce al curs

ursore di
oltrepassare il fotogramma finale della sequenza.

fig. 488 The 3 Type of Sequence View buttons

The 3 Type of Sequence View buttons, optimize the

he work
environment according to three preset views:

- Sequencer, the default configuration, whose se icon

represents tracks, where the channels and the trac
acks are
visualized;

384
fig. 489 the three preset views, from top to bottom: Sequence
cer, Image Preview,
Sequencer and Image preview

385
 - Image Preview, whose icon represents a grid with
ith white
and red squares, where the interface appears with
wi the
sequence video clip preview;

- Sequencer And Image Preview, whose icon depic picts the

mix of the previous ones, duplicates the centrall w
window
and allows the contemporary control of both the e tracks
and the preview.

Activating the Image Preview r Sequencer and Image Pr Preview

views, 4 buttons useful for the monitoring of the color flux
flu are
activated.

fig. 490 Viewing of Mode of Display Sequencer Output

- The first one, showing a grid with red and white sq

squares,
visualizes the sequence preview in normal mode;

fig. 491 normal preview

386
 - The second one visualizes a graph with lum
luminance wave
form della luminance (Luma Waveform);

fig. 492 Luma Waveform preview

- The third one (Chroma Vectorscope) visua

sualizes a graph
with a vectorscope, defining the seque
uence average
chromatic range;

fig. 493 preview Chroma Vectorscope

387
 - The fourth and last one visualizes the histo
istogram
(Histogram).

fig. 494 preview Histogram

The Refresh Sequencer button cleans and update

tes the
Sequence Editor.

The two next buttons visualize in the preview, respective

ively, the
color and transparency channels (Color and Alpha) and nd color
only (Color).

Channel defines the channel number where all the track

cks must
be combined. The channel 0 is the default one.

The icon with the phantom (Partial Overlay on Top of

o the
Sequencer) allows you to insert a partial overlay on
o the
sequence and preview top.

The last two icons, depicting a camera and a clapperb erboard,

start the rendering of the freeze-frame at the current frame
me or of
the whole clip.

388
6.3.3. The Properties bar of the Video Sequence Edit
ditor

We conclude the chapter on the Video Seq equence Editor

highlighting the functionalities of the dedicatedd Properties Bar,
where all the track information and settings are re contained, of
the filters and masks present in the active sequence
cer project.

The Properties Bar has 5 panels.

fig. 495 the Properties Bar panels

fig. 496 the Edit Strip panel

389
In the Edit Strip panel, the information and specific proper
erties of
the selected tracks are contained.

In the Name textbox you can assign a name or renam

ame the
tracks.

Type (not modifiable) visualizes the selected track type.

The Blend menu defines the fade type between tracks,, c

chosen
from the menu options: Replace, Cross, Add, Subtract,, Alpha
Over, Alpha Under, Gamma Cross, Multiply and Over Drop
op.

fig. 497 the Blend menu

By default setting, the track in the top channel is domina

inates all
the images, the clips, the animations and the 3D sceneses of the
lower channels. By defining different fades, you can pe perform
personalized transitions from a track to the others.

- Opacity sets the opacity of the track content.

390
 - The button with the eye hides the track content such that
it is not rendered in the final mix.

- The lock prevents the track to be moved or modified.

- Channel changes the channel number of a track.

- Start Frame changes the track initial frame number.

- Length specifies the frame number comprising the track.

Other information concerning the format, the dimension and the

definition are described below the panel.

The parameters contained in the Strip Input panel control the

original source of the selected track. The fields include:

- The file path (Path);

- The color space used for visualizing the track content

(Input Color Space);

- The number of frames to be preloaded for the MPEG

formats (MPEG Preseek);

- The number of indices to be inserted in tracks containing

different video fluxes (Stream Index);

- The possibility of shifting along the x or y direction the

content of a track, activating Image Offset;

- The possibility of cutting the content of a track on the 4

sides (Top, Bottom, Left, Right), activating Image Crop;

- the trim of the track content from the start to the end of
the track (Trim Duration).

391
fig. 498 the Strip Input panel

The parameters in the Filter panel allow you to rapidly

y sset the
most common pre-elaboration options on the image orr on o the
sequence.

392
fig. 499 the Filter panel

- Strobe visualizes only the frames defined in th

the cursor;

- Flip flips the image along the X and/orr Y direction, if

checked;

- Backwards, if checked, inverts the sequence

nce of images in
the track;

- De-Interlace performs the de-interlace between the

frames (recommended option);

- Saturation increase or decrease the image sa

saturation:

- Multiply multiplies the colors of the value sett iin the field;

- Convert Float converts the input data for

fo highlight the
values.

The Proxy / Timecode panel presents the same s settings

previously analyzed that, for the sake of brevity,
ity, we avoid to
mention.

393
fig. 500 the Proxy / Timecode panel

In the Scene Preview/Render panel some settings are present

p
relevant to the preview of the sequence and the final rend
nder.

fig. 501 the Scene Preview/Render panel

- Checking OpenGL Preview the visualization in Ope

penGL is
activated;

- The Sequencer preview Shading menu defines the

he track
visualization;

- The Textured Solid flag represents the texturization

on if the
previous Solid option has been defined.

394
fig. 502 the View Settings panel

In the View Settings panel two items are available:

- Show Overexposed, allowing you to set

se an image
overexposure;

fig. 503 image overexposure

- The Proxy render Size menu defines the dimensions

d the
sequence visualization in percentage, with
h respect
r to the
rendering.

The Safe Areas panel safeguards, if checked, the extreme

e image
margins, specifying the camera format in the Camera
Ca Preset
menu (from 14/9 to 16/9; 16/9; from 4/3 to 16/9 /9); the security

395
cutting margin along x and along y, expressed in pixels (Til
Tile Safe
Margins) specific for texts and graphical elements or, che
hecking
Center Cut Safe Area, defining the margins in a rectanglegle from
the image center.

Alternatively, you can specify the Safe Area for all the ele
elements
in general (Action Safe Margin) specifying the margin ins with
respect to x and y.

fig. 504 the Safe Areas panel

fig. 505 Safe Area Margin in the preview

396
These margins will be represented by dashed rec
ectangles inside
the preview window.

The last panel, Modifiers is dedicated to the image

e correction.

fig. 506 the Modifiers panel with two modifiers in cascade assigne
ned to the selected
track

397
Bu selecting a track, you can add one or more modif
difiers in
cascade, available among those contained in the Add
dd Strip
Modifier menu.

With these tools you can correct the color, the contratrast, the
luminosity and add masks to the images contained in the
e tracks.
tr

fig. 507 image correction outcome through the Curves and Color Balance modifiers
m

The last panel, Grease Pencil, contains the settings relev

levant to
the grease pencil, analogous and already defined in other
editors.

398
 7
CONCLUDING
REMARKS

399
400
7.1. Conclusions and acknoledgements

I want to thank all who have contributed to the development of

this 4th volume of Blender – The Ultimate Guide, my family, my
collaborators, my friends who have supported and advised me,
like, among all, Giovanni Caruso, for the English translation
Francesco Andresciani, Davide Scarpiello (for MOCAP exercise),
Oliver Villar Diz (for the idea of the cover image), the Blender
Foundation, all the people following me and the web site
www.blenderhighschool.it, and all my editors which have
believed this project.

I want to dedicate to all of them the success of this book.

Thanks.

Andrea

401
7.2. Bibliography

For the writing of this volume all the following digital and print
sources have been consulted:

- Francesco Siddi - Grafica 3D con Blender - Apogeo 2015

- Oliver Villar Diz - Learning Blender - Addison Wesley 2015

- Andrea Coppola / Francesco Andresciani - Blender - Area

51 Publishing 2013-2015

- Francesco Andresciani - Blender: le basi per tutti - Area 51

Publishing 2014

- Gabriele Falco - Blender 2.7 Grafica e Animazione 3D -

2014

- Gordon Fisher - Blender 3D Basics - PACKT Publishing 2014

- John M. Blain - Blender Graphincs Computer Modeling &

Animation - CRC Press 2012

- Ben Simonds - Blender Master Class - 2012

- Andrea Coppola - Blender Videocorso (modulo base e

intermedio) - Area 51 Publishing - 2014-2015

- Andrew Price - The Architecture Academy – 2014

- Andrew Price – The Grass Essential – 2015

Moreover the following web sites have been consulted:

402
www. blender.org (Cloud)

www.blenderguru.com

www. blendtuts.com

www.francescomilanese.com

www.blenderclick.it

www.blender.it

cgcookie.com/blender

www.blenderhighschool.it

403
7.3. About the Author

Andrea Coppola, born on 1971, is a poliedric

professional: architect, designer, 3D artist and builder (and many
years ago also a musician, arranger and producer).

He lives both in Roma (where he works as an interior designer,

designer and trainer) and in Kenya (where he has designed and
constructed five house residences in Watamu: (for information
see www.lamiacasainkenya.com). In Kenya he is also founding
partner of the construction company Hendon Properties Ltd.

Holder and founder of the architectural firm in Roma

L.A.A.R. (www.laboratoriodiarchitettura.info), he worked and
presently works as interior designer and designer (having
designed, in particular, the two kitchen models "Nairobi" and
"Skin" for Reval Cucine s.r.l. and the chair "Cra Cra" for Art
Leather).

He also worked as security responsible in building sites and as

university assistant for the architecture faculty of the University of
Rome "La Sapienza", teaching some master classes.

Passionate about computer graphics and in particular about

Blender, regularly teaches courses, through the web site
www.blenderhighschool.it, one of the main referenceы in Italy
for Blender and official partner of Blender Italia (www.blender.it).
Through this web site, connected with www.blenderclick.it
(managed together with Francesco Andresciani), the Author
tries to give his personal contribution to Blender development,
thanks to his versatility, offering tutorials, tricks, books and
products for free or not, in addition to modeling and rendering
services.

404
As consultant he has developed catalogs for or kitchen firms
(together with Alan Zirpoli) and for the Mars Societ
iety of Bergamo,
an interactive project using the real maps of the th red planet
provided be the NASA (together with Francesco An Andresciani).

Besides this book, he has published 8 e-books on n Blender, 1 on

the 3D print, 10 video courses, 1 Thematic Academ emy on Blender;
3 e-books on Autocad; 1 course about sound d design and 1
thriller ("L'Altra Specie"), all edited by Area 51 Edito
itore of Bologna
(www.area51editore.com).

Contacts:
blenderhighschool@gmail.com
www.blenderhighschool.it

405
406