1. Tide: The measurement of the elevation of the water surface. 17.

17. Semidiurnal Tide: A tide in which the full cycle of high and low water is
completed in half a day.
2. Water Level: The elevation of the sea surface, lakes and rivers.
18. Diurnal Inequality: Variations in the heights of tides due to changes in the
3. Current: The horizontal movement of water.
declination angle of the Moon.
4. Flow: Term often used instead of currents.
19. Mixed Tide: A tide with two highs and two lows each day, but with marked
5. Hydrographer: Concerned with the elevation of the sea surface, lake, and river differences between the two high waters or between the two low waters.
surfaces.
20. Diurnal Tide: A tide in which one high and one low water occur in a lunar day.
6. Tractive Force: The horizontal component of tide-producing forces, drawing
21. Higher High Water (HHW): The higher of the two high tides in a day.
water particles.
22. Lower High Water (LHW): The lower of the two high tides in a day.
7. Tidal Bulge: Water accumulated at sublunar and antipodal points due to tractive
flow. 23. Lower Low Water (LLW): The lower of the two low tides in a day.
8. Spring Tides: Greater-than-average tides when the Moon is at new or full phase 24. Higher Low Water (HLW): The higher of the two low tides in a day.
(syzygy).
25. Diurnal High-Water Inequality (DHQ): Half the difference between mean higher
9. Neap Tides: Diminished range tides occurring at first- and third-quarter phases high water and mean lower high water.
(quadrature) of the Moon.
26. Diurnal Low Water Inequality (DLQ): Half the difference between the means of
10. Perigee: The point when the Moon is closest to the Earth, resulting in higher- lower low water and higher low water.
than-usual tide-generating forces.
27. Tidal Bore: A tidally generated wall of water.
11. Apogee: The point when the Moon is farthest from the Earth, resulting in
28. Water Level Datum: A vertical datum used to reckon heights or depths for
smaller tide-generating forces.
marine applications.
12. Perihelion: The point when the Earth is closest to the Sun.
29. Sounding Datum: The water level datum to which the soundings on any
13. Aphelion: The point when the Earth is farthest from the Sun. particular survey are referred.
14. Declination: The angular distance of the Moon or Sun north or south of the 30. Chart Datum: The datum to which depths on a chart are referred.
equator.
31. National Tidal Datum Epoch (NTDE): Specific 19-year periods over which tidal
15. Equatorial Tides: Tides occurring when the Moon is near the equator. datums are computed.
16. Tropic Tides: Tides occurring when the Moon is near its maximum northern or 32. Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT): The lowest predicted tide expected to occur
southern declination. in a 19-year period.
33. Harmonic Analysis: The mathematical process of looking at one constituent at a 46. Three variations to which the tide responds, each associated with a particular
time from an observed time series. movement of the Moon:
34. Tidal Component/Constituent: Simple harmonic cosine curve, which represents a. Lunar Phase Effects
tide-generating motions. b. Parallax Effects (Moon and Sun)
c. Lunar Declination Effects
35. Amplitude: The vertical distance between mean tide level and the level of the
crest. 47. Three general classes into which diurnal inequality of tidal heights are grouped:
36. Phase Lag (Epoch): The amount of time elapsed from the maximum astronomic a) inequality exhibited in the low waters
event to the first maximum of its corresponding constituent tide. b) inequality exhibited in the high waters
c) inequality featured equally in the highs and the lows.
37. Station Datum: A single, common datum to which water level measurements
48. Four phases of the tidal current cycle:
from each station should be related.
a) slack before flood (SBF)
38. Tide Reducers/Water Level Reducers: Time series data relative to MLLW or b) maximum flood current (MFC)
other applicable LWD applied to reference hydrographic soundings to chart c) slack before ebb (SBE)
datum. d) maximum ebb current (MEC).
49. What is the most fundamental of the three principal tidal characteristics?
39. Tidal Currents: Currents caused by gravitational interactions between the Sun,
- Type of tide
Moon, and Earth.
50. What is the term for tides occurring when the Moon is near its maximum
40. Slack Water: The short time period between the reversal from flood to ebb.
northern or southern declination?
41. Flood Currents: Currents which are incoming or towards the shore or upstream.
- Tropic tides
42. Ebb Currents: Currents which are outgoing, offshore or downstream.
51. What is the name of the harmonic constituent that represents the Earth spinning
43. Set: The current direction. relative to the Sun?
44. Drift: The speed of the current. - Principal Solar semidiurnal constituent, S2

45. Three types of tide: 52. What is the name of the harmonic constituent that represents the Earth spinning
relative to the Moon?
a) Semidiurnal
b) diurnal - Principal Lunar semidiurnal constituent, M2
c) mixed tides.
 Multiple Choice 6. What is the term for the time of occurrence of high or low water with respect to
the Moon’s meridian passage?
1. What is the effect on tidal ranges when the Earth is closest to the Sun a) Tidal range
(perihelion)? b) Lunitidal interval
a) Tidal ranges are reduced c) Tidal epoch
b) Tidal ranges are enhanced d) Tidal frequency
c) Tidal ranges remain unchanged 7. What is the main reason why hydrographers must operate key tide stations for a
d) Tidal ranges fluctuate randomly minimum of 30 days?
2. Which type of tide has one high and one low water in a lunar day? a) To observe long-term sea-level trends
a) Semidiurnal tide b) Because all major variations cycle completely in 29.5 days or less
b) Diurnal tide c) To comply with international regulations
c) Mixed tide d) To calibrate the tide gauges accurately
d) Neap tide 8. What is the approximate ratio of the tide-producing force of the Moon to that of
3. What is the term for the difference in height between consecutive high and low the Sun?
tides? a) 1:1
a) Wavelength b) 1.5:1
b) Tidal range c) 2.5:1
c) Tidal frequency d) 3.5:1
d) Tidal period 9. What is used for both sounding and chart datums in United States coastal waters?
4. What is the effect on tides when the Moon is at new phase and full phase a) Mean Sea Level (MSL)
(syzygy)? b) Mean Higher High Water (MHHW)
a) High tides are lower than average, and low tides are higher c) Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW)
b) High tides are higher than average, and low tides are lower d) Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT)
c) Tidal range is diminished 10. What is the main factor to consider in selecting a control tide station?
d) There is no effect on the tides a) Proximity to the survey area
5. What is the primary cause of the alternation of high and low tides? b) Length of data series
a) Changes in atmospheric pressure c) Similar tidal characteristics, similar daily mean sea level and
b) The daily rotation of the Earth with respect to tidal bulges seasonal mean sea level variations, and similar sea level trends
c) Variations in solar radiation d) Cost of operation
d) Shifts in ocean currents
 Breakdown of key topics:

1. Legal Easements and Salvage Zones • Purpose: To detail technical specifications and requirements for hydrographic
surveys.
• The State is responsible for conserving the environment and natural resources.
• Based On: International Hydrographic Organization (IHO) Standards for
• It is the policy of the State to establish safeguard measures on the establishment
Hydrographic Surveys – Special Publication No. 44 (IHO S-44), 6th Edition.
of salvage zones and legal easements along seas, rivers, lakes, esteros, creeks,
and other wetland areas. 3. Reference Datums

• Urban Areas: Cities and urban municipalities should adopt a 3-meter easement • Definition: Numerical or geometrical quantities that specify references for
zone over agricultural lands. Forest lands, even in urban areas, require a 40- measurements.
meter easement zone.
• Horizontal Datum: Used for positioning points on the Earth. All positions should
• Rural Areas: Rural municipalities need to adopt a 20-meter easement zone for be referenced to WGS84 (G1762).
agricultural lands and a 40-meter easement zone on forest lands.
• Vertical Datum: Elevations or depths are referred to a vertical datum. Sounding
• National Parks/Protected Areas: All National Parks/Protected Areas, whether in data in tidal bodies of water should be referenced to Mean Lower Low Water
urban or rural areas, should adopt a 40-meter easement zone. (MLLW). Heights of bridges and overhead cables should be referenced to Mean
Higher High Water (MHHW).
• Reclaimed Areas: All reclamation projects, whether in urban or rural areas,
should adopt a 40-meter easement zone. The easement should be measured 4. Hydrographic Positioning
from the banks or the edge of the reclaimed portion.
• Accuracy: Refers to the proximity of the measured feature or sounding to its exact
• Salvage Zones: Lands bordering seas, gulfs, bays, or ports are subject to a 20- position within the reference frame.
meter salvage zone in agricultural lands and a 40-meter salvage zone in
• Horizontal Position: Must satisfy accuracy requirements in Table 1 of the NAMRIA
forest lands, measured landward from the Mean High Water line or interior limit of
Standards for Hydrographic Surveys.
the shoreline.
• Vertical Control: Total Vertical Uncertainty (TVU) is more stringent than THU. All
• Banks of Rivers and Streams: Banks of rivers and streams with channels at least
soundings and drying heights of rocks and islets must be referred to Mean Lower
five meters wide, or continuously flowing rivers and streams even with less than
Low Water (MLLW). Heights and clearances of overhead features must be referred
five meters width, creeks, arroyos, or esteros, should have a legal easement of
to Mean Higher High Water (MHHW).
three meters in urban areas, twenty meters in agricultural lands, and forty
meters in forest lands, measured landward from the edge of the normal high • Survey Order Pre-Qualification: The survey team should estimate the survey
waterline. platform’s capability to comply with the required survey order.
• Lands along the shore of lakes are subject to the same legal easement. 5. Tides and Water Levels

2. Hydrographic Survey Standards (NAMRIA) • Objectives: To produce water level time series and recover/establish tidal
benchmarks.
 • Chart Reference Datum: Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW) for hydrographic • Corrections to Soundings: Including instrument error, vessel static offsets, draft,
surveys. and sound velocity.
• Error Budget: Uncertainties associated with tidal data may come from leveling • Multibeam Sonar Calibration: Patch tests should be performed at the beginning
error, measurement/instrument error, data processing error, datum error, and of the hydrographic survey project and every time there are modifications with
zoning error. The allowable error contribution of tides and water levels to the instrument configuration.
overall hydrographic survey error budget should fall between 0.10 m and 0.45 m
7. Features
at 95% confidence level.
• Definition: Any natural or man-made object that can be represented
• Tidal Data Collection: Data from NAMRIA tide stations is used for reducing
cartographically for safety of navigation.
hydrographic survey data to MLLW.
• General Standards: Positional accuracy of features should comply with Table 2 in
• Tide Station Requirements: Tidal observation should not be less than 30 days at
the NAMRIA Standards for Hydrographic Surveys.
a maximum sampling interval of 10 minutes.
• Data Acquisition: Positional accuracy of features should comply with Table 2.
• Benchmarks: Permanent markers established near a tide station with known
elevation above the tidal datum. A minimum of five benchmarks should be • Submerged Installations: Positions of submerged cables and pipelines should be
established. determined by multibeam echo sounder system (MBES) and shall be verified by
corresponding authorities.
6. Depth Sounding
• Coastline: High and low water lines defining intertidal area should be determined.
• Soundings: Measurements from the water surface to the seafloor.
8. Deliverables
• Depths: Corrected elevations from the bottom to an established vertical datum,
such as MLLW. • Field Reports: Progress reports should be submitted weekly or daily.

• Total Propagated Uncertainty (TPU): Collective uncertainty or error. • Digital Data: Including raw bathymetric data, reduced tidal data, and sound speed
data.
• General Standards:
• Post Survey Reports: Including project report, port information, and descriptive
o Exclusive Order: For shallow areas with strict minimum under-keel
report.
clearance and maneuverability restrictions.
• Smooth Sheets: Final product of a hydrographic survey, used internally.
o Special Order: Shallow waters in major ports and harbors, shipping
channels. 9. Tides and Tidal Currents (Water Levels and Flow)

o Order 1: Areas shallower than 100 m where general seabed depiction is • Tide: Traditionally accepted term for instrumentation measuring water surface
adequate. elevation.
o Order 2: Areas deeper than 100 m where general seabed depiction is • Diurnal Tide: Tides in which one high and one low water occur in a lunar day.
adequate.
 • Semidiurnal Tides: About two high and two low tides each day. • Harmonic constants: Amplitude, the vertical distance between mean tide level
and the level of the crest and phase lag (Epoch).
• Mixed Tide: A tide with characteristics of both diurnal and semidiurnal tides.
GLOSSARY of TERMS
• Chart Datum: The datum to which depths on a chart are referred.
• A priori uncertainty: The theoretical value calculated before the
• Tidal Datum: A water level datum defined in terms of a certain phase of tide.
conduct of survey, on account of all estimated uncertainties of factors
• Mean Lower Low Water (MLLW): Used for both sounding and chart datums in affecting the measurements in a hydrographic survey.
• C-Check: a field procedure to check the calibration of the leveling
United States coastal waters.
instrument, by determining the combined effects of instrument
• Tidal Zoning: A tool used to extrapolate or interpolate tide or water level misalignment from the horizontal plane and atmospheric refraction.
variations from the closest water level station to the survey area. • Confidence Level or Confidence Interval: The probability that the
actual value of a measurement will lie within the specified uncertainty.
• Control Water Level Stations: Stations with accepted datums, typically in For the purposes of the NSHS, the default confidence level or interval
operation during the survey. is 95%.
• Error: The difference between the measured value and actual value of
• Tidal Currents: Much more variable and complex to predict than the tidal heights. collected data.
• Hydrographic Descriptive Report (HDR): A document detailing the
• Slack Water: The short time period between the reversal from flood to ebb. processes involved in the collection of hydrographic data, the
instruments and software used, the accuracy of the survey, and the
• Flood Currents: Incoming or towards the shore or upstream.
results.
• Ebb Currents: Outgoing, offshore or downstream. • Tide Reducers or Water Level Reducers: Corrections or adjustments to the
water level, so that the depths will be referenced to the chart datum, which in
10. Harmonic Analysis and Tide Prediction (Water Levels and Flow) our case is MLLW (i.e., “reducing” the soundings to MLLW).
• Tidal Zoning: An interpolation method in reducing sounding data to
• Harmonic Analysis: Mathematical process of looking at one constituent at a time chart datum (e.g., MLLW) using water level data from multiple tide
from an observed time series. stations.
• Total horizontal uncertainty (THU): A two-dimensional quantity that
• Tidal Component: Each one of the tide-generating motions, represented by a includes all contributing horizontal measurement uncertainties; The
simple harmonic cosine curve. horizontal component of the total propagated uncertainty (TPU).
• Total propagated uncertainty (TPU): A three-dimensional uncertainty
• Tidal Constituent: A letter or letters and usually a subscript are used to designate
measure wherein all sources of errors or uncertainties are taken into
each constituent. account.
• Speed (frequency): n=360°/P • Total vertical uncertainty (TVU): A one-dimensional quantity that
includes all contributing vertical measurement uncertainties; The
• Amplitude: The vertical distance between mean tide level and the level of the vertical component of the total propagated uncertainty (TPU).
crest. • Uncertainty: A range of values within which the true value of a
measurement lies within a specified confidence interval.
• Phase lag (Epoch): The amount of time elapsed from the maximum astronomic
event to the first maximum of its corresponding constituent tide.