27

PRESERVATION AND IMPROVEMENT

OF ONGOLE CATTLE
Mullapudi Narendra Nath*
Tanuku - 534 211 (AP), India

SUMMARY
The characteristics of the Ongole cattle of India are described, their distribution and numbers
in India and other countries is given, and plans are outlined of the need to conserve and to
improve the breed.

RESUME
Cette note décrit les caractéristiques des bovins de la race Ongole et donne des indications sur
leur -répartition et leur nombre en Inde et dans d’autres pays ainsi que sur les programmes de
conservation et d’amélioration de la race.

RESUMEN
Se describen las características del vacuno Ongole de la India, se dan datos sobre su distribución
y número en la India y otros países, y se sugieren planes para conserver y mejorar la raza.

* The author is Secretary of the Ongole Cattle Improvement Society, described in this paper.

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The cattle of India (Bos indicus) have been in the service of mankind for many thousands of
years. They have endured famine, insect pests, diseases and the hot and cold climates of India.
They have been fortified by nature with an ability to preserve and perpetuate their life where
other breeds have failed. The adaptation qualities of a few Indian cattle breeds have kept them in
wide demand since the early days of history. In their expansion abroad, these cattle have helped
improve cattle in their adopted countries.
Some thirty well defined breeds of cattle exist in India. They vary in type and characteristics
according to the need of the regions where they originated. Only a few Indian cattle breeds have
spread outside India. One is the Ongole which has spread to many other countries. The Ongole
is one of the ancient breeds of Indian cattle originating from the coastal belt of Andhra Pradesh
State, on the east coast of peninsular India. The best work type specimens of this breed were
developed south of the river Krishna and north of the river Penna, covering the districts of Guntur,
Prakasam and Nellore; the best dairy type specimens, capable of producing eight to ten litres per
day peak yield, were developed in the delta of the river Godavari, covering the districts of East
and West Godavari.
Ongoles are well adapted to warm climates. They are extremely heat tolerant. They do well
in areas of high temperature and humidity, requiring little shade and will graze or rest in the
hottest weather without any apparent discomfort. Ongoles are little affected by insect pests, and
are strongly resistant to diseases spread by blood-sucking insects and external parasites.
Ongoles do well on the range because of their hardiness, thriftiness and rustling ability, being
able to respond to good pasture, and also thrive under conditions of poor range and drought.
They can range to greater distances than some breeds. Ongole cows make excellent mothers,
giving milk with a butterfat content of over five percent, resulting in big, thrifty calves with
considerable bloom at weaning. One very important characteristic of Ongole cows is their
 29

mothering instinct. They stay with their calves and protect them from predatory animals and
other dangers.
As feeders, Ongoles compare favourably with European breeds, are efficient users of roughage,
and in the warm tropics, have attractions because of their heat tolerance.
Ongole cows can remain active producers until 15 years of age, which is often longer than the
European cows. Occasionally one can find Ongole cows in regular production up to 20 years of
age.
Ongole cattle were exported to many tropical regions of the Americas, West Indies, Southeast
Asia and Australia up to the early 1900s and earned international recognition for their capacity
to survive and perform well on tropical pastures, their hardiness, efficiency and resistance to
various insect transmitted diseases of the tropics.
With improved irrigation facilities came commercial crops and mechanization of agriculture,
in the homeland of the Ongole, where their numbers have dwindled and continue to drop further.
With an increased demand for milk and introduction of crossbreeding with Jersey and Holstein
breeds, to boost milk production, this drop in the numbers of Ongole cattle has been accelerated.
Unless this trend is arrested, the world may lose an excellent breed of cattle that could contribute
a lot to livestock production in the tropics. Ongole has some traits needed in the tropical cattle
industry. Hence, it has become necessary in the interest of livestock production in the tropics to
preserve and improve the Ongole in its homeland.
The well established Ongole herds at state and university farms that had five to ten generations’
breeding were lost due to policy changes of the government in favour of crossbreeding with
European exotics. Therefore, a farmers’ organization has stepped in to avoid liquidation of a
useful breed of cattle whose potential, they believe, has not been fully exploited.
The objectives of this project are:
• to maintain a good germplasm centre of Ongole cattle and to improve further the genetic
potential of the herd;
• to conduct genetic analysis of the herd for growth, milk yield, reproductive efficiency and
draught capacity;
• to establish a frozen semen and embryo bank to help in the spread of the breed; to help in
the international spread of Ongole cattle.
• This project will consist of Preservation (Phase I) and Improvement (Phase II).
Phase II will be taken up only after Phase I is in an advanced stage of execution.
Phase I
Purebred Ongole cattle available at different livestock farms in the home breeding territory
will be pooled and an initial herd of 100 breedable females will be established. This herd will be
maintained under an extensive management system and the performance of the base population
and progeny generations will be recorded on the following traits: growth, production, reproduction,
and fitness.
Phase II
A herd of 100 purebred Ongole cows will be bred using frozen semen from selected Italian
Chianina/Piedmontese bulls to produce half bloods. The resulting femal’e progeny will be bred
back to 7/8 Ongole blood level, using frozen semen from Ongole bulls, selecting for better
conformation and muscling, while retaining the other traits of the Ongole cattle. The selected 7/
8 Ongole progeny will be mated inter se and stabilized to produce an improved-version of the
original Ongole.
Ultimately, the project will have a herd of about 200 purebred Ongole cattle under Phase I
and a herd of about 200 improved Ongole cattle under Phase II. Phase I of the project will be
self-supporting from the 8th year onwards. The project will, by this stage, be in a position to
meet the semen requirements of the Indian Ongole cattle breeders and other international
requirements.
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 31

THE CONSERVATION OF ANIMAL GENETIC

RESOURCES IN GREAT BRITAIN
Lawrence Alderson
Rare Breeds Survival Trust
Droitwich, UK

SUMMARY
Resources available for animal genetic conservation should be used judiciously. Thus breeds
qualifying for conservation should not only be numerically endangered but also possess genetic
merit. In determining genetic merit, future changes in market requirements or production systems
should be considered. There is an urgent need for an evaluation of the present commercial value
of rare breeds in breeding programmes. Support for rare breed preservation in Great Britain is
implemented through conservation programmes, evaluation studies and education at different
levels.

RESUME
Les ressources disponibles pour la conservation du patrimoine zoogénétiques doivent etre
utilisées judicieusement. C’est ainsi que les races à conserver ne doivent pas etre seulement
menacées d’une réduction numérique mais doivent aussi posséder des caractéristiques génétiques
intéressantes. En évaluant les qualités génétiques, il faut tenir compte de 1'évolution future des
besoins du marché et des systames de production. II faut examiner d’urgence la valeur
Commerciale actuelle des races rares d’ans les programmes de sélection. Pour aider A préserver
ces races en Grande-Bretagne, on exécute des programmes de conservation, on procède à des
évaluations et on prend des mesures éducatives à différents niveaux.

RESUMEN
Es preciso utilizar con prudencia los recursos disponibles para la conservación genética animal.
Por lo tanto, a fin de determiner qué razas deben conservarse, estas no soló han de estar
numéricamente en peligro sino también ser valiosas desde el punto de vista genético. Para
determiner su valor genético, deberin tenerse en cuenta los futuros cambios en las necesidades
del mercado o en los sistemas de producción. En los programas de mejora genética es urgente
una evaluación del actual valor comercial de las razas raras. En Gran Bretaña, el apoyo para la
conservación de esas razas se presta mediante programas de conservación, estudios de evaluación
y educación a distintos niveles.

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In Great Britain the conservation of animal genetic resources is achieved by maintaining pure
breeds of domestic livestock, each with clearly defined and distinct characteristics.
The “gene pool” method of conservation is not used owing to the difficulty of identifying and
utilizing specific characteristics in a large random-breeding population of diverse origins. There
is also a danger of genetic drift and wastage unless sufficient “gene pool” populations are
maintained in a variety of environments.
Genetic conservation in recorded breeds is more easily controlled and monitored, but there is
also a danger of genetic drift within pure breeds owing to the small population size, and it is
necessary to follow carefully planned breeding programmes to prevent this happening.

What is a Breed?
It is necessary to define a breed. It may be taken as a group of animals of similar characteristics
which when mated together produce progeny of the same type, within the standards published
by the registration organization.
New breeds are continually being created. In Britain the primitive Castlemilk Moorit was
established in the early years of the present century, while the highperfomance British Milksheep
was established in the 1970s. Meanwhile 23 British breeds of large livestock have become
extinct in the twentieth century.
In some cases a breed may exist in separate locations and may have been recognized as sub-
breeds. For example, the Friesian cow is seen in different types ranging from the extreme dairy
North American Holstein to the beefier European Friesians, but from a conservation point of
view they belong to the same breed, and provided each type is adequately represented in the total
population, resources should not be allocated separately to each type.
Similarly in Britain the various varieties of Shorthorn, although they show marked divergent
evolution, are all derived from the same genetic base. They include the. Beef Shorthorn, Whitebred
Shorthorn, Dairy Shorthorn and Northern Dairy Shorthorn. In other cases one breed may have
exerted such an influence on other breeds of similar type that they can be considered as one
group within a conservation programme. For example, Lincoln Longwool, Cotswold and some
other British longwool breeds are now almost identical to the Leicester Longwool.

Organizations
In Britain, the various organizations which have initiated conservation programmes are all
concerned with pure breeds. The Milk Marketing Board, whose commercial activities are based
on wholesaling milk and the sale of semen, established a semen bank for bulls of rare breeds.
Countrywide Livestock Limited, an animal breeding consultancy company, established.a
registration programme for breeds not administered by a breed society. The Rare Breeds Survival
Trust, a specialist conservation organization, assists breed societies and breeds of rare breeds of
domestic livestock.

Philosophy of Conservation
The philosophy on which the conservation of rare breeds is based in Britain places different
priorities on each breed and on each method of conservation. For example, to qualify for the
support of the Rare Breeds Survival Trust a breed must satisfy two criteria. It must be numerically
endangered. Population size is based on the number of breeding females producing purebred
progeny. For sheep the critical number is 1500 ewes, for horses 1000 mares, for cattle 750 cows,
for goats 500 nannies, and for pigs 150 sows. These numbers are based on British standards of
average herd or flock size, reproductive capacity and the ratio of males to females. Systems of
management in other countries would give different standards.
The second criterion is that a breed must be of sufficient genetic value. Thus some breeds are
 33

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not supported by the Rare Breeds Survival Trust. For example, the Norfolk Horn, an old breed
from eastern England, is not recognized because the purebred population became extinct and the
present population is derived from graded-up animals. The Oxford Sandy and Black pig and
Blue Albion cattle are not recognized for the same reason. However, the Milk Marketing Board
stores semen from Blue Albion bulls, and Norfolk Horn sheep are registered in the Combined
Flock Book set up by Countrywide Livestock Limited.
In other cases breeds are not supported because they are merely colour varieties of a popular
breed. Examples of this are the Bolian Gwynion, a belted variety of the Welsh Black, and the
White Galloway, a variety of the Galloway.
Some foreign breeds, which have become neglected or even extinct in their native country,
have found a haven in Great Britain. For example, the Caspian Horse, which is almost extinct in
Iran, is now being actively conserved in England and elsewhere.
Ideally a breed should be conserved in its native environment, but if this is not possible, then
alternative locations must be found.

Fluctuating Population Size

It must be recognized that market requirements and breeding fashions are changing
continuously, and as a result the fortunes of each breed fluctuate depending upon their suitability
for the contemporary market or their appeal to succeeding generations of breeders. Within the
last ten years several rare breeds in Britain have improved their numerical status sufficiently to
be no longer classified as rare. These breeds include Jacob, Black Welsh Mountain, Teeswater
and Southdown sheep, and Shire horses.
In contrast, the fortunes of other breeds have improved relatively slowly despite considerable
support and it is relevant to consider why they are rare. Three main causes can be identified:
• No commercial value. Breeds such as Gloucester cattle, Portland sheep or Bagot goats
have no obvious immediate or mediumterm commercial value.
• Changing fashion. The Wensleydale, for example, was superseded by the Teeswater for
reasons of fashion rather than genetic merit.
• Crossbreeding. Some rare and minority breeds have been seriously modified in an attempt
to meet changing market conditions. Thus the Beef Shorthorn has attempted to regain
size by crossing with the Maine-Anjou, while the Sussex may improve its carcass quality
by using Limousin bulls.

Distinctive Qualities
There are at present 45-50 rare breeds of large farm livestock in Britain, and they can be
classified according to their potential value within the livestock industry. A basic principle to be
observed when assessing the value of a rare breed is that it must be conserved for its own distinctive
qualities. If a breed needs to be changed too much it would be more relevant to use a different
breed. It is more important to discover the conditions and systems of production in which a
breed can be used most effectively. For example, Shetland cattle are well suited to marginal
land, and as marginal land becomes increasingly important in the world economy, breeds and
species adapted to this environment will have a greater role to play. Even wild species such as
the bison might be utilized.

Categories for Conservation

Some rare breeds can contribute immediately to the livestock industry. They have been
prevented from doing so by whims of fashion or by isolation.. For example, North Ronaldsay
sheep have the ability to exist exclusively on a diet of seaweed, and this could be of value in
many parts of the world. British White bulls could be of great benefit when used on heifers of
 35

dairy breeds as they cause minimum difficulties at parturition, and they could replace the Aberdeen
Angus for this purpose. In these cases the main function of a conservation policy is to establish
commercial units of these rare breeds to demonstrate their value.
Some other rare breeds possess characteristics which make them potentially valuable. White
Park cattle are an ancient breed which has been relatively unaffected by changes in fashion and
market requirements during the last three hundred years. Thus they have retained important
characteristics lost by some other breeds. They have strong colour marking, good growth rate,
longevity and great vigour. Wensleydale sheep, although used very little now in their original
role as the sire breed of prolific sheep, could find another role by virtue of the special quality of
their wool, their high growth rate and their heavily pigmented skin. For these breeds conservation
programmes should give maximum publicity and promotion to advise breeders of their qualities.
Some breeds do not appear to possess characteristics which have any commercial relevance.
Examples of these breeds were mentioned earlier, but perhaps the best example is Chillingham
cattle. Despite their apparent lack of commercial value, such breeds should be provided with
financial incentives to enable them to survive. It is possible that future market requirements,
unforeseen at this time, may enable their unique genotype to make a significant contribution to
the livestck industry. But even in the absence of this justification, their conservation on the
grounds that they are an integral part of national heritage and history should be sufficient reason.

Methodology
In Great Britain the programme of rare breeds’ support is implemented in three stages, namely
conservation, evaluation and education.
1. Conservation is concerned mainly with the identification of problems and the
implementation of both emergency and long-term solutions. The main aspects of this programme
are:
a. A survey of rare breed populations carried out triennially.
b. Identification of immediate problems by liaison with breed societies and breeders.
c. Identification of potential problems by monitoring the status of individual bloodlines and
of levels of inbreeding within each breed.
d. Immediate solutions provided mainly by financial incentives for specific activities including
Al programmes, publication of herd and flock books, importation of livestock, and stud
premiums.
e. Long-term solutions provided by programmes such as:
(1) Gene bank of frozen semen and embryos
(2) Creation of new breeding units
(3) Approval of breeding centres
2. Evaluation is necessary if rare breeds are to be used in the future. It is necessary to know
the characteristics of the breeds which are maintained either as live populations or in gene banks.
Various evaluation projects and trials have been undertaken including the following:
a. Multibreed trials at the Animal Breeding Research Organisation in Scotland to evaluate
breeds for efficiency of production.
b. White Park cattle trials by Livestock Improvement Services in England which showed
White Park bulls to be superior to Welsh Black and Hereford for crossing with dairy
cattle.
c. Heavyweight lamb production trials by the Royal Agricultural Society of England which
showed the Oxford Down to be superior for this performance characteristic.
d. Evaluation of Soay sheep which showed their high efficiency of production when crossed
with rams of a Down breed.

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e. Polyunsaturated fats. The carcasses of animals of unimproved primitive breeds appear to

contain less saturated fat.
f. Polymorphisms. A study of blood types and chromosome structure helps to show the
relationship between breeds. For example, the British White has a high frequency of the
1,29 translocation, while it is absent from the White Park although the two breeds are the
same colour.
g. A Register of Congenital Defects is maintained. Defects are potentially much more
dangerous in a small population and need to be monitored carefully. Several defects have
been identified, including split eyelid in multihorned sheep (Jacob, Hebridean, Manx
Loghtan) and entropion in Cotswold sheep.
3. Education is a necessary support for both the conservation and education programmes.
Genetic conservation and the maintenance of native minority breeds have been neglected by
livestock breeders and farmers in modern times, because they have been concerned with the
intensive selection of a small number of breeds for high levels of production. With the realization
that genetic variation is necessary for ongoing progress, and that efficiency of production is
more important than total production, a programme of re-education to make breeders aware of
the merits of minority breeds has been undertaken.
Education is provided in three main ways:
a. Technical meetings and seminars which are held regularly throughout the year.
b. Symposia and specialist conferences to discuss in detail major projects and new
developments.
c. A technical consultant who conducts a series of breeders’ workshops, prepares breeding
pro .grammes, maintains an information bank, and designs the overall strategy of
conservation policy.
The result of these programmes is that out of almost 50 rare breeds in Great Britain, only two
have decreased in numbers in the past ten years.

RARE BREEDS OF LARGE LIVESTOCK IN GREAT BRITAIN

Cattle:
Belted Galloway, British White, Dexter, Gloucester, Irish Moyled, Kerry, Longhorn, Northern
Dairy Shorthorn, Red Poll, Shetland, White Galloway, White Park, Whitebred Shorthorn.
Sheep:
Cotswold, Hebridean, Leicester Longwool, Lincoln Longwool, Manx Loghtan, North
Ronaldsay, Oxford Down, Portland, Ryeland, Shetland, Shropshire, Soay, Wensleydale,
Whitefaced Woodland, Wiltshire Horn.
Goats:
Bagot, Golden Guernsey.
Horses:
Caspian, Cleveland Bay, Clydesdale, Dales Pony, Exmoor Pony, Fell Pony, Suffolk.
Pigs:
Berkshire, British Lop, British Saddleback, Gloucester Old Spots, Large Black, Middle White,
Tamworth.
 37

NEWS ITEMS
FAO/UNEP ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES DATA BANKS - A PROGRESS
REPORT
An outline of the work being undertaken on this subject was given in the last issue of AGRI
(No. 3). This note briefly brings the latest news. The Pilot Trials to investigate a methodology
for preparing genetic characterizations of indigenous breeds of livestock and poultry in Africa,
Asia and Latin America were concluded at the end of 1984. Regional evaluation meetings were
held in Bangkok for the trials in Malaysia, Sri Lanka and Thailand, and in Maracay for the trials
ia Mexico and Venezuela. The trials in Africa were of a different nature, since a regional planning
meeting was held in 1983, which resulted in individual scientists working on the subject. Their
reports were received in 1984.
A consultant expert in computer system analysis was present at the regional evaluation
meetings. lie subsequently worked on the experiences gained in each region, and made
recommendations on the most suitable hardware and software for data danks on animal genetic
resources.
The recommendations from the regional evaluations and from Africa were then studied, and
compiled by two experts with the aim of taking all the desirable features from each trial and
compiling them into a uniform system suitable for global use. FAO/ UNEP have been committed
to the definition of such a unified methodology for data banks for animal genetic resources. This
is needed to achieve the objectives of making genetic characterizations available to users
throughout the world in an easily accessible form, without loss of any important information.
The two experts are Mr. John Turton, DiFector of the Commonwealth Bureau of Animal Breeding
and Genetics in the UK, who worked with the mammalian species, and Dr. Roy Crawford,
Professor in the University of Saskatchewan, Canada, who worked with domestic bird species.
These two experts produced draft Descriptor Lists for each species and also draft Descriptors
for the Environments. With experience coming from 3 regions of the world and from the many
scientists who had worked on the Pilot Trials, they had a wealth of information from many
natural environments and different management systems. These, together with a recommended
methodology for the Data Bank and the recommendations of the systems analyst, were presented
to an FAO/UNEP Expert Consultation which was held in Rome from 17 to 21 June 1984. At this
Consultation, experts in each species and with interests in different parts of the world, and
connections with regional animal genetics and production professional societies, considered
these draft descriptor lists and methodology with the aim of defining the approved FAO/UNEP
methodology. A full report of the recommendations of the Expert Consultation will be given in
the next issue of AGRI.

PRZEWALSKI’S HORSE
The Przewalski Horse (Equus Przewalskii), also known as the Mongolian Wild Horse, was
first described by the Russian Zoologist Poliakov in 1881, who named the horse after Colonel
Nikolai Przewalski, a Polish-born soldier in the Czar’s army. Colonel Przewalski had obtained
the skull and skin of a wild horse in the Mongolian District of Kobdo. Przewalski’s Horse is the
only true wild horse. The feral horses of the world are all derived from the domestic horses
(Equus caballus). The last confirmed sightings of the Przewalski Horse in the wild in Mongolia
were in the 1960s. Fortunately, living Przewalski’s Horses were brought from the wild in Mongolia
from 1899 onwards, and in 1980 there were 388 animals in captivity in some 70 institutions
throughout the USSR, Europe and North America. Many of these are in zoos in small numbers.
The largest group is at Askaniya Nova, a nature reserve in the Ukraine (USSR), comprising
about 55 animals in a semi-wild state. A herdbook is maintained by Dr. Jiri Volf at the Prague

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Zoo, and pedigree information exists on all animals. All the Przewalski Horses now in captivity
derive from twelve E. przewalski and one E. caballus. The percentage contribution of each
founder can be traced in each currently living animal.
The Government of the Mongolian People’s Republic have requested restoration of the
Przewalski’s Horse to Mongolia in the area from which it came. FAO and UNEP are cooperating
with the Government of the USSR to draw up an Action Plan to achieve this. Funding is being
provided by UNEP and FAO is responsible, with the Centre for International Projects of the
USSR for the organization of an Expert Consultation to design the Action Plan. IUCN, who
have promoted much recent work with Przewalski’s Horse, are also involved in the programme
design. The Expert Consultation is planned for Moscow at the end of May 1985. A report of the
Expert Consultation and the Action Plan will be given in the next issue of AGRI.

MOST THREATENED ANIMALS

According to a report in The Times of London of 17 November 1984, the International Union
for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) at its meeting held recently in Madrid, highlighted the grave
situation with regard to certain plant and animal species threatened with extinction. Among the
six “most threatened” animals listed by them were the Kouprey wild ox of Southeast Asia and
the Pygmy hog of the Himalayan foothills; others being the Sumatran rhinoceros, the
Mediterranean monk seal, Orinoco crocodile and the Brazilian wooly spider monkey. The Kouprey
ox, which has dwindled in numbers to only one small herd after Indo-China’s various wars, is
believed to be resistant to rinderpest. If this could be confirmed, the disappearance of this breed
is a matter of genuine concern. It may interest AGRI readers to know that the Kouprey ox is a
humpl6ss animal which is classified in the sub-genus Bibos along with the Banteng - the wild
ancestor of Bali cattle in Indonesia. When interbred with domestic cattle, the male hybrids will
therefore be expected to be sterile.

INTERNATIONAL GENETIC RESOURCES PROGRAMME

The IGRP was founded by the Rural Advancement Fund International to address the problem
of the loss of genetic resources in plants and animals. (The RAFI is a nonprofit organization
chartered in the Netherlands.) Work to date includes the following:
• Initiation of educational campaigns on the loss of genetic diversity in agriculture.
• Promotion of the establishment of an international network of gene banks and a legal
convention mandating the full exchange of genetic materials between countries.
• Support of national groups in several countries in their efforts to block legislative moves
that would encourage the monopolization of genetic resources.
• Assistance to organizations around the world in their efforts to initiate genetic resources
education and conservation programmes.
• Publication (shortly) of a book on the politics of genetic resources.
• Production of a slide show on the loss of genetic resources.
IGRP Report, Vol. 1, No. 2 was published in October 1984. Most of its 6 pages are devoted
to plants. In fact there are only two references to animals - a short paragraph about the work of
the Rare Breeds Survival Trust in the UK and a note about a herd of Belted Galloway cattle in the
USA.
IGRP also has a speakers’ bureau and undertakes consulting work on special projects.
For further information write to: IGRP, RRI (Beresford), Brandon, Manitoba R7A 5YI, Canada,
or P.O. Box 1029, Pittsboro, NC 27312, USA.

The background information given here derives from “Guidelines for the Development of a Captive Management and
Reintroduction Plan for Equus Przewalskii”, which is a report by the Przewalski Horse Committee of the IUCN Survival
Service Commission Captive Breeding Specialist Group, July 1982.1
 39

ANIMAL PRODUCTION IN ARID ZONES

The Animal Science Division of the Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands
(ACSAD) is planning an international conference on animal production in dry zones to be held
in its headquarters in Damascus from 7-12 September 1985. It will cover sheep, goats, cattle
and camels and the disciplines of breeding, nutrition, reproduction, socio-economics, animal
health and management. For further information write to: Dr. Ousama A. Awa, Director, Animal
Science Division,,ACSAD, P.O. Box 2440, Damascus, Syria.

N’DAMA CALVES BY EMBRYO TRANSFER

Embryo transfer technique has been successful in introducing the trypanotolerant N’dama
breed to the International Laboratory for Research on Animal Diseases (ILRAD) located in
Kenya. This technique was resorted to, because not only is live animal transfer expensive but
animal health regulations also restrict the movement of animals from West Africa to Kenya.
N’dama embryos were obtained from selected donors in The Gambia, frozen and then shipped to
Kenya where they were surgically transferred to Boran recipient heifers. These animals will be
used at ILRAD to elucidate the mechanisms underlying resistance to trypanosomiasis including
a search for associated genetic markers.

INTERNATIONAL CENTRE FOR GENETIC ENGINEERING AND

BIOTECHNOLOGY
Since our report in the Animal Genetic Resources Information issue 1/84 on the proposals for
setting up an International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, further
developments have taken place. At a plenipotentiary meeting of the United Nations Industrial
Development Organization held in April 1984, it was decided to set up the centre with locations
in Trieste, Italy and New Delhi, India. The Italian Government is providing US$ 400 000 to a
UNIDO trust fund to finance a number of preparatory research, training and development activities
in addition to its offer of considerable financial assistance in the establishment of the centre.

FROZEN EMBRYOS AS CONTROLS IN A BEEF CATTLE BREEDING

PROGRAMME
An interesting experiment has been designed using frozen embryos at the Wokalup Research
Station in Western Australia to study the genetic response in a beef cattle selection programme.
The first phase of this experiment which involves freezing embryos from 130 cattle of the Wokalup
multi-breed and Hereford purebreds is now complete. These embryos will be kept frozen for 10
years and transferred to recipients to obtain calves in 1994. The frozen embryo calves which
will be genetically similar to calves born in 1984, when compared with contemporary calves
born in 1994 out of normal matings will give an estimate of the selection response during that
period.

PRO SPECIE RARA

The foundation “Pro Specie Rara” was formed in December 1982. It has as its aim the
maintenance of the cultural heritage of genetic resources of livestock and vegetation. At present
its field of action is chiefly in eastern Switzerland. Its first annual report, for the year 1982/83,
describes projects on the Stiefelgeiss (Booted goat) of St. Gallen, on the Hinterwalder cattle of
Germany, on local sheep breeds (particularly the Tavetscherschaf which was believed extinct),
on the Spitzhauben hen and on fruit and vegetables. Conservation herds of Stiefelgeiss and
Hinterwiilder cattle are maintained. The address for further information is: Pro Specie Rara,
Postfach 125, 9003 St. Gallen, Switzerland.

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PIG NEWS
Two publications which may be of interest to animal breeders and geneticists working with
pigs are: (i) Index of Current Research on Pigs; and (ii) Pig News and Information. Both are
published by the Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux in the UK. The Index is published
annually, and the current issue (No. 31) covers the year 1984 and contains more than 6000
entries from 52 countries listing projects in progress and publications from about 450 institutions,
including for the first time the People’s Republic of China. Pig News and Information is published
quarterly and has the pig abstracts from all the CAB abstracting journals, together with reviews
and notes from correspondents. Although both publications cover all aspects of pigs, they include,
of course, the breeding and genetic aspects.
 41

REPORTS OF MEETINGS
WORKSHOP ON GENETIC MANAGEMENT OF CAPTIVE POPULATIONS
The purpose of this workshop, held at the Smithsonian Institution’s National Zoological Park,
Front Royal, Virginia, USA, from 7 to 10 August 1984, was to discuss and disseminate information
on genetic management of captive populations with particular relevance to populations of zoo
animals. It was specifically concerned with several controversial subjects which emerged at the
1982 Man and Biosphere Conference on “The Application of Genetics to the Management of
Wild Plant and Animal Populations” (published as Schonewald-Cox et al. (eds.) 1983. “Genetics
and Conservation”. Benjamin/ Cummings Publishing Co.). The topics covered overlap the field
of interest of the FAO/UNEP Joint Panel of Experts on Animal Genetic Resources Conservation
and Management. A major emphasis was on the genetic management of captive populations of
endangered species.
There were 38 invited paricipants at the workshop, representing a mixture of geneticists and
zoo personnel. The participants were predominantly from the USA, but included people from
Australia, United Kingdom and Federal Republic of Germany.
The meeting consisted of five Current Issue Panel sessions and several Research Reports.
Flesness set the scene by describing the “Background and Perspectives” of the workshop.
Under the heading “Coadapted Gene Complexes and Population Boundaries” the first panel
dealt with the questions:
How important is local adaptation in vertebrates?
How can we define population boundaries?
What are the Probable consequences of management at various taxonomic levels?
A highlight of this session was Templeton’s contribution describing methods for .distinguishing
between outbreeding depression and inbreeding depression.
The second panel considered “Fitness/Genetic Diversity Relationship”, addressing the
questions:
Is individual fitness a function of heterozygosity?
Is future population fitness a function of the number of alleles preserved?
There was considerable controversy on these points and little in the way of consensus emerged.
“Selection in Captive Populations” was the topic for the third panel. They discussed the
questions:
What kind of unconscious selection occurs? What are its effects?
Should we select for inbreeding tolerance? If so, when?
Should we select for genetic diversity?
Should we select for phenotype?
Should we minimize known selection?
A high degree of agreement was reached on these subjects. This was a result of recognizing
that genetic management of populations depends crucially on the types of populations being
managed and the objectives of the management. Consequently, the answers to the above questions
depended on the type of population being considered, whether a common species for display, an
endangered species for long term conservation, a rare species for multiplication and immediate
release back into the wild, or a species not yet capable of self-sustaining reproduction in captivity.
“The Zoo Ark: Population Size and Time Frame of Consideration” was the topic for the
fourth panel. The questions addressed were:
How long is the voyage?
How many animals per cabin?
The main issue here was the vexing problem of setting priorities in assigning space to species
in zoos.

AGRI 4
42

“Breeding Plans” was the subject considered by the fifth panel. They discussed the questions:
What breeding plans are available for captive populations?
How do goals affect breeding plans?
How do practical constraints limit breeding plans?
A feature of this session was Lande’s reassessment of the population size required to maintain
genetic variation. He also recommended that some inbred matings be allowed in order tQ control
the genetic load.
Research Reports dealt with recent evidence relevant to genetic management of captive
populations. Ryder spoke about “Mitochondrial DNA and chromosomal analyses”, with major
emphasis on the use of these techniques to resolve cases of taxonomic confusion. Cothran
described “Genetic variation and inbreeding in Standardbred horses” and Murray documented
the “Effects of inbreeding in Australian budgerigars”. The most novel of the research reports
was that by Newman from S.J. O’Brien’s laboratory, describing the extremely low levels of
genetic variation in S. African cheetahs. Papers of a mainly theoretical nature were given by
Dyke, MacCluer, Thompson and Meyers.
The meeting was well organized and stimulating with contributions being of a very high
quality. A notable feature of the workshop was the excellent rapport between geneticists and zoo
personnel.
The proceedings of the meeting are due to appear in Zoo Biology in mid 1985, probably as a
supplementary issue. They should be of interest to anyone with an interest in conservation
genetics.
 43

RECENT PUBLICATIONS
PROCEEDINGS OF INTERNATIONAL SEMINAR ON SHEEP AND WOOL, 14-16
MARCH 1982, ISLAMABAD. PAKISTAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH COUNCIL,
1983.
A reference to this seminar has already been made in AGRI 1/83 where the recommendation
to collect information on local sheep breeds was highlighted. The proceedings have now been
published and they include, in addition to the recommendations, the full text of the technical
papers and discussions. The whole range of breeding, feeding, management, health, research,
extension and training was covered by the seminar, but the papers of most interest to readers of
AGRI are: General patterns of production, breeds, management, disease, nutrition, performance
and problems, by Abdul Wahid; Breeding plans, by Helen Newton Turner.
It should be mentioned that a 30-page pamphlet describing the sheep breeds of Pakistan was
distributed at the meeting but not included in the proceedings.

CAMEL NEWSLETTER (CNL)

In April 1984, the Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and Dry Lands (ACSAD) published
the first issue of “Camel Newsletter”. Apart from introduction and editorial matter the newsletter
contains the following material:
1. News and notes. News of five participants at the Camel Workshop held in-Khartoum in
1979 and of research in a number of countries.
2. Book reviews. the following recent books are reviewed:
Bulliet R.W. 1975. The Camel and the Wheel. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass.
IFS. 1980. Workshop on Camels, Khartoum 18-20 December 1979. Provisional Report.
International Foundation for Science (Stockholm) and National Council for Research
(Khartoum).
Mukasa-Mugerwa E. 1981. The Camel (Camelus dromedarius): a bibliographical review.
International Livestock Centre for Africa, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia.
Gauthier-Pilters H. and Dagg A.I. 1981. The Camel: its evolution, ecology, behaviour and
relationship to man. Chicago University Press.
Farid M.F.A. 1981. Camelids Bibliography. ACSAD, Damascus.
Wilson R.T. 1984. The Camel. Longman, London and New York.
The last book was reviewed in AGRI 2/84.
3. Work on camels at ACSAD. A study of the potential for development of camels in seven
Arab countries has been published in Arabic. Likewise a pre-feasibility study of camel
ranching in the Sudan. A study on forage preferences of camels and other animals in three
Arab countries has been started. The bibliography mentioned above has been published
and will be updated in the successive issues of CNL.
4. Scientific article on camel diseases in northern Kenya.
5. Updating of the Camelids Bibliography. Eightyfour new articles are listed.
6. French and Arabic summaries.
This is an extremely timely addition to the world’s publications which should be in the hands
of everyone concerned with or interested in camels. It is to be published twice a year and can be
obtained at a price of US$ 5 per year from: The Arab Centre for the Studies of Arid Zones and
Dry Lands, P.O. Box 2440, Damascus.

AGRI 4
44

CONSERVATION OF THE KENANA AND BUTANA BREEDS (CONSULTANT’S

REPORT TO FAO).
The FAO/UNEP Technical Consultation of 1980 recommended that Member Governments
should include in their development programme a component for the development and
conservation of local breeds. One of the first to be included in such a programme is the Kenana
cattle breed of the Sudan. Dr. E.P. Cunningham of the Agricultural Institute of Ireland was
appointed as a consultant by FAO. The Kenana and Butana are zebu breeds found chiefly in the
Kassala, Blue Nile, Gezira and White Nile provinces. This is a low rainfall savanna region
which includes some irrigated areas. There are about 3 million Kenana and 1.7 million Butana
cattle. The consultant’s first decision was that any scheme should be restricted to the Kenana
which is more numerous and which is the breed involved in the urban areas and on the main
irrigation schemes. Resources should not at this stage be spread over two breeds. The various
production systems are classified. At one end of the scale are nomadic and transhumant systems.
It is concluded that interference with the breeding patterns in these sectors is neither feasible nor
desirable. At the other end of the scale, Kenana cattle are involved in crossbreeding and upgrading
programmes related to the developing commercial dairy sector. This section of the breed is
therefore not suitable for a conservation programme. The conservation scheme should be
concentrated on those sections of the breed which are maintained in relatively settled conditions
but which are not involved in commercial milk production. Conservation without improvement
is self-defeating so an improvement programme, mainly-for milk production, is outlined. The
essence of the scheme is an open nucleus breeding stucture, with an annual round of selection in
a government station based on careful and extensive recording, and supplemented by an annual
round of selection in village herds. The field selection would dr4ft in annually about 20 females
to the nucleus herd. The station selection would be based primarily on fat-corrected milk
production; that in the field would depend on eye evaluation by an expert inspector combined
with body measurement and trial milking. The feeding level at the station must be sufficient to
allow an effective selection programme. Such a scheme, if consistently applied, should create a
nucleus and a surrounding zone of improved Kenana cattle which would enhance the competitive
position of the breed and therefore be a strong guarantee of its conservation in the long term.
This scheme could well be a pilot development which could be followed in other developing
countries where conditions are similar.

PRODUCTION POTENTIAL OF THE LIVESTOCK INDUSTRY: HAVE GENETIC

LIMITS BEEN REACHED?
A symposium with this title was presented at the Canadian Society of Animal Science (Western
Branch) on 14 June 1983. Three papers were published in the Canadian Journal of Animal
Science, Vol. 64 (1984) as follows.
In “Selection limits: Have they been reached with the dairy cow?” (pp. 207-215), B.W. Kennedy
concludes that selection limits for increased milk production have not been reached nor will they
be in the foreseeable future. In fact the rate of genetic improvement for milk production is
actually accelerating, contrary to genetic theory, apparently due to the increased genetic variability
caused by improved management. Genetic antagonism between milk yield and fitness traits
could eventually impose a limit to selection for milk production but can probably be overcome
by further improvements in management.
In “Selection limits: Have they been reached in the poultry industry?” (pp. 217-221), Peter
Hunton points out that selection for growth and conformation in turkeys has been so effective
that they can no longer mate naturally. In chickens reproduction has not been so badly affected
but there is room for improvement. Increased fat deposition is another unwanted side effect of
selection for growth rate. Selection programmes for egg production are concerned with multiple
 45

objectives; therefore selection intensity for any one has not been so high as for meat birds. Rate
of egg production at time of maximum lay is approaching a physiological limit but not necessarily
a genetic one.
Persistency of lay still shows potential for further improvement. No genetic limit has been
reached for egg weight, egg interval, or shell quality. Genetic resistance to Marek’s disease
affords scope for further improvement. In general, genetic variability is not exhausted.
In “Selection limits: Have they been reached with pigs?” (pp. 223-234), H.T. Fredeen states
that no insurmountable genetic or physiological limits have been encountered in unidirectional
experiments with pigs. While selection limits appear unlikely to compromise within-herd
responses to sustained unidirectional selection, the universal adoption of specific criteria of
performance merit, by fostering the progressive elimination of individual herds and breeds,
diminishes the genetic flexibility of the population and restricts its potential to respond rapidly
to changing production requirements.

ASSESSMENT AND CONSERVATION OF ANIMAL GENETIC RESOURCES IN

CANADA, BY R.D. CRAWFORD. CANADIAN JOURNAL’OF ANIMAL SCIENCE
64:235-251. (1984)
This review is based on two surveys made by the author, one during 1979-80 of purebred
poultry breeding stocks maintained in Canada, the other, in 1980, of rare and feral domestic
animal stocks in Canada and the United States. Both have been updated to 1983. Use is also
made of the inventory of avian and mammalian breeding stocks held at universities and research
laboratories in Canada and published annually by the Canadian Council on Animal Care. A
large part of this review is devoted to poultry. The six industrial poultry breeders in Canada in
1979-80 are listed. Two breed ducks, three turkeys and one chickens. Seven middle-level chicken
breeders are listed together with one turkey breeder and four breeders of ducks and/or geese.
There are many hobbyists with fancy breeds of chicken but they contribute little to conservation
since they are more concerned with perpetuation of the phenotype than of the genotype. Loss of
poultry genetic resources has been extreme: industrial stocks are dangerously close to being
monotypic and midle-level stocks have nearly disappeared. Three conservation collections exist
at public institutions - Japanese quail at the University of British Columbia, fancy chicken breeds
at the Nova Scotia Agricultural College and middle-level stocks and single-gene mutations at
the University of Saskatchewan.
There are three rare breeds of horse - the feral horse of Sable Island, the native Newfoundland
pony and the Canadian horse. There are two cattle breeds of interest, namely the Texas Longhorn
used as a range sire to reduce the incidence of dystocia in first-calf heifers, and the Canadian
breed for which the official policy of the breed society is to grade up to the Brown Swiss. There
is tremendous genetic diversity in beef breed resources but erosion of dairy breeds has been
extreme and monotypy of Holsteins is approaching. There are many sheep breeds available but
the sheep industry is not large. Goats are not numerous but include many unimproved goats and
feral populations on islands as well as the Swiss breeds. Among pigs the monopoly of the
Yorkshire has been broken but an increasing proportion of breeding animals comes from the
industrial breeding companies. Minor breeds such as the Berkshire and Tamworth have become
very rare. The Canadian Eskimo Dog has been saved from extinction. Public agencies must
assume increasing responsibility for conservation and their interest is shown by the establishment
of an ad hoc Committee on Preservation of Animal Genetic Resources.

AGRI 4
46

GOAT PRODUCTION IN THE TROPICS. 2nd edition. C. Devendra and Marca

Burns. Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, Farnham Royal, Bucks., England.
183 pp. 1983
Since the publication of the first edition of this book in 1970 there has been increasing interest
in the goat and a vast amount of research on this species has been published. The extensive
bibliography (25 pp), while not excluding important earlier papers, is largely devoted to this
more recent material and it is all carefully summarized in the text. However, the book is not
merely a review of published papers; it draws heavily on the authors’ personal experiences and
the chapters on feeding, hubandry, genetics and economics include a series of practical
conclusions. The scope of the book is wider than the title indicates - it -covers the subtropics as
well as the tropics - and the extent of the subjects included is shown by the chapter headings
Classification, distribution and importance; Breeds; Variation in size; Meat production; Milk
production; Reproductive performance; Feeding and nutrition; Skin and hair production;
Husbandry for improved production; Genetic improvement; Economic potential and prospects.
The chapter on breeds includes short descriptions and photographs of 11 breeds in Africa, 6 in
the Near and Middle East, 17 in the Indo-Pakistan sub-continent, 5 in eastern Asia and the
Pacific, 3 in tropical America and 4 from Europe which are bred in the tropics. In the subsequent
chapters their productive performances are compared. The chapter on economics makes a
convincing case for the goat as a more economic animal than the cow for milk production in
many tropical situations. Altogether an invaluable reference and textbook.

FUTURE DEVELOPMENTS IN THE GENETIC IMPROVEMENT OF ANIMALS.

Edited by J.S.F. Barker, Keith Hammond and A.E. McClintock. Academic Press,
Sydney, New York and London. 228 pp. 1982
This book consists of the 12 invited papers presented by 15 invited scientists from Australia,
New Zealand, Norway and UK at a symposium held at the University of New England, Armidale,
Australia, in February 1982. It also includes short summaries of the discussions. The scope of
the papers and discussions is indicated by the titles of the sections of the meeting, namely: A
general view of animal breeding, Molecular genetics, Immunogenetics, Reproductive biology,
Economic aspects of developing breeding objectives, Mixed model theory, Population size and
Electronics. The objective of the symposium was to project, from current knowledge, those
areas where the most important developments in the application of genetics and associated
disciplines could and should take place. Some exciting possibilities are considered in the various
papers and discussions but there are few recipes which can be applied at once in animal breeding
programmes. Most of the conclusions suggest important lines of research rather than immediate
applications of current knowledge. Areas which show the most immediate promise are: the
application of molecular genetics to gene manipulation in the rumen microflora, breeding for
disease resistance, selection for specific components of the reproductive cycle, a reconsideration
of the effect of population size - more smaller Drogrammes may be preferable to few large ones.
Definitely a book for research workers rather than for those concerned with development
programmes.

SHEEP AND MAN. M.L. Ryder. Duckworth, London. 846 pp. 1983
This is a truly stupendous collection of facts about sh@ep in relation to man. It is an
encyclopaedic history of domestic-sheep from the time of first domestication up to the present
and with a glance into the future. The first part (“Ancient Times”) is treated chronologically and
the four chapters deal with: The biology of sheep and their domestication, Prehistoric sheep,
Ancient civilizations and the Early Middle Ages. The second part, which occupies half the
book, covers the Middle Ages to modern times. It is dealt with geographically, region by region.
 47

The third part which is titled “The association of man with sheep” integrates various topics in
the rest of the book under the headings “Sheep husbandry”, “Sheep products” and “The sheep
legacy”. The list of references occupies 28 pages.
The book is lavishly illustrated with over 350 figures including maps, diagrams, photographs
and illustrations of sheep in the form of sculptures, MS illuminations, paintings, etc. This last
group (or most of them) are listed, together with many not reproduced in this book, in an appendix
which gives details of sheep illustrations from prehistory, ancient civilizations and Europe.
With such a wide scope and with such detailed accounts the book is an excellent source of
information about breeds of sheep, as well as husbandry methods and trade, in many times and
places. Given the author’s special field it is naturally strongest on all aspects of fleece and wool.
Of course, a few errors have crept in and sometimes the source of information has not been the
most recent but it would be churlish to complain about minor details in a work of this magnitude.
However perhaps the publisher and printer should be criticized for the poor standard of
reproduction of some of the figures.

EVOLUTION OF DOMESTICATED ANIMALS. Edited by I.L. Mason. Longman,

London. 1984.
This is a reference book intended to be a companion volume to that on evolution of crop
plants. It is an authoritative reference book with contributions from authors of varied interests.
There are zoologists, veterinarians, anthropologists, geneticists and animal husbandry specialists
among the authors. Although having different interests and backgrounds, the authors have
attempted to maintain a certain amount of uniformity in presentation. Thus, the chapters dealing
with the major livestock species have sections on taxonomy and distribution of the wild ancestors
followed by the archaeology, history, genetics and breeding of the domestic descendants. Naturally
the coverage is far more extensive for the livestock species and others of importance to man,
such as poultry, dogs, bees and silkworms than for animals of lesser economic importance. Thus
of the 69 chapters, mostly on individual species and a few groups, the thirteen chapters on the
important species occupy nearly forty percent of the book.
Domesticated animals in the context of this book include a greater variety of animals than
those usually relevant in animal production. The criteria considered to characterize domestication
were human control of breeding, usefulness to man, tameness and selection away from the wild
type. However as the editor points out, not all animals included in the book satisfied these
criteria. Regulation of breeding is perhaps the most important aspect of domestication, but in a
number of species such as the reindeer, elephant, crocodile or even the cat, there is hardly any
control of breeding although with some as in the elephant, some attempts are being made at
controlled breeding.
The arrangement of the book with chapters devoted to species within families, orders and
phyla does not permit a discussion of the general pattern of domest ‘ ication or the changes that
occur with domestication in species belonging to different orders or even phyla. However, an
aspect of domestication that occurred in most species whose breeding was controlled, was that
of reproductive isolation of a “founder” group from the wild population. The restriction imposed
by sampling limited the genetic variability of the founder gtoup which thus possessed only a
complement of the total genetic diversity of the wild population. Selection by man decreased
this variability even further which led to the creation of species leading in some cases, such as
the dog, to changes very much different from the morphology and behaviour of the wild ancestor.
Another feature that seems to have occurred in the mammalian species that underwent
domestication is reduction in size. Thus, one finds a progressive reduction in size of cattle from
the Neolithic age through the Copper and Bronze ages to the Iron age. Similar decline in size
occurred with the Bali cattle domesticated from the Banteng and the mithan from the gaur.

AGRI 4
48

Presumably, the decline in size was a result of selection for animals that were easily manageable
and also less demanding in their feed requirements which is important when animals which
were freely roaming were kept in captivity.
Conservationists would find it interesting to note that the reasons adduced for an increase or
decrease in population of some breeds even during the early days of domestication were economic
which is true even today for breeds threatened with extinction. It is sobering to learn that had
France and Italy decided to use machinery for traction earlier than they did, their draught breeds
would probably have become extinct and we would not have the large beef breeds such as the
French Charolais and the Limousine or the Italian Marchigiana and Romagnola which are so
much in demand today for terminal crossing in beef breeding programmes. Another interesting
example of an animal that is in demand today but was nearly extinct some time ago is the Pietrain
pig from Belgium. This lean animal was not valuable commercially when fat was at a premium,
as during the second world war. However, it is highly valued today as a crossing sire due to its
extremely muscular carcass. Other pig breeds, which though not endangered but possess valuable
traits that can be exploited in other regions, are those of central and southern China which are
adapted to converting water plants and other vegetables to fat.
The coverage of this book is very wide and most people concerned with animals and their
evolution to domestication will find material of interest. Animal scienists will perhaps not find
much new material on the general biology of the domestic animals but will find several interesting
pieces of information on other species. Each chapter ends with a section devoted to future
prospects and it. was interesting for the reviewer to find that genetic engineering techniques
have reached an advanced stage in the silkworm moth whose fibroin gene had been successfully
cloned in bacterial cells.
The book covers mammals, rodents, birds, reptiles, amphibians, fishes, insects, crustaceans
and molluscs. Understandably, most of the book is devoted to mammals with 41 chapters while
on birds there are 15, 6 on fishes, 2 each on insects and molluscs and I each on reptiles, amphibians
and crustaceans. The introductory chapter on “The beginnings of animal domestication” provides
an interesting account of the reasons for domestication and also attempts to look into the future.
Taxonomy and nomenclature which are confusing at present because of the existence of different
scientific names for wild and domestic forms of some animals but not for others are treated in an
appendix and some suggestions made.
The book does not have any photographs but there are a number of maps and diagrams
illustrating the distribution and migratory pattern of animals. There are two separate indices,
one for common and the other for scientific names of animals.
The book may be too expensive for individual pockets. However, it is certainly an important
reference book for zoologists, anthropologists and animal scientists and should therefore be
available in libraries.