GRADE 9/NATURAL SCIENCES STUDY NOTE

GRADE 9 NATURAL SCIENCES

TERM ONE CONTENT
Formal Comp Curriculum
Dates Contexts according to Strands
Assessment leted Coverage %
15 Jan – 17 Jan Cells as basic units of life (Cell structure, Differences between plants and animal cells) √ 2.7%
20 Jan – 24 Jan Draw and label a generalised Plant and Animal cells. Cells in tissues, organs, and systems 5.4%
Overview of systems in the Human body (Nervous, Muscular-skeletal, Excretory systems)
27 Jan – 31 Jan 8.1%
/Only the Overview and purpose of the above system/
Systems in the human body: Circulatory & Respiratory: Overview, purpose, components, √
03 Feb – 07 Feb 10.8%
processes & health issues
Systems in the human body: Circulatory & Respiratory: Breathing, gaseous exchange,
10 Feb – 14 Feb 13.5%
circulation & respiration. Label respiratory.
Human Reproduction system: Overview, purpose, components, processes & health issues.
17 Feb – 21 Feb 16.2%
Purpose & puberty, Reproductive organs,
√
24 Feb – 28 Feb Human Reproduction system: Stages of reproduction, Label the reproductive system. 18.9%
03 Mar– 07 Mar Digestive system: Overview, purpose, components, processes & health issues, Healthy diet 21.6%
10 Mar – 14 Mar Digestive system: The alimentary canal and digestion, Label digestive system. 25.0%
√
17 Mar – 21 Mar REVISION AND FORMAL ASSESSMENT (CONTROLLED TEST)
24 Mar – 28 Mar CONTROLLED TEST (TERM 1 CONTENT ONLY)

LIFE/NATURAL SCIENCES INVESTIGATION SKILLS

VARIABLES
These are factors that might change in the cause of an experiment/investigation.

Types of variables:

The dependent variable (EFFECT) – a factor that is measured by the investigator.

• It is represented on the y-axis

The independent variable (CAUSE) – a factor that is changed by the investigator, which has effect on
the dependent variable.
• It is represented on the x-axis

The controlled/fixed variables – factors that are to be kept the same/constant throughout the
investigation.

HYPOTHESIS
A prediction or a statement that will be the outcome of an investigation.
It is a testable statement that may be accepted or rejected.
• It shows the relationship between the two variables
• It must be testable

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AIM
It outlines what you are investigating.
Key words you can use to state/write your AIM of an investigation are:
• To determine...
• To show that...
• To investigate...
• To find out...
• To observe...
• To measure...

WHEN PREPARING FOR AN INVESTIGATION

• Seeking permission from authorities, parents and participants
• Deciding on the venue
• Deciding on sample size
• Deciding on apparatus
• Deciding on the method
• Deciding on how to collect information
• Deciding on how to record findings
• Deciding on the duration/time/date

PRECAUTIONS
These are things to do to make sure that the investigation stays on track
• How not to harm test subject
• Make sure that the study is ethical
• Make sure that results are recorded accurately
• Safety measures

VALIDITY
Refers to the experimental procedure
• It tells if the scientific research method was done with the appropriate care and
diligence.
• Were all the controlled variables kept the same or constant.

RELIABILITY
Any significant results of an investigation must be more than once-off finding and be
repeatable
• The reliability of an investigation can be improved by
▪ repeating the investigation
▪ increasing the sample size
▪ calculating the average

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Biological drawings:
You will be expected to make drawings of your observations and interpretations in Life Sciences.
• Use the following basic guidelines when you make drawings:
• Do all drawings in pencil and label them in blue or black ink.
• Drawings must be an appropriate size so that all labelled parts are clearly visible
• Label lines must be drawn with a ruler and they must not cross each other
• Label lines must point to the exact labelled part
• A drawing must have an appropriate heading

PRESENTATION OF DATA
Scientific data can be presented in various ways e.g. in the form of a table or a graph.

Tables:
• Tables are used to record the results of an investigation
• A table must have an appropriate heading
• A table is divided into rows and columns
• Each column and row may have its own heading with units if applicable.
• Rows run from left to right across the table.
• Columns are the vertical blocks of a table.
• The independent variable is normally in the left hand column
• The dependent variable is normally in the right hand column

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TYPES OF GRAPHS

Line graphs show the relationship between two types of information where the
independent variable is continuous. Line graphs are useful in showing trends over time and are often
used for biological data.

Bar graphs show different categories of data and are used when the independent variable is not a set of
continuous numbers or continuous groups (discontinuous data). They are best used to compare values
across categories.

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Histograms have connected bars displaying continuous data. They are used when the
values of the independent variables are continuous but fit into categories or groups that
follow on after each other.

Pie charts are circular charts used to compare parts of the whole. They are divided into
sectors that are equal in size to the quantity represented. They are used for discontinuous data.

Calculations
Names Ages ANGLE (360⁰)
A 25
25 × 360⁰ = 102⁰
88

B 38
38 × 360⁰ = 156⁰
88

C 15
15 × 360⁰ = 61⁰
88

D 10
10 × 360⁰ = 41⁰
88
TOTAL 88 360⁰

Guide learners to draw line graph, bar graph and pie chart with practice questions

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CELLS AS THE BASIC UNITS OF LIFE

A cell is the basic unit of life.

Functions of Cell
• Provides support and structure
• Assist in the growth of organisms by dividing themselves – mitosis.
• Take nutrients from food and convert them into energy.
• Aids in Reproduction

Cells are too small to see with a naked eye and can only be seen through a microscope (microscopic).

TYPES OF CELL
There are two (2) types of cells:
• Animal cell
• Plant cell

CELL STRUCTURE
Animal Cell Plant Cell

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE CELL

Cell membrane
A thin semi-permeable layer of protein and fat that surrounds the cell

Function
• It controls what enters and leaves the cell.

Cell wall
Cell wall is an organelle made of cellulose and only found in plant cells.

Functions
• Protects the cell organelles
• Gives the cell strength and structure or shape.

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Cytoplasm
The word “cyto” means a cell and “plasm” means a fluid.
It is a gel-like appearance mainly composed of water with enzymes, salts, organelles and organic
molecules.

Functions
• It houses the cell’s organelles
• Give shape to the cell
• Supports biochemical reactions like respiration.

Nucleus
A nucleus is an organelle that is enclosed by a membrane.
A nucleus is found in most cells except bacteria and blue green algae (found in eukaryotic cells) and is
normally the biggest organelle in the cell.

Functions:
• A nucleus contains the DNA or carries the genes of the organism, e.g. colour of the eyes etc.
• It controls and regulates the activities in the cell, e.g. growth and metabolism).

Mitochondria
Mitochondrion is an organelle with a round to oval shape.

Function
• It generates energy for the activities of the cell or release energy from food.

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Vacuole
It is an organelle in the cell filled with cell sap.

Function
• It stores water, food and metabolic waste.

Chloroplast
Chloroplast is a cell organelle found in plants, algae and cyanobacteria and more concentrated in the
leaves.
Has a high concentration of chlorophyll.
Found in plant leaves surrounded by guard cells.

Functions
• Contains chlorophyll which absorbs light energy for photosynthesis.
• Produce energy for the cell through photosynthesis.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

ANIMAL CELL PLANT CELL
Has no chloroplast Has chloroplast
Has small or no vacuole Has vacuole
Has no cell wall Has cell wall
Has an irregular shape Has a regular shape

SIMILARITIES BETWEEN PLANT AND ANIMAL CELLS

• Both have cell membrane
• Both have nucleus
• Both have mitochondria
• Both have cytoplasm

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ACTIVITY 1: CELL

1.1 Define a cell

1.2 List THREE functions of a cell

1.3 Describe the following organelles:

1.3.1 Cell membrane –

1.3.2 Cytoplasm –

1.3.3 Nucleus –

1.3.4 Mitochondria –

1.3.5 Chloroplast –

1.4 Give the functions of the following organelles:

1.4.1 Cell membrane –

1.4.2 Cell wall –

1.4.3 Cytoplasm –

1.4.4 Cell wall –

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1.4.5 Vacuole –

1.5 Tabulate THREE differences between a plant and an animal cell.

1.6 List THREE similarities between a plant and an animal cell

1.7 Draw and label a plant and an animal cell:

Plant Cell:

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Animal Cell:

CELLS IN TISSUES, ORGANS AND SYSTEMS

CELLS
A cell is defined as the smallest, basic unit of life that is responsible for all of life's processes.
The body has levels of organization that build on each other. Cells make up tissues, tissues make
up organs, and organs make up organ systems.
Unicellular organisms consist of only a single cell.
Multicellular organisms are made up of many cells.

TISSUES
Tissues are groups of similar cells that work together to perform a specific task.
Humans—and other large multicellular animals—are made up of four basic tissue types: epithelial
tissue (skin surface and intestinal linings), connective tissue (bones and tendons), muscle tissue
(cardiac and skeletal muscles), and nervous tissue (brain, spinal cord and nerves).

ORGANS
An organ is made from two or more tissues, which all work together to do a particular job.
Organs, such as the heart, the lungs, the stomach, the kidneys, the skin, and the liver, are made up of
two or more types of tissue organized to serve a particular function.
For example, the heart pumps blood, the lungs bring in oxygen and eliminate carbon dioxide, and the
skin provides a barrier to protect internal structures from the external environment.

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ORGAN SYSTEMS
Organ systems are groups of organs which work together to carry out a particular function for the
organism.
For example, the heart and the blood vessels make up the cardiovascular system. They work together to
circulate the blood, bringing oxygen and nutrients to cells throughout the body and carrying away carbon
dioxide and metabolic wastes.
Another example is the respiratory system, which brings oxygen into the body and gets rid of carbon
dioxide. It includes the nose, mouth, pharynx, larynx, trachea, and lungs.

ACTIVITY 2: CELLS IN TISSUES, ORGANS AND SYSTEMS

2.1 Describe cell size.

2.2 What is a tissue?

2.3 Describe an organ and also give FIVE examples of organs.

2.4 Identify THREE human body systems.

2.5 What is an organism?

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OBSERVING CELLS UNDER A MICROSCOPE

Microscopes are instruments that are used to look at and study objects that are too small to be seen with
the naked eye.

Electron microscope Light microscope

PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF THE LIGHT MICROSCOPE

PARTS FUNCTIONS
Eyepiece Lens: The lens at the top that you look through.
Body Tube: Connects the eyepiece to the objective lenses.
Usually you will find 3 or 4 objective lenses on a microscope.
Objective Lenses: They almost always consist of 4X, 10X, 40X and 100X
powers.
This is the part that holds the objective lenses and can be
Nosepiece: rotated to change power.
Base: The bottom of the microscope, used for support.
Arm: Supports the tube and connects it to the base
Found near the base of the microscope; makes the specimen
Light source/Mirror: easier to see.
Stage: The flat platform where you place your slides.
Stage clips: Found on the stage; hold the slides in place.
Rotating disk under the stage; different sized holes vary the
Diaphragm: intensity and size of light that is projected upward into the
slide.
Coarse adjustment knob: Large, round knob on the side of the microscope used for
focusing the specimen; it moves the stage up and down.

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Small, round knob on the side of the microscope used to fine-

Fine adjustment knob: tune the focus of your specimen after using the coarse
adjustment knob.

HOW A LIGHT MICROSCOPE WORKS

• Use lenses to make small objects appear larger
• Compound light microscope: Two lenses separated by a tube
• Lenses magnify an object by bending the light that passes through the lens
Magnification: ability to make things appear larger than they are.
The magnification of a microscope can be calculated by multiplying the power of the objective lens with
the power of the eyepiece.
For example, if the power of the objective lens is given as 4x and the power of the eyepiece is given as
10x, then total magnification is calculated as 40x.

FORMULAE

Magnification = Size of image

Size of real object

Size of real object = Size of image

Magnification

Size of image = Magnification x Size of real object

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WORKED EXAMPLES
1. A plant cell in a photograph measures 15mm across. If the actual size of the cell is 0.015mm,
what is the magnification in the photograph?

Magnification = Size of image

Size of real object
= 15mm
0.015mm
= x1000

2. The cells on the slide appear to measure 5mm with a magnification of x200.
What is the actual size of the cell in micrometres (µm)?

Size of real/actual object = Size of image

Magnification

Size of real object = 5mm

200

= 0.025 mm
This answer is in mm, where 1 mm = 1000 micrometres (µm)
To convert to µm: 0.025 x 1000 = 25 µm

ACTIVITY 3: MICROSCOPE
3.1 The diagram below is a drawing of an organelle from a ciliated cell as seen with an electron
microscope.

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Calculate the actual length of the organelle as shown by the line AB in the diagram. Express your answer
to the nearest micrometer (mm). Show your working.

3.2 The diagram below is a drawing of an alveolus together with an associated blood capillary.

The line AB in the diagram represents an actual distance of 1.5 µm. Calculate the magnification of the
drawing. Show your working.

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3.3 State the functions of the following parts of the microscope:

3.3.1 Stage: -

3.3.2 Mirror: -

3.3.3 Stage clip: -

PREPARING A WET MOUNT SLIDE (Using an Onion)

MATERIALS:
o Scalpel/knife
o Forceps
o Onion
o Dissecting needle
o Microscope slide
o Coverslips
o Medicine dropper
o Tissue paper/filter paper
o Distilled water/bottled water
o Iodine solution
o Light microscope

METHOD:
o Place a drop of water at the centre of a clean and dry microscope slide using a dropper
o Cut an onion in half and remove one layer of the cut onion
o Remove a small epidermis from the inner side of the onion
o Put the epidermis into a drop of water
o Gently and carefully lower a cover slip from one side at an angle to cover the drop of water and
onion {Reason: - to avoid trapping air bubbles unto the slide}
o Add a few drops of iodine to prepare slide at one side at one side {Reason: - the
o iodine is for staining the onion epidermis to make the parts of the cell more visible}
o Drain off all excess water and iodine from the other side using a paper towel/tissue paper

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Steps to mount a slide under a microscope:

o Use the coarse adjustment screw to raise the objective lens and body tube upwards
o Place the slide on the stage with the specimen directly over the hole on the stage
o Hold the slide firmly unto the stage with the stage clips
o Lower the low objective lens until the specimen comes into focus using the coarse adjustable
screw
o Adjust the light unto the stage using the condenser for cleaner image
o Use the adjustment screw to bring the specimen into a sharp focus
o Change the objective lenses when higher magnification of the object is needed
ACTIVITY 4: PREPARING A WET MOUNT SLIDE (Using an Onion)
4.1 In a systematic order, outline THREE methods/steps you followed to prepare the wet mount slide of
the onion cell

4.2 Why should the cover slip be lowered gently on to the specimen?

4.3 What is the function of the iodine solution in the experiment?

4.3 Which of the cells, onion or cheek cell will have a fixed shape? Give a reason for your
answer.

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SYSTEMS IN THE HUMAN BODY

Body systems
The human body comprises different systems that work together.

DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
o The purpose of the digestive system is to break down food into absorbable substances or
nutrients used by the body for growth, energy and the repair of cells.
o The processes in digestive system are ingestion (eating), digestion (breaking down), absorption
and egestion or excretion.
o The organs that are part of the digestive system are the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, liver, small
and large intestines.

TERMS:
Ingestion: - the taking in of food through the mouth
Digestion: - the breaking down of food into smaller particles for easy absorption and
assimilation
Peristalsis: -the process during which food is pushed through the alimentary canal by
waves of contraction and relaxation of the muscle wall of the alimentary canal.
Absorption: - the movement of soluble food particles through the walls of the stomach or
intestines into the blood streams.
Assimilation: - the movement of food end products of digestion to the body cells.
Egestion: - the removal of undigested food from the body through the anus.

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THE ALIMENTARY CANAL

The alimentary is just a food passage comprising the mouth, oesophagus, stomach, small intestines,
large intestine and the anus.

A. THE MOUTH
o Digestion starts in the mouth with the cutting, chewing and swallowing of food.
o The teeth cut, tear and chew the food.
o The digestion of starch takes place in the mouth.
o The tongue mixes the food with saliva.
o The food is rolled into bolus before it is swallowed.

B. OESOPHAGUS
o The oesophagus is just a passage for food.
o There is no digestion taking place in the oesophagus.
o Food move from the mouth to the stomach through the oesophagus
o The process through which the food moves through the oesophagus is known as
peristalsis.

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C. THE STOMACH
o The food enters the stomach through the pyloric valve.
o The stomach has a bag like structure.
o Once the food is in the stomach it is tuned around and mixed with gastric juice and digestive
enzymes.
o Gastric juices, also called gastric acid, are colourless liquids mainly made up of hydrochloric
acid, pepsin, rennin (found in young mammals and helps with the digestion of milk) and mucus
which are primarily responsible for breaking proteins by activating digestive enzymes.
o The food moves out of the stomach through the pyloric sphincter.
o Peristalsis helps push the food out of the stomach into the small intestines.

D. SMALL INTESTINE
o The three parts of the small intestine are the duodenum, jejunum and ileum.
o In the small intestine there are millions of tiny finger-like organelles known as the villi.
o The villi absorb the food into the blood system.

Diffusion/active transport is the process that enables humans to absorb nutrients.

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E. LARGE INTESTINE
o There is no digestion in the large intestine.
o The large intestine is storage for undigested food before it is defecated.
o Absorption of water and mineral salts also happen in the large intestine.

The two types of digestion are:

▪ Chemical digestion
▪ Mechanical digestion

CHEMICAL DIGESTION
o Chemical digestion uses digestive juices to break down food into fine pieces.
o Digestive juices include saliva, gastric juice, gall, pancreatic juice and intestinal juice.
o Digestive enzymes speed up the digestion process.

MECHANICAL DIGESTION
o Mechanical digestion is the physical breaking down of food during digestion.
o The word mechanical involves motion like chewing and grinding.

Healthy Diet
A healthy diet is a diet that has the right quantities of foods from all food groups.

Healthy Eating Diet

Healthy eating refers to eating the right quantities of foods from all food groups.
o The main food groups include fruits and vegetables, proteins, fat and sugar, dairy products and
whole grains.
o Healthy diet is important to lead a healthy life.
o A healthy diet should have less fats, sugary items, salt and processed foods.

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THE SIX ESSENTIAL FOOD NUTRIENTS COMPRISE THE FOLLOWING:

▪ Carbohydrates
▪ Fats and oils
▪ Vitamins and minerals
▪ Proteins
▪ Fibre and water

CARBOHYDRATES (H, C, O)
A rich source of energy that the body breaks down into glucose. The two main types of carbohydrates
are sugar and starch.

Sources of Carbohydrates
Maize/corn, rice, oat, wheat, bread, banana, sweet potatoes

Functions of carbohydrates
o Generate heat
o Energy source
o Adds bulk to feed

PROTEINS (C, H, O, N)
Sources of Proteins
Fish, eggs, nuts, meat, poultry, peas, beans, milk

o In humans, a lack of nitrogen-containing protein results in the deficiency disease –kwashiorkor

(results in stunted growth).

Functions of proteins
o Source of energy
o Repairs of damaged tissues
o Keeps the immune system strong
o Transports and stores nutrients
o Regulation of body processes

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LIPIDS (Fats & Oils)

Fats: solid at room temperature
- obtain from an animal source

Oils: liquid at room temperature

-obtain from a plant source

Sources of Lipids
Animal products: bacon, butter, cheese, eggs, meat, poultry

Plant products: avocados, olives, canola, sunflower, nuts, seeds, soy

Functions of Lipids:
o Good source of energy
o Protect organs against shock and injuries
o As an effective insulation layer
o Absorbing vitamins
o Making hormones
o Forming cell membranes

VITAMINS AND MINERALS

These essential nutrients help the body function properly and stay healthy.

Types of vitamins:
▪ Water soluble vitamins: B1 (Thiamine), B2 (Riboflavin), B6 (Pyridoxine), B12 (Cobalamine)
▪ Fat-soluble vitamins: KADE

Vitamin A
▪ Essential for growth and development, normal vision, immunity, and the expression of selected
genes.
▪ A deficiency in vitamin A results in Night blindness.

Vitamin C (ascorbic acid)

▪ Required for the creation of neurotransmitters and collagen, the main protein in skin.

Vitamin D
▪ Works with calcium to build strong bones and may help protect against chronic disease

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Mineral salts can be divided into TWO groups:

▪ Macro-elements: mineral salts that are needed in large quantities, e.g. Calcium (Ca), Phosphorus
(P), Magnesium (Mg), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na)

▪ Micro-elements: mineral salts that are needed in small quantities, e.g. Iron (Fe),
Iodine (I), Zinc (Zn)

Calcium/Phosphorous
▪ Helps keep bones strong and healthy.
▪ A lack of calcium can lead to osteoporosis.

Magnesium
▪ Vital for muscle and nerve function, blood glucose management, energy production, and DNA,
RNA, and protein synthesis.

Iron
▪ For haemoglobin formation.
▪ Lack of iron can lead to Anaemia

Zinc
▪ Essential for many of the body's normal functions and systems.

Iodine
▪ The body needs iodine to make thyroid hormones, which control the body's metabolism.
▪ Lack of iodine can lead to Goitre

WATER (H, O)

Sources of water:
o Drinking water
o Feed consumed
o Metabolic activities

Role of water during digestion

o Acts as a lubricant and facilitates chewing and swallowing
o Acts as a solvent for digested food
o Transports digested food
o Medium in which digestive reactions occur
o Regulate body temperature

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Health issues
Ulcers, anorexia nervosa, diarrhoea and liver cirrhosis

Ulcers
o Ulcers are open sores in the stomach wall.
o Ulcers happen when the mucus layer no longer functions properly causing the acid to cause
damage to the stomach tissue.
o Ulcers are also caused by prolonged use of inflammatory drugs like aspirin or bacterial infection.

Anorexia nervosa
o Anorexia nervosa is an excessive self-food restriction to avoid gaining weight.
o This is done mainly by teenagers.

Liver cirrhosis
o Liver cirrhosis is a disease that prevents the liver's proper functioning by limiting blood flowing
through the liver.
o It is caused by long-term exposure to toxins like alcohol and infections.

Bulimia Nervosa
o Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder where one eats and forces themselves to vomit.
o The purpose of doing this is to be as lean as they possibly can.

Diarrhoea
o condition of in which faeces are frequently discharged in a liquid form following viral or bacterial
infection.

ALLERGIES
o Many food allergies exist that prevent people from eating these particular foods: milk, peanuts,
shellfish, eggs etc.

ALCOHOL AND DRUG ABUSE

o Alcohol and drug abuse results in many negative consequences such as loss of memory, slurred
speech, depression, unconsciousness and death.

The two psychological nutrition disorders.

Anorexia nervosa – a person refuses to eat for fear of gaining weight
Bulimia – when a person overeats and feels guilty and induces vomiting

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ACTIVITY 5: THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

5.1 Study the diagram below which shows the human digestive system.

5.1.1 Labels parts A, B, C, D, E, F, G and H.

A–
B–
C–
D–
E–
F–
G–
H–

5.1.2 Write the letter only of the part:

a) that stores bile –
b) where chemical digestion of proteins begins –
c) where most water and mineral salts are absorbed –

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5.2 The diagram below shows a structure associated with the digestive system.

5.2.1 Identify the structure shown in the diagram.

5.2.2 Name part C in the diagram.
5.2.3 In which part of the digestive tract would this structure be found?

5.3
5.3.1 Name the five main stages of animal nutrition.

5.3.2 Name the parts of the alimentary canal where peristalsis is used to move food
along.

5.3.3 Where does the chemical digestion of protein first take place?

5.3.4 Differentiate between the two psychological nutrition disorders.

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THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

o The purpose of the circulatory system is to transport nutrients to body cells and remove wastes
from the body.
o The process involves blood circulation between the heart, the lungs and the rest of the body.
o The constituents of the circulatory system include veins, arteries, capillaries, blood vessels and
the main organ which is the heart.

The Heart
o The heart is a muscular organ that pumps blood to the lungs and other parts of the body
o The heart is about the size of two hands held together.
o It keeps the circulatory system working by continuously pumping blood.
o The heart has four chambers.
o The upper chambers of the heart are called the atriums and the lower chambers are called the
ventricles.

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Circulation of blood through the heart

o Blood comes into the right atrium from the body, moves into the right ventricle and is pushed into
the pulmonary arteries in the lungs.
o After picking up oxygen, the blood travels back to the heart through the pulmonary veins into the
left atrium, to the left ventricle and out to the body's tissues through the aorta.

o The four heart chambers are; the left atrium, right atrium, left ventricle and right
ventricle.
o The septum separates the left and right parts of the heart.
o The aorta is the main artery in the heart.
o The aorta pumps oxygenated blood from the heart to the body at high pressure.
o Deoxygenated blood is pumped from the heart to the lungs through the pulmonary
artery.
o The right side of the heart contains deoxygenated blood.
o Oxygenated blood returns to the heart through the pulmonary vein.
o The left side of the heart contains oxygenated blood pumped from the lungs.
o Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through the vena cava.
o When the heart pumps, it produces pressure in the arteries called blood pressure.
o The brain releases neurotransmitters which can lower or raise the pressure.

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o The circulatory system is known as a double system because it has two loops.
o Maximum Heart Rate (MHR) is 220bpm (beats per minute).
o A formula for calculating maximum heart rate is 222 – age.
NOTE:
o Arteries transport blood away from the heart while veins transport blood to the heart.
o Pulmonary arteries – the only arteries in the body that transport deoxygenated blood.
o All other arteries transport oxygenated blood.
o Pulmonary veins – the only veins in the body that transport oxygenated blood.
o All other veins transport deoxygenated blood.

BLOOD VESSELS
– Blood vessels are channels that carry blood throughout your body.
o The three types of blood vessels are arteries, veins and capillaries.
o Capillaries are very thin blood vessels just one cell thick.
o Capillary carries blood to and from the body’s cells.
o The veins transport blood under low pressure towards the heart.
o Veins have valves that allow blood to flow in the correct direction but close if blood starts to flow
in the wrong direction.
o Arteries transport blood under high pressure away from the heart.

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Differences between the blood vessels

Arteries
o carry blood pumped away from the heart to the organs.
o they have a smaller lumen compared to veins
o arteries have no valves

Veins
o return blood from the body organs to the heart.
o they have a larger lumen compared to arteries
o veins have valves that help prevent the backflow of blood.

Capillaries
o tiny vessels that connect arteries and veins.
o they have a much smaller lumen compared to arteries

Functions of Blood Vessels

o Transport of nutrients and oxygen
o Removal of waste products
o Temperature regulation
o Protection against blood loss

BLOOD CELLS AND BLOOD PLATELETS

o Blood cell is a cell produced through haematopoiesis and found mainly in the blood.
o Major types of blood cells include red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes),
and platelets (thrombocytes).

(a) RED BLOOD CELLS

o Red blood cells are cells that contain haemoglobin (red colouring pigment) which
o allows them to transport oxygen and carbon dioxide.
o They are like a doughnut (disc-shaped) but do not have a hole.
o They are the most abundant cells in the blood.
o They do not have a nucleus.
o They are found inside the bone in the bone marrow.
o They contain haemoglobin which absorbs oxygen from the lungs.
o They transport oxygen to all cells via the heart.
o They also remove carbon dioxide from the body.
o They can live up to 120 days before they die.

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(b) WHITE BLOOD CELLS

o White blood cells act as the body’s defence system.
o They produce antibodies to destroy or neutralise pathogens.
o There are different types and shapes of white blood cells.

(c) BLOOD PLATELETS

o Blood platelets help to repair tissues.
o Close internal and external wounds by plugging around a wound.

HEALTH ISSUES

Heart attack (Coronary thrombosis)

o occurs when one of the arteries supplying the heart with blood gets blocked by a blood clot.

Stroke
o caused by a condition caused by bleeding from a ruptured artery in the brain or the artery and is
often the result of high blood pressure.

High blood (hypertension)

o the measure of the force that blood exerts on the walls of the arteries while flowing through them.
o an increase in blood pressure puts on the heart and if prolonged, can damage the blood vessels
and life-threatening complications such as heart failure, stroke, kidney disease etc.

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ACTIVITY 6: THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

6.1 The diagram below shows the internal structure of a human heart.

6.1.1 Identify the parts:

(a) A –
(b) E –
(c) G –

Give the LETTER and the NAME of the blood vessel that transports
6.1.2 deoxygenated blood to the lungs.

6.1.3 Where is the blood at C coming from?

6.1.4 Will there be a high or low concentration of oxygen in the blood at part F?

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6.2 Figure 1.1 shows cross-sections of three types of blood vessels (not drawn to the same
scale).

6.2.1 Name the blood vessels X, Y and Z.

X–
Y–
Z–

6.2.2 Give TWO differences between X and Z.

6.3 Name the blood vessel that

6.3.1 Carries blood to the lungs –
6.3.2 Bring deoxygenated blood back to the heart from all body parts –
6.3.3 Carries oxygenated blood to all body parts –

6.4 The figure below shows a blood cell. Looks like a doughnut (disc-shaped) has no nucleus
and contains a red pigment.

6.4.1 Name the blood cell.

6.4.2 Give its function

6.4.3 Name the red pigment contained in this blood cell –

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6.5 The diagram below is a photomicrograph of a section across an artery and a vein.

6.5.1 Identify the blood vessels A and B

A–
B–

6.5.2 What is the function of the artery?

6.5.3 Give the function of the vein.

6.5.4 Name a structure found in veins which is absent in arteries.

6.5.5 Give the function of the structure named in 6.5.4

6.6 What is a stroke?

6.7 What is another word for high blood pressure?

6.8 What leads to high blood pressure?

6.9 What role is played by capillaries?

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6.10 What is the importance of blood platelets?

RESPIRATORY SYSTEM
– Respiration is the process by which living cells release energy from food.
– It’s also called cellular respiration because it happens in cells.
- It occurs in the mitochondria.
o The air passage in the respiratory system allows air to pass through.
o The air passage comprises the following: nasal cavity, pharynx, voice box, trachea,
two bronchi and bronchiole.
o Nasal cavities are lined with fine hairs known as the cilia and the mucus membrane.
o The cilia and the mucus membrane purify the inhaled air.
o The cilia trap dust.
o The mucus traps and kills foreign particles entering through the nose.
o The singular for cilia is cilium
o The mucus membrane also moistens and warms up the air.
o The mucous is antiseptic to kill bacteria in the inhaled air.
o The diffusion of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) takes place on the surface of the
alveoli.
o During the diffusion, oxygen enters the bloodstream and is transported to the heart.
o Carbon dioxide, on the other hand, diffuses out of the bloodstream and is
transported to the lungs and exhaled.
o The respiratory muscles include the muscles between the ribs and the diaphragm at
the base of the lungs.
o The ribs are on either side of the sternum, protecting the lungs from injury
o When you breathe in, the diaphragm contracts and as you breathe out it relaxes.
o Breathing is controlled by a respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata at the base of the brain.

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BREATHING, GASEOUS EXCHANGE, CIRCULATION AND RESPIRATION

Breathing is the process of taking in oxygen and releasing carbon dioxide with the help of respiratory
organs.

Types of Breathing
▪ Inhalation
▪ Exhalation

Inhalation Exhalation
Exhalation is an active process Exhalation is a passive process
During inhalation, the diaphragm contracts and During exhalation, the diaphragm relaxes and
becomes flat by moving down. becomes dome by moving up.
The ribs move apart from each other to make The ribs move closer to each other to make the
the chest and abdomen bigger increasing the chest and abdomen smaller decreasing the
size of the lungs while creating lower air size of the lungs while creating higher air
pressure in the lungs. pressure in the lungs.

– When you inhale (breathe in), air enters your lungs, and oxygen from that air moves to your
blood.
– At the same time, carbon dioxide, a waste gas, moves from your blood to the lungs and is
exhaled (breathed out).
– This process, called gas exchange, is essential to life.

o Oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged on the surface of the alveoli by diffusion.
o The alveoli are tiny sacs within the lungs.
o Diffusion is the movement of gas particles from the region of higher concentration
to the region of lower concentration.
o The oxygen diffuses into the bloodstream.
o Oxygen is then transported to the cells.
o Oxygen is used to break /release the energy in food, known as respiration.
o Respiration is a chemical reaction in all organisms through which energy is released
from food.
o Respiration takes place in the organelle known as the mitochondrion.
o During respiration carbon dioxide is released.
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o Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the bloodstream into the alveoli.

o Oxygenated blood is transported to the heart by the pulmonary vein.
o The pulmonary artery transports blood under high pressure to the alveoli in the lungs.

HEALTH ISSUES
Health issues related to the respiratory system include asthma, lung cancer, bronchitis and asbestosis.

(a) Asthma
• Asthma is an incurable chronic disease.
• Asthmatic attack is the result of the tightening up of muscles which inflames and narrows
the airways.
• This results in very little air being able to pass through to and from the lungs.
• It causes recurring whistling sounds during breathing, shortness of breath and coughing.
• Asthma can be deadly if there is no medical assistance.

(b) Lung cancer

• The smoke in cigarettes leads to over production of mucus.
• It also affects the cilia resulting in toxic substances accumulating in the lungs.
• Smoking affects the elasticity of the lungs.
• It also causes lung cancer.
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(c) Bronchitis
• Bronchitis inflames the air passage between nose, lungs and windpipe usually caused by
viral infection more prevalent in winter and more likely to affect children and the elderly.
• People who smoke, have heart diseases and lung diseases are more likely to have acute
(severe symptoms) bronchitis.

(d) Asbestosis
• A chronic disease caused by inhaling asbestos fibre which restricts oxygen entering the
bloodstream.

ACTIVITY 7: RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

7.1 The diagram show some of the structures in the respiratory system.

7.1.1 Name the structures labelled A, B, C, D and E.

A–
B–
C–
D–
E–

7.1.2 Match the correct letter from the diagram with the following:
(i) a structure which contains alveoli –
(ii) a structure which carries air into the lungs –
(iii) a structure which contracts and moves downwards when we breath in –

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7.2 The diagram shows a section through an alveolus and a surrounding blood vessel

7.2.1 Name the parts labelled A, B, C and D.

A–
B–
C–
D–

7.2.2 What type of blood vessel is E?

7.2.3 Name the gas moving in the direction shown by

(i) Arrow X –
(ii) Arrow Y –

7.2.4 Name the process by which gases pass across the alveolar walls.

7.2.5 Define the named process –

7.2.6 What do the arrows Z represent?

7.2.7 What happens to oxygen once it has entered the blood?

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7.2.8 The air breathed into the body often contains dust and bacteria. How are these
prevented from entering the alveoli?

7.3 Name THREE diseases that affects the respiratory system

7.4 Study the diagrams below on breathing

Diagram A Diagram B

7.4.1 Identify the types of breathing in diagrams A and B

A–
B–

7.4.2 Give TWO reasons each to motivate your answer.

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MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

Musculoskeletal system is one of the important systems in the human body.

The word musculoskeletal system comprises two systems, namely muscular system and skeletal
system.

The system is responsible for the following:

• It houses and protects organs in systems in all vertebrates
• Protects internal organs such as the heart, brain and liver.
• Give support and shape to the body.
• Enables movement to take place.
• Storage for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus.

The musculoskeletal system is made of two kinds of tissues:

• Soft tissues – muscles, tendons, membranes, joints capsule and ligaments

• Hard tissues – bones and cartilages

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MUSCLES
• Muscles ensure body motion.
• Muscles act in pairs and in opposing directions.
• Muscles are responsible for pulling the bones during motion.
• As one muscle contracts, the other muscle must relax to allow movement to happen.

• It houses and protects organs in systems in all vertebrates

• Protects internal organs such as the heart, brain and liver.
• Give support and shape to the body.
• Storage for minerals such as calcium and phosphorus.
• Stability – stabilize the body while carrying or moving objects
• Posture – keeping in correct position when standing or sitting
• Circulation – The functioning of arteries and veins during the pumping of blood.
• Respiration – The contraction and relaxation of the diaphragm during respiration.
• Digestion – muscle movement (peristalsis) also occurs during digestion which enables food
movement.
• Urination – muscles control the movement of urine in and out of the bladder.
• Childbirth – muscles in the uterus expand and contract during childbirth.
• Vision – Skeletal muscles around the eye control eye movement to ensure correct focusing.
• Temperature regulation – Muscle contraction helps generate body heat. Shivering is due to
increased muscle activity.

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BONES

Bones come in different shapes and sizes, and are based on their functions. For example, short,
slender bones in your fingers allow your fingers to move and grasp things.

Bone Types & Function

Long bones - found in the legs and arms
Short bones - found in the fingers and toes
Flat bones - found in the skull and pelvis
Irregular bones - found in the spine and ears

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The human body has long, short, flat and irregular bone of two types:
− Axial skeleton – on the head, neck and trunk

Bones support, absorb shock, store salts, protect vital organs and enable movement.

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• Appendicular skeleton – on the limbs, pectoral and pelvic girdles

CARTILAGE
− It is a rubbery flexible tissue which serves as a cushion between bones and joints.
− It can be easily damaged resulting in joint pain, stiffness and inflammation.

LIGAMENTS
− Ligaments are found in the joints and they hold bones together.
TENDONS
− Tendons are flexible and inelastic fibrous tissue connecting the muscle to the bone.

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HEALTH ISSUES
Rickets – are weak bones as a result of shortage of vitamin D (mainly), calcium and
phosphorus.
This results in bones becoming deformed or fractured.

Arthritis – Arthritis is the inflammation of the joints.

This can affect the bones, cartilage resulting in pain, stiffness and swelling.
There over 100 types of Arthritis with different causes.
It affects mainly the joints of people over the age of fifty-five but can
affect anyone at any age.

Osteoporosis – A medical condition which leads to weak and easily breakable bones
especially amongst the elderly.
It is a result of a shortage of calcium, vitamin D or hormonal changes.

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ACTIVITY 8: MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM

8.1 What are the TWO systems that relate to the musculoskeletal system?

8.2 Discuss THREE functions of the musculoskeletal system.

8.3 Identify, with example, the TWO kinds of tissues.

8.4 Discuss the movement of muscles during motion.

8.5 Give FOUR roles of bones in the musculoskeletal system?

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8.6 Name the bones in the body using the words at the bottom of the diagram.

finger bones, ribs, calf bone, elbow bone, skull, shin bone, upper arm bone, back bone, thigh
bone, forearm bone, hip

8.7 Give a description of a cartilage.

8.8 List THREE effects of damaging a cartilage.

8.9 What is the role of tendons?

8.10 What is the role of ligaments?

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8.11 Identify THREE health issues related to the musculoskeletal system.

8.12 Study the diagram below

8.12.1 Identify the parts labelled A, B and C

A–
B–
C–

8.12.2

Use the labels and functions below to match A, B, C and D above in table below.

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A B C D
Name

Function

EXCRETORY SYSTEM
− Excretory system is responsible for removing regulating body fluids while removing metabolic
wastes and toxins from the blood.
− The excretory system is essential for removing body wastes from different systems.
− Excessive water, for instance, is removed through the production of urine.

WASTES EXCRETED BY THE ORGANS

o Skin – sweat (Skin is the biggest organ in the human system).
o Lungs – Carbon dioxide and water
o Kidneys – Urine (urea, sodium, ammonia, uric acid, oxalate and some minerals).
o Lower part of the alimentary canal – faeces

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HEALTH ISSUES
Kidney or Renal failure
• Kidney failure is when the kidneys cannot filter wastes.
• This could mean that you might need a dialysis or kidney transplant.
• In some cases, treatment could get the kidneys back to their normal condition.
• Causes include; exposure to poisonous substances, diabetes, high blood pressure, drug
abuse and urinary tract problems.

Bladder infection
• It affects mainly women because they have a shorter urethra and bacteria can
easily reach the bladder.
• It is also a result of insufficient fluid intake.
• It is also caused by the blockage of bladder or urethra.
• It is also a result of diabetes.
• Can also be the result of a narrowed urethra.
Kidney stones
• Stone resembling lumps forming in the kidney.
• The lump can be the size of a golf ball.
• Is a result of high concentration of crystal forming substance such as calcium, uric acid and
oxalate {a colourless, naturally occurring anion that can form crystals in urine and lead to
kidney stone.}

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ACTIVITY 9: EXCRETORY SYSTEM

9.1 What is the role of the excretory system?

9.2 Use the words in the block to fill in the missing labels in the diagram below

9.3 Which (W to Z) is the main waste product eliminated by each of the excretory organ 9.3.1
to 9.3.3
W: Urea X: Excess water Y: Carbon dioxide Z: Excess heat
9.3.1 Skin –
9.3.2 Lungs –
9.3.3 Kidneys –

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9.4 Identify the parts labelled 1, 3, 4 and 5 in the diagram below

1–
3–
4–
5–

9.5 Say if the following sentences are true or false by crossing the box

9.5.1 The function of the excretory system is expelling waste from the body T F

9.5.2 The ureters filter the blood and separate the waste and water T F

9.5.3 The combination of waste and water forms the ureter T F

9.5.4 The urine goes down two tubes called ureters T F

9.5.5 When the kidney is full, your body tells you to go to the bathroom T F

9.5.6 The bladder releases the urine through the urethra T F

9.5.7 The excretory system filters waste from blood T F

9.5.8 The bladder is part of the excretory system T F

9.5.9 Urine is stored in the kidneys T F

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9.6 Study the diagram below

9.6.1 Identify the organ above

9.6.2 Name the health issue depicted/shown in the diagram above
9.6.3 Label A, B and C
A–
B–
C–

9.7 Write the names of the parts of the excretory system.

9.7.1 1–
9.7.2 2–
9.7.3 3–
9.7.4 4–

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NERVOUS SYSTEM
− A nervous system is a network of neurons that enable the body to respond to stimuli.
− The nervous system works like a network that sends messages to different parts of the body.
− It also warns and informs the body of possible danger and telling the body how to react in each
case.
− The processes include hearing, seeing, feeling, tasting, smelling, temperature regulation and
sending and receiving impulses.

THE FIVE HUMAN SENSE ORGANS

• Eyes – sight
• Ears – hearing
• Skin – touch
• Tongue – taste
• Nose – smell

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THE CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

The central nervous system is made up of the brain and spinal cord.

THE BRAIN
The brain is made up of delicate nervous tissue which cannot repair itself. The
brain is of vital importance because it controls all functioning of the human body.
For this reason, it is well protected in three ways:
• It is inside a bony cranium
• It is surrounded by three membranes called the meninges
• It is cushioned by a fluid called cerebrospinal fluid

LOCATION AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE BRAIN

THE SPINAL CORD

SPINAL CORD is a long, thin, tubular structure, which extends from the medulla oblongata
in the brainstem to the lumbar region of the vertebral column.
It encloses the central canal, which contains the cerebrospinal fluid

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The spinal cord is made up of delicate nervous tissue, which cannot repair itself.
It is therefore protected by:
• 33 vertebrae (bone) with discs of cartilage between them to act as shock absorbers
• Three membranes called the meninges
• Cerebrospinal fluid

Functions of the spinal cord:

• Provides a pathway for nerve impulses to and from the brain
• The spinal cord serves as a centre for reflex actions

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONING OF A NERVE

Neurons are specialised cells, which connect the brain and spinal cord to all other parts of
the body.
Neurons are the structural /functional units of the nervous system.

STRUCTURE OF A NEURON
Dendrites – transmits impulses towards the cell body.
Cell body/Soma (with nucleus) – controls the metabolism/ activities of the cell.
Axon – transmits impulses away from the cell body.
Myelin sheath – insulates the axon and speeds up the transmission of impulses.
Nucleus – controls all the cell’s functions

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TYPES OF NEURONS

SENSORY NEURONS (AFFERENT)

• Transmit impulses from receptors to the central nervous system.

AN INTERNEURON/RELAY/CONECTOR.
• Connects a sensory neuron to a motor neuron in the central nervous system

MOTOR NEURONS (EFFERENT)

• Transmit impulses from the central nervous system to the effectors (muscles and
glands) in the body.

REFLEX ACTION AND REFLEX ARC

A reflex action is a quick, automatic response to a stimulus.
Examples: knee-jerk, sneezing and quickly removing a body part away from danger
to respond to pain.
A reflex arc is the pathway along which an impulse is transmitted to bring about a
response to a stimulus during a reflex action.

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STRUCTURE OF A REFLEX ARC

Path: Receptor – Sensory Neuron – Connector Neuron – Motor Neuron – Effectors. NOTE:
This reflex action does not include the brain. Impulses will reach the brain after the reflex arc is
complete and pain will be felt.

SIGNIFICANCE/IMPORTANCE OF THE REFLEX ACTION

• Allows the body to respond very quickly
• Protects the body against possible injury

DISORDERS OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

ALZHEIMER’S DISEASE:
• The frontal and temporal lobes of the cerebral cortex are affected so the conscious
part of the brain that produces memory is slowly destroyed.
• A neurodegenerative disease, which means there is progressive brain cell death that
occurs over time.

Symptoms:
• Memory loss
• Confusion

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MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS:
• When the myelin sheath surrounding the neuron axons in the white matter of the brain
and spinal cord are attacked and damaged by the body’s own immune system.

Symptoms:
• Loss of speech
• Loss of vision
• Difficulty walking
• Pain
• Fatigue
• Memory loss

SENSE ORGANS
Sense organs contain a high concentration of receptor cells, which are able to detect stimuli to
bring about a response.

• Sensory receptors – occur in specialized organs, such as the eyes, ears, nose, and
mouth.
• Receptors – detect the changes in the environment (stimulus)
• Effectors – the muscles or glands that produce a response to the stimulus.
• Neurons – these will help to connect the receptors to effectors
The body responds to a variety of different stimuli such as light, sound, touch, temperature,
pressure, pain and chemicals (taste and smell).

• The eye – light

• Ear – sound

THE HUMAN EYE

TERMS

• Rods – receptor cells found in the retina of the eye which are sensitive to dim light and help to
distinguish between black and white
• Cones – receptor cells found in the retina of the eye which are sensitive to bright light and help to
distinguish between different colours
• Pupil – central opening within the iris which allows light to enter
• Pupillary mechanism – regulation of the pupil size to control the amount of light entering the eye
• Accommodation – the ability of the lens of the eye to alter its shape for clear vision when viewing
both near and distant objects
• Field of vision – the area that one eye can see

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• Convex – a shape which curves outwards, thicker in the middle than the edges
• Concave – a shape which curves inwards, thinner in the middle than the edges

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE HUMAN EYE

Damage to the optic nerve

• Impulses will not be conducted to the cerebrum
• and will not be interpreted
• No vision

EYE DEFECTS
SHORT-SIGHTEDNESS/Nearsighted/Myopia
The ability to see nearby objects but cannot see distant objects clearly.

The defects may be caused by:

• An eyeball that is too long
• The cornea being too curved for the length of the eyeball
• The inability of the lens to become less convex

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Treatment:
• Wear glasses with concave lenses

LONG-SIGHTEDNESS/Farsightedness/Hyperopia/Presbyopia
The ability to see distant objects but cannot see nearby objects clearly.

The defects may be caused by:

• An eyeball that is too short (rounded)
• The cornea being less curved for the length of the eyeball
• The inability of the lens to become more convex

Normal vision Hyperopia

Treatment:
• Wear glasses with convex lenses

Hyperopia Correction with convex lens

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ASTIGMATISM
Astigmatism is when the cornea or lens is not equally rounded in all directions.
• Light is not focused evenly on the retina.

This leads to:

• Blurred vision
• Headaches
• Squinting of the eyes (having eyes that are partly closed)

Normal vision Astigmatic Treatment:

• Glasses with prescription lenses
• Contact lenses
• Laser therapy

Blurred Vision

CATARACTS
Cataracts occur when the clear transparent lens becomes cloudy and opaque resulting in
blurred vision

Treatment: Cataract eye

• Surgery to replace the lens with a synthetic lens

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THE HUMAN EAR

TERMS
Organ of Corti – receptor for hearing
Crista (plural: cristae) – receptor which detects changes in speed and direction of the head
Maculae – receptor which detects changes in the position of the head
Semicircular canals – canals which are fluid filled and contain receptors
Grommet – small structure inserted into the tympanic membrane; has a hole through
the middle to allow airflow

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE HUMAN EAR

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The functions of the ear

− Hearing
− Balancing.

Pinna – for collecting sound waves.

Eardrum/tympanic membrane – changes sound waves into vibration

Auditory nerve – transmits nerve impulses to the cerebrum to be interpreted.

Consequences for hearing if Rae drum/tympanic membrane is damaged

− No changing of sound waves into vibrations
− No passing of vibrations to ossicles

Consequences for hearing if Auditory nerve is damaged

− Auditory nerve will not be able to transmit impulses to the cerebrum
− Cerebrum will not be able to interpret the impulses
− The person will not be able to hear

HEARING DEFECTS

MIDDLE EAR INFECTION

• Excess fluid in the middle ear caused by pathogen infection (bacteria)

Treatment
• Inserting grommets
• Antibiotics

NOTE: - Grommets are tiny tubes inserted into the eardrum/tympanic membrane

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DEAFNESS
Refers to a total or partial hearing loss.

Caused by:
• Injury to parts of the ear, nerves or parts of the brain responsible for hearing
• Hardening of ear tissues such as the ossicles
• Hardening wax

Treatment:
• Hearing aids
• Cochlear implants

• Cochlear implants • Hearing aids

NOTE:
• The hearing aids increase/amplify the vibration of the tympanic
membrane/ossicles/oval window
• The cochlear implants send sounds directly to the hearing nerve and on to the brain

ACTIVITY 10: NERVOUS SYSTEM

10.1 What is the nervous system?

10.2 What are the processes related to the nervous system?

10.3 Which are the two organs that are part of central nervous system?

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10.4 Study the diagram below.

10.4.1 Name the type of neuron in the diagram above.

10.4.2 Identify part:

(a) B –
(b) F –
(c) A –

10.4.3 Give the LETTER and NAME of the part that:

(a) Transmits impulses away from the cell body

(b) Insulates and speeds up the transmission of impulse

10.4.4 Name the condition caused by the progressive degradation of part D

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10.5 The following diagram represents the structure of the human eye.

10.5.1 Identify:
(a) A –
(b) B –
(c) C –

10.5.2 Give the LETTER and NAME of the part that:

(a) Regulates the amount of light entering the eye

(b) Contains a dark pigment that absorbs excess light in the eye

(c) Contains receptors sensitive to light

10.6 Study the diagram below showing a longitudinal section through an eye.

10.6.1 Label parts 2, 3 and 4 respectively.

2–
3–
4–

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10.6.2 Name the process that causes part 1 to dilate/open.

10.6.3 State how the following defects can be treated to improve vision:

(a) Long-sightedness

(b) Astigmatism

(c) Cataract

(d) Short-sightedness

10.7 The diagram below represents part of the human ear with a middle-ear infection

10.7.1 Identify part:

(a) A
(b) B –
(c) C –
10.7.2 State ONE function of part A.

10.7.3 Name the small device that is used in the treatment of middle-ear infection.

10.7.4 Write down the LETTER of the part where the small device, named in QUESTION
10.7.3, is inserted.

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10.8 Study the following diagram.

10.8.1 Identify:
(a) A –
(b) D –
10.8.2 State ONE function of part A.

10.8.3 Write down the FOUR LETTERS of the middle and outer ear, in their correct
sequence of involvement during hearing.

10.8.4 Explain the consequence in hearing if part A became damaged.

10.9 The diagram below represents a part of the human nervous system that involves impulses
travelling via the spinal cord.

10.9.1 Name the pathway of the impulse represented by the diagram above.

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10.9.2 Give only the LETTER of the part that:

(a) Contains the sensory neuron –
(b) Produces a reaction –
(c) Is responsible for converting a stimulus into an impulse –

10.9.3 Give the LETTERS of ALL the structures that represent neurons.

10.9.4 Name the part of the neuron which transmits an impulse towards the cell body.

10.9.5 Name TWO structures which protect the spinal cord.

10.9.6 Which part of a neuron is affected by multiple sclerosis?

10.10 Study the diagram below and answer the questions that follow.

10.10.1 Identify the mechanism shown in the diagram above.

10.10.2 Write down ONLY the LETTER that represents a:

(a) Sensory neuron –
(b) Connector neuron –

10.10.3 Explain the significance of the mechanism mentioned in Question 10.10.1.

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10.10.4 Describe the effect on the mechanism as shown in the diagram if part C was
damaged.

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Reproductive system is a system whose main purpose is to produce sex cells for the purpose of
reproducing new species.

THE PROCESSES HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Growth
− It is the physical development of an organism from birth over time.

Cell division
− This is the process where a cell after reaching a certain stage, divides into two daughter
cells.

Maturation
− Maturation is the process of physical and psychological development to reach full potential.
Humans become able to reproduce at maturity.

Copulation
− It is the insertion of a male reproductive organ into female reproductive organ.
Ejaculation
− The discharge of semen from a male reproductive organ after it has been sexually aroused
or excited.

Ovulation
− It is the release of an egg from the ovary.

Menstruation
− It is the periodical discharge of blood and mucosal tissue from the inner uterus through the
female reproductive organ except during pregnancy and menopause.

Fertilisation
− It is the union of an egg cell and a sperm cell

Implantation
− It is when the fertilised egg attaches to the wall of the uterus.

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HUMAN REPRODUCTION
• Reproduction is important for the survival and continuation of the species.
Purpose and puberty

Puberty is a stage at which one undergoes physical and emotional changes as they reach for
adulthood.

FEMALES MALES
Oestrogen and Progesterone Testosterone
(Sex hormone released by ovaries) (Main sex hormone released by testes)
Sex cells – ovum or egg Sex cells – sperms
PHYSICAL CHANGES DURING PUBERTY
− Growth of female sex organs − Growth of male sex organs
− Developing breast − Developing testes and scrotum
− Body shape changes (hips develop) − Deepening voice
− Pubic hair develops − Pubic hair develops
− Armpit hair grows − Armpit hair grows
− First menstruation occurs − Facial hair starts growing
− Rapid physical growth − Rapid physical growth

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

FUNCTIONS OF TESTOSTERONE
− Development of male secondary sexual characteristics {such as beard, pubic hair, deep
voice and a muscular body}.
− Stimulates the maturation of sperm cells.

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STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE

SYSTEM

Functions of Oestrogen:
− Development of secondary sexual characteristics in female
− Thickens the endometrium (uterus lining) for pregnancy
− Stimulation of ovulation
− Promotes growth of the mammary glands

Functions of Progesterone:
− Maintains pregnancy
− Thickens the endometrium

Gametogenesis is the formation of gametes.

• During the process of gametogenesis, a germ cell undergoes meiosis to
produce haploid cells that directly develop into gametes.
• Hence, in animals, meiosis is an integral part of gametogenesis.
It is divided into two (2):
o Male gametes formed by spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis – the process that takes place when sperm cells are made in the
testes through meiosis

o Female gametes formed by oogenesis/ovigenesis

Oogenesis – the process that occurs when egg cells are made in the ovary through meiosis

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STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF A SPERM CELL

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF THE PARTS OF THE OVUM/EGG CELL

Graafian follicle – mature follicle inside the ovary filled with fluid in which the ovum
grows
Around Day 14, the Graafian follicle ruptures and releases an ovum in a process called
ovulation.
Ovulation – the release of an ovum from the Graafian follicle of the ovaries

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Menstruation – the monthly loss of blood and tissue as a result of changes that
occur in the lining of the uterus

Menstruation:
o The blood vessel rich endometrium breaks down, and bleeding occurs
through the vagina.
o Progesterone levels will decrease if fertilization does NOT occur,
menstruation will occur.
o If fertilization DOES occur, progesterone levels will remain high,
endometrium will remain intact (will not break down) and no menstruation
will occur.
o The changes that occur in the uterus wall as it gradually thickens and
becomes more vascular repeats itself every 28 days.
o The endometrium breaks down and is released (menstruation). This lasts for
approximately 4 to 7 days.

FERTILISATION – when the haploid nucleus of sperm fuses with haploid nucleus of
ovum to form a diploid zygote

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IMPLANTATION – the attachment of the fertilized egg/ blastocyst to the uterine lining.
o The embryo, moving as a blastocyst through the uterus, makes contact with the
uterine wall and remains attached to it until birth.
The blastocyst moves from the fallopian tube into the uterus where it embeds itself into the
endometrium. This is known as implantation and takes place as follows:

▪ The outer cells of the blastocyst secrete enzymes which break down a small portion
of the thickened uterine wall causing it to become softer

▪ The blastocyst sinks into this softer area and the outer layers develop into two
extra-embryonic membranes called the amnion and the chorion

▪ The chorion extends finger-like outgrowths called the chorionic villi into the
endometrium and form part of the placenta, which secretes progesterone.

▪ The blastocyst is now called the embryo

STRUCTURE OF THE DEVELOPING FOETUS IN THE UTERUS

•
The gestation period, also known as pregnancy, is the time in which the embryo
develops inside the uterus.
• Gestation and the development of the embryo lasts for about 40 weeks or 280 days or
nine months.
• After 12 weeks, the embryo is known as a foetus.
• The foetus contains extra-embryonic membranes and other structures which aid
in the development of the embryo
• The chorion, on the outside, forms the chorionic villi.
• The inner membrane, the amnion, becomes filled with amniotic fluid to form the
amniotic sac.
Gestation – the period from fertilisation to birth.

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Functions the amniotic fluid

− Acts as a shock-absorber
− Acts as a lubricant at birth
− Prevents dehydration
− Maintains the temperature of the foetus
− Allows for free-movement of the foetus as it grows and develops

THE PLACENTA
The placenta is a temporary organ that forms in the area where the blastocyst implants.
The umbilical cord attaches the foetus to the placenta
• It allows for substances to be transferred by diffusion between the mother and
foetus without any blood being in direct contact.
• This means that the mother and foetus’ blood never actually mixes.
Functions the placenta
− A point of attachment of the foetus to the mother
− Allows for nutrient exchange
− Allows for gas exchange
− Allows for waste exchange

Prevention of Pregnancy
− Contraceptives such as condoms, pills and injections can be used to prevent pregnancy
and sexually transmitted diseases.
− Tubal ligation – a surgical procedure by cutting and tying of the fallopian tubes/oviduct
− Vasectomy – a surgical procedure by cutting and sealing the sperm duct/vas deferens
o These surgical procedures permanently block the sperm duct {no flow of sperm cells}
or the oviduct {no transportation of ovum or sperm cell and this prevents pregnancy}
o It does not prevent STIs or HIV/AIDS
− Abstaining is, however, the best method.

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HEALTH ISSUES INVOLVING THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

− Infertility: Males and females unable to sexually reproduce.

− Sterility: Total loss of fertility

− Impotency: inability of a man to have an erection

− Foetal Alcohol Syndrome: The long-term effect of alcohol on a pregnant woman’s foetus.

− STDs: Sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) such as HIV/AIDS, syphilis and gonorrhoea
can be transferred during sexual intercourse.

ACTIVITY 11: REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

11.1 The diagram below represents the structure of the male reproductive system.

11.1.1 Label part:

(a) G –
(b) F –

11.1.2 Supply the LETTER and the NAME of the structures with the following functions:

(a) The part where the sperm cells mature

(b) The structure that controls the temperature for sperm production

11.1.3 Describe the common function of parts A and B.

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11.2 The diagrams below show the human male and female reproductive systems.

Write the LETTER (A–H) and NAME of the part:

11.2.1 Which transports urine to the outside of the body –
11.2.2 Where fertilisation occurs –
11.2.3 Where sperms are produced –
11.2.4 Where ova are produced –

11.3 Study the diagram below.

11.3.1 Give labels for each of the following:

(a) A –
(b) B –
(c) C –

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11.3.2 State ONE function of part A.

11.3.3 Explain the consequences for reproduction if part C is surgically cut.

11.3.4 Explain why it would still be possible for an HIV positive man to infect another
person during sexual intercourse after part C is surgically cut.

11.4 The diagram below represents the human female reproductive system.

11.4.1 Identify part C –

11.4.2 State ONE function of part D.

11.4.3 Name the hormones secreted by part B

11.4.4 State how the hormones named in QUESTION 11.4.3 influences part D.

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11.4.5 During tubal ligation, part A is surgically cut or tied.

Explain how this procedure prevents pregnancy.

11.5 The diagram below represents a sperm cell.

11.5.1 Identify part:

(a) B –
(b) D –

11.5.2 Name TWO ways in which the sperm cell is able to ensure effective movement
towards the Fallopian tubes.

11.5.3 What will happen to reproduction if a sperm cell did not have part A.

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11.6 The schematic diagram below shows a human ovum that is about to be fertilised. The
diagram is not drawn to scale.

11.6.1 Identify part:

(a) A –
(b) B –
(c) C –
(d) F –

11.6.2 Give the LETTER and NAME of the part that:

(a) Contains the mitochondria –
(b) Contains enzymes required to penetrate the ovum –
(c) Will enter the ovum during fertilisation –

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11.7 Study the graph below of a menstrual cycle

11.7.1 On which day does ovulation take place?

11.7.2 Between which days does menstruation take place?
11.7.3 Account for the change in the thickness of the endometrial lining between day 14
and day 21.

11.7.4 Explain the term ovulation

11.7.5 What is menstruation?

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11.8 Study the diagram below of the sequence of events that takes place from the fertilisation
of the ovum to the development of the embryo in a part of the human female reproductive
system.

The arrows indicate the direction of development of one ovum after fertilisation.

11.8.1 Identify:
(a) Structure C –
(b) The stage of embryo development at E –
(c) The structure that develops from a combination of parts F and H –

11.8.2 Name the process that takes place:

(a) At B –
(b) When G attaches to part F –

11.8.3 Give the chromosome number of:

(a) The cells at D –
(b) Cell A –

11.8.4 Give THREE functions of the structure that develops from a combination of parts
F and H

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11.9 The diagram below represents the events leading to the development of the foetus in the
human uterus.

Identify the following:

11.9.1 Part labelled 1 –
11.9.2 Cell labelled 2 –
11.9.3 Cell labelled 3 –
11.9.4 Structure labelled 4 –
11.9.5 Part labelled 5 –
11.9.6 Fluid labelled 6 –

11.9.7 List THREE functions of the Fluid labelled 6

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