SCIENCE YEAR 10

The universe
Word Definition

Galaxy A group of billions of stars, dust and gas

held together by gravity, such as the milky
way.

Satellite Any object in space that orbits around a

larger body; such as the moon or a space
station that orbits earth.

Orbit The path taken by one object around

another because of gravity; for example,
the earth's path around the sun.

Terrestrial planet A planet that is mainly composed of rocks

or metals and has a solid surface.

Gravity An attractive force between objects that

have mass; It keeps objects in orbit.

Gas planet A planet that is mainly composed of

gases.

Universe All of space, time, and the matter and the

energy they contain. Including over 100
billion galaxies.

Cosmic horizon Our limit to how far we can see into space

Nuclear fusion Nuclear fusion is the process where small

atomic nuclei combine to form a larger
nucleus, releasing a huge amount of
energy.

Stars
Stars are a luminous ball of gas producing heat and light, consisting mostly of hydrogen
and helium that is held together by gravity.
- In the night sky, a larger and hotter star appears slightly more blue compared to a
smaller, cooler star.

Planets
 - Has to be large enough to be round
- Cannot be a satellite of another body
- Must have cleared its orbit of all nearby debris
As long as planets are big enough, planets come in all different types and sizes.

Dwarf planets
Planets that are too small to have cleared their orbital path of debris.
Plutoids
Any other dwarf planet that orbits beyond Neptune.

Super earths
These planets are more massive than the Earth, but less massive than Uranus or
Neptune

Moon
Any planet can have a moon. A moon is a natural satellite, a body that makes an orbit
around a planet. As long as it orbits a planet, it’s a moon.
- Can have water
- Can have thick atmospheres

Observable Universe
The observable universe is the portion of the entire universe that we can see from earth,
limited by the speed of light and age of the universe. Since light takes time to travel, we
can only observe objects whose light has had enough time to reach us, which is about
13.8 billion years. This creates a "cosmic horizon" beyond which we cannot see, as the
light from objects beyond that distance hasn't had enough time to reach us yet. The
observable universe is estimated to be about 93 billion light-years in diameter.

Cosmic Address
1. Earth Our home planet.
2. Solar System The system of planets orbiting our star, the Sun.
 3. Milky Way Galaxy The galaxy containing our Solar System.
4. Local Group The galaxy group that includes the Milky Way, Andromeda, and
other nearby galaxies.
5. Virgo Supercluster The larger structure containing the Local Group and many
other galaxy groups.
6. Observable Universe The entire region of the universe we can see, containing
countless galaxies and structures.

The Sun

Life cycle of stars - https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cRYu8pMg9zQ

1. Nebula
A big cloud of dust and gas (hydrogen). Over time, the attractive force of gravity pulls the dust
and gas together to form a structure called a protostar.

2. Protostar
As more and more particles collide and join the protostar, it gets bigger and bigger, its
force of gravity gets even stronger allowing it to collect more dust and gas.

Gravity squeezes the protostar into a dense ball of hydrogen gas, so the particles inside
collide with each other more often in turn raising the temperature of a protostar.

3. Main sequence (Actual star)

When the temperature and pressure reach 13 million degrees celsius hydrogen nuclei
start to fuse together to form helium nuclei in a process called nuclear fusion. This gives
out huge amounts of energy, keeping the core of the star hot.

The outward pressure caused by all of the energy being released by nuclear fusion is
PERFECTLY BALANCED by the inward pressure caused by gravity, allowing for a long
stable period lasting for billions of years.

At some point the star will begin to run out of hydrogen (its fuel), making it unable to
perform nuclear fusions. So the inward pressure of gravity contracts the star into a small
ball, until it’s so hot and dense that nuclear fusion will start up again, allowing it to
 expand. This time the star will form heavier elements instead of helium, these elements
are as heavy as Iron.

4. Red SUPER giants OR 4. Red Giant

Start to shine brightly again as they As the star runs out of hydrogen fuel,
undergo more nuclear fusion. After fusion slows down. Red giant becomes
passing through several cycles of
unstable and expels its outer layers of dust
expansion and contraction, they
eventually explode. and gas, forming a planetary nebula whilst
leaving behind a hot dense and solid core
5. Supernova that doesn't do nuclear fusion
This is the result of an exploded Red
supergiant. Supernovas form elements 5. White dwarf
heavier than iron that get ejected across The red giant leaves behind a hot, dense
the universe. and solid core which doesn't do any
nuclear fusion.
Neutron star OR BLACK HOLE
- If the star that exploded prior to Gives off lots of light but is relatively small
the supernova was just big it will
condense into a very dense core Over time the white dwarf gets colder and
called a neutron star darker as it emits all of its energy until it

- However if the star was very 6. Black dwarf

massive it would collapse in on No longer has enough energy to emit light
itself and cause a black hole. A
black hole is able to pull in any
light that passes nearby, which
means they literally appear as
empty spaces.

The Big Bang: Explanation of the existence of the universe.

Edwin Hubble’s discovery that distant galaxies are moving away from us with their redshifted
light, supports the Big Bang theory because if everything is expanding, they must've been closer
together at some point.

1. Everything was once a tiny dot

It was extremely hot and dense. Nothing existed except energy.

2. The dot then expanded (This was a natural occurrence)

It became less hot and dense. Energy then converted into matter.

Evolution
Human Evolution Over Time: Brains enlarged, face shortened and flattened, jaws and teeth
shrank, legs grew longer and stronger.
Foramen Magnum: The hole in the base of the skull that the spine fits through. Only found in
bipedal human ancestors.
Antibiotics and resistant bacteria
Antibiotics are medicines that kill bacteria or prevent their growth. Over 200,000 lives
are saved each year in the United States through the use of antibiotics.

Antibiotic-resistant superbugs
Antibiotic medicines are becoming less effective. Bacteria that can survive and grow in
the presence of antibiotics are antibiotic resistant.
- antibiotics become ineffective and infections become difficult or impossible to
treat, increasing the risk of disease spread, severe illness, disability and death

Bacteria become resistant to antibiotics through mutation and natural selection.

Variations
Differences between individuals of the same species are known as variations.

Acquired traits are features gained during an individual's lifetime. For example, tattoos,
scars, muscle strength

Genetic traits are determined by genes in an individual’s DNA and passed down from
one generation to the next. For example, dimples, skin colour, and eye colour.

Mutations are random changes in an organism’s DNA that can lead to a new trait, this
may help the organism survive better, worse, or not make a difference at all.
Mutations occur because of:
- Environmental factors: Radiation, chemicals, or pollutants can damage DNA
causing mutations.
- Viruses: Some can insert their genetic material into an organism’s DNA resulting
in mutations.
- Mutations can occur spontaneously.
Somatic Mutation: Occurs only in the individual and cannot be passed on.
Germline Mutation: Mutations that affect the gametes and can be passed on.

Natural Selection
The survival of organisms that are better adapted to their environment is called natural
selection. This process can result in the evolution of a population. Better adapted
variations survive and reproduce in greater numbers. So, over many generations, they
become more common.

Selection pressures are any challenges that affect an organism’s ability to survive in a
particular environment.
For example:
- hunting by predators
- access to resources, such as food, shelter, territory and mates
- environmental factors, such as temperature and weather conditions
- vulnerability to diseases
- human activities, such as hunting and pollution

Selection pressures can increase or decrease the frequency of a genetic trait.

Galapagos tortoises Case study

Large islands have high levels of rainfall.

This rain produces an abundance of
grass. The tortoises on these islands
have evolved large dome-like shells.

On some of the smaller islands, there is

less rainfall and very little grass. The
tortoises are forced to feed on tall cacti.
The best food grows at the top of the
cactus.The tortoises on these islands
have longer necks and a saddle-like
shell. These adaptations allow them to
reach high for food.

Random mutations introduce variation

within a population. Selection pressures
drive natural selection by reducing the
reproductive success of individuals with
less beneficial adaptations, thereby increasing the frequency of advantageous traits
within the population.

Adaptations
Adaptation is the evolutionary process whereby an organism becomes better able to live
in its habitat or habitats.

Structural Adaptation Physical characteristics Giraffes have long necks

that help an organism letting them reach food
 survive.

Behavioural Adaptation Change in the way an Birds migrate from an area

organism acts according to to the next to avoid long
the environment. winters

Physiological Adaptation An internal body process Snakes produce poison to

combat against predators

Scientific evidence for theory of evolution

Fossils
The fossil record provides evidence of older life forms that today's species evolved from.
Scientists use evidence from the fossil record to support evolutionary relationships by
comparing anatomical features.
- Relative Dating: Based on stratigraphy (study of rock layers). The depth of the
fossil is used to estimate its age and the time period it is from.
- Absolute Dating: Precisely obtaining the age of a fossil using methods like
radiometric dating,
Comparing genetic traits
Comparative anatomy or homologous structures
Comparative embryology
Molecular biology
Comparing DNA
Biodiversity

- A species that two or more other species have evolved from is called a common
ancestor. If 2 animals can reproduce to produce a fertile offspring, then they are
from the same species.

Speciation
A population of one species splits and both populations evolve separately to form
different species.
Step 1 Isolation of a population

Step 2 Evolution under different selection

pressures

Step 3 Strong species survive

Step 4 Reproduction
 Earth Systems
Water cycle
The continuous movement of water above and below the surface of the Earth, and is driven by
sunlight and gravity. This makes water a renewable resource.
- Moving water shapes the Earth through weathering and erosion. These processes
remove soil and rock to produce landforms like river valleys and canyons. Over long time
periods, they can change the land surface dramatically and produce new rock
formations.

Water occurs naturally on Earth in all three states of matter: solid, liquid, and gas. The water
cycle involves many changes from one state to another, such as:
Melting Solid to liquid

Freezing Liquid to a solid

Evaporation Liquid to gas

Condensating Gas to liquid

1. Evaporation
Liquid water on the surface turns into an invisible gas in the air.

2. Condensation
Water vapour in the air turns into liquid droplets forming a cloud.

3. Precipitation
Small droplets of water in clouds form larger droplets and fall as rain, hail, or snow.
 4. Run off
Liquid water flows downhill in streams and rivers.

5. Infiltration
Rain water soaks into the ground and flows through soil and rock layers.

6. Transpiration
Plants release water vapour from tiny pores in their leaves

Rock cycle

Four global systems

Earth is a dynamic system of interacting rock, water, air, and life.
Geosphere Earth's geosphere is made up of its metallic
core, solid rock, molten rock. soil, and
sediments.

Hydrosphere Water in all its forms, ice, water vapour, and

liquid water. It may be in rivers, streams,
lakes, water in soil, and groundwater

Atmosphere Mixture of gases surrounding earth.

Biosphere Comprises all the living things on earth.

Lithosphere is the upper part of the geosphere, consisting of the Earth's crust and upper mantle.
It is divided into slowly moving tectonic plates. It is not one of Earth's 4 systems because it only
refers to the Earth's rigid outer layer, while the geosphere is ALL of Earth’s solid layers.

Movement of matter
Movement of matter is driven by the two sources:
- Solar energy.
- Geothermal energy

Movement of energy
Most of the energy on the Earth's surface comes from the Sun, as electromagnetic radiation.
Only a little energy comes up from inside the Earth, as heat. Of all the Sun's radiation that
strikes the planet, about:

- 30% reflects straight back out again (has no effect on the planet)
- 20% is absorbed by the atmosphere (increases temperature of air)
- 50% is absorbed by land and sea (increases temperature of land and sea)

White objects reflect light well, meaning

that not much of the light is absorbed into
the objects as heat.

Dark objects reflect light poorly, meaning

that most of the light is absorbed into the
objects as heat.

Albedo is the amount of radiation of all wavelengths that different surfaces reflect.
- Something that reflects no radiation at all has an albedo of 0
- Something that reflects all radiation has an albedo of 1
- Something that reflects half of the radiation it is exposed to has an albedo of 0.5

Movement of heat energy

Heat is the transfer of energy from objects of different temperatures. As objects warm-up or cool
down their kinetic energy (motion) changes.

Radiation
Radiation heat is transmitted without any physical contact between objects.
For example: Our bodies get warm because of the sun. Terrestrial radiation is another prime
example.
Terrestrial Radiation

Air, land and water absorb high-energy visible radiation, but emit low-energy infrared radiation.

Because the air, land and water aren't very hot the radiation they emit has longer wavelengths
and lower energy than the visible radiation that heated them up in the first place.

Earth’s energy budget

The same amount of energy must be leaving as it is arriving. Effectively all Earth's energy
comes from the Sun. Terrestrial radiation and reflection are the only ways that energy is lost
back into space.

Conduction
Transfer of heat that takes place between objects by direct contact, it is most often associated
with solid.
For example: When cooking Eggs, heat energy from the frying pan is transferred to the Eggs.
Notice they are in direct contact.

Convection
Heat transfer by the movement of a fluid such as air or water when the heated fluid is caused to
move away from the source of heat carrying the energy with it, occurs due to density.
 - If they heat up, they rise, and then cooler parts of the air or water move in to fill the
space that the warm fluid has moved from.
For example: Lava lamps, as the liquid is heated, it rises and falls as it heats and cools

Evaporation
It takes heat energy to change liquid water into water vapour,even if the temperature stays the
same. Whenever water evaporates, energy transfers into the atmosphere.

Photosynthesis and Respiration

Photosynthesis
Photosynthesis is the process plants undergo to create food. During photosynthesis, plants take
in carbon dioxide and water from the air and soil. Within a plant cell water is oxidised (loses
electrons), while carbon dioxide is reduced (gains electrons). This transforms the water into
oxygen and the carbon dioxide into glucose. The plant then releases oxygen back into the air
and stores energy within glucose molecules.

Water + carbon dioxide → Oxygen + Glucose

Respiration
Cellular respiration is the process by which organisms use oxygen to break down food
molecules to get chemical energy for cell functions. cellular respiration is the process where
organisms combine oxygen with glucose to create water and energy. In this process chemical
energy is being diverted into life sustaining activities, and discarding carbon dioxide and water
as waste.

Glucose + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water + Energy

Photosynthesis VS Respiration
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are the opposite of eachother. Photosynthesis makes
sugars and cellular respiration uses those sugars to make energy. The glucose is then made
into carbon dioxide, which is used in photosynthesis. It helps cells to release and store energy. It
maintains the atmospheric balance of carbon dioxide and oxygen.

Carbon cycle
Carbon is found in all living cells, because all cells contain proteins, fats, and carbohydrates
which all contain carbon atoms.

1. Carbon dioxide is present in the atmosphere in very small amounts

2. Carbon goes from the air into plants (photosynthesis).
3. Green plants remove the carbon from the atmosphere, and make complex molecules
such as proteins, fats and carbohydrates.
4. Animals digest these plants making the carbon part of their own fats and proteins.
5. So up the food chain carbon goes
 6. Waste material (poop and dead bodies) is also a part of the cycle, because
microorganisms feed on this. This puts carbon compounds into the soil, taken up by
plants as nutrients.
7. Respiration puts the carbon back into the atmosphere.

Kinematics & Newton’s Laws

Average speed
Instantaneous vs. average speed
- The instantaneous speed is the speed of an object at a particular moment in time.
- The average of the instantaneous speeds over a particular time period.

Calculating Average speed

Average speeds over different periods

We can calculate the average speed between any two times in the journey using the
following formula:

Speed-time graphs and Distance-time graphs

When the distance-time plot line curves upwards (0–60 s) the speed-time plot line
increases.

When the distance-time plot line flattens out (60–120 s) the speed-time plot line
decreases.

When the distance-time plot line is flat (120–180 s) the speed-time plot line is zero.

When the distance-time plot line is a straight line with positive slope (240–300 s), the
speed-time plot line is also straight, but flat.

More comparisons:

Displacement and velocity

- The distance-time graph turns to a displacement-time graph
- The speed-time graph turns to a velocity-time graph

- A quantity that doesn't have a direction is called a scalar quantity. An example is

distance.
- A quantity that does have a direction is called a vector quantity. An example is
displacement.
Distance is a scalar quantity because it only measures how much ground you’ve
covered, with no direction involved. Displacement is a vector quantity because it
measures how far out of your starting point you are, and it includes direction (e.g., 5
metres north).
How far the car travelled is the distance, but where it ended up in relation to its starting
point is the car’s displacement. Additionally, displacement has direction; the vehicle's
displacement was 1440m north-east.

Speed vs Velocity
Speed is measured by how far you travel in a certain amount of time, and since both
distance and time are scalar quantities, speed is also scalar. For instance, 80 km/h is
the same regardless of whether you're heading north or south.

To describe motion more accurately, scientists use a vector quantity called velocity.
Velocity not only includes speed but also the direction of travel, making velocity a vector
quantity. So, a car might have a velocity of 80 km/h north, or an acrobat might have a
velocity of 6 m/s upward.

Positive and negative velocities

When an object moves back and forth in a
straight line, one of the directions can be
considered positive and the other negative. This
means:
- anything moving in the positive direction
has a positive velocity, and
- anything moving in the negative direction
has a negative velocity
Acceleration
Acceleration is any change in velocity (making it
a vector quantity), there are three ways an
object can accelerate:
1. Speeding up
 2. Slowing down
3. Changing direction

Objects that are speeding up have positive accelerations, while objects that are slowing
down have negative accelerations. Negative acceleration is sometimes referred to as
deceleration.

- The unit for acceleration is metres per second (m/s^-2 or ms^-2

Average acceleration

Newton’s Laws
First law of motion: Inertia
Inertia : An object at rest remains at rest and a moving object keeps moving with the
same speed in the same direction (maintains velocity).

Net forces
The sum of forces acting on a single object.
(The first law also tells us that a net force is needed to make an object change its
velocity.)

To find the net force, add any forces acting in the same direction and subtract any
forces acting in opposite directions. Like force, the units of net force are newton's (N).

When two forces have the same strength but opposite directions, they cancel each
other out. We then say that the forces are balanced and that the net force is zero.
 - An object with zero net force either remains at rest or keeps moving with the
same velocity. In other words, its acceleration is zero.

- An object with a net force acting on it accelerates in the direction of the net force.

Inertia on Earth
On Earth, three forces tend to slow down moving objects by acting in the opposite
direction:
- When they rub against solid objects there is friction.
- When they move through air there is air resistance.
- When they move through water there is water resistance.
- Gravity pulls objects down and presses them to the ground.

2nd Law of motion

 - If there's no net force acting on an object it maintains its velocity. This is due to its
inertia.
- With a net force the objects change the way they move – they accelerate.

Standard units
F = ma works when you use the standard units: newtons for force, kilograms for mass,
and metres per second per second for acceleration.
1 N = 1 kg x 1 m/s/s
Millinewtons (mN) and grams (g), which are each one-thousandth of their standard
units. F = ma still works because you've divided both sides of the equation by one
thousand, keeping it balanced:
1 mN = 1 g x 1 m/s/s is the same as 0.001 N = 0.001 kg x 1 m/s/s

Newton’s 3rd law

Newton's third law of motion states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite
reaction. This means that whenever one object exerts a force on a second object, the
second object exerts a force of equal magnitude but in the opposite direction on the first
object.
- be equal in size
- be opposite in direction
- be of the same type
- act on different objects
 Genetics (not finished)
DNA
Complex molecule containing genetic information to build all living things. DNA of an
organism provides the blueprint, determining how an organism will develop and
function. DNA determines the order amino acids will join to form proteins, forming cells,
tissues, organs, and organisms.

Double Helix
Refers to the physical structure of DNA. A DNA molecule is made up of 2 strands that
wind together resembling a twisted ladder.

Backbone
Provides structural support to the molecule

Base pair
2 nitrogenous bases that pair together, forming the “rung of a ladder”.

Base
A molecule that contains nitrogen and is crucial for storing chemical properties of a
base.
- Purines : These bases have a double ring structure, adenine and guanine
- Pyrimidines : These bases have a single ring structure, cytosine and thymine

A and T connect, while G and C connect

Gene
Basic unit of inheritance, genes carry information determining your traits. Sequence of
DNA. Genes make proteins, they determine the size and shape of the protein produced.
Mitosis (growth and cell repair)
Process where a cell replicates its chromosomes and then separates them, providing 2
identical nuclei in preparation for cell division.
- A parent cell divides into two daughter cells, resulting in two genetically identical
cells in all

Interphase
Interphase is the phase in the cell cycle where the cell grows, replicates its DNA, and
prepares for division. Each single stranded chromosome becomes double stranded.

Phases of mitosis (PMAT)

Prophase – The cell Prepares for division: the chromosomes condense and the
nucleus starts to break down.
Metaphase – The chromosomes line up along the Middle of the cell, nuclei goes

Anaphase – The chromosomes separate and are dragged Away from each other
towards the centriole by their spindles.

Telophase – Two nuclei form, each with its own set of identical DNA
Meiosis (Produced sex cells)
Meiosis is the process used by organisms to produce offspring. It involves special sex
cells known as GAMETES. In females gametes are called eggs and male gametes are
called sperm.

When an egg cell and sperm cell fuse together, this process is called FERTILISATION.
A fertilised egg contains DNA from both the mother and father. Resulting in four
daughter cells because it involves two cycles of division. These daughter cells are
genetically different from the parent cell.

Chromosomes in meiosis
Sex cells only need 23 chromosomes, because two sex cells join together during
fertilisation. DNA is divided into 46 separate chromosomes, and organised into 23 pairs.

- One chromosome in each pair is obtained from the Mother’s egg cell. The other
is obtained from the father’s sperm cell. These chromosomes are the same
length and contain copies of the same genes in the same locations. This is
described as a homologous pair.
- The first 23 chromosomes are called autosomes and they contain genetic info
that is not gender specific, so males and females can inherit their traits equally.
Meiosis compared to mitosis

Mitosis Meiosis

What is its purpose? For growth and tissue To produce gametes.

repair.

Is the cell’s DNA copied Yes Yes

beforehand during
interphase?

How many PMAT cycles 1 2

does it involve?

Are the daughter cells Yes No

genetically identical to
each other?

How many chromosomes 46 diploid 23 haploid

does each daughter cell
have (in humans)?
 Does crossing over ever No Yes
occur?

How many daughter cells 2 identical cells 4 unique cells

does it produce?

Mitosis results in two identical diploid cells for growth and repair, involving one division.
Meiosis produces four genetically unique haploid gametes for sexual reproduction,
involving two divisions and crossing over for genetic diversity.