 PROGRAM OF “PHYSICS”

Lecturer: Dr. DO Xuan Hoi

Room A1 503
E-mail : dxhoi@hcmiu.edu.vn
 PHYSICS 4
(Wave, Light, and Atoms )
02 credits (30 periods)
Chapter 1 Vibration and Mechanical Wave
Chapter 2 Properties of Light
Chapter 3 Introduction to Quantum Physics
Chapter 4 Atomic Physics
Chapter 5 Relativity and Nuclear Physics
 PHYSICS 4
Chapter 3
Introduction to Quantum Physics

The Wave Property of Electrons

De Broglie’s Theory - Matter Wave
The Schrödinger’s Equation
The Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
Particle in a square well
Tunneling Phenomena
 Nature of light
Diffraction, Interference phenomena  light has wave nature
Photoelectric, Compton’s effects  light has particle nature
What is the nature of light?
ANSWER:
From a modern viewpoint,
the light has both wave and particle characteristics

That is The Wave-Particle Duality of Light

“… the wave and corpuscular descriptions are only to be

regarded as complementary ways of viewing one and the same
objective process…” (Pauli, physicist)
1. The Wave Property of Electrons
a. Electron diffraction experiment
(Davisson, Germer, Thomson, 1927)
A beam of either X rays (wave) or
electrons (particle) is directed onto a
target which is a gold foil
The scatter of X rays or electrons by
the gold crystal produces a circular
diffraction pattern on a photographic
film
The pattern of the two experiments
are the same

Particle could act like a wave;

both X rays and electrons are
WAVE
 b. Discussion
 Similar diffraction and interference experiments have been
realized with protons, neutrons, and various atoms
(see “Atomic Interferometer”, Xuan Hoi DO, report of practice
of Bachelor degree of Physics, University Paris-North, 1993)
In 1994, it was demonstrated with iodine molecules I2

Wave interference
patterns of atoms

 Small objects like electrons, protons, neutrons, atoms, and

molecules travel as waves - we call these waves “matter waves”
2. De Broglie’s Theory - Matter Wave
a. De Broglie’s relationships
We recall that
for a photon (E, p) associated to an electromagnetic wave (f, ):

E  h f
1
p  h
 

particle wave
De Broglie’s hypothesis:
To a particle (E, p) is associated a matter wave,
which has a frequency f and a wavelength 

E h
f  
h p
 E h
 From f  and  
h p

if we put: h  2   E  2f 

2
p 

E  
 
p K  Planck-Einstein’s relationship

 is called de Broglie wavelength

b. Conclusion. Necessity of a new science
 When we deal with a wave, there is always some quantity
that varies (the coordinate u, the electricity field E)
 For a matter wave, what is varying?

ANSWER: That is the WAVE FUNCTION

 New brand of physics: THE QUANTUM MECHANICS
 PROBLEM 1 In a research laboratory, electrons are
accelerated to speed of 6.0  106 m/s. Nearby, a 1.0  10-9 kg
speck of dust falls through the air at a speed of 0.020m/s.
Calculate the de Broglie wavelength in both case

SOLUTION
 For the electron:
h h 6.625 10 34 J .s
  
p mv 9.1110 31 kg  6.0 106 m / s
  1.2 10 10 m
 For the dust speck:
h h 6.625 10 34 J .s
d   
pd mvd 1.0 10 9 kg  6.0  0.020 m / s
d  3.3 10 23 m
DISCUSSION: The de Broglie wavelength of the dust speck is so
small that we do not observe its wavelike behavior
PROBLEM 2 An electron microscope uses 40-keV electrons.
Find the wavelength of this electron.

SOLUTION

The velocity of this electron:

v  2K / m
2  40  103  1.6  10 19
v  1.2  108 m / s
9.1 10 31
The wavelength of this electron:
h

mv
6.63  1034 10 o
 31 8  6.1 10 m  6.1 A
9.1 10  1.2  10
 3. The Schrödinger’s Equation
a. Wave Function and Probability Density
Matter waves:
A moving particle (electron, photon) with momentum p is described
by a matter wave; its wavelength is  h / p
A matter wave is described by a wave function: ( x, y, z; t )
(called uppercase psi)

( x, y, z; t ) is a complex number(a + ib with i2 = -1, a, b: real numbers)

( x, y, z; t ) depends on the space (x, y, z) and on the time (t)
The space and the time can be grouped separately:
( x, y, z; t )   ( x, y, z ) e it
 ( x, y, z ) : space - dependent part (lower case psi)
 i t
e : time - dependent part ( : angular frequency)
• The meaning of the wave function:  ( x, y, z)
The function  ( x, y, z ) has no meaning
Only  has a physical meaning. That is:
2

The probability per unit time of detecting a particle in a small

volume centered on a given point in the matter 2wave is
proportional to the value at that point of 


2
greater  it is easier to find the particle

   with  is the complex conjugate of 

2
N.B.:  * *

If we write   a  ib   *  a  ib (a, b: real numbers)

• How can we find the wave equation?
Like sound waves described by Newtonian mechanics,
or electromagnetic waves by Maxwell’s equation,
matter waves are described by an equation called
Schrödinger’s equation (1926)
 b. The Schrödinger’s equation
For the case of one-dimensional motion,
when a particle with the mass m has a potential energy U(x)
Schrödinger’s equation is
d 2 8 2 m
2  2 [ E  U ( x)]  0
dx h
where E is total mechanical energy (potential energy plus kinetic energy)
Schrödinger’s equation is the basic principle
(we cannot derive it from more basic principles)
EXAMPLE: Waves of a free particle
For a free particle, there is no net force acting on it, so
1 2
U ( x)  0 and E  mv
2 d 2 8 2 m  1 2 
Schrödinger’s equation becomes: 2 
 mv   0
2
dx h 2 
 d 2  2 p 2
By replacing: mv  p   
2  h    0
dx
1 p
With the de Broglie wavelength: 
2  h
and the wave number: K 

we have the Schrödinger’s equation for free particle:
d 2
 K 2  0
dx2
This differential equation has the most general solution:
 ( x)  Ae iKx  BeiKx
(A and B are arbitrary constants)
The time-dependent wave function:
( x, t )   ( x) ei t  ( Ae iKx  BeiKx ) ei t
 ( x, t )  Ae i ( Kx  t )  Bei ( Kx  t )
 ( x, t )  Ae i ( Kx  t )  Bei ( Kx  t ) : traveling waves

 Ae i ( Kx t ) : wave traveling in the direction of increasing x

 Bei ( kx t ) : wave traveling in the negative direction of x
Probability density:
Assume that the free particle travels only in the positive direction
Relabel the constant A as 0 :  ( x)  0eiKx
The probability density is:
2 iKx 2 2 iKx 2
   0e  (0 ) e
Because:
iKx 2
e  (eiKx )(eiKx )*  (eiKx )(eiKx )  e0  1
we have:
2
  (0 ) 2  const
 2
What is the meaning of a constant probability?   (0 ) 2  const
2
The plot of   (0 ) 2  const
is a straight line parallel to the x axis:
2

2
0

x
O

The probability density is the same for all values of x

The particle has equal probabilities of being anywhere
along the x axis: all positions are equally likely expected
4. The Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle

• In the example of a free particle, we see that if its momentum is

completely specified, then its position is completely unspecified
• When the momentum p is completely specified we write:
p  0 (because: p  p1  p2  0)
and when the position x is completely unspecified we write:
x  
• In general, we always have: x  p  a constant
This constant is known as:
h
(called h-bar) 
2

h is the Planck’s constant

(h  6.625  10 34 J .s)
 So we can write: x  p  
That is the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
“ it is impossible to know simultaneously and with exactness
both the position and the momentum of the fundamental particles”

N.B.: • We also have for the particle moving in three dimensions

x   p x   y  p y   z  pz  

• With the definition of the constant  :

p  h /   hK / 2 p  K

• Uncertainty for energy :

E  t 
 PROBLEM 3 An electron is moving along x axis with the speed
of 2×106 m/s (known with a precision of 0.50%).
What is the minimum uncertainty with which we can
simultaneously measure the position of the electron along the x
axis? Given the mass of an electron 9.1×10-31 kg

SOLUTION
From the uncertainty principle: x  p  
if we want to have the minimum uncertainty: x  p  
We evaluate the momentum: p  mv  (9.1 10 31 )  (2.05  10 6 )
p  9.35  10 27 kg .m / s
The uncertainty of the momentum is:
p  0.5% p  0.5 / 100  1.87  10 24  9.35  10 27 kg .m / s
 6.635  10 34 / 2 8
  x 
p
 
 1.13  10 m  11nm
9.35  10 27
PROBLEM 4 In an experiment, an electron is determined to be
within 0.1mm of a particular point. If we try to measure the
electron’s velocity, what will be the minimum uncertainty?

SOLUTION
p 
v  
m mx
6.63  10 34 J .s
v 
9.1 10 31 kg  1.0  10  4 m  2
v  1.2m / s
Observation:
We can predict the velocity of the electron to within 1.2m/s.
Locating the electron at one position affects our ability to know
where it will be at later times
PROBLEM 5 A grain of sand with the mass of 1.00 mg appears
to be at rest on a smooth surface. We locate its position to within
0.01mm. What velocity limit is implied by our measurement of its
position?

SOLUTION
p 
v  
m mx
6.63  10 34 J .s
v 
1 10 6 kg  1.0  10 5 m  2
v  1.1 1023 m / s
Observation:
The uncertainty of velocity of the grain is so small that we do not
observe it: The grain of sand may still be considered at rest, as our
experience says it should
PROBLEM 6 An electron is confined within a region of width
1.010- 10 m. (a) Estimate the minimum uncertainty in the
x-component of the electron's momentum.
(b) If the electron has momentum with magnitude equal to the
uncertainty found in part (a), what is its kinetic energy? Express
the result in jou1es and in electron volts.

SOLUTION
(a)

(b)
 PROBLEM 7 A sodium atom is in one of the states labeled
''Lowest excited levels". It remains in that state for an average
time of 1.610-8 s before it makes a transition back to a ground
state, emitting a photon with wavelength 589.0 nm and energy
2.105 eV. What is the uncertainty in energy of that excited state?
What is the wavelength spread of the corresponding spectrum line?
SOLUTION

The fractional uncertainty of the photon energy is

5. Particle in a square well
• Consider a particle confined to a region 0  x  a where it can
move freely, but subject to strong force at x = 0 and x = a

U  0 when : 0  x  a  

U   when : x  0 or xa U
1. Solution of the Schrödinger’s equation
Schrödinger’s equation for the
particle in the box:
d 2 8 2 m 0 a
 E  0 x
dx2 h2
8 2 m
By putting: K 2  E Infinitely deep
2
h potential energy well
d 2
 K 2  0
dx2
 d 2
2 K  0
2
 ( x)  Ae iKx  BeiKx
dx
What values can take the constants A, B, and the condition
for K ?
• With the boundary condition:  ( x  0)  0
 ( x)  Ae iKx  BeiKx  Ae 0  Be0  A  B  0
B  A  ( x)  A(eiKx  eiKx )

• Revision: We have the relations

eix  e ix eix  e ix
cos x  and: sin x 
2 2i

 ( x)  2iA sin Kx  ( x)  C sin Kx

 • With the boundary condition:  ( x  a)  0
 ( x)  C sin Ka  0 Ka  n K  n / a
The momentum of the particle is: p  K  n / a

p 2   2 2  2
The possible values of energy: E  2  n
2m  2ma 
 Bound states
Because n is an integer: n  1; 2; 3;...   2 2 
the energy can only have the discrete values: En   2
 n 2
 2ma 
  2 (h / 2 ) 2  h 2
h2
En   2
 n 2 
2 n 2
En  n2
 2 ma  8ma 8ma 2 3rd excited E
4
We say that the energy is quantized
these values of energy are called energy levels
n=1 ground state (E1) 2nd excited
E3
n=2 first excited state (E2)
n=3 second excited state (E3)
. 1st excited
. E2
. ground
E1
The integer n is called the quantum number
energy-level diagram
 PROBLEM 8

An electron is confined to a one-dimensional, infinitely deep

potential energy well of width a = 100pm.
1/ What is the least energy (in eV) the electron can have?
2/ Compute the energy level of the first excited state, of the
second excited state. Draw the energy level diagram.

SOLUTION
1/ The least energy corresponds to the least quantum number:
n = 1 for the ground state. Thus:
h2 2 
(6.625  10 34 ) 2
E1   1  12
8ma 2 8  9.1 10 31  (100  10 12 ) 2

6.03  10 18
E1  6.03  10 18 J  19
E1  37.7eV
1.6  10
2/ The energy level of the first excited state corresponds to n = 2:
h2
E2  2  2 2
 4E1 E2  4  37.7eV E2  150.8eV
8ma
The energy level of the second excited state corresponds to n = 3:
h2
E3   3 2
8ma2
 9E1 400
2nd excited
 9 37.7eV E3
300
E3  339 .3eV
200
1st excited E2
100
Observation: ground
The levels are not equidistant E1
0
 PROBLEM 9
The wave function of a particle confined to an infinitely deep
potential energy well is  ( x)  C sin Kx
Determine the value of C, knowing that the particle must be
somewhere in all space
SOLUTION
2
If the probability density is  (x)
2
The probability of finding the particle in width dx is  ( x ) dx
The probability of finding the particle in all space is

  ( x) dx
2


Because we are sure to find the particle somewhere in all space, the
probability equals the unit: 
Normalization condition:   ( x) 2
dx  1

For a particle confined to an infinitely deep potential energy well:
 a Ka
  ( x) dx   C sin( Kx) dx  C K
2 2 2 1
 sin 2 XdX
 0 0

With: cos 2 X  1  2 sin 2 X

Ka Ka Ka Ka
 sin 2 XdX  2  [ 1  cos(2 X )] dX  2  dX  2  (cos 2 X )dX
1 1 1
0 0 0 0
Ka

1 Ka
dX 
2 0 2
Ka
 (cos 2 X )dX  2  sin 2 X  0  2 sin 2Ka  2 sin 2n  0
1 Ka 1 1
0
 Normalization condition:
  ( x) dx  C K 2  C 2  2
2 2 1 Ka 2a

   ( x) dx  1 C  2 / a

 ( x)  2 / a sin Kx
 PROBLEM 10

The wave function of a particle confined to an infinitely deep

potential energy well is  ( x)  2 / a sin Kx
The depth of the well is a = 100 pm
What is the probability density of finding the particle at the distance
x = 50 pm for the value of the quantum number
1/ n = 1 ?
2/ n = 2 ?

SOLUTION
 n 
We have K  n / a  ( x)  2 / a sin x
 a 
22 2  n 
The probability density is  ( x)  sin  x
a  a 
 SOLUTION
2 2 

1/ For n = 1:  ( x)  0.02 sin  x (x: pm)
100 
0.02
2


x
0 50 pm 100 pm
2 2 

2/ For n = 2:  ( x)  0.02 sin  x  (x: pm)
 50 
0.02
2


x
0 50 pm 100 pm
 6. Tunneling Phenomena
a. The Square Barrier
The square barrier is represented by a potential energy U(x)
 E0  const 0  x  a
U 
0 x  0;x  a
U

E E0

O a x
• For case of classical particles:
If a particle comes from the left with energy E < E0 , it will be
reflected back at x = 0.
b. Barrier penetration U

E
ikx
Incident ( Ae ) ik 'x
E0 Transmitted (Ce )
Reflected ( Be ikx ) O a
x
(I) (II) (III)
• In quantum mechanics:
The matter waves will have the solution for the region (I):
 I ( x)  Ae ikx  Beikx

And the solution for the region (III): III ( x )  Ceik ' x

A particle can go through the potential barrier even if its kinetic

energy is less than the height of the barrier: tunneling effect
 U

E
Incident Transmitted
E0
Reflected
O a x

I II III
x
O a

The wave function I: free incident particles

The wave function II: decays exponentially in the forbidden region
The wave function III: transmitted particles
APPLICATIONS: Scanning Tunneling Microscopes
The scanning tunneling microscope (STM): To obtain highly
detailed images of surfaces at resolutions comparable to the
size of a single atom (approximately 0.2 nm).
For an optical microscope: The resolution  200 nm