 PROGRAM OF “PHYSICS”

Lecturer: Dr. DO Xuan Hoi

Room A1 503
E-mail : dxhoi@hcmiu.edu.vn
 PHYSICS 4
(Wave and Modern Physics)
02 credits (30 periods)
Chapter 1 Mechanical Wave
Chapter 2 Properties of Light
Chapter 3 Introduction to Quantum Physics
Chapter 4 Atomic Physics
Chapter 5 Relativity and Nuclear Physics
 PHYSICS 4
Chapter 4 Atomic Physics

The Bohr Atom

The Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom
Many-Electron Atoms and the Exclusion Principle
Quantum Computing
X-Ray Production and Scattering
The laser
Semiconductivity
 1. The Bohr Atom
1.1 The energy levels
The hydrogen atom consists of a single
electron (charge – e) bound to its central
nucleus, a single proton (charge + e), by
an attractive Coulomb force
1 (e)(e) e2
The electric potential energy is : U  
4 0 r 4 0 r
We can demonstrate that the energies of the quantum electron is
 me4  1 13.6eV
En   2 2  2 En  
 8 0 h  n n2

where n is an integer, that is the principal quantum number

The energies of the hydrogen atom is quantized

1. 2 Spectral emission lines
When the electron jumps down from an energy level Em to
a lower one En , the hydrogen atom emits a photon of energy:
hc
  hfmn   E m  En
 mn
E
• If En  E1 : Lyman series E4
E3
• If En  E2 : Balmer series
Paschen
• If En  E3 : Paschen series E2
• If En  E4 : Brackett series
Balmer
.
.
. E1
Lyman
 PROBLEM 1

1/ What is the wavelength of light for the least energetic photon

emitted in the Lyman series of the hydrogen atom spectrum lines?
2/ What is the wavelength of the line H in the Balmer series?

SOLUTION
hc
1/ For the Lyman series:   hfm1   Em  E1
 m1
The least energetic photon is the transition between E1 and the level
immediately above it; that is E2 . The energy difference is:
 13.6eV   13.6eV 
E  E2  E1          10.2eV
 22   12 
hc (6.63  1034 )  (3 108 ) 7
  
 1.22  10 m  0.122  m  122 nm
E 10.2  1.6  10 19
(in the ultraviolet range)
 2/ The line H in the Balmer series corresponds to the transition
between E3 and E2 .
The energy difference is:
 13.6eV   13.6eV 
E  E3  E2        1.89eV
 32   2 2 
hc (6.63  1034 )  (3 108 ) 7
    6.58  10 m  0.658  m  658nm
E 1.89  1.6  10 19
(red color)

• The line H : E3  E2 ( = 658 nm)

• The line H : E4  E2 ( = 486 nm)
• The line H : E5  E2 ( = 434 nm)
• The line H : E6  E2 ( = 410 nm)
 PROBLEM 2
An atom can be viewed as a numbers of electrons moving around a
positively charged nucleus. Assume that these electrons are in a box
with length that is the diameter of the atom (0.2 nm).
Estimate the energy (in eV) required to raised an electron from the
ground state to the first excited state and the wavelength that can
cause this transition.
SOLUTION
h2 h2
En  2  n 2
E1   12
(6.625  10 34 ) 2
8ma 2
8ma
  12
8  9.1 10 31  (0.2  10 9 ) 2  1.6  10 19

 9.40eV
h2
E2  2  2 2
 4E1  37.6eV Energy required:
8ma
E  E2  E1  37.6  9.40  28.2eV
The wavelength that can cause this transition:   hc / E  44.0nm
 PROBLEM 3
According to the basic assumptions of the Bohr theory applied to the
hydrogen atom, the size of the allowed electron orbits is determined
by a condition imposed on the electron’s orbital angular momentum:
this quantity must be an integral multiple of :
mvr  n ; n  1,2,3,...
1/ Demonstrate that the electron can exist only in certain allowed
orbit determined by the integer n
2/ Find the formula for the wavelength of the emission spectra.

SOLUTION
1 2 e2
1/ E  KE  PE  mv  k
2 r e2 v2 ke2
Newton’s second law: F  ma ; k 2  m KE 
r r 2r 2
e2
The energy of the atom: E   k
2r
 n2 2
v 2
e2 ke2 m n2 2 n 2 2
With: v2  2 2 : k 2  m   ; ke2 
mr r r r2 r m2 r 2 mr

n2 2
We have: rn  2
(the electronic orbits are quantized)
mke
2
With: a0   0.0529nm (Bohr radius), rn  a0 n2
mke2

2/ We have : E   mk e  1  E   13.6eV
2 4

2  2 
n 2
2 n  n
Ei  E f
The frequency of the emitted photon is given by: f 
h
2 4
1 f mk 2 e4  1 1  R 
mk e
 1.097  10 7 1
m
    2  With: H 3
 c 4 c  n f ni 
3  2 4 c
(Rydberg constant)
1  1 1 
 RH  2  2 
  n f ni 
 
 PROBLEM 4
The result of the Bohr theory of the hydrogen atom can be
extended to hydrogen-like atoms by substituting Ze2 for e2 in the
hydrogen equations.
Find the energy of the singly ionized helium He+ in the ground state
in eV and the radius of the ground-state orbit
SOLUTION For He+: Z = 2
mk 2 Z 2 e4  1  Z 2
(13.6eV )
E 2  2  En  
2 n  n2
The ground state energy: E1  4(13.6eV )  54.4eV
n2 2
n2
• The radius of the ground state : rn  rn  a0
mkZe2 Z
12
r1  a0  0.0265nm (The atom is smaller; the electron is more
2
tightly bound than in hydrogen atom)
2. The Schrödinger Equation for the Hydrogen Atom

Electron cloud

In spherical coordinates (r, , ), the hydrogen-atom problem

is formulated as :
 (r )   (r , , )  R (r )Y ( , ) ; Y ( , )  ( )()
1 e2
The potential energy is : U (r )  
4 0 r
The Schrödinger equation in three dimensions :
 2  2  2 2m
2
 2
 2
 2
[E  U (r )]  0
x y z

2 2m 
2 1 e2 
2
 2  2  2 E    0
x 2
y z  4 0 r 

2.1 Radial function of the hydrogen atom

If  depends only on r :   (r)
2 2 2 r 2 r x
r  x  y  z ; 2r  2x 
x x r
2
 d  r x d          x d  
  ;
x dr x r dr x 2 x x x  r dr 

2 1 d x r d  x d 2 r 1 d  x 2 d  x 2 d 2
  2    3  2
x 2
r dr r x dr r dr x r dr
2
r dr r dr 2
 2 x 2 d  x 2 d 2
1 d
  3  2
x 2
r dr r dr r dr 2
The same result for y and z :
2 1 d  y 2 d  y 2 d 2
  3  2
y 2
r dr r dr r dr 2
2 z 2 d  z 2 d 2
1 df 
  3  2
z 2 r dr r dr r dr 2
2 2 2 d 2 2 d 
   
x 2
y 2
z 2 dr 2
r dr

The Schrödinger equation :

d 2 2 d  2m  1 e2 
  2 E    0
dr 2
r dr  4 0 r 
 Wave function for the ground state
The wave function for the ground state of the hydrogen atom:
1
 (r )  e r / a
a 3/2 

10
Where a is the Bohr radius: a  0.529  10 m  52.9nm
 Wave function for the first excited state

 (r )  Ce ar / 2 (2  ar )
 PROBLEM 5

Knowing that the wave function for the ground state of the
hydrogen atom is r / a
 (r )  Ae
Where a is the Borh radius: a  0.529  1010 m  52.9nm
1/ What is the value of the normalization constant A ?
2/ What is the value of x at which the radial probability density
has a maximum?

SOLUTION
1/ Because the electron moves in the three dimensional space, the
probability of finding the electron in a volume dV is written:
 dV  A2e2r / a dV
2

where: dV  4 r 2 dr
 
Normalization condition:   (r ) 2
dV  1
 0
4 A2  e2r / a r 2dr  1 (1)
0 
We put: I   e  2r / a 2
r dr

0  a 3  z 2
By changing variable: z  2r / a I     e z dz
2 0
By integration by parts, we can demonstrate the general formula:

 e z z ndz  n ! 1 2  ... (n  1)  n
0

I   a / 2 3  e z z 2 dz  2 a / 2 3  a 3 / 4
0 1
Substituting the value of I into (1): 4 A a / 4  1 2 3
A
a3 / 2 
1
 (r )  e r / a
a3 / 2 
 2/ Because:
2 2  2r / a 1 2r / a 4 2r / a 2
 dV  A e dV  3e 4 r dr 
2
e r dr
a a 3

the radial probability density is

4 2r / a 2 P(r)
P(r )  3 e r
a
dP(r )
When P (r) has a maximum: 0
dr
dP(r ) 4 d  2r / a 2
dr
 3 e r  
a dr
4  2 2  2r / a O a r
 3  r ( )e  2re  2r / a 
a  a 


8
4 r ( a  r )e  2 r / a  0  ra
a
(The value r = 0 corresponds to a minimum of P( r) )
Physical meaning: The position r = a is the most probable for the
electron  electronic clouds
 PROBLEM 6

Calculate the probability that the electron in the ground state of

the hydrogen atom will be found outside the Bohr radius

SOLUTION
1
With:  (r )  3 / 2 e r / a
a 

The probability is found by: P    (r ) 2
dV where: dV  4 r 2 dr
a

 r 2e2r / a dr
4
P 3 By changing variables: z  2r / a ,
a a
 
P   z 2e z dz   {z 2  2 z  2}e z  5e2  0.677  P  67.7%
1 1
2 2 2 2
 PROBLEM 7

The wave function of a particle is given as:  (r )  Ce x / a

1/ Find C in terms of a such that the wave function is normalized in
all space
2/ Calculate the probability that the particle will be found in the
interval -a  x  a
SOLUTION  
1/ With: C 2  e2 x / a dx  1 2C 2  e2 x / a dx  1
 0
2 a  1
2C    1 C
2 a
a a a
  ( x) dx  2   ( x) dx  2C 2  e2 x / a dx
2 2
2/ P 
a 0 0
P  2C 2 (a / 2)(1  e )  2(1 / a ) 2 (a / 2)(1  e2 )  86.5%
2
2.2 Quantization of Orbital Angular Momentum

NOTES : In classical mechanics :

 Force and linear momentum in translational motion :
dv d (mv ) dp
F  ma  m  
dt dt dt
 Torque and angular momentum in rotational motion
  Fd L  pr
  F r L r p

L  mvr  m (r )r  (mr 2 )  I 

In quantum mechanics :
 In the wave function of electron in hydrogen atom :
 (r )   (r , , )  R (r )Y ( , ) ; Y ( , )  ( )()
The requirement that the () function must be finite at
= 0 and  =  gives the result : L can take some possible
values :
L  l (l  1)
( l  0 ; 1 ; 2 ; 3 ;...; n  1 )
The number l is called : the orbital angular-momentum
quantum number or the orbital quantum number for
short.
 L  l (l  1)
In quantum mechanics :
( l  0 ; 1 ; 2 ; 3 ;...; n  1 )
 On the other hand, the permitted values of the component
of L in a given direction, say the z-component Lz are
determined by the requirement that the () function must
equal ( + 2).
The possible values of Lz are
Lz  ml
( ml  0 ;  1 ;  2 ;  3 ;...;  l )

( ml  l ;  l  1 ;  l  2 ; ...  1 ; 0 ; 1 ;...; l  1 ; l )

We call ml the orbital magnetic quantum number

 L  l (l  1) ( l  0 ; 1 ; 2 ; 3 ;...; n  1 )

Lz  ml ( ml  0 ;  1 ;  2 ;  3 ;...;  l )
( ml  l ;  l  1 ;  l  2 ; ...  1 ; 0 ; 1 ;...; l  1 ; l )
EXAMPLE : For n = 3; the possible values of l are : 0 ; 1 ; 2
With l = 2; the possible values of ml are : -2 ; -1 ; 0 ; +1 ; +2
L  2(2  1)  6  2.45
Lz  0 ;  1 ;  2
 PROBLEM 8

How many distinct (n, l, ml ) states of the hydrogen atom

with n = 3 are there? Find the energy of these states.

SOLUTION
For n = 3; the possible values of l are : 0 ; 1 ; 2
With l = 0 ; the possible value of ml is : 0
With l = 1 ; the possible values of ml are : -1 ; 0 ; +1
With l = 2 ; the possible values of ml are : -2 ; -1 ; 0 ; +1 ; +2

The total number of (n , l , m, ) states with n = 3 is therefore

1 + 3 + 5 = 9.
13.6eV 13.6 eV
En   E3   2
 1.51 eV
n 2
3
 PROBLEM 9
Consider the n = 4 states of hydrogen.
(a) What is the maximum magnitude L of the orbital angular
momentum?
(b) What is the maximum value of Lz?
(c) What is the minimum angle between L and the z-axis?

SOLUTION
(a)
When n = 4, the maximum value of the orbital angular-
momentum quantum number l is (n  1)  (4  1)  3
L  l (l  1)  3(3  1)  12
(b) For l = 3 the maximum value of the magnetic quantum
number ml is 3 :
Lz  ml  3
 PROBLEM 9
Consider the n = 4 states of hydrogen.
(a) What is the maximum magnitude L of the orbital angular
momentum?
(b) What is the maximum value of Lz?
(c) What is the minimum angle between L and the z-axis?

SOLUTION
(c) The minimum allowed angle between L
and the z-axis corresponds to the
maximum allowed values of Lz and ml
(Lz )max 3
cos min  
L 12
min  300
 PROBLEM 10 Represent all the possible orientations of the
angular momentum with the value l = 0 ; 1 ; 2 ; 3

l 0 l 1 l 2
L 0 L 2 L 6
SOLUTION 2

Lz 0
 l = 0 : L = 0 ; ml = 0 
l=1 2
L  l (l  1)  1(1  1)  2
ml = -1 ; 0 ; +1 Lz  ml  0 ;  1
l=2
L  l (l  1)  2(2  1)  6
ml = -2 ; -1 ; 0 ; +1 ; +2 Lz  ml  0 ;  1 ;  2
 PROBLEM 11 (a) If the value of Lz is known, we cannot
know either Lx or Ly precisely. But we can know the value of the
quantity . Write an expression for this quantity in terms
of l and ml .
(b) What is the meaning of ?
(c) For a state of nonzero orbital angular momentum, find the
maximum and minimum values of . Explain your results.

SOLUTION

(a) L2x  L2y  L2  L2z  l (l  1) 2

 ml2 2
 l (l  1)  ml2
(b) This is the magnitude of the component of angular
momentum perpendicular to the z-axis
(c) The maximum value : 
L2x  L2y 
 l (l  1)
MAX
when ml = 0
The minimum value :  L2x  L2y 
MIN
 l when ml =  l
2.3 The spectroscopic notation and
the shell notation

The existence of more than one distinct state with the same
energy is called degeneracy
Example : n = 2  4 states : degeneracy g = 4
2.4 Electron Spin
Analogy : The earth travels in a nearly circular orbit around
the sun, and at the same time it rotates on its axis. Each
motion has its associated angular momentum. which we call
the orbital and spin angular momentum, respectively.
L
S
 Each electron possesses an intrinsic
angular momentum called its spin.

Like orbital angular momentum. the spin

angular momentum of an electron
(denoted by S) is found to be quantized.

1 1 1  3
S  s (s  1) ; s  S   1 
2 2  2 
 2
The projection of the spin on z-axis is called Sz
1
S z  ms   ( ms   : magnetic spin number )
2 2
The spin angular momentum vector S can have only two orientations
in space relative to the z-axis: "spin up" with a z-component of 
2
and "spin down" with a z-component of 
2
CONCLUSION :
State of an electron is defined by 5 quantum numbers :

n : the principal quantum number

l : the orbital quantum number
ml : the orbital magnetic quantum number
s : the spin number
ms : the magnetic spin number

Wave function of an electron is denoted as :

 n ,l ,ml ,s 1 / 2,ms 1 / 2

 PROBLEM 12
(a) Show that the total number of atomic states (including
different spin states) in a shell of principal quantum number n
is 2n2 .
(b) Which shell has 50 states ?

SOLUTION
n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1 n 1
(a) N  2 (2l  1)  4  l  2 1  4  l  2 1
l 0 l 0 l 0 l 0 l 0

(n  1)n
4  2(n )  2n 2  2n  2n
2
N  2n 2

(b) The n = 5 shell (O - shell) has 50 states

3. Many-Electron Atoms and the Exclusion Principle
3.1 The simplest approximation
To ignore all interactions between electrons and consider each
electron as moving under the action only of the nucleus
(considered to be a point charge).
The wave function for each electron is a function like those for
the hydrogen atom, specified by four quantum numbers :
( n , l , m l , ms ) :

The nuclear charge is Ze instead of e. The energy levels :

Z2
E n   2 13.6 eV 
n
3. Many-Electron Atoms and the Exclusion Principle
3.2 The Exclusion Principle
“No two electrons can occupy the same quantum-mechanical state
in a given system”

“No two electrons in an atom can have the same values of all
four quantum numbers ( n , l , ml , ms )”

Therefore the principle also says, in effect, that no more than

two electrons with opposite values of the quantum number ms
can occupy the same region of space
 3. Many-Electron Atoms and the Exclusion Principle
3.3 The Periodic Table

Electron configuration (or structure) of an atom represents

the manner in which the states are occupied.

EXAMPLE: Electronic configuration

Hydrogen (11H ) : 1s1
Helium ( 24He) : 1s 2
23
Sodium (11 Na) : 1s 2 2s 2 2 p 6 3s1
 PERIODIC TABLE: All the elements have been classified
according to the electrons configurations
In the periodic table, the elements are situated, with increasing
atomic number, in seven horizontal rows called periods.

The arrangement is such that all the elements arrayed in a given

column (or group) have similar valence electron structure, as well
as chemical and physical properties.

7 periods
4. Quantum Computing
(Joseph Stelmach, Wolfgang Bauer,…)

4.1 What is a quantum computer?

 Quantum computer: Type of computer that uses
QUANTUM MECHANICS so that it can perform
certain kinds of computation more efficiently than
a regular computer can.
 Quantum mechanical phenomena:
SUPERPOSITION and ENTANGLEMENT,…
 Classical physics: SUPERPOSITION
 Quantum mechanical phenomena: SUPERPOSITION

An excited state 1 and a ground state 0

Light pulse of
frequency  for
Excited time interval t
State

Nucleus
Ground
State
Electron
State |0 State |1
 Quantum mechanical phenomena: SUPERPOSITION

Superposition of the two states: Addition of the state vectors:

 = a1 0 + a2 1
a12 : : Probability of the superposition collapsing to 0

(a1 and a2 : complex numbers and |a1|2 + | a2| 2 = 1 )

 Quantum mechanical phenomena: ENTANGLEMENT

Entanglement  Relationships among data:

The ability of quantum systems to exhibit
CORRELATIONS between states within a superposition.
In the state 0 +1 (a superposition of 0 and1 ),
we can entangle the two states such that the measurement
of one state is always correlated to the measurement of
the other state.
4.2 Quantum Bit (Qubit) vs Classical Bit
Classical computer stores information in a series of
0’s and 1’s.
Each unit in this series of 0’s and 1’s : a bit.
A bit can be set to either 0 or 1.
2 basic states – off or on: 0, 1 (Mutually exclusive:
Nothing appears between 0 and 1: it’s all or nothing)
Electricity: high voltage:1, low voltage: 0.
Input Output
EXAMPLE: The AND Gate In these 3 cases,
A B C information is
0 0 0 being destroyed
A
C 0 1 0
B 1 0 0
1 1 1

This type of gate cannot be used. We must use

Quantum Gates.
 Classical Bit

A “byte” is a collection of 8 bits.

EXAMPLE:
A possible representation for one particular value of a byte
could be 01100010
(the 8 bits that make up this byte are in their respective on
or off positions as indicated by the numbers, one digit for
each bit)
 Quantum computing: Qubits (Quantum bits) are the
basic unit and their value can be 1, 0, or 1 and 0
simultaneously (laws of quantum physics)
 qubits (as opposed to bits) can take on various
values at one time and can perform calculations
that a conventional computer cannot.

Quantum Gates - Hadamard

 Simplest gate involves one qubit and is called a Hadamard
Gate (also known as a square-root of NOT gate.) Used to
put qubits into superposition.

H H
State State State
|0 |0 + |1 |1
 Quantum Bit (Qubit):
System od 1 qubits  c1 1 + c2 0
 Quantum Bit (Qubit):

Qubits represent atoms (spin of the electron in which

the two levels can be taken as spin up and spin
down), ions, photons and their respective control
devices that are working together.

Because a quantum computer can contain these

multiple states simultaneously, it has the potential to
be millions of times more powerful than today's
most powerful supercomputers.
 Quantum Bit (Qubit):
System of 1 qubits  c1 1 + c2 0
System of 2 qubits
 c11 11 + c10 10 + c01 01 + c00 00
System of 3 qubits
 c111 111 + c110 110 + c101 101 + c100 100
c011 011 + c010 010 + c001 001 + c000 000
…
Classical computer operates on a register of n bits
 n operations simultaneously.
Quantum computer operates on a register of n qubits
 2n operations simultaneously.
 PROBLEM 13
1 e i
Consider the quantum state:   0  1
2 2
(a) Compute the probability to find the system in state 0 and
in state 1 ?
(b) Compute the probability of measuring + and  in the
1 1
new basis:  
2
 0  1  and  
2
 0  1 

SOLUTION
2 2
(a)  1  1  e i  1
0 :  2 1 :  
2
 2  2
 PROBLEM 13
1 e i
Consider the quantum state:   0  1
2 2
(b) Compute the probability of measuring + and  in the
1 1
new basis:  
2
 0  1  and  
2
 0  1 
SOLUTION
(b)

Probability of measuring |+: cos2(/2), of |: sin2(/2)

 Quantum Bit (Qubit):

INFORMATION CONTENT IN MULTIPLE QUBITS

 2n complex coefficients describe the state of a
composite quantum system with n qubits.
 Imagine to have 500 qubits  2500 complex
coefficients describe their state.
2500 is larger than the number of atoms in the universe!
Impossible in classical bits!
4.3 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN QUANTUM AND
TRADITIONAL COMPUTING

Programming language Quantum computing does not have

its own programming code and requires the development
and implementation of very specific algorithms.
Functionality Quantum computers: not intended for
widespread, everyday use, unlike personal computers (PC).
These supercomputers are so complex that they can only be
used in the corporate, scientific and technological fields.
Architecture Quantum computers have a simpler
architecture than conventional computers and they have no
memory or processor. The equipment consists solely of a set
of qubits that makes it run.
Quantum computer based on
superconducting qubits developed by
IBM Research in Zurich, Switzerland. The
qubits in the device shown here will be
cooled to under 1 kelvin.
4.4 MAIN USES OF QUANTUM COMPUTING
Finance Optimize their investment portfolios and
improve fraud detection and simulation systems.

Healthcare Development of new drugs and genetically

customized treatments, as well as DNA research.

Cybersecurity Advances in data encryption. This is a new

technique for sending sensitive information that uses light
signals to detect intruders in the system.

Mobility and transport Design more efficient aircraft.

Qubits will also enable significant progress in traffic
planning systems and route optimization.
 5. X-Ray Production and Scattering
vacuum
X tube

E
_

_
v0 v + anode

anticathode
cathode
_ X rays are produced when
hc rapidly moving electrons
  hf 
 that have been
accelerated through a
10 kV potential difference of the
order of 103 to 106 V
strike a metal target.
 5. X-Ray Production and Scattering
vacuum
X tube

E
_

_
v0 v + anode

anticathode
cathode
_ X rays are produced when
hc rapidly moving electrons
  hf 
 that have been
accelerated through a
10 kV potential difference of the
order of 103 to 106 V
strike a metal target.
Some electrons are
slowed down or stopped
by the target, and pan or
all of their kinetic energy
is converted directly to a
continuous spectrum of
photons, including x rays. The maximum frequency and
This process is called minimum wavelength of the
bremsstrahlung (German x ray is given by :
for "braking radiation").
hc
eV AC  hf max 
min
 PROBLEM 14 Electrons in an x-ray tube are accelerated by
a potential difference of 10.0 kV. If an electron produces one
photon on impact with the target, what is the minimum
wavelength of the resulting x rays? Answer using both SI units
and electron volts.

SOLUTION
 6. The laser
• Ordinary light source: radiative electron transitions spontaneous
(occur independently of one another and at random times) producing
radiation that is incoherent
• Laser light: coherent light is generated by electron transition
initiated by external stimulus
• Laser : acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation
6.1 Characteristics of laser light
• Highly monochromatic (light from an ordinary incandescent
light-bulb is spread over a continuous range of wavelengths: not
monochromatic)
• Highly coherent (Individual long waves: hundred kilometers long.
Light-bulb: less than a meter)
• Highly directional (A laser beam spreads very little)
• Sharply focused (A focus spot can have an intensity of 107W/cm2)
 6.2 Lasing
• Three possible processes by which an atom can move from one state
to another:
Absorption (when the atom is placed in an electromagnetic field of
frequency f, it can absorb an amount hf and move to higher energy state)
Spontaneous emission (the emission is not triggered by any outside
influence)
Stimulated emission (An incoming photon with the correct energy
Induces an electron to change energy levels)

E1 E1 E1 E1

E0 E0 E0 E0

spontaneous emission stimulated emission

• When a sample is in thermal equilibrium, the number of atoms in the
state of energy E is:

N  N0e( E  E0 ) / kT
where N0 is the number of atoms in the ground state of energy E0
N  N0
• Produce laser: we must have a situation in which stimulated emission
dominates: more atoms in the excited state than in the ground state
Population inversion
E1 E1

E0 E0
normal population inverted population
 silvered mirror
6.3 Solid laser
cooling flash tube
tube
Ruby laser:
ruby rod Ruby is a crystal of sapphire (Al2O3) contains
about 0.005% Cr3+ ions
The xenon flash lamp excite the Cr3+ ions to
a higher energy level
photon
Photons from the spontaneous decay
partially
silvered mirror cause other excited Cr3+ ions to radiate
laser
beam
Result: A large pulse of single-frequency
coherent red light from the partly silvered
end of the rod
6.4 Semiconductor laser:
The stimulated recombination of excited
electrons in the conduction band with holes
in the valence band gives rise to a laser
beam
 6.5 Applications of laser:
Medical applications (in ophthalmology to correct for myopia,
photodynamic therapy to treat cancer), holography, voice and data
transmission over optical fibers, nuclear fusion research,
industry (infra-red lasers can cut through metal), military applications,…

Laser fusion:
Use of inertial confinement approach
to cause deuterium-tritium thermonuclear
reaction with intense lasers
 Holography
(from the Greek, όλος-hòlòs whole + γραφή-grafè writing, drawing)
is the science of producing holograms. It is a technique that allows
the light scattered from an object to be recorded and later
reconstructed so that it appears as if the object is in the same position
relative to the recording medium as it was when recorded.
The image produced changes as the position and orientation of the
viewing system changes in exactly the same way is if the object were
still present
 PROBLEM 15 In the helium-neon laser, laser action occurs
between two excited states of the neon atom. However, in
many lasers, lasing occurs between the ground state and the
excited state.
1/ Consider such a laser that emits at wavelength 550nm.
What is the ratio of the population of atoms in state E1 to the
population in the ground state E0 at room temperature?
2/ For the condition of 1/, at what temperature would this ratio
to be 1/2?
 SOLUTION

1/ We use the expression: N  N0e( E  E0 ) / kT

The energy separation between two states for the lasing:
hc 6.63  10 34  3  108
E  h   9 19
 2.26 eV
 550  10  1.6  10
23
1.38 10  300 N  2.26 / 0.0259 38
kT   0 .0259 eV   e  1.3  10
1.6 1019 N0
Comment: N/N0 is extremely small; its thermal energy is too small
N 1 E  E0
2/   e ( E  E0 ) / kT  T
k (ln 2)
N0 2
2.26 eV
T
(8.62  10 5 eV / K ) ln 2
T  38 000 K
Comment: We need specific techniques to invert the population
 7 Semiconductivity
7.1 Electrical conductivity
• Electrical conductivity  is used to specify the electrical character
of a material. It is the reciprocal of the resistivity
1
(  m) 1
 

 is indicative of the ease with which a material is capable of
conducting an electric current.
• Ohm’s law may be written as: J   E (2)

in which J is the current density (the current per unit of specimen

area I/A), and E is the electric field intensity (the voltage difference
between two points divided by the distance separating them):

1 V
Vm E
l
 CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS:
One way of classifying solid materials is according to the ease with
which they conduct an electric current: conductors, semiconductors,
and insulators
• Metals are good conductors, having conductivities on the order of:
10 7 (  m) 1
• At the other extreme are electrical insulators, with very low
conductivities, ranging between
10 10 (  m) 1 and 10 20 (  m) 1
• Materials termed semiconductors with intermediate conductivities,
generally
6 1
from 10 (  m) to 10 4 (  m) 1
Within most solid materials a current arises from the flow of electrons
(termed electric conduction).
For ionic materials, a net motion of charged ions possible of producing
a current is termed ionic conduction (Faraday’ law)
 e 
E e

e e

Net electron motion

No electric field:
Random motion In the presence of an electric field
• The conductivity  of most materials may be expressed as
  nee
where n is the number of free or conducting electrons per unit volume
(e.g. per cubic meter) and e is absolute magnitude of electrical charge
of an electron, and e is the electron mobility
Thus, the electrical conductivity is proportional to both the number of
free electrons and the electron mobility e
7.2 Kronig-Penney Model
A solid may be thought of as consisting of a large number N of atoms
initially separated from one another, which are subsequently brought
together and bonded to form the ordered atomic arrangement found
in the crystalline materials: Lattice
At relatively large separation distances, each atom is independent of
all the others
Because the atoms are arranged periodically, the potential U(x) is
periodic: Square well periodic potential (Kronig-Penney model)

a U(x) E3
E2

E1
x
7.3 Band structure in Solids

1 2 Two atoms at
E large separation

E 1+ 2

Two atoms at
small separation
1 - 2

Many atoms at
small separation

When many atoms are brought close together, energy is split into
many levels very close together  continuous – band energy
 • Energy band gap
Each distinct atomic state may split into a series of closely spaced electron
states in solid, to form an electron energy band

energy Equilibrium interatomic spacing

energy band
Electrons
energy band gap
can only
be here energy band

Interatomic
separation

Gaps may exist between adjacent bands; normally, energies lying

within these band gaps are not available for electron occupancy
7.4 Conduction in Metals, Insulators, and Semiconductors

• Electron band structure: the arrangement of the outermost electron

bands and the way in which they are filled with electrons
• The electrical properties of a solid are the consequence of its electron
band structure
• Materials are classified according to their electrical conductivity:
Metals, insulators, and semiconductors
a/ Metals: empty
There are many vacant energy states states
adjacent to the highest filled states at the
temperature of 0 K (Fermi energy EF) EF
filled
Little energy is required to promote states
electrons into the low lying empty states

Metals have high electrical conductivity electron

excitation
 b/ Insulators:
There are: the valence band (completely filled with electrons), the
conduction band (completely empty at 0 K), and an energy band gap Eg
lying between the two first bands
Eg  10eV : too large, there are so few electrons occupying conduction band
High resistivity of insulators electron
c/ Semiconductors: excitation
Semiconductors are materials that
have small energy gap Eg
Example: At 0 K
Si  1.17 eV
Ge  0.74 eV band gap
• At low temperature: no electrons Eg
in conduction band: poor conductor
• At ordinary temperature: numbers of
electrons are thermally excited to the hole
conduction band
The conductivity of semiconductors increases rapidly with temperature
 • Comparison : Insulators, Semiconductors, and Conductors
electron
excitation

band gap
Eg

Insulators Semiconductors Conductors

 7.5 Semiconductors
• The main difference between the insulator and the semiconductor:
The semiconductor has a much smaller energy band gap Eg between
the top of the highest filled band (valence band) and the bottom of the
vacant band (conduction band)
• At room temperature, thermal agitation
will cause the electron jump from valence
band to the conduction band, leaving an
equal number of unoccupied energy electron
states called holes band
• If an electric field E is set up, the gap
electrons tend to drift in the direction Eg hole
opposite E, the position of the holes
tend to drift in the direction of E
The holes behave like moving particles of charge +e

With an electric field, both electrons and holes are charge carriers
1/ Intrinsic Semiconductors
• This conductivity, based on the inherent property of the material,
not by impurities, is called intrinsic semiconductivity
• Because there are two types of
Ge Ge Ge Ge Ge carriers (electrons and holes), the
conductivity is:
Ge Ge Ge Ge Ge   nee  peh
hole
Ge Ge Ge Ge Ge n is the electrons density
e e is the electron mobility
p is the holes density
Ge Ge Ge Ge Ge
h is the hole mobility
Because n = p, we put:
Ge Ge Ge Ge Ge
n = p = ni intrinsic carrier
concentration

The total conductivity:   ne( e   h )  ni e( e  h )

 • Two elemental intrinsic semiconductors: silicon (Si, EG = 1.1eV)
and germanium (Ge, EG = 0.7eV), both are covalently bonded.
Compound semiconducting materials: gallium arsenide (GaAs), and
indium antimonide (InSb)
• Recombination: Since all materials are more stable when they reduc
their energies, electron-hole pairs recombine sooner or later and
energy is released
Energy released may appears as heat,
or light (luminescence)
If the electrons have been activated
to the conduction band by a stream of
electrons (cathode rays) that is:
electroluminescence band recombination

(Example: in a television tube, when gap

Eg
the electrons and the holes recombine, photon
visible light is emitted)
 PROBLEM 16
In germanium, the electron density in conduction band (and the hole
density in valence band) is a function of energy gap Eg =0.7eV
according to:  Eg / 2 kT
n e
i
Because the conductivity is proportional to the number of carriers:
 E g / 2 kT
  0 e
The resistivity of germanium at 20OC is 0.5.m. What is its resistivity
at 40OC?
SOLUTION
 Eg / 2 kT2
1 2 0 e 1 E g  1 1 
  ln    
2 1 0 e E g / 2 kT1 2 2k  T1 T2 
1 0.7  1.6  1019  1 1  1
ln  
    0.9  2.5
2 2  13.8  10  293 313 
24
2
1 0.5
2    0.2.m
2.5 2.5
 2/ Extrinsic Semiconductors
• When the electrical behavior of the material is determined by
impurities: Extrinsic Semiconductors
• Impurities, when present in even minute concentration, introduce
excess electrons or holes Doping semiconducting materials
a/ n-type Extrinsic Semiconductors
An Si atom has 4 electrons covalently
bonded to four adjacent Si atoms Si Si Si Si Si

If an phosphorus atom P with the

valence of 5 is added to a silicon: Si Si Si Si Si
The extra nonbonding electron is
loosely bound to the region around Si Si +P Si Si
the impurity atom e

It is easily removed from Si Si Si Si Si

impurity atom P, and becomes

a free (or conducting) electron Si Si Si Si Si
 Each excitation event supplies or donates a single electron to the
conduction band; this impurity is termed donors
In n-type extrinsic semiconductors (n: negative), the number of
electrons in the conduction band far exceeds the number of holes in
the valence band: The electrons are majority carriers
The conductivity:   nee
b/ p-type Extrinsic Semiconductors Si Si Si Si Si
Add to silicon a trivalent substitutional
impurities (aluminium, boron) Si Si Si Si Si
One of the covalent bonds around each
of these atoms is deficient in an electron: Si hole
Si Al Si Si
a hole weakly bound to the Al atom
A moving hole participates in the
Si Si Si Si Si
conduction process. hole e
This impurity is called acceptor
The conductivity:   pe h Si Si Si Si Si
 PROBLEM 17

For intrinsic gallium arsenide, the room temperature conductivity

is 10-6 (-m)-1; the electron and hole mobilities are, respectively, 0.85
and 0.04 m2/V-s .
Compute the intrinsic carrier concentration ni at room temperature.

SOLUTION
The material is intrinsic the intrinsic carrier concentration ni is
computed by:
  ne( e   h )  ni e( e  h )
 10 6
ni    7.0  1012 m3
e(  e   h ) 1.6  10 19  (0.85  0.04)
 PROBLEM 18

The number density n0 of conduction electrons in pure silicon at

room temperature is about 1016 m-3. Assume that, by doping the silicon
lattice with phosphorus, we want to increase this number by a factor
of a million.
What fraction of silicon atoms must we replace with phosphorus atoms?
The density mass of silicon is 2.33g/cm3, and the molar mass of
silicon is 28.1g/mol

SOLUTION
Each phosphorus atom contributes only one conduction electron
The total number density of conduction electrons must be 106n0
The number density np of phosphorus atoms is given by:
10 6 n0  n0  n p n p  10 6 n0  n0  106 n0
n p  1016  10 6  10 22 m 3
(We must add 1022 atoms of phosphorus per cubic meter of silicon)
 PROBLEM 19

To high-purity silicon is added 1023 m-3 arsenic atoms.

1/ Is this material n-type or p-type?
2/ Calculate the room-temperature electrical conductivity of this material
We have: e  0.07m2 / V  s
3/ Compute the conductivity at 100o C (373 K), we have:
e  0.04m2 / V  s
SOLUTION
1/ Arsenic (As) is a group VA element As act as donor in silicon: n-type
2/ At room temperature (298 K), all arsenic have donated electrons
n  10 23 m 3
Because:   nee , with:   0.07 m2 / V  s
e

  10 23  1.6  10 19  0.07  1120 (  m)1


3/ At 273 K: e  0 .04 m 2
/V  s
  10 23  1.6  10 19  0.04  640(  m)1
 3/ Semiconductor devices
a/ The p-n rectifyer (diode): Electronic device that allows the current
to flow in one direction only
• The p-n rectifying junction is constructed from from a single piece of
semiconductor that is doped so as to be n-type on one side (dominant
carriers: electrons) and p-type on the other.(dominant carriers: holes)
• When a battery is used with the positive p-side n-side
_ _
terminal connected to p-side (forward bias) + + _
+ _ _
+ + _ _
+ + _
the holes and the electrons are +

attracted to the junction, recombine and hole flow electron flow

annihilate each other + + +
+
_
__
_
_
+ + _ _
large numbers of charge carriers + current
+ +_
_

flow across the device: appreciable current

• When the polarity is reverse bias: both
hole flow electron flow
holes and electrons are rapidly drawn away _ + _ _
+ + __ +
from the junction, leaves this region free ++ _ _ _
++ + _
of mobiles charge carriers:
The junction is highly insulative
 The junction rectifyer V0
hole flow electron flow
+ _
+ ++ _ _ _
_ `
+ + _ _
+current_
0
++_
-V0
IF
p-n junction

`
I 0

• The Light-Emitting Diode (LED) -

(remote control, calculator, clock, …) -
The current I through the device serves
to inject electrons into the n-type material --
and to inject holes into the p-type material
---

++
++
If the doping is heavy enough, many electron-

+
hole combination occur  light emitted:
  hc / Eg

+
+
 PROBLEM 20

An LED is constructed from a p-n junction on a certain Ga-As-P

semiconducting material whose energy gap is 1.9 eV.
What is the wavelength of the emitted light?

SOLUTION
Assume that the transitions are from the bottom of the conduction
band to the top of the valence band
  hc / Eg

6.63  1034  3  108

 
1.9  1.6  1019
  0.65  10 6  m: Light is red
 b/ The transistor
• The junction transistor: either n-p-n or p-n-p configuration
• For p-n-p configuration: A very thin n-type base is sandwinched
in between p-type emitter and collector regions
The emitter-base junction 1 is forward biased, the base-collector 2 is
reverse biased junction 1 junction 2
Most of the holes in the Emitter will be + + + + __ _ + + + +
swept through the base without emitter p base n collector p
recombination, then across the junction 2 +
-
and into the collector
A small increase in input voltage produces - +
a large increase in voltage across the load output
input
resistor  a voltage signal is amplified voltage voltage

The total current is controlled by the

Emitter voltage 10
0.1
` `
 PROBLEM 21

In a transistor, the collector current IC changes exponentially

in function of the emitter voltage VS according to:
I C  I 0eV / B
S

where I0 and B are constant for any given temperature.

A transistor has a collector current of 4.7 milliamperes when the
emitter voltage is 17 mV. At 28 mV, the current is 27.5 milliamperes.
Given that the emitter voltage is 39 mV, estimate the current

SOLUTION
ln I C  ln I 0  VS / B ln 4.7  ln I 0  17 / B
ln 27.5  ln I 0  28 / B
ln I 0  1.17, B  6.25 mV
At 39 mV: ln I C  1.17  39 / 6.25  5.07
I C  160 milliamp