JOMO KENYATTA UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE

AND TECHNOLOGY

Object Oriented Programming Using

C++

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CHAPTER - 1

Introduction:
Programmers write instructions in various programming languages to perform their computation tasks
such as:
(i) Machine level Language
(ii) Assembly level Language
(iii) High level Language

Machine level Language :

Machine code or machine language is a set of instructions executed directly by a computer's central
processing unit (CPU). Each instruction performs a very specific task, such as a load, a jump, or an
ALU operation on a unit of data in a CPU register or memory. Every program directly executed by a
CPU is made up of a series of such instructions.

Assembly level Language :

An assembly language (or assembler language) is a low-level programming language for a computer,
or other programmable device, in which there is a very strong (generally one-to-one) correspondence
between the language and the architecture's machine code instructions. Assembly language is
converted into executable machine code by a utility program referred to as an assembler; the
conversion process is referred to as assembly, or assembling the code.

High level Language :

High-level language is any programming language that enables development of a program in much
simpler programming context and is generally independent of the computer's hardware architecture.
High-level language has a higher level of abstraction from the computer, and focuses more on the
programming logic rather than the underlying hardware components such as memory addressing and
register utilization.

The first high-level programming languages were designed in the 1950s. Now there are dozens of
different languages, including Ada , Algol, BASIC, COBOL, C, C++, JAVA, FORTRAN, LISP,
Pascal, and Prolog. Such languages are considered high-level because they are closer to human
languages and farther from machine languages. In contrast, assembly languages are considered low-
level because they are very close to machine languages.

Other than OOP, The high-level programming languages are also broadly categorized in to this
categories:

 Procedural programming languages

 Functional programming languages
 Object-oriented programming languages
 Scripting languages
 Logic programming languages

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 Procedure Oriented Programming Language

In the procedure oriented approach, the problem is viewed as sequence of things to be done such as
reading , calculation and printing.

Procedure oriented programming basically consist of writing a list of instruction or actions for the
computer to follow and organizing these instruction into groups known as functions.

Main
program

Function-1 Function- Function-3

2

The disadvantage of the procedure oriented programming languages is:

1. Global data access
2. It does not model real word problem very well
3. No data hiding

Global data Global data

Function-1 Function-2 Function-

3
Local data Local data Local data

Characteristics of procedure oriented programming:

1. Emphasis is on doing things(algorithm)

2. Large programs are divided into smaller programs known as functions.
3. Most of the functions share global data
4. Data move openly around the system from function to function
5. Function transforms data from one form to another.
6. Employs top-down approach in program design

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 Object Oriented Programing

“Object oriented programming as an approach that provides a way of modularizing programs by

creating partitioned memory area for both data and functions that can be used as templates for
creating copies of such modules on demand”.

Object A Object B

Dat Dat
a a
Communication

Function Function
s s

Object C

Function
s

Dat
a

Features of the Object Oriented programming

1. Emphasis is on doing rather than procedure.

2. programs are divided into what are known as objects.
3. Data structures are designed such that they characterize the objects.
4. Functions that operate on the data of an object are tied together in the data
structure.
5. Data is hidden and can’t be accessed by external functions.
6. Objects may communicate with each other through functions.
7. New data and functions can be easily added.
8. Follows bottom-up approach in program design.

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 BASIC CONCEPTS OF OBJECTS ORIENTED PROGRAMMING

1. Objects
2. Classes
3. Data abstraction and encapsulation
4. Inheritance
5. Polymorphism
6. Dynamic binding
7. Message passing

OBJECTS

Objects are the basic run-time entities in an object-oriented system. They may represent a person, a
place, a bank account, a table of data or any item that the program must handle.

The fundamental idea behind object oriented approach is to combine both data and function
into a single unit and these units are called objects.

The term objects means a combination of data and program that represent some real word
entity. For example: consider an example named Amit; Amit is 25 years old and his salary is 2500.
The Amit may be represented in a computer program as an object. The data part of the object would
be (name: Amit, age: 25, salary: 2500)

The program part of the object may be collection of programs (retrive of data, change age,
change of salary). In general even any user –defined type-such as employee may be used. In the
Amit object the name, age and salary are called attributes of the object.

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 Object: Student

DATA
Name
Date-of-
birth
Marks

FUNCTIONS
Total
Avera
ge
Displ
ay

STU
DENT
otal
T

A erage
v

iDsplay

CLASS:

A group of objects that share common properties for data part and some program part are
collectively called as class.

In C ++ a class is a new data type that contains member variables and member functions that
operate on the variables

DATA ABSTRACTION :

Abstraction is a key concepts of object-oriented programming (OOP) languages. Its main goal is to handle
complexity by hiding unnecessary details from the user. That enables the user to implement more complex
logic on top of the provided abstraction without understanding or even thinking about all the hidden
complexity.

Abstraction in OOP
Objects in an OOP language provide an abstraction that hides the internal implementation details. Similar
to the coffee machine in your kitchen, you just need to know which methods of the object are available to
call and which input parameters are needed to trigger a specific operation. But you don’t need to
understand how this method is implemented and which kinds of actions it has to perform to create the
expected result.

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Different Types of Abstraction
There are primarily two types of abstraction implemented in OOPs. One is data abstraction which pertains
to abstracting data entities. The second one is process abstraction which hides the underlying
implementation of a process. Let’s take a quick peek into both of these.

Data Abstraction

Data abstraction is the simplest form of abstraction. When working with OOPS, you primarily work on
manipulating and dealing with complex objects. This object represents some data but the underlying
characteristics or structure of that data is actually hidden from you. Let’s go back to our example of
making coffee.

Let’s say that I need a special hazelnut coffee this time. Luckily, there’s a new type of coffee powder or
processed coffee beans that already have hazelnut in it. So I can directly add the hazelnut coffee beans and
the coffee machine treats it as just any other regular coffee bean. In this case, the hazelnut coffee bean
itself is an abstraction of the original data, the raw coffee beans. I can use the hazelnut coffee beans
directly without worrying about how the original coffee beans were made to add the hazelnut flavour to it.

Therefore, data abstraction refers to hiding the original data entity via a data structure that can internally
work through the hidden data entities. As programmers, we don’t need to know what the underlying entity
is, how it looks etc.

Process Abstraction

Where data abstraction works with data, process abstraction does the same job but with processes. In
process abstraction, the underlying implementation details of a process are hidden. We work with
abstracted processes that under the hood use hidden processes to execute an action.

Circling back to our coffee example, let’s say our coffee machine has a function to internally clean the
entire empty machine for us. This is a process that we may want to do every once a week or two so that our
coffee machine stays clean. We press a button on the machine which sends it a command to internally
clean it. Under the hood, there is a lot that will happen now. The coffee machine will need to clean the
piston, the outlets or nozzles from which it pours the coffee, and the container for the beans, and then
finally rinse out the water and dry out the system.

A single process of cleaning the coffee machine was known to us, but internally it implements multiple
other processes that were actually abstracted from us. This is process abstraction in a nutshell.

Well, this process abstraction example really got me thinking of a very futuristic coffee machine!

Use abstraction to implement a coffee machine

Modern coffee machines have become pretty complex. Depending on your choice of coffee, they decide
which of the available coffee beans to use and how to grind them. They also use the right amount of water
and heat it to the required temperature to brew a huge cup of filter coffee or a small and strong espresso.

Abstraction vs Encapsulation
A lot of times programmers often confuse abstraction with encapsulation because in reality the two
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concepts are quite intertwined and share a relationship between them. Abstraction, as we’ve seen pertains
to hiding underlying details and implementation in a program. Encapsulation, on the other hand, describes
how abstraction occurs in a program.

Abstraction is a design-level process, but encapsulation is an implementation process. Encapsulation tells

us how exactly you can implement abstraction in the program. Abstraction pertains to only displaying the
essential details to the user whereas encapsulation pertains to typing up all the data members and
associated member functions into a single abstracted unit.

In summary Abstraction is a general concept which you can find in the real world as well as in OOP
languages. Any objects in the real world that hide internal details provide an abstraction. The objects may
be your coffee machine or classes in your current software project, these abstractions make it a lot easier
to handle complexity by splitting them into smaller parts. In the best case, you can use them without
understanding how they provide the functionality. And that helps you to split the complexity of your next
software project into manageable parts. It also enables you every morning to brew a fresh cup of amazing
coffee while you’re still half asleep.

DATA ENCAPSALATION :

The wrapping up of data and function into a single unit (called class) is known as
encapsulation. The data is not accessible to the outside world and only those functions which are
wrapped in the class can access it. These functions provide the interface between the objects data and
the program.

INHERITENCE :

Inheritance is the process by which objects of one class acquire the properties of another
class. In the concept of inheritance provides the idea of reusablity. This mean that we can add
additional features to an existing class with out modifying it. This is possible by desining a new class
will have the combined features of both the classes.

POLYMORPHISIM:

Polymorphism means the ability to take more than one form. An operation may exhibit different
instance. The behaviour depends upon the type of data used in the operation.

A language feature that allows a function or operator to be given more than one definition. The types
of the arguments with which the function or operator is called determines which definition will be
used.

Overloading may be operator overloading or function overloading. It is able to express the operation of
addition by a single operater say ‘+’. When this is possible you use the expression x + y to denote the
sum of x and y, for many different types of x and y; integers , float and complex no. You can even
define the + operation for two strings to mean the concatenation of the strings.

DYNAMIC BINDING :

Binding refers to the linking of a procedure call to the code to the executed in response to the call.
Dynamic binding means the code associated with a given procedure call is not known untill the time
of the call at run-time. It is associated with a polymorphic reference depends upon the dynamic type
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 of that reference.

MESSAGE PASSING :

An object oriented program consists of a set of objects that communicate with each other.
A message for an object is a request for execution of a procedure and therefore will invoke a function
(procedure) in the receiving object that generates the desired result. Message passing involves
specifying the name of the object, the name of the function (message) and information to be sent.

Employee . Salary (name)

Object Information
Message

BENEFITS OF OOP:
Oop offers several benefits to both the program designer and the user. Object-oriented contributes to the
solution of many problems associated with the development and quality of software products. The
principal advantages are :
1. Through inheritance we can eliminate redundant code and extend the use of existing
classes.
2. We can build programs from the standard working modules that communicate with one
another, rather than having to start writing the code from scratch. This leads to saving of
development time and higher productivity.
3. This principle of data hiding helps the programmer to build secure programs that can’t be
invaded by code in other parts of the program.
4. It is possible to have multiple instances of an object to co-exist with out any interference.
5. It is easy to partition the work in a project based on objects.
6. Object-oriented systems can be easily upgraded from small to large systems.
7. Message passing techniques for communication between objects makes the interface
description with external systems much simpler.
8. Software complexity can be easily managed.

APPLICATION OF OOP:

The most popular application of oops up to now, has been in the area of user interface design such as
windows. There are hundreds of windowing systems developed using oop techniques.
Real business systems are often much more complex and contain many more objects with complicated
attributes and methods. Oop is useful in this type of applications because it can simplify a complex
problem. The promising areas for application of oop includes.

1. Real – Time systems.

2. Simulation and modeling
3. Object oriented databases.
4. Hypertext,hypermedia and expertext.
5. Al and expert systems.

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 6. Neural networks and parallel programming.
7. Dicision support and office automation systems.
8. CIM / CAM / CAD system.

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 Basics of C++

C ++ is an object oriented programming language, C ++ was developed by Jarney

Stroustrup at AT & T Bell lab, USA in early eighties. C ++ was developed from c and simula 67
language. C ++ was early called ‘C with classes’.

C++ Comments:

C++ introduces a new comment symbol //(double slash). Comments start with a
double slash symbol and terminate at the end of line. A comment may start any where in the line and
what ever follows till the end of line is ignored. Note that there is no closing symbol.
The double slash comment is basically a single line comment. Multi line comments can be
written as follows:

// this is an example of
// c++ program
// thank you
The c comment symbols /* ….*/ are still valid and more suitable for multi line comments.

/* this is an example of c++ program */

Output Operator:

The statement cout <<”Hello, world” displayed the string with in quotes on the screen. The identifier
cout can be used to display individual characters, strings and even numbers. It is a predefined object
that corresponds to the standard output stream. Stream just refers to a flow of data and the standard
Output stream normally flows to the screen display. The cout object, whose properties are defined in
iostream.h represents that stream. The insertion operator << also called the ‘put to’ operator directs
the information on its right to the object on its left.

Return Statement:

In C++ main ( ) returns an integer type value to the operating system. Therefore every main (
) in C++ should end with a return (0) statement, otherwise a warning or an error might occur.

Input Operator:

The statement
cin>> number
1;
is an input statement and causes. The program to wait for the user to type in a number. The number
keyed in is placed in the variable number1. The identifier cin is a predefined object in C++ that
corresponds to the standard input stream. Here this stream represents the key board.

The operator >> is known as get from operator. It extracts value from the keyboard and
assigns it to the variable on its right.

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 Cascading Of I/O Operator:

cout<<”sum=”<<sum<<”\n”; cout<<”sum=”<<sum<<”\
n”<<”average=”<<average<<”\n”;
cin>>number1>>number2;

Structure Of A Program :

Probably the best way to start learning a programming language is by writing a program. Therefore,
here is our first program:
// my first program in C++

#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main ()
{
cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}
Output:-Hello World!
The first panel shows the source code for our first program. The second one shows the result of the
program once compiled and executed. The way to edit and compile a program depends on the
compiler you are using. Depending on whether it has a Development Interface or not and on its
version. Consult the compilers section and the manual or help included with your compiler if you
have doubts on how to compile a C++ console program.
The previous program is the typical program that programmer apprentices write for the first time,
and its result is the printing on screen of the "Hello World!" sentence. It is one of the simplest
programs that can be written in C++, but it already contains the fundamental components that every
C++ program has. We are going to look line by line at the code we have just written:
// my first program in C++
This is a comment line. All lines beginning with two slash signs (//) are considered comments and do
not have any effect on the behavior of the program. The programmer can use them to include short
explanations or observations within the source code itself. In this case, the line is a brief description
of what our program is.
#include <iostream>
Lines beginning with a hash sign (#) are directives for the preprocessor. They are not regular code
lines with expressions but indications for the compiler's preprocessor. In this case the directive
#include<iostream> tells the preprocessor to include the iostream standard file. This specific file
(iostream) includes the declarations of the basic standard input-output library in C++, and it is
included because its functionality is going to be used later in the program.
using namespace std;
All the elements of the standard C++ library are declared within what is called a namespace, the
namespace with the name std. So in order to access its functionality we declare with this expression that
we will be using these entities. This line is very frequent in C++ programs that use the standard library,
and in fact it will be included in most of the source codes included in these tutorials.
int main ()
This line corresponds to the beginning of the definition of the main function. The main function is
the point by where all C++ programs start their execution, independently of its location within the
source code. It does not matter whether there are other functions with other names defined before or
after it – the instructions contained within this function's definition will always be the first ones to be

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 executed in any C++ program. For that same reason, it is essential that all C++ programs have a main
function.
The word main is followed in the code by a pair of parentheses (()). That is because it is a function
declaration: In C++, what differentiates a function declaration from other types of expressions are
these parentheses that follow its name. Optionally, these parentheses may enclose a list of parameters
within them.
Right after these parentheses we can find the body of the main function enclosed in braces ({}).
What is contained within these braces is what the function does when it is executed.
cout << "Hello World!";
This line is a C++ statement. A statement is a simple or compound expression that can actually
produce some effect. In fact, this statement performs the only action that generates a visible effect in
our first program.
cout represents the standard output stream in C++, and the meaning of the entire statement is to insert
a sequence of characters (in this case the Hello World sequence of characters) into the standard
output stream (which usually is the screen).
cout is declared in the iostream standard file within the std namespace, so that's why we needed to
include that specific file and to declare that we were going to use this specific namespace earlier in
our code.
Notice that the statement ends with a semicolon character (;). This character is used to mark the end
of the statement and in fact it must be included at the end of all expression statements in all C++
programs (one of the most common syntax errors is indeed to forget to include some semicolon after
a statement).
return 0;
The return statement causes the main function to finish. return may be followed by a return code (in
our example is followed by the return code 0). A return code of 0 for the main function is generally
interpreted as the program worked as expected without any errors during its execution. This is the
most usual way to end a C++ console program.
You may have noticed that not all the lines of this program perform actions when the code is
executed. There were lines containing only comments (those beginning by //). There were lines with
directives for the compiler's preprocessor (those beginning by #). Then there were lines that began
the declaration of a function (in this case, the main function) and, finally lines with statements (like
the insertion into cout), which were all included within the block delimited by the braces ({}) of the
main function.
The program has been structured in different lines in order to be more readable, but in C++, we do
not have strict rules on how to separate instructions in different lines. For example, instead of
int main ()
{
cout << " Hello World!";
return 0;
}

We could have written:

int main ()
{
cout << "Hello World!";
return 0;
}
All in just one line and this would have had exactly the same meaning as the previous code.
In C++, the separation between statements is specified with an ending semicolon (;) at the end of
each one, so the separation in different code lines does not matter at all for this purpose. We can
write many statements per line or write a single statement that takes many code lines. The division of

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 code in different lines serves only to make it more legible and schematic for the humans that may read
it.

Let us add an additional instruction to our first program:

// my second program in C++
#include <iostream>
using namespace std;

int main ()
{
cout << "Hello World! ";
cout << "I'm a C++ program";
return 0;
}

Output:-Hello World! I'm a C++ program

In this case, we performed two insertions into cout in two different statements. Once again, the
separation in different lines of code has been done just to give greater readability to the program,
since main could have been perfectly valid defined this way:
int main ()
{
cout << " Hello World! ";
cout << " I'm a C++ program ";
return 0;
}

We were also free to divide the code into more lines if we considered it more convenient:
int main ()
{
cout << "Hello World!"; cout
<< "I'm a C++ program";
return 0;
}
And the result would again have been exactly the same as in the previous examples.
Preprocessor directives (those that begin by #) are out of this general rule since they are not
statements. They are lines read and processed by the preprocessor and do not produce any code by
themselves. Preprocessor directives must be specified in their own line and do not have to end with a
semicolon (;).

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 STRUCTURE OF C++ PROGRAM

● Include files
● Class declaration
● Class functions, definition
● Main function
program
● Example :-
# include<iostream.h>

class person{
char name[30];
int age;
public:
void getdata(void);
void display(void);
};

void person :: getdata ( void )

{
cout<<”enter name”;
cin>>name;
cout<<”enter age”;
cin>>age;
}

void display:: getdata(void)

{
cout<<”\n name:”<<name;
cout<<”\n age:”<<age;
}

int main( )
{

person p;
p.getdata();
p.display();
return(0);

TOKENS:

The smallest individual units in program are known as tokens. C++ has the following
tokens.

i. Keywords
ii. Identifiers
iii. Constants
iv. Strings
v. Operators

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 KEYWORDS:

The keywords implement specific C++ language feature. They are explicitly reserved
identifiers and can’t be used as names for the program variables or other user defined program
elements. The keywords not found in ANSI C are shown in red letter.

C++ KEYWORDS:

Asm double new switch

Auto else operator templa

te
Break enum private this

Case extern protected throw

Catch float public try

Char for register typede

f
Class friend return union

Const goto short unsign

ed
Continue if signed virtual

Default inline sizeof void

Delete long struet while

IDENTIFIERS:

Identifiers refers to the name of variable , functions, array, class etc. created by programmer. Each
language has its own rule for naming the identifiers.

The following rules are common for both C and C++.

1. Only alphabetic chars, digits and under score are permitted.

2. The name can’t start with a digit.
3. Upper case and lower case letters are distinct.
4. A declared keyword can’t be used as a variable name.

In ANSI C the maximum length of a variable is 32 chars but in c++ there is no bar.

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 BASIC DATA TYPES IN C++

C ++ Data Types

User defined type Built in types Derived type

Structure Array
Unio Function
n pointer
Class
enumeration

Integral type void Floating point

i char floa double

nt t

Both C and C++ compilers support all the built in types. With the exception of void the basic
datatypes may have several modifiers preceding them to serve the needs of various situations. The
modifiers signed, unsigned, long and short may applied to character and integer basic data types.
However the modifier long may also be applied to double.

Data types in C++ can be classified under various categories.

TYPE BYTES RANGE

char 1 -128 to – 127

usigned 1 0 to 265

sgned char 1 -128 to 127

int 2 -32768 to
32768
unsigned int 2 0 to 65535

singed int 2 -32768 to

32768
short int 2 -32768 to
32768

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 long int 4 -2147483648 to
2147483648
signed long int 4 -2147483648 to
2147483648
unsigned long int 4 0 to 4294967295

float 4 3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38

double 8 1.7E -308 to 1.7E +308

long double 10 3.4E-4932 to 1.1E+ 4932

The type void normally used for:

1) To specify the return type of function when it is not returning any value.
2) To indicate an empty argument list to a function.

Example:

Void function(void);

Another interesting use of void is in the declaration of genetic pointer

Example:

Void *gp;

Assigning any pointer type to a void pointer without using a cast is allowed in both C and ANSI C.
In ANSI C we can also assign a void pointer to a non-void pointer without using a cast to non void
pointer type. This is not allowed in C ++.

Example:

void *ptr1;

void *ptr2;

Are valid statement in ANSI C but not in C++. We need to use a cast operator.

ptr2=(char * ) ptr1;

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