1

.oI
ntr
oduct
iont
ocl
i
mat
echange
Cli
mat eisdef i
nedbyt heOxf ordLear ner’sDi cti
onaryast her egularpatternofweat her
conditi
onofapar t
icularplace.Theseweat herconditi
onscoul dbecl assif
iedi ntomi l
d,
temper at
e,war m andwetdependi ngonseasonand/orl ocation.Concl usi
veevi dences
howevershow adr if
tf r
om thenor malpat t
ernofweat hercondi t
iontoar atherhar mf ul
andadver setrendascl i
matei snow knownt ohaveanegat iveeffectont heenvi r
onment
andi nvari
ablyont heEcosyst em,bot hanimat eandi nanimate[ 1].ThePl anetEar this
knownt obesur rounded Cl i
mat ei sdefinedbyt heOxf ordLear ner’sDi ct
ionar yast he
regul
arpat t
ernofweat herconditionofapar t
icul
arplace.Theseweat hercondi t
ionscoul d
beclassifi
edintomi l
d,temper at
e,war m andwetdependi ngonseasonand/orl ocati
on.
Conclusiveevidenceshowevershow adr if
tfrom thenor malpatternofweat hercondi t
ion
toar atherharmfulandadver set rendascl i
mat eisnow knownt ohaveanegat iveef f
ect
on the environmentand i nvariably on the Ecosystem,bot h animate and i nani mate
[Pearson 2003] .The Pl anetEar this known t o be sur rounded by an at mospher e
composedpr i
mar il
yofNi tr
ogenandOxygenandi s149,600,
000Km f rom theSun.Gases
knownas

GREENHOUSE GASES cont ributet ot he war mi ng oft he Ear th’s at mospher e by

refl
ect ing r adiati
on f rom t he Ear t
h sur f
ace ( exampl esar e Car bon di oxi
de,Ozone and
Wat erVapor ).Thet erm whi chmostappr opriatel ydescr i
best heaf orement ionedpr ocess
i
scal l
edGr eenhouseEf fect,whi chi sthewar mi ngoft heEar th’ssur f
aceasar esul tof
atmospher icpol luti
onbygases( EncartaDi ctionar y).Itisnow f ear edthatt hewar mi ng
effectar ebei ngundesi rablyincreased,causi ngcl imaticchangesandmel ti
ngPol arI ce
caps.Si ncet he1 980s,r esearchf i
ndingshavei ndi cOzoneLayeroft heEar t
h’scr ust ,
whi chi st heupperl ayeroft heat mospher ewher emostat mospher icOzonegascol lect s
Manuscr iptreceivedNovember20,201 2;r evisedJanuar y25,201 3.Daf angJohnMat oni s
wi t
h Ni ger i
an Bui lding and Road Resear ch I nsti
tut
e ( NBRRI ), Abuj a ( e-mai l
:
daf angmat on@yahoo. com)and absor bshar mf ulUl tr
aviol
etr adi ation fr
om t he Sun,i s
beingdepl etedbyI ndust ri
alpollutantssuchasChl orofl
our ocar bons( CFCs)whi char e
slowl ybutsur elycr eatinghol esont hislayeroft heat mospher e.Thi sisespeci all
ysoover
theAnt arcticwi tht her esul
tantef f
ectofdi rectpenet rati
onofunal l
oyed,uncushi oned
radiation,whi chposesgr eatdangeri nripple-ef fectsequenceont heent i
r eGl obe.I tcan
thusbei nferredt hatCl i
mat echangei nt hecont extofGl obalt rendsaf f
ect snegat ivelyal l
formsofl i
fesi ncei tleadst olanddegr adat ion,f reshwat ershor tages,f oodshor tages/
i
nsecur ity,Gl obalwar mi ng,f l
oodi ngandshel ter/comf ort
ableaccommodat i
ondef icits,
heal thcar echal l
enges[ 1MeenaR201 5]
.
1
.1:
Backgr
oundoncl
i
mat
echange
Cli
mat e change r eferst ol ong-term changesi ntemperature,precipitat
ion,and ot her
atmospher iccondi ti
onsonEar t
h.Humanact i
viti
es,pri
marilythebur ningoff ossilfuels
anddef orestati
on,havel edt oani ncreasei
ngr eenhousegasemi ssions,trappi
ngheati n
the atmospher e and causi ng globalt emper at
ures tor i
se.Thi s phenomenon has
widespreadi mpact s,includingrisi
ngseal evel
s,ext r
emeweat herevents,anddi sr
upt i
ons
toecosyst ems.I nternati
onalef forts,suchast hePar i
sAgr eement ,aimt omi t
igateand
adapttot heef fectsofcl i
mat echangebyr educingemi ssi
onsandf osteri
ngsust ainable
pract
ices(Wet zel1998) .

The Paris Agreement ,adopt ed in 2015,br oughtt oget hercountri

es in a coll
ect
ive
commi t
mentt ol i
mitglobalt
emper atur
eincreaseswel lbelow 2degr eesCelsiusabovepre
-i
ndustri
allevels.Effortsi
ncludet r
ansit
ioni
ngt orenewabl eener gysources,enhancing
energy effici
ency, and i mpl ementing sust ai
nable l and-use pr act
ices. However,
chal
lenges persistdue t ot he complex nature ofi nternati
onalcooper at
ion,dif
fer
ing
nati
onali
nterests,andt heurgencyofaddr essi
ngcl i
mat e-relat
edissues.

Scientistsemphasi zetheneedf orimmedi ateactiontocur bemi ssionsandpr eventfurt

her
environment aldegr adat
ion.Adaptati
onmeasur es,li
kebui l
dingr esil
i
entinf
rastruct
ureand
promot ingclimate-smar tagri
cult
ure,alsoplayacr uci
alroleinmi ni
mizi
ngt heimpact sof
cl
imat e change on vul ner
able communi t
ies. Public awareness and advocacy f or
sustainablepracticesarei nt
egraltofosteri
ngagl obalcommi tmentt ocombat ingclimate
changeandcr eat
ingamor eresil
i
entfutureforourpl anet.

1
.2:Evi
dencet
hatt
hecl
i
mat
eischangi
ng
I
tisinequivalentthathuman infl
uence haswar med t he at
mospher ,ocean and land
measurementoft heaveragetemper at
ureattheearthsurf
aceshow i thasrisenbyabout
1.
1⁰csi
ncet hepr ei
ndustr
ialper
iod.Eachofthelastthr
eedecadeoccur edbet ween2015
and2021.t
hi schangeint emperaturehasn'
tbet hesameever ywhere.I
thasi ncr
eased
moreoverlandt hanoceanandhasbeenmor ethantwiceasf astint
heAr cti
c.

The united ki
ngdom (UK) i
s exper i
encing r
ising temper at
ure.The most r
ecent
decade(2012-2021
)hasbeenanaverage1 .0⁰
cwarmert hant he1961-1990aver
age.Allt
en
ofthewar mestyearsintheUK'S hottestyearonr ecord,wit
hanaver ageyear
–r ound
temperatur
eabove1 0⁰
cseenf
orthefir
sttime.

Whil
et heclimateiswar mi
ng,temper
atur
earen'
texpect
edtoriseever
ysi
ngleyearnat
ure
f
luct
uationwi l
lsti
llcauseusuall
ycol
dyearandseason,
buttheseeventwil
lbecomeless
l
i
ke.(Soyinka,GI
.1975)

Alongwi
thwar
mingatt
heEar
th'
ssur
face,
manyot
herchangesi
nthecl
i
mat
ear
eoccur
ing
suchas
*
War
mingocean

*
Mel
ti
ngpol
arandgl
aci
ers

*
Risi
ngseal
evel
s

*
Mor
eext
remeweat
herevent
s

War
mingoceans

I
t'
snotonlythetemperatur
eoftheear
thsur
facet
hati
sri
si
ng.
Thetemper
atur
eoft he
oceanhasbeenincreasi
ngtoo.
Thi
swarmi
nghasbeenseenal
lthewaydownt o2km
beneat
hthesur
face.

Thechemistr
yoftheoceani sal
sochangingtheyhaveabsorbedaboutone–t hi
rdofthe
tot
alcarbon di
oxi
de emissionssince 1
980.Thisi
scausi
ng the aci
dityofthe ocean t
o
i
ncreasedtenti
mesfast
ert hanatanypointi
nt hel
ast65Mil
l
onyear s(Rezai
e2003)

Mel
ti
ngpol
ari
ceandgl
aci
ers
Overthepastfew decadest heIesheet s(thegreatmessageofl andiceatthepoles)i
n
Greenlandandtheantarcti
chaveshr unk.
Glaciershaveshrunktoolosi
ngover6000gi ga
–tonest oIeoverthelast30years.
Arcti
csseai cehasdecreasedinareasincethe1970s
byabout40%i n Septemberand about1 0% in Mar ch.
Thereisno signi
fi
canttr
end in
antar
cticseal
i
kelyduetoot herr
egionaleff
ects(LUWZ2003)

Ri
singseal
evel
s
Melti
nglandIeandt heexpansionofwat erinwarmingoceanhavecausedseal evel
sto
ri
seglobalsealevelhasrisenbyaround20cm overt hepastcentur
yl i
kelytorise.Gl
obal
y
fast
erthanatanypoi nti
nt hel
ast3,000years.
Therat
eofseal evelr
iseincreasedoverthe
20thcentur
yandseal evelswi
llri
sefurtheramountsofgreenhousegasemi ssionsmore
extr
emeweat herevents

Moredamagi ng extr
emeweat hereventarebei
ng seenaroundtheworld.
Heatwaves
heavyrainfal
leventsanddrought
sareoccuri
ngmoreof t
en,
andtheyar
emor esever
e.We
expecttheset r
endst oconti
nueasgreenhousegasesemissi
onandglobaltemper
atur
e
conti
nuet ori
se(NooriR,
2007)

1
.3:
Consequencesofcl
i
mat
echange
AirPoll
uti
on
Accordingtot
heNRDC( Natur
alResourceDevelopmentCouncil
),ri
singtemperatur
escan
makesmogpol l
uti
onworseandincr
easet henumberof" badairdays"asinFig.2,when
i
t'
shar dtobreathe.Thi
sputsmanyatr iskofi r
ri
tat
edeyes,noses,andl ungsandi ti
s
parti
cul
arl
ydangerousforpeopl
ewi threspir
atorydi
seasesli
keast hma.Ast heclimat
e
change,unhealthyairpolluti
onwor sens.Resear chfindingrevealthatpeoplewi thasthma
all
ergiesandotherr espir
atorydiseaseResear chf i
ndingsr evealthatpeoplewi thasthma
all
ergies,
andot herrespir
atorydiseasefacet hemostser ioust hr
eate,si
nceexposur et o
i
ncr easedpoll
utionheightenssensiti
vi
tyt
oal l
er gensimpai r
edl ungeevenr esulti
ndeat hin
2010,thealAmericanlungassociationest
imat edabout25mi l
li
onAmer i
canssuf f
eredfrom
asthma. I
thasalsobeenr eali
zedthatthepr evalenceofast hmai ntheUni t
edSt ateshas
quadr upl
edinpl antduet oclumat e–rel
atedf actors.ForCar i
bbeani sl
ander'srespir
atory
i
rri
tantcomei ndustcl odsemanat i
ng whichhavebeenaccel erat
ed bywar mero r an
temper at
ure(Regweed)

Ozonesmogformsfrom vehi
cul
ar,
fact
oryandthei
rpoll
utionsourceastheyreactwi
th
sunl
i
ghtand heatincr
easing t
emperatur
e speed t
his process and r
esul
tin more
smog(Kwanet
cAl,
2011)

DI
SEASE
War mert emper at
ures,heavyr ai
nfallandhi ghhumi dityhavereportedl yincr
easedtherate
ofhuman i nfecti
ons.Many di seases t hatwer er eport
edly el
iminat ed appeart o be
resurfacing.Forexampl e,formanyi nfectiousdiseasest hatwerehi t
her toeli
minat
edf r
om
theUni t
edSt ates,there'sevidencet hatcl i
mat echangei saf actort hatcouldhelpthem
expandt heirrangeandmakeacomeback.I ndevel opedcount ri
est odayi ti
swellknown
thatr ecurrentinfl
uenzaepi demicsoccuri nmi d-wi nter(Àj
àyíP.O.S,1998) .DengueFever,
alsoknownas" Break-boneFever ",ischar acteri
zedbyhi ghfever ,headaches,boneand
j
oi ntaches,andar ashandi str
ansmi tt
edbymor et han1 30Speci esofMosqui toesin
tropicaland subt ropicalregions.Unl i
ke Mal aria however ,Dengue Feveri sspread by
Mosqui t
oest hatthri
veinur banareas.

ASpecieofMosqui t
oesandi nfect i
onbyoneoft hest r
ai nswillcreateimmuni t
ytoonly
t
hatstr
ainandwi l
lunfortunatel
yi ncreasethechancesofi nfect
ionbyanot herst rai
n(I
bid)
.
I
thasalsobeenest abli
shedt hatt henumberofmont hswi thaver agetemper aturesabove
18OCandt hedegr eeofur banizat i
oncorrelatewithincreasingr i
skofdenguef ever.The
mostdeadl ystr
aincausesDengueHemor rhagi
cFever( DHF) ,andal thoughi tisrarel
y
fat
ali
fdiagnosedear l
y,itsever elydamagest hecirculatorysystem andi nternalorgans.
Recur
rentinfect
ioncanl eadt obl eeding,
seizuresanddeat h.+D.SMat awan)

Dr
ought
Waterisl i
fe,and climate change isundoubt edlythreatening t
hispreciousr esource.
Nearl
yever yU.S.regionforexampl e,isfacingsomei ncreasedr i
skofseasonaldr ought .
With rise in temper ature and decr eased precipi
tati
on, wat er qualit
y can be
j
eopardized(D.
SMat awan) .Adroughti ssaidtooccurwhenar egi
onstaysabnormal l
ydr y
foralongper iodoft ime,suchascausesani mbalancei nt hewat ercycle.Shrinking
amounts ofwat ercan concent r
at e contaminant
s such as heavy met als,industrial
chemicals and pest
icides,and sedi ments and sal
ts.Dur ing drought,dri
nking wat er
suppl
i
esar esusceptibletoharmfulalgalbloomsandot hermi croorgani
sms.Aquat i
cl i
feis
also endanger ed.According to t he i ntergovernmental panel
i
ng cl i
mat e changes
(IPCC)2012reportonext remeevent s,theJune201 2drought
sacrosstheMi dwestoft he
U. S,makesthemont h“oneoft he1 0wor stmont hs” i
nthepastcenturyandf ar
mer sin
theU. Saresloggingthrought helargestdr oughtin50year s[7]
.Proj
ecti
onsi ndi
catethat
climatechangewi l
lsi
gnifi
cantl
yaf f
ectt hesust ainabi
li
tyofwatersuppli
esint hecomi ng
decades.Aspar t
soft hewor l
dgetdr ier,theamountofwat eravai
l
ableanditsqualit
ywi l
l
l
ikelydecrease-i mpacti
ngpeopl e'sheal t
handf oodsuppli
es.

TheNRDCal sosays,wi thsomepar tsofWest er

nU.S.alr
eadyexper i
encingwat ercri
ses
becauseofsever edr y spel ls,andwi thcont inuedcli
matechange,t heentirecount r
y wil
l
l
ikelyfacesomel evelofdr ought .NRDC' sCl i
mat eChange,Wat er,andRiskr eportfound
that1,
100count ies-one-t hirdofal lcount i
esi nthelower48states-f acehi gherr i
sksof
watershortagesbymi d-cent ur
yast her esul tofcli
matechange[ 8].Mor et han400of
thesecountieswi llfaceext remel yhighr i
sksofwat ershort
ages.Thatagai nisami rr
orto
globalimperati
vesi nt hesamevei n.Asseeni nFig.7,suchchangesi npreci pit
ati
onand
wateravail
abi l
i
tycoul dhaveser i
ousconsequencesnotj ustforsafedr i
nkingwat erbut
alsoforcommer cialagr i
culture– cr opsyi eldlessandf oodsecur i
tysuf fers.Drought
condit
ionscanal sohel pf uel out-of-controlwi l
dfi
res(
P.W Newbury).

Fl
oodi
ng

Cli
matechangehascont ribut
edt oar i
seinextremeweat herevents-i ncludi
ngf l
oodsand
hi
gher-int
ensityhur
ri
canes.Pr ojecti
onsbyScientist
sindicateanincreasei nthefrequency
ofheavyr ai
nstor
ms,puttingmanycommuni ti
esatriskfordevastati
onf rom floods.Thi
si s
because war merairhol ds mor e moist
ure and thus mor e precipi
tation [T.
W. Chun].
Fl
ooding can cause a range ofheal thimpact sand risks,i
ncluding:deat h and inj
ury,
contaminated dri
nking wat er, hazardous mat er
ialspi l
l
s, i
ncreased popul ati
ons of
di
sease car ryi
ng i
nsectsand r odent
s,mol dyhouses,and communi t
ydi srupti
on and
di
splacement .

E.Ext
remeWeat
her

Carbondioxi
de(CO2)f r
om cars,industr
iesandpowerpl ant
strapheatneart
heear t
h’s
surf
ace.Mor e heatmeans mor e ener gy and addi
ng so much more energy tot he
atmospherecreatesthepotenti
alf ormor eextr
emes( depart
mentofecology,st at
eof
Washington)
.Thus,drought
s,wildfi
res,heatwavesandhur ri
canesarebecomi ngnormal
occurr
encesinAmer i
cabecauseofcl i
mat echange

.
1
.4:Post
ulat
ionorr
emedi
ati
onofcl
i
mat
echange
Thi sisabl eakpr opositi
onbuti tisopent oremedy. Recentr esear chesseem t oindicate
thatCO2canbekeptoutoft heat mospher ef ormanycent ur i
esi fr eleasedi ntot hesea,
wher ephyt opl anktonwhensi nkingi nt heseaf l
oort akest hecar bonwi thi t[ 2].Ont he
other hand, gl obal war ming can be addr essed t hrough behavi our al change
emi ssionsr educt ionsandr enewabl ef ormsofener gy,communi tyeducat ionandanew
vision.Thi si sbecauseont hemostpar t,CO2andot hergr eenhousegasesar ehumanl y
i
nducedemi ssionsandcanbecont r ol
led.Ther ear echoi cesr egar di ngsust ainabi l
ityopen
tot hewor ldbutst epsmustbet akennow( MeenaR201 5) .TheUN I nter -Gover nment al
PanelonCl imat eChangeest i
mat est hewor l
dneedst or educeemi ssi onst o40per centof
cur rentlevel stost abili
zet heat mospher e.Andsi ncef orest sar ecr ucialel ement sint he
car boncycl e;theyactasai rfil
terst akingCO2f rom t heat mospher e,f or est ationand/or
l
andscape ar chi
tecture shoul d be encour aged and enf orced wher et her e ar e poli
cies
backi ng t hem( P.W Newbur y).In phot osynthesi s,t reesuse sunl ightt o make compl ex
car bohydr at esl i
kesugarandcel lulosef rom CO2andwat er—apr ocesst hatsequest ers
CO2f r
om t heat mospher eandr el
easesoxygen.Tr eesal sosequest ermet hane.Thi sadds
tot hebenef itofpl anti
ngt reesadj acentt opast ur eland( PaulW Newbur y).TheCO2t rees
sequest erbecomespar tofi tscel l
sandi sreleasedi ntofor estsoi ls.I finaf orest,mor e
car bondi oxi dei sbei ngt akenf rom t heat mospher et hani sbei ngr el easedt hr oughf i
reor
decay,t hef orestisknow asacar bonsi nk—ameasur ableamountofCO2i nt het r
eesand
soi l
soft hef orest.Plant i
ngandconser vingf orest sar ekeyf act or si ncar bonemi ssions
tradingbecauset heCO2sequest eredcanbeof fsetagai nstCO2r eleasedel sewher e(P.W
Newbur y).Ther eisacompel li
ngar gumentf orconver ti
ngmar gi
nalgr azi ngl andt onat i
ve
woodl ands orf orests.The benef i
tsi nclude habi tatand bi odi ver sity enhancement ,
gr eenhouse gas mi ti
gation and wat ercat chmentsecur it
y.Recentr esear ch shows
met haneupt akei ssi gnif
icantlyincr easedandni trousoxi der eleasei sdecr easedwhen
treesar epl antedonpr eviouslygr azedpast ureland.Sust ainabl edevel opmenti sat erm
thathasf ound use i n varioushuman endeavor spar ti
cular l
yasi tper tainst o Cli
mat e
ChangeandGl obal warmi ng.

1
.5:
Cli
mat
echangei
mpactandadapt
ati
oni
nar
idandsemiar
id
r
egi
ons

1
.6:I
mpor
tanceofst
udyi
ngcl
i
mat
echange
Studyi
ng cl
imate change i
scr
uci
alforunderstanding and addr
essi
ng it
sfar-reachi
ng
i
mpact sontheplanetandhumansoci
eti
es.Scienti
fi
cresearchinthi
sfiel
dservesseveral
keypurposes:

1.**
Inf
ormingMi t
igat
ionStr
ategi
es:
**Resear
chhelpsidenti
fytherootcausesofcli
mate
change and i
nforms eff
ecti
ve st
rat
egi
es toreduce greenhouse gas emissi
ons.Thi
s
knowledge is essent
ialfor devel
opi
ng sust
ainabl
e ener
gy sol
uti
ons, conser
vat
ion
pract
ices,andpol
ici
esthatmit
igat
ecli
matechange.

2.**
Adapt at
ionPlanning:*
*Under standi
ngthechangingcl
imatepatt
ernsal
lowsforbett
er
pl
anning and preparati
on to cope withthe i
mpacts.Thi
sincludesdevelopi
ng r
esi
li
ent
i
nfr
astruct
ure,sustainable agri
cult
ure practi
ces,and st
rat
egies t
o prot
ectvulner
able
communi t
iesfr
om extremeweat herevents(
UgwwumbaAl exO²).

3.* *
Pr eservi
ngBi odi
versi
ty:
**Cli
mat echangeposesasigni
fi
cantt
hreattobi
odiversi
ty.
Studyingi t
sef f
ectshelpsident
if
yat -ri
skspeci
esandecosyst
ems,guidi
ngconservati
on
ef
f or
tst oprotectandpreservebi
odiversi
ty.

4.**RiskAssessment:
**Cl i
mat esciencehel
psassesstherisksassoci
atedwi t
hrisi
ngsea
l
evels,extr
emeweat herevent s,andothercl
i
mate-rel
atedphenomena.Thi sinfor
mationis
cruci
alforpoli
cymaker s,urbanpl anner
s,andcommuni ti
est omakei nfor
meddeci sions
andr educevul
nerabi
li
ty.

5.**
GlobalCooper at
ion:
**Studying cli
matechangef ost
ersinter
nati
onalcol
laborat
ion.
Shar
edr esear
chanddat afaci
l
itat
ecooper at
ionamongnationstocoll
ecti
vel
yaddressthis
gl
obalchall
enge,asseeninini
ti
ati
vesliketheInt
ergover
nmentalPanelonCli
mateChange
(I
PCC).

6.**Publi
cAwar eness:
**Researchfi
ndingscont
ri
butetorai
singpubl
i
cawar enessabout
theurgencyofcl i
mateacti
on.I nf
ormedciti
zensaremorelikel
ytosuppor
tpol i
ciesand
pract
icesthatpr
omot esust
ainabil
i
tyandreduceenvi
ronment
al i
mpact
.

I
nessence,studyingcli
matechangeprovidestheknowl
edgebasenecessar
ytodevel
op
i
nfor
medpol i
cies,adapttoongoingchanges,andworktowar
dsamor esustai
nabl
eand
r
esil
i
entf
uturefort hepl
anet
(AyoadeAAdedol apo)
.

Chapt
er2

CHAPTER2.
0:whati
scausi
ng Cl
i
mat
eChange

2.
1:Greenhousearethoughtt
obemaincontri
butort
oclimatechange(t
hegreenhouse
af
fect
)they ar
e ver
y eff
ici
entint
appi
ng heatintothe at
mospheretherei
tr esul
tin
gr
eenhouseef
fect

Thesolarener gyisabsorbedbytheAr et
hasurfacesandthenrefl
ectedbacktot heheat
aft
erthattheyr adi
atetheheattotheearthsur
facetoanothergreengasmol eculesorto
the space(the greenhouse af
fect)
biggestconcert
alglobalemi ssi
on ofgr eenhouse
gases(DanielaBurghi
ll
a).

Met
haneandCO2
Leakagef r
om everyevolvi
ngpetrol
eum syst
em Mases, r
atesandInt
erf
eranceforcl
imate
feedback,t
heperfect-daywarmingtrendhasbeeat t
ri
butedtoananimalincr
easedinan
atmosphereri
cmet haneconcentr
ati
onandCO2t hepotenti
alofmembranecontri
but
ionto
the atmosphere dur
ing t
he evol
uti
on ofpetrol
eum system intwo dif
fer
entgeologi
cal
sett
ing.

2.Def
orest
ati
onandLandUseChanges:

LossofCar bonSi nk:Def orestati

onandchangesi nl andusecont r
ibutetoelevatedCO2
l
evels.Treesactascar bonsi nks,absorbingCO2dur ingphotosynthesi s.Whenf orestsare
cl
eared,thisnaturalcarbonabsor pti
ondi minishes,l
eadi ngtoincreasedat mospher i
cCO2
concentrati
ons.Tr
essmaybecutdownf orthepur posesofcl earingt helandf orbuil
ding
house,i
ndustri
es and f act
or i
es,f
or gr owing cr ops,for grazing cat tl
e,sheep,horse
etc.
Deforestat
ioncouldl eadtosoi l
erosionfloodinganddeser tif
icati
on( Lam 2011)
.

3.I
ndust
ri
alAct
ivi
ti
es:

Emission ofGreenhouse Gases: Industr

ialpr
ocesses,i
ncl
udi
ng manuf act
uring and
energyproducti
on,rel
easesubstanti
alamountsofGHGs.Additi
onal
ly,cer
tainindustr
ial
acti
vit
iesr
eleaseaer
osolsandpoll
utantst
hatcaninf
luencer
egi
onalcl
i
mat epatt
erns.

4.Ai
rpol
l
utant
:
Airpollut
antoccursasar esultofincompl
etebur ningoff uelsuchascoal ,
oil
,Pet
roand
wood. Apartfr
om humanact ivi
ti
es,t
hegreenhousepol lutantemittedint
ot heaur6canal so
be by nat ur
aloccur rence such as biol
ogicaldecayf orestfir
es volcani
c er upt
ion as
ment i
oned ear l
ier
.t
hese har mfulgasous poll
utanti ncl
ude sul phur
e di oxi
de,ni
trogen
oxide,
carbondi oxi
de,carbonmonoxi deandlead(Al abiAO2009) .

I
)Sul f
urdi oxi
deandni t
rogenoxi des-theseoccurasar esultofthebur ni
ngoff ossi
lsuch
ascoal ,oilandnatur algases.Sul f
urdioxideataver yhighconcent rati
onhasdamagi ng
effectsonbot hplant sandani mall i
ves.Int hecaseofpl ants,itpenetratest heleaves
throught hestomata( ti
nyopeni ngint hecellsoftheleaves)andki l
lsthepl ants.Inthe
caseofhumans,sul furdioxidecausesi rr
it
ati
onanddamagi ngoft hesensiti
veliningofthe
eyes,airpassagesandl ungs.Whent hisoccur sf
orlongti
mei nanenvi ronment ,itcauses
respir
atorydiseases.Fur thermore,itisalsoi mport
anttost atethat,whensul furdioxi
de
andni t
rogenoxider eactwi t
hoxygenandr ai
nwat er
,theyform sulfur
icacidandni t
ri
cacid
respectivel
y.Rainwat ercont ai
ningtheseaci dsarecall
edaci drain.Thepr esenceofaci d
rai
nsi nlakesandr i
ver scausesthedeat hoffishandothercreaturesinsomanycount ri
es
oft
hewor
ldt
oday.

Kwanetal( 201 1
)alsoopinedthatsulfurdioxideist hemaincomponentofki l
lersmog,
whichisami xtureofsmokeandf og.Normal l
ywhensmokei semi t
tedduri
ngbur ning,iti
s
blownbyt hewi nd,anditgoest omi xwitht hecoolai r
.Thismi xtur
eispr eventedf r
om
escapingbyal ayerofwarm airwhichact sli
keacoverabovei t.Themi xtureoft hecool
airandt hepol l
utantremainsstagnantairunt ili
tf ormshighconcent rat
iont opr oduce
l
ethalresul
ts.Thi scausesrespi
rator
ypr oblems.Theoccur rencet hissmogi nLondoni n
1952ledt othedeat hofabout400hundr edpeopl e.Consequent l
y,theCleanAi rActof
1960inEnglandwaspassed( Kwanetal ,201 1
).

Lead-iti
spossiblet
ofi
ndthepresenceofleadinthefoodweeat ,t
hewaterwedr i
nkand
theairwebr eat
hein.Alongt
imeaccumul ati
onofleadinthebodysystem coul
dleadto
highconcentrat
ionofl
eadwhichmayr esul
ttocramps,lossofcontr
olofhandsandfeet
,
andsomet i
mescomaanddeat h.Airi
nciti
eshashigherpresenceofleadthantheai
rin
rural
areas.

➤ Car bonmonoxi detheexhaustofmot orvehicles,generators,ai

rcraft
s,motorcycles
andot herformsofengi nest hatemitsuchgasesar ethesour cesofcarbonmonoxi de.
Whencar bonmonoxi deisbreathedin,i
tcombi neswi thhemogl obi
nintheredbl
oodcel l
s
tof or
m " carboxyhaemoglobin which r
educes t he capacit
y oft he bl
ood totransport
oxygenr oundt hebody.Themaybever yharmf ulwheni toccur sinhi
ghconcent r
ation
andcoul dbeat tr
ibut
edtomostdeat hsthatoccurwhenpeopl econfi
nethemselvest o
areaswher ecar bonmonoxideisemi t
tedwithoutcr ossvent
il
ation.

Carbon di oxide- thi

sf actorthough pr imaril
ycaused byhuman act i
vi
ti
est hrough the
burningofor ganiccompoundswhi chr esult
stother eleasingofcar bondi oxi
dei ntotheair,
yethassomenat uralimpli
cati
ons.Assuch,car bondi oxidei st hemosti mpor t
antgases
thatcause" Gr eenhouseef fects".Thisoccur swhent hesunr ayshi ttheearthsurface,but
whent heyar erefl
ectedbacki ntospace,t heyar etrappedi ntheat mosphere.Thesun
rayscannotescape f rom t he earth'sat mospher e,and t he ear th heatsup.Orputi n
anotherway,cer t
ainatmospher icgasesl i
kecar bondi oxide,wat ervapour ,andmet hane
havet heabi lit
yt ochanget heener gybal anceoft heear t
hbybei ngabl etoabsor blong
waver adiation"emi t
tedf r
om theear t
h'ssur f
ace.Ther esultoft hismaybegl obal warming.
Thepossi bleef fecti
st hatthewor ldtemper atur
emayr i
se;I ceber gsmaymel t,leadingto
ani ncreasei nquant it
yofwat eri nt heoceans.Bel ow i sani l
l
ust r
ati
onofat mospher i
c
Concent rati
onofCar bonDi oxi
de( 1744-2005) .

Lead-iti
spossi
blet
ofi
ndthepresenceofl
eadint
hef oodweeat,t
hewat erwedri
nkand
theairwebreathei
n.Alongt
imeaccumulati
onofleadinthebodysyst
em coul
dleadto
highconcentr
ati
onofl
eadwhi
chmayr esul
ttocr
amps,l
ossofcont
rolofhandsandfeet
,
andsomet i
mescomaanddeath.Ai
rinciti
eshashi
gherpr
esenceofleadthantheai
rin
rural
areas.

➤ Car bonmonoxi detheexhaustofmot orvehicles,generators,ai

rcraft
s,motorcycles
andot herformsofengi nest hatemitsuchgasesar ethesour cesofcarbonmonoxi de.
Whencar bonmonoxi deisbreathedin,i
tcombi neswi thhemogl obi
nintheredbl
oodcel l
s
tof or
m " carboxyhaemoglobin which r
educes t he capacit
y oft he bl
ood totransport
oxygenr oundt hebody.Themaybever yharmf ulwheni toccur sinhi
ghconcent r
ation
andcoul dbeat tr
ibut
edtomostdeat hsthatoccurwhenpeopl econfi
nethemselvest o
areaswher ecar bonmonoxideisemi t
tedwithoutcr ossvent
il
ation.

Carbon di oxide- thi

sf actorthough pr imaril
ycaused byhuman act i
vi
ti
est hrough the
burningofor ganiccompoundswhi chr esult
stother eleasingofcar bondi oxi
dei ntotheair,
yethassomenat uralimpli
cati
ons.Assuch,car bondi oxidei st hemosti mpor t
antgases
thatcause" Gr eenhouseef fects".Thisoccur swhent hesunr ayshi ttheearthsurface,but
whent heyar erefl
ectedbacki ntospace,t heyar etrappedi ntheat mosphere.Thesun
rayscannotescape f rom t he earth'sat mospher e,and t he ear th heatsup.Orputi n
anotherway,cer t
ainatmospher icgasesl i
kecar bondi oxide,wat ervapour ,andmet hane
havet heabi lit
yt ochanget heener gybal anceoft heear t
hbybei ngabl etoabsor blong
waver adiation"emi t
tedf r
om theear t
h'ssur f
ace.Ther esultoft hismaybegl obal warming.
Thepossi bleef fecti
st hatthewor ldtemper atur
emayr i
se;I ceber gsmaymel t,leadingto
ani ncreasei nquant it
yofwat eri nt heoceans.Bel ow i sani l
l
ust r
ati
onofat mospher i
c
Concent rati
onofCar bonDi oxi
de( 1744-2005) .
Agraphi l
l
ust
rat
ingtheri
seinatmospheri
ccarbondioxi
defrom 1
774to2005.Notethat
thecarbondi
oxideconcentr
ati
onintheatmospher
ehasbeenexponent i
alduri
ngthe
peri
odunderreview.Anexpl
orati
oni
ntotheimmediatefut
urewouldsuggestcont
inued
i
ncrease

4.Agr
icul
tur
eandLi
vest
ock:
Methane Emissi
ons: Agri
cul
tur
alpr act
ices,especi
all
yr i
ce cult
ivat
ion and l
i
vest
ock
f
arming,contr
ibut
etomethaneemi ssi
ons.Methaneisapot entgr
eenhousegaswi t
ha
warmingeff
ectsever
alt
imesgreatert
hanCO2overashor t
ertimefr
ame.

Chl
orof
luor
ocar
bon(
CFCs)
:
Thosear enont oxic,
unr
eactivechemi cal.t
heyareusedaser osionpropellantascooling
agentinr ef
ri
ger at
orandai rcondi t
ionerandi nf or
m ofpackaging.Chlorofl
orocarbonis
rel
easedintotheat mospherefrom ar esolandothersour
cebrakedownt heozonel ayerof
theatmosphere.Theozonei sagast hatform al
ayerovertheear t
handi tasor bmostof
theult
ravi
oletraysf r
om sunl
ight.
Siwhent heozonei sbr
okendown, morealtr
aviol
entli
ght
reachestheear t
h.Thusi
ncreasest her i
skofskincancer(
Ofoefuna,2011
).

5.Landf
il
lsandWast
eManagement
:

Met haneRelease: Improperwast edisposali

nlandfi
l
lsleadst
ot hedecomposit
ionof
organicwaste,produci
ngmet hane.I
nadequatewastemanagementpract
icescontri
but
e
toincreasedmethaneemi ssi
ons,exacerbat
ingt
hegreenhouseef
fect

6.Nat
uralFact
ors:
Sol
arRadiati
on Var
iabil
i
ty: Nat
ur alfact
ors,such asvariat
ionsi n solarradi
ati
on,can
i
nfl
uencecli
mate.Whilesol
arcyclesdoi mpactEart
h'scl
imate,thecur rentt
rendofglobal
warmingcannotbesolel
yatt
ri
butedt onatur
alsol
arvari
abil
i
ty(JeffOrl
owskl )
Globalwar mi ng nature always contr
ibut
et o cli
mat e change by emmi ti
ng CO2 from
valcons,valconsusedt or eleaseCO2manyMi l
lonyear sagobackwhendi nasourseexist
wehadl evelofCO2emi t
tedbyval cons,valconemmi tedsmal lamountofCO2andt hey
can'texplai
nt heincreaseofCO2t hatwehadi nthecent urar
y.Valconsdocont r
ibut
et o
cli
mat echangebyemi t
ti
ng CO2howevert healmond ofCO2t hatisbeing rel
easeby
humanact i
vit
ie.
Accor di
ngt oNASA, anaver ageval consemi rbetween1 30and230mi ll
l
ion
tonsofCO2peryear .Howeverbydur i
ngf ossil
sfuelpeopl erel
easei nexcessof00t i
mes
mor e,
about20bi ll
iontonsofCO2i ntotheatmospher eeveryyear(ChangwenHu., 2016).

7.Changesi
nAt
mospher
icComposi
ti
on:
OzoneDeplet
ion: Humanact i
vi
ti
es,part
icul
arl
ytheuseofchl orof
luor
ocarbons(CFCs)
and ot
herozone-deplet
ing subst
ances,contri
but
et othe t
hinni
ng ofthe ozone l
ayer
.
Whil
e ozone depl
eti
on itsel
fdoesn'tdir
ectl
y cause gl
obalwarming,itcan infl
uence
cl
imatepat
ter
ns.

8.Vol
cani
cAct
ivi
ty:
AerosolEmissi
ons: Volcanicerupti
onsrel
easeashandaer osolsi
ntotheatmosphere.
Whilethesepart
icl
escant emporari
l
yblocksunl
i
ght,l
eadi
ngtoacoolingeff
ect
,theover
all
i
mpact on l ong-term cl i
mate change is minimal compared to human-i
nduced
fact
ors(Anwar,
J,2016)
.

9.FeedbackMechani
sms:
Ampl i
fyi
ngEffects:Cl
imatechangetri
gger
sfeedbackmechanismst hatcanampl if
ythe
warmingef f
ect.Forexample,melt
ingArct
ici
cer educestheEart
h'salbedo,increasi
ng
heatabsorpti
on.Simil
arl
y,t
hawingpermafr
ostrel
easesstoredmethane,int
ensif
yingthe
greenhouseeffect(
Abdel
-Raouf)
.

1
0.OceanCi
rcul
ati
onChanges:
Al
tered HeatDistr
ibut
ion: Changes i
n ocean curr
ent
s and ci
rculati
on patt
erns can
i
nfl
uenceheatdistr
ibut
ionacr
osstheglobe.Disr
upti
onsi
nthesepatterns,possi
blyl
inked
t
oclimatechange,canimpactregi
onalcl
i
mates.

2.
2: i
mpactofCl
i
mat
echangont
heenvi
ronment
Cli
mat echangehasaf f
ectedmanyaspectourpl anetOneaspectt hathasbeengr avely
affect
ed bycl i
mat e change ist he weat her.
In Romani a,
fori nstances,
extr
eme weat her
eventhasmul ti
pli
edsi nce2002. Cki
mat echangeaf f
ectwher et onext?Thatt hecountry's
2007dr oughtwast hesever esti
n60year s(480).byincreasingt heconcentrati
onoft he
greenhousegases.Wear eincreasi
ngt heamountofheatt hatisinouratmospher e(NASA)
hurri
caneshaveal sobecomemor ei ntense.How i fthewavewascol derthatgiveless
energy to hurr
icane and make i tloss intense also war mert emper atur
e means t he
atmospher e holds mor e wat er vapor and make r ainfall
s mor e ext r
eme and
i
ntense(Riebeek).

Cl
i
mat
echange,pr
imar
il
ydr
ivenbyhumanact
ivi
ti
es,hasf
ar-r
eachi
ngconsequencesf
or
t
he envir
onmentacross t
he gl
obe.This comprehensi
ve expl
orat
ion hi
ghl
i
ght
sthe
mul
ti
facet
edimpact
sonvari
ousecosyst
ems,speci
es,andnat
uralpr
ocesses:

1
.Temper
atur
eChanges:
GlobalWarming:Theri
seinaver
ageglobaltemperat
uresisahall
markofcl
i
matechange.
Thiswarming aff
ect
secosystems,leading t
o shi
ft
si n pl
antand ani
maldi
str
ibut
ions,
al
teredmigr
ationpat
ter
ns,andchangesingrowingseasons.

2.Mel
ti
ngI
ceandRi
singSeaLevel
s:
GlacialRet
reat
:Hi ghert
emperat
urescontr
ibutet
othemelti
ngofglaciersandicecaps,
affecti
ngpolarregi
ons.Thi
sphenomenonl eadst
orisi
ngsealevel
s,threat
eni
ngcoastal
habitat
sandlow-lyi
ngareas(
Benson,
T,J,
2008).

3.OceanAci
dif
icat
ion:
Car
bonAbsorpti
on:Theoceansactascar bonsinks,absorbi
ngexcesscar bondioxi
de
f
rom t
he at
mospher e.However,t
hisprocessleadsto ocean aci
dif
icati
on,negati
vel
y
i
mpact
ingmarineli
fe,par
ti
cul
arl
yor
gani
smswi t
hcalcium car
bonateshell
sorskel
etons.

4.Ext
remeWeat
herEvent
s:
I
ncreased Intensity: Climat echangeampl ifi
esthef requencyand intensit
yofext r
eme
weatherevent s,includingt hestudyofclimatechangei mpactongeol ogicalpr
ocessesis
i
nstr
ument alindevel opingadapt at
ionstrat
egies.Thisknowledgeinformspol i
cymakers,
pl
anners,and communi t
ies on how to adaptt o changing envi
ronment alcondi
ti
ons,
enhanci
ng r esil
ience agai nstclimate-r
elat
ed chall
enges.di sr
upthabi t
ats,and impact
bi
odiver
sit
y( August aAyot amumo, 2016).

5.Changesi
nPr
eci
pit
ati
onPat
ter
ns:
Alt
eredWat erAvail
abil
i
ty: Cl
i
mat echangeinfl
uencesprecipit
ati
onpat t
erns,l
eadi
ngto
morei nt
enser ai
nfal
linsomeregionsandprolongeddroughtsinothers.Thi
salt
erswat
er
avail
abil
i
ty,aff
ecti
ngecosystems,agri
cul
tur
e,andf r
eshwaterresources.

6.Bi
odi
ver
sit
yLoss:
Habi
tatDi sr
upt
ion: Changesintemper at
ureand pr
ecipi
tat
ionpatt
ernsdisruptnat
ural
habi
tats,t
hreat
eningplantandani
malspecies.Somemaybeunabl etoadaptormi grat
e
qui
cklyenough,leadi
ngtobiodi
ver
sit
ylossandpotent
ial
ecosyst
em coll
apse.

7.Shi
ft
sinEcosyst
ems:

Ecologi
calImbal
ances:Ast emperatur
ezonesshi f
t,ecosyst
emsexperiencechangesin
speciescomposit
ionandinter
acti
ons.Thiscanresulti
nimbalances,af
fecti
ngpredat
or-
preyrel
ati
onshi
ps,pol
li
nat
ion,andoverall
ecosyst
em functi
oni
ng.

8.I
mpactonAgr
icul
tur
e:
Cr
op Yi
eld Vari
abil
i
ty: Changes i
nt emperat
ure and preci
pit
ati
on af
fectagri
cul
tur
al
pr
oduct
ivi
ty.Shi
ft
singrowingseasons,i
ncr
easedfrequencyofextremeweatherevent
s,
andal
ter
edpestdynami
csposechal
l
engest
ogl
obal
foodsecur
it
y(Asl
am,
M.M,
2004)
.

9.Thr
eat
stoWat
erResour
ces:

Changing Hydrol
ogi
calCycl
es: Cli
matechangedi sr
upt
shydrol
ogicalcycl
es,af
fect
ing
ri
verflows,snowmeltpat
ter
ns,andgroundwaterrechar
ge.Thi
s,inturn,i
mpactswater
avai
labil
i
tyforhumanconsumpt
ion,agr
icul
tur
e,andecosyst
ems.

0.Ri
1 singHeal
thRi
sks:

Vect
or-BorneDiseases: Cl
i
matechangei nfl
uencest hedistr
ibut
ionofdiseasevector
s,
such as mosquit
oes,expanding the range of diseases li
ke malar
ia and dengue.
Heatwaves and extreme weather event
s also pose directhealt
hr isks t
o human
popul
ati
ons(Ni
di,
R,201 6)
.

1
1.Cor
alBl
eachi
ngandMar
ineEcosyst
ems:
Temperat
ureStress:Increasedseatemper at
uresleadt
ocoralbl
eachi
ng,t
hreateni
ngthe
heal
thofcoralreefs.Thedecl i
neoft heseecosystemsaff
ectsmar i
nebi
odiversi
tyand
di
srupt
sfi
sheri
est hatr
elyonhealthycoralecosyst
ems.

1
2.Per
maf
rostThaw:
ReleaseofMet
hane:Thawingpermafr
ostrel
easesst
oredmet
hane,apot
entgr
eenhouse
gas.Thiscr
eat
esafeedbackloop,contr
ibut
ingt
ofurt
herwar
mingandimpact
inggl
obal
cl
imatedynami
cs(
Boro,
J,2011
).

1
3.Soci
etalandEconomi
cImpact
s:
Displ
acementandMi grat
ion:Sea-levelriseandext
remeweat herevent
scanleadtothe
di
splacementofcommuni t
ies.Cl
imate-inducedmigrat
ionposessocial
,economic,and
poli
ti
calchal
l
enges,exacerbati
ngexist
ingvulner
abi
li
ti
es.

2.
3:Ef
fect
sofCl
i
mat
echangeonbi
odi
ver
sit
y
Cli
mat echangeposesasi gnif
icantt
hreattobiodiversi
ty,af
fecti
ngecosystemsworldwide.
Thecompl exint
eracti
onsbet weenchangingcl i
mat i
ccondi t
ionsanddiversespeci
eslead
toacascadeofecol ogicalconsequences.Thi
scompr ehensiveexpl
orati
ondelvesi
ntothe
multi
facet
edef f
ectsofclimatechangeonbi odiversi
ty:

1
.Habi
tatDi
srupt
ionandLoss:
Shi
ft
sinTemper atur
eZones:Cl imatechangealter
stemperat
urezones,forci
ngspecies
t
omi gr
ateinsearchofsuit
ableconditi
ons.Thi
smovementcanleadtofragment at
ionand
l
ossofhabitat
s,part
icul
arl
yforspecieswithli
mit
edmobil
it
yorthoseconfinedtospecifi
c
t
emperatur
er anges(
Berbesi
,L.
A,2014).
2.Phenol
ogi
calChanges:
Timi
ngofLi f
e-Cycl
eEvent s:Risi
ngtemper at
uresinf
luencetheti
mingofbi
ologi
calevents,
suchasf l
oweri
ng,breeding,andmi grat
ion.Mismatchesbetweenspeci
es'l
ifecyclesand
theavail
abil
i
tyofresourcescandi sruptecol
ogicalrel
ati
onshi
ps,aff
ect
ingpredator-pr
ey
dynamicsandpolli
nati
on.

3.OceanWar
mingandAci
dif
icat
ion:
CoralBleachi
ng: Highersea t emperaturescontri
but
eto coralbleaching,jeopardizi
ng
coralreef
sand t he di
verse mar i
ne l
ifetheysupport
.Addit
ional
ly,ocean aci di
fi
cation,
dri
venbyabsor bedcarbondi oxide,posesthreat
stoshel
l
-formingor ganisms,disrupti
ng
mar i
neecosyst
ems( Don.wuabbles201 6).

4.RangeShi
ft
sandDi
str
ibut
ionChanges:
Species Migr
ation: Many species ar
ef orced to shi
fttheirgeographicalranges in
response to changi
ng cl
imate condit
ions.Thi s can l
ead to conf
lict
s with exist
ing
ecosystems,compet i
ti
on wi
thr esi
dentspeci es,and chall
enges i
n adapt i
ng to new
habit
ats.

5.Al
ter
edEcosyst
em Dynami
cs:
Disr
upti
ons in Food Webs: Cl imate-induced changes affect the avai
l
abi
li
ty and
di
stri
buti
onofspecies,causingdisrupt
ionsi nfoodwebs.Theseal terat
ionscanleadto
populat
iondecl
i
nes,affect
ingspeciesatvarioustrophi
clevel
s.

6.I
ncr
easedExt
inct
ionRi
sk:
Vulnerabil
it
y of Special
i
stSpeci es: Speci es with narr
ow habi
tatrequir
ements or
speciali
zed ecol
ogicalnichesmayf ace a hi
gherr i
skofexti
ncti
on due t
ot he l
i
mit
ed
avail
abil
ityofsui
tabl
ehabi t
atsascli
matecondi t
ionschange.

7.LossofBi
odi
ver
sit
yHot
spot
s:
I
mpactonUni queEcosystems: Cl i
matechangedi spr
opor t
ionat
elyaff
ect
sbi odi
ver
sit
y
hotspot
s—ar
easwi t
h high speciesri
chnessand endemi sm.The lossofthese uni
que
ecosyst
emshasglobali
mplicati
onsforbi
odiver
sit
yconservati
on.

8.Changesi
nMi
grat
ionPat
ter
ns:

Disr
uption ofMi grat
ion Routes: Cli
mate change i
nfl
uencesthe t
imi
ng and r
out
esof
animalmi grati
ons.Shift
si nmigrat
ionpatt
ernscani mpactspeci
esthatr
elyonspeci
fi
c
routesortimingforbreeding,f
eeding,andsurvi
val
.

9.Adapt
iveChal
l
enges:

Li
mitedAdapt
iveCapaci
ty:Rapi
dchangesincl
imat
econdi
ti
onsmayexceedt
headapti
ve
capaci
tyofmanyspecies.While some or
gani
smscan adaptorevol
ve,t
he pace of
cl
i
mat
echangeof
tenout
str
ipst
hei
rabi
l
ityt
orespondef
fect
ivel
y(Bozou,
201
6).

1
0.Thr
eat
stoEcosyst
em Ser
vices:
Disr
upti
ons in Ecosystem Funct
ions: Biodi
ver
sit
yl oss undermi
nes the abili
ty of
ecosyst
emst o provi
deessenti
alservi
ces,i
ncl
udi
ng poll
inat
ion,wat
erpurif
icat
ion,and
di
seaser egul
ati
on.This,i
ntur
n,affect
shumanwel l
-bei
ngandt hef
unct
ioni
ngofent ire
ecosyst
ems.

1
1.I
mpact
sonKeyst
oneSpeci
es:
Disr
upti
onofKeyEcologicalRoles:Keyst
onespeci es,whichhaveadispropor
ti
onatel
y
l
argeimpactonthei
recosystems,maybepar t
icul
arl
yvulnerabl
etocli
matechange.Thei
r
decli
neorl
osscantr
iggercascadingef
fect
sthroughoutenti
reecosyst
ems.

1
2.Conser
vat
ionChal
l
enges:
Shif
ti
ng Conser vati
on Pr
ior
it
ies: Cli
mate change chall
enges tr
adi
ti
onalconser
vati
on
approaches,requiri
ngdynamicandadapt i
vestrat
egiesthatconsi
derthefl
uidnat
ureof
speciesdi
str
ibutionsandecol
ogical
int
eract
ions(
Berbesi
,L.
A,2004).

2.
4:Gl
obali
nit
iat
iveandagr
eementoncl
i
mat
echange
Addressingthecompl exchal l
engesofcli
mat echanger equi
rescoordinatedeff
ortsona
gl
obalscal e.Overtheyear s,vari
ousini
ti
ati
vesandi nt
ernati
onalagreement shavebeen
est
ablishedtomi t
igat
egr eenhousegasemi ssions,adaptt ochangingcli
mat econdit
ions,
and fostersustai
nable development.Thiscompr ehensive expl
orat
ion del
vesinto key
gl
obal ini
ti
ati
vesandagreement sai
medatcombat i
ngclimatechange:

1
.Uni
tedNat
ionsFr
amewor
kConvent
iononCl
i
mat
eChange(
UNFCCC)
:
Objecti
ve:TheUNFCCC,est abl
ishedi
n1 992,ser
vesasthefoundat
ionalfr
amewor kfor
i
nternati
onalcooperat
iononclimatechange.Itspri
mar
ygoalistostabil
izegreenhouse
gasconcent r
ati
onsint heat
mosphereatal evelt
hatpr
event
sdangerousant hr
opogenic
i
nterfer
encewi t
hthecli
matesystem.

Not
abl
e Achi
evement
s: The UNFCCC has faci
l
itat
ed sever
all
andmar
k agr
eement
s,
i
ncl
udi
ngtheKyot
oProtocol
andt
hePar
isAgreement .

2.Kyot
oPr
otocol(
1997)
:

Objecti
ve:TheKyotoProtocolsetbindi
ngtarget
sfordevel
opedcount
ri
estoreducetheir
greenhousegasemissi
ons.Iti
ntroducedtheconceptofl
egal
lybi
ndi
ngemissi
onreducti
on
commi t
mentsfori
ndustr
ial
izednations.
Notable Achi
evements: Whi l
e notuniversal
lysuccessful
,the Kyoto Prot
ocollaidthe
groundworkf or subsequentclimat
e agr eements and emphasi zed the pr
incipl
e of
commonbutdi f
fer
enti
atedresponsi
bil
i
ties(
Ruiz,
D,2007).

3.Par
isAgr
eement(
201
5):
Obj
ect
ive:Adoptedundert
heUNFCCC,t
hePar i
sAgreementai mstol
imitgl
obalwarming
t
o wel
lbelow 2 degreesCel
si
usabove pre-indust
ri
allevel
s,with eff
ort
st oli
mitthe
i
ncr
ease to1 .
5 degr
ees.I
temphasi
zes voluntar
y nati
onall
y det
ermined cont
ri
but
ions
(
NDCs)from count
ri
es.

Notable Achi
evement s: The Pari
s Agreementmar ked a hi
stor
ic momentofglobal
consensus,wit
hal mostal
lcountr
iescommi t
ti
ngtotakeacti
on.I
trefl
ectsamorei
ncl
usi
ve
andflexi
bleapproachcomparedt oearl
i
eragreements.

4.I
nter
gover
nment
alPanelonCl
i
mat
eChange(
IPCC)
:
Rol
e:Establ
ishedbytheUN,t heI PCCpr ovidessci
ent
ifi
cassessmentsoncli
matechange,
i
mpacts, adaptat
ion, and mi t
igation. I
tsr epor
ts pl
ay a crucialrol
e in i
nformi
ng
pol
i
cymakersandgui di
nginternationalcl
imatenegoti
ati
ons.

Notabl
eAchievement
s:TheIPCCassessment
scontr
ibut
etot
hesci
ent
if
icbasi
sforgl
obal
cl
i
mat eagr
eementsandpoli
cies(
Wal
ker,N.
J2008)
.

5.Gr
eenCl
i
mat
eFund(
GCF)
:
Object
ive:Establi
shedundertheUNFCCC,theGCFaimstomobil
i
zefi
nanci
alresources
tohelpdevelopingcountr
iesmit
igat
eandadapttocli
mat
echange.I
tsupport
spr oj
ects
andprogramst hatal
ignwit
hthegoalsoft
hePar
isAgr
eement
.

Not
able Achievement
s: The GCF playsa keyrol
ei nfaci
l
itat
ing cl
i
matef i
nance and
t
echnol
ogyt r
ansfert
oassi
stdevel
opingnat
ionsint
heircl
i
mateact i
oneffor
ts.

6.Mont
realPr
otocol(
1987)
:
Objecti
ve:Whi leprimari
lyfocusedonprotecti
ngtheozonelayer,theMontrealPr
otocol
hasindirectbenefi
tsforcl
imatechange.I
tphasedoutt hepr
oductionofozone-depl
eti
ng
substances,contr
ibuti
ngtothereduct
ionofgreenhousegasemissions.

Not
ableAchievements:ThesuccessoftheMontrealProt
ocoldemonst
rat
est
hepot
ent
ial
f
ori
nternat
ionalcooper
ati
oni
naddr essi
ngenvi
ronmentalchal
l
enges.

7.Gl
obalCl
i
mat
eObser
vingSyst
em (
GCOS)
:
Role: GCOS f aci
li
tat
es the col
lect
ion, anal
ysi
s, and shari
ng of cli
mate-r
elat
ed
observati
onst
oimpr
oveunderst
andingandpr edi
cti
onofcl
imatevari
abi
l
ityandchange.It
supportsthei
mpl
ementati
onofi
nter
nati
onalcli
mateagreements.

Notabl
e Achievements: GCOS enhances t
he sci
ent
if
ic basi
sforcl
i
mat
e act
ion by
pr
ovidi
ngrel
iabledat
aandobservat
ions.
8.TheSendaiFr
amewor
kforDi
sast
erRi
skReduct
ion(
201
5-2030)
:
Object
ive:Althoughnotexclusivel
yfocusedoncl imat
echange,t heSendaiFr
amework
emphasi zest
heimportanceofr educi
ngdi sast
erri
sk,i
ncludi
ngthoserelat
edtocl
i
mate,
andbuildingr
esil
i
ence.Itcomplementscli
mat echangeadaptat
ioneff
ort
s.

Notabl
e Achievements: The f
ramewor
kpromotesa hol
ist
icapproach t
o di
sast
err i
sk
r
eduction, acknowledgi
ng t
he i
nter
connect
edness of cl
imat
e-rel
ated
r
isks(
Pastry,
P.S.N,
1982)

9.Sust
ainabl
eDevel
opmentGoal
s(SDGs)
:
RelevancetoCli
mateChange:TheSDGs,part
icul
arlyGoal13(Cl
i
mateAct i
on)
,recogni
ze
theinterl
i
nkagesbetweencl
i
matechangeandsust ainabl
edevel
opment.Theyprovidea
compr ehensi
ve fr
amework for addr
essi
ng envi r
onmental
, soci
al, and economic
chall
enges.

Notabl
eAchievements: TheSDGsof feranintegrat
edappr oachtogl obalchal
l
enges,
emphasizi
ng t
he need forsyner
giesbetween cl
imate act
ion and br
oadersustainabl
e
devel
opmentgoals(
Vit
i,
R,2010)
.

1
0.COP(
Conf
erenceoft
hePar
ti
es)
:
Role: The COP meet i
ngs, hel
d annuall
y under the UNFCCC, br i
ng together
representat
ivesfrom countr
ies,NGOs,andotherstakehol
derstodi
scussandnegotiate
cli
mat e-r
elated i
ssues.COP meet i
ngs ser
ve as cruci
alplat
for
ms forshapi
ng global
cli
mat epoli
cies.

Notabl
e Achi
evements: COP meetingshave l
ed t
othe adopt
ion ofkeyagreements,
i
ncl
uding the Pari
s Agreement, and provi
de a space for ongoi
ng int
ernat
ional
col
l
aborati
ononcli
matechange(Morales,
M.M,1
999).

2.
5:Mi
ti
gat
ionst
rat
egi
esoncl
i
mat
echange
Miti
gat
ionstrat
egiesaimt oreduceorpr eventtheemi ssi
onofgreenhousegases(GHGs)
and other act
ivit
ies cont
ri
buti
ng t o cli
mate change.These compr ehensi
ve ef
fort
s
encompassar angeofappr oaches,technologies,andpoli
cies.Thi
sexplorat
iondel
ves
i
ntovari
ousmi t
igationst
rat
egiesthatpl
ayacr ucialrol
einaddr
essingcli
matechange:

1
.Tr
ansi
ti
ont
oRenewabl
eEner
gy:
Obj
ect
ive: Shi
ftf
rom fossi
lfuel
storenewableener
gysources,suchassol
ar,wi
ndt
o
r
educecarbonemissi
onsfrom ener
gyproduct
ion(
Mohi
uddi
n,K.
M, 201
1).

Notable Achi
evements: The r
apid gr
owth ofrenewabl
e energycapaci
tygl
obal
l
yhas
si
gnif
icantl
ycontr
ibut
edtoreducingdependencyonfossi
lfuel
s.
2.Ener
gyEf
fi
ciencyMeasur
es:
Objecti
ve: I
mpl ementtechnol
ogies and pract
ices t
hati
mpr ove ener
gy eff
ici
ency i
n
buil
dings,i
ndustri
es,and tr
ansport
ation t
or educe over
allenergy consumpti
on and
associat
edemissions.

Notabl
e Achi
evement
s: Energy-ef
fi
cientappl
i
ances,LED li
ght
ing,and gr
een bui
l
ding
st
andardscont
ri
but
etoloweri
ngenergydemandandmi ti
gat
ingcl
imatechange.

3.Af
for
est
ati
onandRef
orest
ati
on:
Objecti
ve: Pl ant
ing new for
ests(affor
estat
ion)and r
estor
ing degr
aded ecosystems
(r
eforestat
ion)tosequestercarbondioxi
de,enhancebi
odiver
sit
y,andprovi
deaddi t
ional
ecosystem servi
ces(Si
meon,V,2003)
.

Notable Achi
evement
s:* Refor
est
ati
on pr
oject
s and sust
ainabl
efor
estmanagement
contr
ibut
etocarbonsequestr
ati
onandecosyst
em r
estor
ati
on.

4.Car
bonCapt
ureandSt
orage(
CCS)
:
Object
ive:Captur
ecar
bondioxi
deemissi
onsfrom i
ndust
ri
alprocessesandpowerpl
ant
s,
t
ransporti
t,andst
orei
tunder
groundt
opreventit
srel
easeint
otheat mospher
e.

NotableAchievements:CCStechnol
ogies,whi
lest
il
lintheear
lystagesofdepl
oyment,
holdpromiseforreducingemi
ssi
onsfrom heavyi
ndustr
yandcertainpowergener
ati
on
processes.

5.Sust
ainabl
eAgr
icul
tur
ePr
act
ices:
Objecti
ve: Pr omote sustai
nable agr i
cul
tural t
echni
ques, such as agrofor
est
ry,
conservat
ionti
l
lage,andorganicfarming,toreduceemissi
onsfr
om landusechangeand
i
mpr ovecarbonsequestr
ati
oninsoils.

Notabl
eAchievement
s:Sust
ainabl
eagri
cul
turepract
icescont
ri
butet
osoi
lheal
th,wat
er
conser
vat
ion,andl
owergr
eenhousegasemissi
ons(MashaSanaei)
.

6.Ci
rcul
arEconomyAppr
oaches:
Objecti
ve: Encourage the desi
gn of pr
oducts and systems t
hatmini
mize wast
e
generati
on,promoterecycl
i
ng,andextendproductli
fecycl
estoreduceemi
ssionsf
rom
resour
ceextract
ionandwaste.

Not
ableAchi
evements:Cir
culareconomypri
nci
plescont
ri
butetor
esour
ceef
fi
ciencyand
r
educedemissi
onsassoci
atedwithmanufact
uri
nganddisposal
.

7.Sust
ainabl
eTr
anspor
tat
ion:
Obj
ecti
ve:Shif
tfr
om tr
aditi
onali
nter
nalcombust
ionengi
nevehi
clest
oelect
ri
cvehicl
es,
i
mprove publ
i
ct r
ansport
ati
on,and promote walki
ng,cycl
i
ng,and ot
hersust
ainable
modesoft
ranspor
t.

Notabl
eAchievements:Incr
easedadopt
ionofelectr
icvehi
cles,improvementsi
npubl
ic
t
ransport
ati
on, and urban pl
anni
ng for sust
ainable mobili
ty contr
ibut
e to l
ower
t
ransport
ati
onemissi
ons.

8.I
nter
nat
ionalCooper
ati
onandAgr
eement
s:
Obj
ecti
ve:Fostercoll
aborat
ionbetweennationst
osetemi
ssi
onreduct
iont
arget
s,shar
e
t
echnol
ogies,andsupportgl
obali
nit
iat
ivest
oaddresscl
i
mat
echange.

Notable Achi
evement s: I
nternat
ionalagr
eement
slike t
he Par
isAgr
eementprovi
de a
fr
amewor k for global col
laborat
ion on cl
imat
e act i
on and emissi
on r
educti
on
goals(
Barrado,E,
1998).

9.Gr
eenBui
l
dingPr
act
ices:
Object
ive: Desi
gn and const
ructbui
l
dings usi
ng sust
ainabl
e mater
ial
s and energy-
eff
ici
enttechnol
ogi
estoreduceenergyconsumpt i
onintheconstr
ucti
onandoper at
ion
phases.

Notable Achi
evements: Green bui
ldi
ng cert
if
icat
ions and standards cont
ri
but
eto
sust
ainabl
eurbandevelopmentandl
oweremissi
onsfrom thebui
ldingsector
.

1
0.Cl
i
mat
e-Fr
iendl
yPol
i
cies:
C
Obj
ect
ive:
i
mplement pol
i
cies t
hat i
ncent
ivi
ze sust
ainabl
e pr act
ices, penal
i
ze hi
gh-
emi
ssi
onacti
vi
ti
es,andpr
omotetheadopti
onofl
ow-car bontechnologi
es.

Not
ableAchievements:Carbonpricingmechani
sms,renewableenergyincenti
ves,and
r
egulat
ionsonemissi
onscontr
ibut
et oshapi
ngacli
mate-fr
iendl
ypol
icylandscape.

1
1.Resear
chandI
nnovat
ion:
Objecti
ve:Investi
nresearchanddevelopmentofi
nnovati
vet
echnologi
esandsolut
ionsto
address cl
imate change chal
lenges,enhance r
esi
l
ience,and i
denti
fy new mit
igat
ion
st
rategi
es(Samar aC,2003).

Notable Achi
evements: Ongoi
ng resear
ch and i
nnovat
ion dri
ve t
he devel
opmentof
cut
ting-edgetechnol
ogi
esandapproachesformi
ti
gati
ngclimatechangeimpacts.

1
2.Publ
i
cAwar
enessandEducat
ion:
Obj
ective: Rai
seawarenessaboutcli
matechange,it
simpacts,andt
hei
mpor
tanceof
i
ndi
vidualandcoll
ect
iveact
ionsi
nreducingcar
bonfoot
pri
nts.

Notabl
e Achievements: Publi
c engagementand educat
ion campai
gns contr
ibuteto
behavi
oralchanges,encouragi
ngsustai
nabl
epract
icesandsupportforcl
i
mat e-fr
iendl
y
pol
ici
es(BaghvandA,2010)
.
2.
6:Adapt
ati
onmeasur
esoncl
i
mat
echange
Ast heimpactsofcl i
matechangebecomemor epronounced,adaptati
onmeasur esare
crucialfor mi ni
mizi
ng ri
sks, bui
l
ding resi
l
ience, and ensur
ing the well
-being of
communi t
iesandecosystems.Thesemeasur esencompassar angeofstrat
egiesand
acti
ons ai med at adjust
ing t
o changing climat
e conditi
ons. Thi
s compr ehensi
ve
explorat
iondelvesint
ovari
ousadaptat
ionmeasures:

1
.Cl
i
mat
e-Resi
l
ientI
nfr
ast
ruct
ure:
Object
ive:Designandconst
ructinf
rast
ruct
urethatcanwi t
hst
andandadaptt ochanging
cl
imatecondit
ions,i
ncl
uding ext
remeweat herevents,sea-l
evelr
ise,and t
emperature
var
iati
ons.

Notabl
e Achi
evement
s: Cl i
mate-resi
l
ienti
nfr
ast
ructur
e pr
ojects,such as elevat
ed
bui
l
dingsandfl
ooddef
enses,enhancecommunityr
esil
i
enceagainstcl
i
mate-rel
atedri
sks.

2.Ear
lyWar
ningSyst
ems:
Object
ive: Establi
sh eff
ecti
ve ear
lywar
ning syst
emst o pr
ovi
de t
imel
yand accur
ate
i
nformationaboutimmi nentext
remeweatherevents,al
l
owingcommunit
iest
oevacuate
andtakepr event
ivemeasures.

Notable Achievements: Ear

lywarni
ng syst
emscont r
ibut
etor
educi
ng t
he i
mpactof
di
sasters,savingl
ives,andmi
nimi
zi
ngpropertydamage.

3.Cl
i
mat
e-Resi
l
ientAgr
icul
tur
e:
Objecti
ve: Implementadapti
ve agri
culturalpract
ices,includi
ng cr
op di
versi
fi
cati
on,
i
mpr oved watermanagement,and r esil
ientseed variet
ies,to cope wi
th changing
pr
ecipit
ati
onpatt
ernsandtemperat
urefluctuat
ions.

Notabl
eAchievement
s: Cl
imate-r
esi
l
ientagr
icul
tur
altechniquesenhancef
oodsecur
it
y
andsuppor
tfarmer
sinadapti
ngtovar
iabl
ecli
maticcondit
ions.

4.Sust
ainabl
eWat
erManagement
:
Obj
ective: Implementwaterconservat
ionmeasures,enhancewat erstor
agecapacit
y,
andimpr ovewat er
-useeff
ici
encytoaddresschangi
ngprecipi
tat
ionpatt
ernsandensure
wateravail
abil
i
tydur i
ngdr
oughts(
Ueji
o2015).

Not
abl
eAchievement
s:Sustai
nablewatermanagementpract
icescont
ri
but
etosecur
ing
wat
err
esour
cesandreduci
ngvulnerabi
l
ityt
owaterscar
cit
y.

5.Ecosyst
em-BasedAdapt
ati
on:
Object
ive: Preser
veandr est
orenatur
alecosyst
ems,suchasf orest
sandwetl
ands,to
enhancetheirresi
l
ienceandabil
i
tytoprovi
deecosyst
em ser
vices,i
ncl
udi
ngf
loodcontr
ol
andhabi
tatpr
otect
ion.

Notabl
e Achievement
s: Ecosyst
em-based adaptati
on cont
ri
butes t
o bi
odi
ver
sit
y
conser
vat
ionandsupport
scommuni
tiesbymai
ntai
ningecol
ogi
calbal
ance.

6.Coast
alPr
otect
ionandRest
orat
ion:
Object
ive: Implementmeasurest
o prot
ectcoast
alareasfrom sea-l
evelr
ise,stor
m
sur
ges,ander osion,i
ncludi
ngt
her
est
orat
ionofnat
uralbar
ri
erssuchasmangr ovesand
dunesv(Zar
aFarisi,
2011
).

Notabl
e Achi
evement
s: Coastalpr ot
ect
ion and rest
orati
on proj
ects cont
ri
but
eto
saf
eguardi
ngcommunit
iesandecosyst
emsinvulner
ablecoastal
zones.

7.Cl
i
mat
e-Resi
l
ientUr
banPl
anni
ng:
Object
ive: I
ncorporat
e cli
mate consi
der
ati
ons i
nto urban pl
anni
ng,incl
uding zoning
regul
ati
ons,greeninfr
astr
uctur
e,andresi
li
entbui
ldi
ngcodes,t oreducevulner
abil
it
yt o
extr
emeweat hereventsandenhanceover
allur
banresi
li
ence.

Notabl
e Achievement
s:Cli
mate-r
esi
li
ent ur
ban pl
anning supports sust
ainabl
e and
adapti
vedevel
opmentint
hefaceofcl
i
matechangeimpacts(
Tamerius,
2015).

8.Communi
ty-BasedAdapt
ati
on:
Objecti
ve: Engage localcommuniti
es i
nthe devel
opmentand implement
ati
on of
adaptati
onstr
ategi
es,lever
agi
ng l
ocalknowl
edgeand bui
l
ding communi
tycapaci
tyto
copewi t
hcl
imate-r
elat
edchall
enges.

Notabl
eAchievements:Communit
y-basedadapt
ati
onfost
erslocalr
esi
li
ence,empower
s
communit
ies,andensurest
hatadapt
ati
onmeasuresal
i
gnwi t
hspecif
icneeds.

9.Heat
-Resi
l
ientUr
banDesi
gn:
Objecti
ve:Designurbanspacesthatmiti
gat
et heurbanheatislandeff
ectt
hroughgreen
roofs,per
meablesurfaces,andi
ncreasedgreener
yt ocounteractri
si
ngtemperat
uresin
urbanareas(
T.W.Chun,2008).

Not
ableAchi
evements:Heat-resi
l
ienturbandesi
gnenhancest
hel
i
vabi
l
ityofci
ti
esand
r
educesheal
thr
isksassoci
atedwithextr
emeheatevent
s.

1
0.Cl
i
mat
e-Resi
l
ientHeal
thSyst
ems:
Object
ive:St rengthenhealt
hsystemstoaddresschangi
ngpatter
nsofdiseases,heat
-
rel
atedil
lnesses,andt heimpactsofext
remeweatherevent
s,ensuri
ngcommuni t
iesar
e
bett
erpreparedf orcli
mate-r
elat
edhealt
hri
sks.

Notable Achi
evement
s:Cl
imate-r
esi
l
ienthealt
h syst
ems contr
ibut
eto mi
nimizi
ng the
heal
thi mpacts ofcl
imat
e change and enhance over
allcommunit
y wel
l-bei
ng(T.R
Karl
,2009).
1
1.I
nsur
anceandRi
skTr
ansf
erMechani
sms:
Obj
ecti
ve:Developandimplementcl i
mat eri
skinsuranceandf i
nanci
almechani
smsto
hel
p communit
iesandbusinessesr ecoverfrom cl
imate-r
elat
edlossesandencour
age
i
nvest
mentincli
mate-r
esi
li
entpract
ices(P.W Newbury).

Notabl
e Achi
evements:Insur
ance and ri
sk t
ransfer mechani
sms pr
ovi
de f
inanci
al
pr
otect
ionandi
ncent
ivizepr
oacti
vecl
imat
eadaptati
on.

1
2.Resear
chandDat
aCol
l
ect
ion:
Obj
ecti
ve:Conductr esear
chandcol l
ectdatatoenhanceunder standi
ngofl ocalcl
i
mat e
i
mpacts,vulnerabil
i
ti
es,and adapt
ive capaci
ti
es,f
aci
li
tat
ing evidence-based deci
sion-
maki
ngf oreff
ectiveadapt
ati
onmeasur es.

NotableAchi
evements:Ongoi
ngresearchcontr
ibutestoi mpr
ovedadapt
ati
onst
rat
egi
es,
al
l
owi ngformoret
argetedandcont
ext-speci
fi
cintervent
ions.

2.
7:Soci
alandeconomi
cimpact
sofcl
i
mat
echange
Cli
mate change poses si gni
ficantchal l
enges t
o bot h soci
aland economi c systems
gl
oball
y,af fect
ing communi t
ies,liveli
hoods,and overallwell-bei
ng.The mul tif
aceted
i
mpact stouch upon var i
oussect ors,exacerbat
ing exi
sti
ng vulnerabi
l
iti
esand cr eati
ng
new challenges.Thi s comprehensi ve expl
orat
ion delves i
ntot he intr
icat
ei nterpl
ay
betweenclimatechangeandi tssoci alandeconomicr amifi
cat
ions(Cheah,W.Y2015).

A. Soci
alI
mpact
s:
1
. Di
spl
acementandMi
grat
ion:
Chall
enges:Risi
ngseal
evel
s,ext
remeweatherevents,andchangi
ngcli
mat i
ccondit
ions
canf orcecommuni
ti
estomigrat
e,leadi
ngt
odisplacementandpot ent
ialconf
li
ctsover
resources.

Vulner
abi
li
ti
es:Vul
nerablepopul
ati
ons,part
icul
arl
yinlow-l
yi
ngcoast
alar
easandr
egi
ons
pronetonatur
aldi
sast
ers,ar
edispr
oporti
onatel
yaffect
ed.

2. Heal
thRi
sks:
Chall
enges: Increasedtemperatures,changi
ngdi seasepatt
erns,andextremeweat her
eventscontr
ibutetohealthri
sks,incl
udingheat-r
elatedil
l
nesses,vect
or-bornedi
seases,
andment al
heal t
hissues(
Bibi
,R,2016).

Vul
ner
abi
l
iti
es:I
mpactsareoft
enmor
esever
einr
egi
onswi
thl
i
mit
edaccesst
oheal
thcar
e,
cl
eanwat
er,andsani
tat
ion.
3. FoodSecur
it
y:
Challenges:Changesinpr
ecipit
ati
onpat
terns,extr
emeweat herevents,andtemper
atur
e
vari
ationscan di
sruptagr
icul
turalpr
act
ices,leading t
oreduced crop yiel
dsand f
ood
scarcity(
Qazi
,I
.A,
2004).

Vul
ner
abil
i
ties: Subsist
ence f
armer
sand communi
ti
esdependenton agr
icul
tur
eface
hei
ght
enedf oodinsecur
ity.

4. Accesst
oWat
erResour
ces:
Chal
lenges: Al
ter
edpr eci
pit
ati
onpat
ter
nsandincr
easedevapor
ati
oncanaf
fectwat
er
avai
l
abil
it
y,l
eadingtoshort
agesandcompet
it
ionf
orresour
ces.

Vul
nerabi
li
ti
es: Communit
iesinaridregi
onsandt
hoser
eli
antongl
aci
almel
twat
erar
e
par
ti
cular
lysuscept
ibl
etowaterst
ress.

5.Ext
remeWeat
herEvent
s:
Chal
lenges: Incr
eased f
requency and int
ensi
ty ofext
reme weat
herevent
s,such as
hur
ri
canes, fl
oods, and wi l
dfi
res, pose immediate thr
eat
s to communit
ies and
i
nfr
astruct
ure.

Vulner
abil
it
ies:Popul
ati
onsinvulnerableregi
ons,incl
udi
ngcoast
alar
easandl
ow-l
yi
ng
i
slands,f
aceheight
enedrisksofdevastat
ingevent
s.

6. Soci
alI
nequal
i
tyandCl
i
mat
eJust
ice:
Chall
enges: Cli
mat echangeexacer
batesexi
sti
ngsociali
nequal
it
ies,di
sproport
ionat
ely
af
fecti
ng marginal
ized communi
ti
esthatoft
encontri
butetheleastto greenhousegas
emissi
ons(Egea,J,
2010)
.

Vulner
abi
li
ti
es:Low-i
ncomepopul
ati
ons,i
ndi
genouscommuni
ti
es,andt
hosewi
thl
i
mit
ed
resour
cesfacehei
ght
enedvul
ner
abil
i
ty.

B. Economi
cImpact
s:
1
.Inf
rast
ruct
ureDamageandLoss:
Chal
lenges: Extr
eme weather event
s and ri
sing sea level
s can damage crit
ical
i
nfr
astruct
ure,i
ncl
udi
ng r
oads,bri
dges,and bui
l
dings,leading t
o si
gni
fi
canteconomic
l
osses.

Vulner
abil
it
ies: Coastalci
ti
es and r
egi
ons pr
one t
o nat
uraldi
sast
ers ar
e par
ti
cul
arl
y
suscepti
bletoinf
rast
ruct
uredamage.

2. Agr
icul
tur
alPr
oduct
ivi
tyLoss:
Chall
enges: Changes i ntemper
atur
e,precipi
tat
ion,and gr
owing seasons i
mpact
agr
icult
ural
product
ivi
ty,l
eadi
ngt
oreducedyi
eldsandeconomicl
ossesf
orfarmers.
Vulner
abil
it
ies:Small
hol
derfar
mersandsubsistenceagricult
ure-dependentcommuni
ti
es
aremor evulner
abl
etofl
uct
uati
onsinagr
icul
turalproduct
ivi
ty(Rana,R.
S,2008)
.

3. I
mpactonI
ndust
ri
es:
Chal
l
enges: Sect
ors such as touri
sm,agricul
ture,fi
sher
ies,and energy are di
rectl
y
i
mpactedbycl
imat
echange,l eadingtodi
srupti
ons,fi
nanci
allosses,andj
obinsecuri
ty.

Vul
ner
abi
l
iti
es: I
ndustr
iesrel
i
antoncli
mate-sensit
iveresour
cesf
acehei ghtenedr
isks,
i
ncl
udi
ngthetour
ism i
ndust
ryinr
egi
onssuscepti
bletoextr
emeweatherevents.

4.Accesst
owat
err
esour
ces:
Chal
lenges:
alt
ered pr
eci
pit
ati
on pat
ter
n and i
ncr
eased evapor
ati
on can af
fectwat
er
avai
l
abil
it
y,l
eadingt
oshort
ageandcompetit
ionf
orresour
ces.

Vul
ner
abi
l
iti
es:communi
ti
esi
nar
idr
egi
onsuscept
ibl
etowat
erst
ress(
Past
ry,
1982)

5.
Ext
remeweat
herevent
s:
Chal
lengi
es:
increased frequent
ly and int
ensi
ty of weather events,
such as
hur
ri
canes,f
loods,t
hewil
dfi
res,
posei
mmedi
atel
ythr
eat
stocommunit
iesandi
nfr
astur
e.

Vulnerabi
li
ti
es:popul
ati
oninval
uabl
eregi
onincl
udingcoast
erar
eaandl owl
yi
ngaf
fecti
ng
mar gi
nali
zedcommuni ti
esthatof
tencont
ri
butetheleastt
ogreenhousegasemissi
ons
(T.
W,Chun,2008)

Valner
abi
li
ty:
l
ow-in omẹ populat
ion,indi
genous communi
ti
es and t
hose wi
thl
i
mit
ed
resour
cesfacehei
ghtenedvul
nerabil
i
ty

7. Conf
li
ctandMi
grat
ion:

Chal
lenges:Cl
imatechange-i
nducedr esour
cescarci
tyandext
remeweatherevent
scan
cont
ribut
etoconf
li
ctsoverr
esources,potent
ial
l
yleadi
ngtomigr
ati
onanddispl
acement
.

Vul
ner
abil
i
ties: Regions al
ready faci
ng soci
o-pol
i
tical t
ensi
ons may exper
ience
hei
ght
enedi nst
abi
l
it
yduetocl
imate-r
elat
edi
mpacts.

8. I
ncr
easedCost
sforAdapt
ati
on:
Chal
l
enges:Theneedforadaptat
ionmeasuresandinvest
ment
sinresil
i
enti
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
i
ncur
saddit
ional
cost
sforgover
nments,busi
nesses,andcommuni
ti
es(P.Wu,
2009)
.

Vul
ner
abil
i
ties: Economieswi t
hl i
mited fi
nanci
alr
esour
cesmayst
ruggl
etof
und and
i
mplementeffect
iveadaptat
ionstr
ategies.

9. LossofEcosyst
em Ser
vices:
Chall
enges:Cli
mat echangeimpactsecosystems,leadingtothel
ossofcr
it
icalser
vices
suchaspoll
inat
ion,wat
erpuri
fi
cat
ion,anddiseaseregulati
on.
Vul
nerabi
li
ti
es:Communiti
esdependentonecosyst
em ser
vicesf
ort
hei
rli
vel
i
hoodsand
wel
l-bei
ngf acei
ncr
easedri
sks.

1
0. Cl
i
mat
e-I
nducedMi
grat
ionandDi
spl
acement
:
Chal
l
enges:Cli
mat
echangecancontr
ibut
etocr
oss-bor
dermi
grati
onanddispl
acement
,
l
eadi
ngtoeconomi
cchal
l
engesforbot
hsendi
ngandrecei
vi
ngr
egions(
Meli
l
o,2009).

Vul
nerabi
li
ti
es:Vulner
ablepopul
ati
onsmi
grat
ingduet
ocl
i
mat
eimpact
smayf
acesoci
o-
economichardshi
psinnewlocat
ions.

2.
8:Chal
l
engesandcont
rover
siesoncl
i
mat
echange
Addressing cli
mate change i s a complex and mult
if
aceted chal l
enge thati nvolves
navi
gatingscienti
fi
c,poli
tical
,economic,andsociet
alcomplexiti
es.Whi l
ethereisabr oad
consensuswi thinthe scient
if
ic communityaboutthe reali
tyofant hropogenic cli
mat e
change,cont r
oversi
esandchal l
engespersist
.Thisext
ensiveexplorati
ondel vesintot he
keychallengesandcont rover
siessurr
oundingcli
matechange( chi
hi-HungHuang) :

1
. Sci
ent
if
icSkept
ici
sm:
Chal
l
enge:Despit
eoverwhelmingsci
ent
if
icconsensus,t
her
eareindi
vi
dual
sandgr
oups
whoexpr
essskept
ici
sm aboutt
hecausesandextentofcl
i
matechange.

Contr
oversy:Publi
cdebatei
ssometi
mesfuel
edbymisi
nformati
onortheampl
i
ficat
ionof
di
ssenti
ngviews,hi
nderi
ngtheur
gencyr
equir
edf
orcoll
ect
iveacti
on.

2. Pol
i
cyandPol
i
ticalDi
sput
es:
Chall
enge:Cl
i
mat echangemit
igat
ionandadaptat
ionpol
i
ciesof
tenf
acepol
i
tical
disput
es,
wit
hdiff
eri
ngpri
ori
ti
esandint
erest
samongnations.

Cont
rover
sy: I
nter
nat
ionalagr
eements,li
ke t
he Par
isAgreement
,f ace chal
l
engesi
n
achi
evi
ngbroadandequit
abl
epart
ici
pati
onandcommitmentfr
om al
lnati
ons.

3. Economi
cInt
erest
sandResi
stance:
Chall
enge:Tr
ansit
ioni
ngtoalow-carboneconomycanf
acer
esi
stancef
rom i
ndust
ri
es
wit
heconomicint
erest
sti
edt
ofossi
lfuel
s.

Contr
over
sy: Bal
ancingeconomicgrowthwithenvi
ronment
alsustai
nabil
it
ybecomesa
sour
ceofcontent
ion,par
ti
cul
arl
yinr
egionsheavi
l
yrel
iantonf
ossi
lfuelext
racti
on.
4. Adapt
ati
onvs.Mi
ti
gat
ionDebat
e:
Chal
lenge:Therei
songoi
ngdebateaboutt
hebalancebetweenadaptat
ion(
adj
ust
ingt
o
cl
imateimpact
s)andmi
ti
gati
on(
reduci
nggreenhousegasemissi
ons)
.

Contr
oversy:Somearguethatmoreemphasisshoul
dbeplacedonadapti
ngt oinevi
tabl
e
changes,whil
e other
s st
ress t
he ur
gency ofmiti
gat
ing emi
ssi
ons t
o preventsevere
cl
imateimpacts.

5. Equi
tyandCl
i
mat
eJust
ice:
Chall
enge: Theburdenofcl
i
mat echangeimpact
sisoft
enunequal
l
ydi
str
ibut
ed,wi
th
vul
nerabl
epopulat
ionsf
aci
ngdispr
opor
ti
onat
eri
sks(
Wetzel
.E,
1960)
.

Contr
oversy: Di
sagreementsar
ise overt
he responsi
bil
i
tyofhist
ori
cal
l
yhigh-emit
ti
ng
nat
ionstosupportvulner
abl
enat
ionsinadapt
ingt ocli
matechangeandaddr
essingl
oss
anddamage.

6. Rol
eofDevel
opi
ngNat
ions:
Chal
l
enge: Devel
oping nati
onsmayf acechal
l
engesi
npr
ior
it
izi
ng cl
i
mat
eact
ionover
i
mmediat
eeconomi cdevelopmentneeds.

Controversy:Debatessurr
oundt heresponsi
bil
it
yofhist
ori
cal
l
yhigh-emi
tt
ingnat
ionsi
n
supporti
ngdevelopi
ngnat i
onsfinanci
all
yandt echnol
ogi
cal
lyf
orcli
mateadapt
ati
onand
miti
gati
onef f
ort
s(Hopsi
n,A.J,
1970).

7. Rol
eofTechnol
ogy:
Chall
enge: The developmentand depl
oymentofcl i
mat
e-fri
endl
yt echnol
ogi
es ar
e
essenti
al,butChal
l
engesexi
sti
nter
msofaccessi
bil
i
tyandaf
for
dabil
it
y.

Cont
rover
sy:Disagreement
sari
seovertheroleoftechnologytr
ansferand i
ntel
l
ect
ual
pr
opertyr
ight
s,hinderi
ngt
hegl
obal
dissemi
nati
onofsustai
nablet
echnologi
es.

8. I
mpactonJobsandEmpl
oyment
:
Chall
enge: Transi
ti
oningawayf r
om indust
ri
eswithhighcar
bonf
oot
pri
ntsmayl
eadt
o
concernsaboutjoblossesandeconomicreper
cussi
ons.

Cont
rover
sy: St
ri
king a bal
ance bet
ween envi
ronmentalsust
ainabil
i
tyand pr
otect
ing
empl
oymentinaf
fectedindust
ri
esi
sacontenti
ousissuei
nsomer egions.

9.Rol
eofI
ndi
vidual
sandConsumerBehavi
or:
Chall
enge:bEncour
agingsustai
nabl
epr
act
icesandchangingconsumerbehavi
orremai
ns
a challenge, as i ndi
vi
duals may pr i
ori
ti
ze convenience over envir
onmental
consi
derati
ons(
Ton,J.
2015).

Cont
rover
sy:Bal
anci
ngper
sonalchoi
ceswi
thsyst
emi
cchangesandt
her
oleofi
ndi
vi
dual
r
esponsi
bil
i
tyi
naddr
essi
ngcl
i
mat
echangegener
ateongoi
ngdebat
es.

1
0. Geoengi
neer
ingCont
rover
sy:
Chall
enge:Proposal
sforgeoengi
neer
ing,suchassol
arr
adi
ati
onmanagement
,pr
esent
et
hicalandenvi
ronment
alr
isks(
VanBuren,
2009).

Contr
oversy: Disagreements exi
st about t
he desi
rabil
i
ty,feasi
bil
i
ty,and potent
ial
uni
ntended consequences of depl
oyi
ng lar
ge-scal
e geoengi
neeri
ng
i
nter
venti
ons(Kazmi,
D.H,2015)
.

1
1.Dat
aAccur
acyandModel
s:
Chal
lenge:Cl
imatemodelsanddataaccuracycanbeasour
ceofuncer
tai
nty,l
eadi
ngt
o
chal
l
engesinpredi
cti
ngspeci
fi
cregi
onali
mpacts.

Contr
oversy: Skepti
cism ari
ses when discrepanci
es in modeli
ng out
comes occur
,
pot
ential
l
yfuel
ingdoubtsabouttheover
all
reli
abil
it
yofcli
matescience.

1
2. Rol
eofMedi
aandPubl
i
cPer
cept
ion:
Chal
lenge:Medi
acoveragemaynotalwaysaccurat
elyrepresentsci
ent
if
icconsensus,
cont
ribut
ingt
omi
sinf
ormat
ionandpubl
i
cconfusi
on(
Ull
ah,A,2018)
.

Contr
oversy: Thef
ramingofcl
imatechangei
ssuesi
nthemedi
acani
nfl
uencepubl
i
c
per
cepti
onandi mpactpol
i
cydi
scussi
ons.

2.
9:Fut
ureout
lookoncl
i
mat
echange
Thef utureout l
ookoncl i
mat echangei sacompl exandconcer ningi ssue,mar kedbya
mul t
it
udeoff actorst hatcont r
ibut
et oitstraj
ectory.Scientif
icconsensusi ndicatesthat
human act ivit
ies,par ti
cularlyt he bur
ning offossi lfuel
sand def orestati
on,ar e major
contributorst ot heincr easingconcent rati
onsofgr eenhousegasesi nt heatmospher e.
This,int urn,l eadst o globalwar ming and a cascade ofenvi ronment alimpact s.One
si
gnificantaspectoft hef utureoutlookisthepot entialf
ormor eext remeweat herevent s.
TheI ntergover nment alPanelonCl i
mateChange( IPCC)haspr oj
ectedani ncreaseint he
fr
equencyandi ntensityofevent ssuchashur r
icanes,dr oughts,fl
oods,andheat waves.
Theseevent sposesever er isksto ecosystems,humancommuni ties,and globalfood
security.Risingseal evelsr epresentanothercrit
icalconcer n.

Astemper at
uresi
ncrease,pol
aricecapsandgl acier
smelt,l
eadingt oar iseinsealevel s.
Thi
s poses a directthreatto coast
alr egions and low-lyi
ng i sl
and nat i
ons,risking
di
splacement of populati
ons and loss of val uable i
nfr
astructure. The impact on
bi
odiversi
tyisal
soalarming.Changesi ntemper atureandweat herpatternscandi srupt
ecosystems,l
eadi
ngt oshif
tsi
nthedistr
ibuti
onofspeci esandpot enti
alext i
nct
ions.

Lossofbi
odi
ver
sit
ynotonl
yjeopar
dizest
heheal
thofecosyst
emsbutal
soaf
fect
shuman
well-being by r educi ng t he avai l
abil
it
y ofr esources and ecosyst em ser vi
ces.The
economi ci mplicationsofcl i
mat echangear evast.Extr
emeweat hereventscandamage
i
nfrastructure,disruptsuppl ychai ns,andleadt osubstantialeconomi cl
osses.Addi tionally,
thecost sassoci atedwi t
hadapt i
ngt oachangi ngcli
mat eandmi ti
gati
ngf urt
herdamage
aresubst antial
,requi r
ingsignificantinvestmentsinsustainabletechnologiesandpr actices.
Globalef fortst o addr esscl imate change have gai ned moment um,wi t
hi nternational
agreement sl i
ke the Par i
s Agr eementai ming tolimitgl obalt emper at
urei ncreases.
However ,achievingt hesegoal sr equir
essubst ant
ialcooper ati
onandcommi tmentf rom
nati
ons wor ldwide.The t ransit
ion tor enewabl e ener gy sources,i ncr
eased ener gy
eff
iciency,andsust ai
nablel and-usepr acticesarecrucialstepstowar dmi t
igati
ngcl i
mat e
change.

Technologi
caladvancement s also play a vit
alrolein shaping the fut
ure outl
ook.
Innovat
ionsi
nr enewableenergy,carboncaptureandstor
age,andsust ai
nableagri
cul
ture
offerpotent
ialsoluti
onst oreduce greenhouse gasemissions.However ,widespr
ead
i
mpl ementat
ion of t hese t
echnologies requi
res si
gni
ficant i
nvestment and policy
support
(Mont ei
th,
J.L,
1981)
.

Chapt
er3

3.
0Summar
y
Cli
mat echanger eferst olong-t erm alter
ati
onsi ntemper at
ure,pr ecipi
tat
ion,andother
atmospher i
cconditionsonEar th.Iti spri
mar i
l
ydr i
venbyhumanact ivi
ti
es,suchast he
burning offossi
lf uels and def orestat
ion,leading t
o an increase in greenhouse gas
emissions.Themainconsequencesi ncl
uderisi
ngglobaltemper atures,moref r
equentand
severeweat herevents,mel ti
ngi cecaps,andr i
si
ngseal evel
s.Mi tigati
ngclimatechange
i
nvolvesr educi
ng emi ssions,transiti
oning t
or enewableener gysour ces,and adopti
ng
sustainabl
epracti
cest osaf eguardt heplanet
'secosystemsandf uturegenerati
ons.

Addr essi
ng cl i
mate change requires i nt
ernati
onalcooper ati
on and commitmentt o
i
niti
ativesli
ket hePari
sAgr eement,whi chaimst ol i
mitglobalwarmingtowellbelow 2
degreesCel siusabovepr e-i
ndustr
iallevels.Transit
ioni
ngt orenewableener
gysour ces,
suchassol arand wind power,iscr ucialforreducing carbonemissi
ons.Addit
ionall
y,
sustainabl
el andmanagementpr actices,af f
orestat
ion,andconservati
oneffor
tsplaya
keyr olei
nmi ti
gati
ngtheimpactofcl i
mat echange.

Adapt
ati
onmeasur
esar
eessent
ialt
ocopewi
tht
heexi
sti
ngandant
ici
pat
edef
fect
sof
cl
imate change.Thisi ncl
udes devel
oping r
esil
i
enti nfrast
ruct
ur e,impl
ementi
ng water
managementst r
ategies,andcreati
ngearlywarni
ngsyst emsf orext r
emeweatherevent
s.
Coll
abor
ative ef
fort
s among gover nments,businesses,and i ndivi
dual
s ar
e cruci
alto
bui
ldi
ngasust ai
nableandclimate-r
esil
i
entfut
ure.

Publicawar enessandeducat i
onpl ayavi t
alrol
einfost
er i
ngasenseofr esponsibi
li
tyand
encour agi
ngeco-f ri
endlypracti
ces.Indivi
dualscancont ri
butebyreducingt hei
rcarbon
footpri
ntt hrough energy conservat
ion,wast ereduction,and supporting sust
ainabl
e
product sandi ni
ti
ati
ves.Thecol l
ecti
veact ionofglobalciti
zensispivotalincombat i
ng
cli
mat echangeandpr eser
vingthehealthoft hepl
anet(
Ahmed, Y,
2010)
.

Cli
mat echangei sapr oblem thati
sforcingourplanetandifi
spr ogressedal otaft
ert he
i
ndust r
ialr
evoluti
on.Theemi ssi
onsofgr eenhousehasacceleratetheprogressofcl i
mat e
changeandmadeourweat hermor eintense.Howevertheworld'
sdependenceonf ossil
s
fuelforenergy,t
ransperat
iondandmanuf acturi
nghavecreat
edamaj orobstacleforust o
switchtorenewabl eenergy(Dr,wuebbl
e).

3.
1Concl
usi
on
[2/7,11 :
53PM]Ol uwayemi si:Climatechangei sapr essi
nggl obalissuedr ivenbyhuman
activi
ties,leading t
or isi
ng temper at
ures,extreme weat herevent s,and envi ronment al
disruptions.Ur gentcol l
ecti
ve act i
on is essent i
alto mi ti
gatei t
si mpact ,t ransiti
on to
sustainable practi
ces,and saf eguardt he planetf orf uture gener ati
ons.I nternati
onal
cooper at
ion,infor
med pol icies,and wi despread awar enessar e cruciali n addr essing
cli
mat echange.Tr ansi
tioni
ngt orenewabl eener gysources,r educingcar bonemi ssi
ons,
andpr omot i
ngsustainablepr acti
cesar ekeyst rategi
es.Itrequiresauni f
iedef fortacross
gover nment s,i
ndustri
es,andi ndi
vidualstofosterar esi
li
entandsust ainablef utur eforour
planet.

Mor eover,i
nvest
ingi nr esear chandi nnovati
ont odevel opadvancedt echnologiescan
enhanceourabi l
ityt oadaptt ochangingcondi t
ions.Educati
ngcommuni ti
esaboutt he
i
mpor tanceofconser vationandr esponsibl
econsumpt i
onisintegraltocreatingagl obal
mindsetshi f
ttowards envi ronmentalstewardship.As we navi gatet he challenges of
cl
imat echange,f
ost eri
ngacommi t
mentt osustainabil
i
tyonbot hindivi
dualandcol lect
ive
l
evelsbecomespar amont .weneedt otransf
erourener gytorenewabl eenergy, al
soone
ofthet hi
ngwemustdoi st oadaptt othechanget hatoccuredandwi l
loccured.Weneed
todili
gentl
yandcooper ativlytoli
veupt othosechal l
engiesandcombatchange( Abdel-
Raouf )
.