EEEE4102: PLCs and Applications

Lecture 1: Introduction to Controllers

Outline:
Introduction
Relay-based control
Microprocessor-based control
Programmable Logic Controller
PLCs vs Relay control
PLCs vs Microprocessor control (Computers & PC)
PLC product ranges
Systematic approach in designing a process control system

1. Introduction
Very few industrial plants (or processes) can be left to run themselves and most need some form of
control system to ensure safe and economical operation. It is very easy to be confused and overwhelmed by
the size and complexity of large industrial processes. Generally speaking, industrial control system is made
up of a group of electronic devices and equipment that provide stability, accuracy and eliminate harmful
transition statuses in production processes. Most, if not all, can be simplified by considering them to be
composed of many small sub-processes. These sub-processes can generally be considered to fall into three
(3) distinct subsystems: monitoring/alarm subsystems display the process state to the operator and draw
attention to abnormal or fault conditions via indicators for digital signals or by meters and bargraphs for
analog signals, sequencing subsystems follow a predefined sequences that work solely on digital signals but
can also use analog signals, and closed loop control subsystems can be represented by the block diagram and
can be achieved by controllers built around DC amplifiers.
Operating system can have different form and implementation, from energy supply units to machines.
As a result of fast progress in technology, many complex operational tasks have been solved by connecting
programmable logic controllers and possibly a central computer. Beside connections with instruments like
operating panels, motors, sensors, switches, valves and such, possibilities for communication among
instruments are so great that they allow high level of exploitation and process coordination, as well as greater
flexibility in realizing a process control system. Each component of a process control system plays an
important role, regardless of its size. For example, without a sensor, PLC wouldn’t know what exactly goes
on in the process. In automated system, PLC controller is usually the central part of a process control system.
With execution of a program stored in program memory, PLC continuously monitors status of the system
through signals from input devices. Based on the logic implemented in the program, PLC determines which
actions need to be executed with output instruments. To run more complex processes it is possible to connect
more PLC controllers to a central computer. With invention of programmable controllers, much has
changed in how a process control system is designed. Many advantages appeared.

2. Relay-based ( or Conventional, Mechanical) Control

At the outset of industrial revolution, especially during sixties and seventies, hardwired logic based on
relays was used to operate automated machines, and these were interconnected using wires inside the control
panel. All automatic control was handled by circuits composed of relays, switches, clocks and counters, etc.
The basic elements of a simple relay is shown in Fig. 1. Such control required a lot of wiring and usually
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filled large cabinets full of electromagnetic relays and in some cases a control panel covered an entire wall.
Electricians had to assemble controls or use a prepared relay wiring diagram. To discover an error in the
system much time was needed especially with more complex process control systems. On top of everything,
a lifetime of relay contacts was limited, so some relays had to be replaced. If replacement was required,
machine had to be stopped and production too. Also, it could happen that there was not enough room for
necessary changes. Control panel was used only for one particular process, and it wasn’t easy to adapt to the
requirements of a new system. As far as maintenance, electricians had to be very skilful in finding errors. In
short, conventional control panels proved to be very inflexible.
The relay wiring diagrams showed how all the switches, sensors, motors, valves, relays, etc. were
connected. Such relay wiring diagrams are the forerunners for the ladder diagram (LD) programming
language, which is still a common programming language used in programming PLCs.
Most frequently mentioned disadvantages of a classic control panel are:
 Too much work and time required in connecting wires
 Too much space covered (wall, cabinet or room)
 Relays as all electromechanical devices have a limited service life
 Difficulty with changes, debug, replacements or expansions. Sometimes, the entire physical unit
must be rewired.
 Difficulty in finding errors; requiring skilful work force
 When a problem occurs, hold-up time is indefinite, usually long.
 No way of testing before the control was wired up. Testing therefore had to take place by running
the unit. If there was a small failure in the schematic diagram or if an electrician had connected a wire
wrong, this could result in dramatic events.

Figure 1: Basic relay components

3. Programmable Logic Controller

The first PLC came into commercial production when General Motors Corporation was looking for a
replacement for relay controls. Increased competition and expanded demands on the part of customers meant
a demand for higher efficiency, and the natural step was to design a software‐based system that could replace
the relays. GM specified the design criteria for the first programmable controller in 1968 as:
 Solid-state not mechanical
 Compete on price with traditional relay controls
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  Be reusable
 Be flexible
 Withstand a harsh (industrial) environment
 Be modular with respect to the number of inputs and outputs
 Be easy to program, reprogram and maintain by plant engineers and electricians
The first PLC was developed in 1969 and offered relay functionality, thus replacing the original
hardwired relay logic, which used electrically operated devices to mechanically switch electrical circuits.
They met the requirements of modularity, expandability, programmability, and ease of use in an industrial
environment. These controllers were easily installed, used less space, and were reusable. The controller
programming, although a little tedious, had a recognizable plant standard: the ladder diagram format.
PLC controllers were initially called PC controllers (programmable controllers). This caused a small confusion
when Personal Computers appeared. To avoid confusion, a designation PC was left to computers, and
programmable controllers became programmable logic controllers.
A programmable logic controller (PLC) is a special form of microprocessor-based controller that uses
programmable memory to store instructions and to implement functions such as logic, sequencing, timing,
counting, and arithmetic in order to control machines and processes. It is designed to be operated by
engineers with perhaps a limited knowledge of computers and computing languages. They are not designed
so that only computer programmers can set up or change the programs. Thus, the designers of the PLC have
pre-programmed it so that the control program can be entered using a simple, rather intuitive form of
language.
When deciding whether to use a PLC-based system or a hardwired relay system, the designer must ask
several questions. Some of these questions are:
 Is there a need for flexibility in control logic changes?
 Is there a need for high reliability?
 Are space requirements important?
 Are increased capability and output required?
 Are there data collection requirements?
 Will there be frequent control logic changes?
 Will there be a need for rapid modification?
 Must similar control logic be used on different machines?
 Is there a need for future growth?
 What are the overall costs?
The merits of PLC systems make them especially suitable for applications in which the requirements
listed above are particularly important for the economic viability of the machine or process operation.
Table 1 lists some of the many features and benefits obtained with a programmable controller.

4. Microprocessor-based Control
Instead of hardwiring for each control situation, we can use the same basic system for all situations if we
use a microprocessor-based system and write a program to instruct the microprocessor how to react to each
input signal and give the required outputs. By changing the instructions in the program, we can use the same
microprocessor system to control a wide variety of situations.
As an illustration, the modern domestic washing machine uses a microprocessor system. Inputs to it
arise from the dials used to select the required wash cycle, a switch to determine that the machine door is
closed, a temperature sensor to determine the temperature of the water, and a switch to detect the level of the
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water. On the basis of these inputs the microprocessor is programmed to give outputs that switch on the drum
motor and control its speed, open or close cold and hot water valves, switch on the drain pump, control the
water heater, and control the door lock so that the machine cannot be opened until the washing cycle is
completed.

5. PLCs vs Relay Control

When compared with relay systems, PLCs:
 Can easily implement changes as changes are implemented in software rather than more complex
hardware modifications that would be the case with a relay system
 Can be readily expanded by adding new modules to the PLC whereas hardware changes are
necessary with relay systems
 Are more robust and reliable than relay systems with their large number of mechanical
components
 Are more compact than relay systems
 Require less maintenance than relay systems
 Can operate faster than relay systems.
Table 1: Typical programmable controller features and benefits.

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 6. PLCs vs Microprocessor Control
The architecture of a PLC’s CPU is basically the same as that of a general purpose computer; however,
some important characteristics set them apart. PLCs are similar to computers, but whereas computers are
optimized for calculation and display tasks, PLCs are optimized for control tasks and the industrial
environment.
First, unlike computers, PLCs are specifically designed to survive the harsh conditions of the industrial
environment. A well-designed PLC can be placed in an area with substantial amounts of electrical noise,
electromagnetic interference, mechanical vibration, and noncondensing humidity.
A second distinction of PLCs is that their hardware and software are designed for easy use by plant
electricians and technicians. The hardware interfaces for connecting field devices are actually part of the
PLC itself and are easily connected. The modular and self-diagnosing interface circuits are able to pinpoint
malfunctions and, moreover, are easily removed and replaced. Also, the software programming uses
conventional relay ladder symbols, or other easily learned languages, which are familiar to plant personnel.
Whereas computers are complex computing machines capable of executing several programs or tasks
simultaneously and in any order, the standard PLC executes a single program in an orderly, sequential
fashion from first to last instruction. Bear in mind, however, that PLCs as a system continue to become
more intelligent. Complex PLC systems now provide multiprocessor and multitasking capabilities, where
one PLC may control several programs in a single CPU enclosure with several processors.
The personal computer is, however, being used as the programming device of choice for PLCs in the
market, where PLC manufacturers and third-party PLC support developers come up with programming and
documentation systems for their PLC product lines. Personal computers are also being employed to gather
process data from PLCs and to display information about the process or machine (i.e., they are being used as
graphic user interfaces, or GUIs). Because of their number-crunching capabilities, personal computers are
also well suited to complement programmable controllers and to bridge the communication gap, through a
network, between a PLC system and other mainframe computers.
To summarize when compared to computers, PLCs:
 Are rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity, and noise. The common
personal computer is not designed for harsh environments.
 Have interfacing for inputs and outputs already inside the controller. PLCs in a rack format are
easy to expand to tackle a larger number of inputs/outputs.
 Are easily programmed and have an easily understood programming language that is primarily
concerned with logic and switching operations. As a consequence, they are more user friendly.
 They are not so good at long term data storage and analysis as personal computers.
 Personal computers are more liable to crash than PLCs that have greater reliability.

7. PLC product ranges

Figure 2 graphically illustrates programmable controller product ranges. This chart is not definitive, but
for practical purposes, it is valid. The PLC market can be segmented into five groups: (i) micro PLCs, (ii)
small PLCs, (iii) medium PLCs, (iv) large PLCs and (v) very large PLCs.
Micro PLCs are used in applications controlling up to 32 input and output devices, 20 or less I/O being
the norm. The micros are followed by the small PLC category, which controls 32 to 128 I/O. The medium
(64 to 1024 I/O), large (512 to 4096 I/O), and very large (2048 to 8192 I/O) PLCs complete the
segmentation. The PLCs with I/O up to 16 are nano PLCs.
The differences between PLCs in overlapping areas A, B and C include I/O count, memory size,
programming language, software functions, and other factors. An understanding of the PLC product
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ranges and their characteristics will allow the user to properly identify the controller that will satisfy a
particular application.
Some manufacturers are Siemens, ABB, Allen Bradley, CEGELEC, Mitsubishi, etc.

Figure 2: PLC product ranges

8. Systematic approach in designing a process control system

First, you need to select an instrument or a system that you wish to control. Automated system can be a
machine or a process and can also be called a process control system. Function of a process control system is
constantly watched by input devices (sensors) that give signals to a PLC controller. In response to this, PLC
controller sends a signal to external output devices (operative instruments) that actually control how system
functions in an assigned manner (for simplification, it is recommended that you draw a block diagram of
operations’ flow). Simply speaking, we model the process control system.
Secondly, you need to specify all input and output instruments that will be connected to a PLC
controller. Input devices are various switches, sensors and such. Output devices can be solenoids,
electromagnetic valves, motors, relays, magnetic starters as well as instruments for sound and light
signalization. Following an identification of all input and output instruments, corresponding designations are
assigned to input and output lines of a PLC controller. Allotment of these designations is in fact an allocation
of inputs and outputs on a PLC controller which correspond to inputs and outputs of a system being
designed.
Third, make the program of the process control system by following the sequence of operations that
was determined in the first step.
Finally, program is entered into the PLC controller memory. When finished with programming, check-
up is done for any existing errors in a program code (using functions for diagnostics) and, if possible, an
entire operation is simulated. Before this system is started, you need to check once again whether all input
and output instruments are connected to correct inputs or outputs. By bringing supply in, system starts
working.

Lecture 2 will study a modern modelling tool of industrial systems, namely, GRAFCET. His English
translation is “step transition function charts”.