Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: English & Tamil Year: 2023 -2024

UNIT - I
PART - A
Explain how Palandamizhar learned the art of weaving.
1
The people of that time learned the art of weaving by observing the coconut tree's cocoon, the
spider's web, the ability of birds to build nests, etc.
Establish how Sangam people cleaned cotton.
2

They removed the seed, unwanted dirt etc. from the cotton and cleaned the by beating using
tools like bow and steel.
Write a brief note on Paavotudhal.
3
The process of applying glue to the cleaned cotton yarn, rubbing it well and smoothing the yarn
to prepare it for weaving is called paavotudhal.
What is a loom? State its types.
4
The wooden tool used to weave the dyed clothes is called 'loom'. Its types are loom weaving,
finger weaving, upward weaving and downward weaving.
What are the parts of a loom?
5

Achumaram, padumaram, vizhuthu, kambu, kuthukhambhi, kalpalagai, odam, oodaikula, pau

etc. are the parts of the loom.

6 Write about clothing business

The people of that time who were engaged in the weaving industry took their woven clothes to
public gathering places, shops, domestically and abroad and sold them.
Which are the places where the dye factories used to dye clothes were located in Sangam
7
Tamil Nadu?
Arikamedu and Vrayyur.
Write a note on Mudhumakkal thazhi.
8
One of the practices followed by the people of the Sangam period was 'Mudumakkal Thazhi'.
Thazhi means big earthen pot. Therefore, after death, the pot used for burying the dead body
inside a large earthen pot was called old man's dhaji.
Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: English & Tamil Year: 2023 -2024

What are the other arts related to pottery?

9
Arts related to pottery include music, education, painting, sculpture, medicine etc.
What are the musical instruments made of soil?
10
Flute, Nathaswara, Mritanga, Thalappanai, Mandugu, Udukai.
What is the use of soil in painting?
11
Clay is used as a mixing material in painting. The potters in rural areas use clay to paint idols
such as shrines and horses. Semman has also been used as a coloring compound for the walls of
temples and houses.
Write in brief about the medicinal properties of the soil.
12
Mud is used as medicine in Siddha medicine to remove headache, eye disease, body heat,
hand and foot swelling, hair loss, dandruff, itch, scabies, etc.

PART - B
1 Explain and write about the weaving industry in Sangam age of Tamils

Introduction
The ancient Tamils have followed weaving technology as an art form. People have known cotton
spinning, handloom and sewing since ancient times. Tamil weaving refers to the technology and
involvement of Tamils in this sector. This article aims to explain the news about the textile
industry.
Weaving industry
Weaving industry or weaving technology is the technique used by the people to produce clothing,
bedspreads, carpets and sacks etc.
Each industry is famous for its areas of high supply of goods. Weaving technology includes
operational techniques like cotton production, loom use, dyeing etc. So it is an antiquated
technology.
Antiquity of weaving industry
The people of that time learned the art of weaving by observing the palm tree, the spider's web,
and the bird's nesting ability.
Weaving industry is a joint venture of many people. Garments are made through various steps.
Artifacts found in the Indus Valley Civilization show that the ancient people knew the art of
weaving cloth with cotton.
Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: English & Tamil Year: 2023 -2024

Before the rest of the world became civilized, the people of India learned to produce cotton and
weave clothes.
Cleaning of cotton
The people of that time cleaned the cotton punch by removing the seed, unwanted dirt etc.
from the cotton punch and beating it using tools like bow steel.
Blasphemy
After applying glue on the cleaned cotton thread, rubbing it well and smoothing it, applying
polish to the thread and setting it suitable for weaving is known as basting and drying.
Women spinning yarn
Women of the Sangam period were skilled at spinning yarn with cleaned panchin.
Women who have lost their husbands have completed the economic needs of their families
by spinning and weaving. From this it can be known that women were also involved in the
weaving industry at that time.
Loom machine
The wooden tool used to weave the dyed cotton thread into clothes is called 'loom'. Loom
weaving, finger weaving, upward weaving, downward weaving are the types of looms.
Achuram, Padumaram, Vluthu, Kambu, Duthukambi, Leg board, Odum, Ooda tube, Bauu
etc. are the parts of the loom.
Clothing business
The people of that time who took up the weaving industry carried their woven clothes to
public gathering places, shops (shops), domestically and abroad and sold them.
Conclusion
Not only the literature but also the excavations have confirmed that the weaving industry
flourished during the Sangam period. It is noteworthy that in the excavations conducted at
Arikamedu, Vrayyur etc. dye tanks were found which were used for dyeing the textile industry.
And this way we can know how the weaving industry has become special in the ancient times.
2 Write about pot technology on historical basis.
The term pottery refers to objects made from clay. The art of making things out of clay is
called 'Pottery Art'.
Pottery art is very ancient and remains of culture.
The results of 'Harappa, Moganjdaro' excavations confirm that pottery was in use by people
centuries before the birth of Jesus Christ.
A large part of the history of pottery is related to pre-historic and literate archaic culture.
The history of pottery can be known only through the artefacts found in archaeological
research.
Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: English & Tamil Year: 2023 -2024

Pottery must pass through several stages before becoming part of a culture.
The earliest pottery discovered in the study was found to be suitable for design and firing
wherever clay was available.
China dominates the pottery industry as it contains a wide variety of clays.
Sufficient time is required to prepare, shape, kiln and mature clay pottery. So humans did
not know how to make pottery until they lived in a fixed location.
Pottery was developed only after humans specialized in agriculture and settled permanently
in one place.
Through this, we can understand the origin, development of the art of pottery, the development
of fine art, and the status of Valachi with other arts.
Establish how pottery in Sangam age of Tamil Nadu has been placed in literature and
3 references.
Pottery usually refers to an object made of clay. Pottery is regarded as the oldest industry in
the world.
Pottery in Tamil must have originated in ancient times. The mention of ceramics in literary
grammars suggests that they were in circulation centuries ago.
In the fossil survey conducted at Athichanallur, burnt earthen thazhis and some artefacts
were found in those thazhis.
Mud is also oneamong the ten properties like black stone, brick, wood, clay, gold, silver,
bronze, lime, mortar, clay etc. for making sculpture and art works.
The quality and artistry of pottery have been well discussed in Sanga literatures like
Puranahunu, Five hundred, Kurundogai and other literatures.
Many pottery and sculptures made in the village of Krigiri in Vellore district of Tamil Nadu
have been exhibited in the World Exhibition Road and have received appreciation.
The black pottery made in Madurai is the best. Painted pottery is produced in Salem.
In Nilgiris district in South India old paintings, animals, humans etc. are found with great
art.
Black and red pottery are made in Tamil. Ancient Tamil people made beautiful pots with the
help of wheel.
It can be known from some references that Malayalam villagers, Vedars in Sinhalese,
African Negroes, Siberian Yaruts etc. made pots without the help of wheel.
Black flint tiles and fragments of old people's talismans are found in large quantities in the
area of Kielwalai in Villupuram district.
All the above in AD. They belong to the 12th century. Therefore, it can be known that pottery
has originated in Tamil Nadu many centuries ago.

4 Write in detail the development and classification of pottery in Tamil Nadu

Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: English & Tamil Year: 2023 -2024

Development of Pottery
The pottery industry must have passed through many stages before it became established
among the people. Humans developed a method of making these when they practiced
agriculture and settled in a fixed location.
When examining the origin and development of pottery art in a broad perspective, its
generality, development of fine art, its relationship with other arts etc. can be known.
classification
While studying the development of pottery art in Tamil Nadu, it can be classified as (1)
general work (2) fine work. The former (1) provides life culture and the latter (2) art provides
sense and pleasure.
1. Public Works
Public art is a profession that is useful for human life. This art has become essential in the
early days.
Prior to the invention of pottery, people used to store water in gourds, rock cisterns, etc.
It was only after the discovery of pottery that this art developed in utility. The pottery found
among the agrarian population confirms this.
Due to the development of science silver, lead, brass and other utensils are found today.
Pottery was much in circulation before these.
Some ceramics were used from the birth of man till his death. This art has developed in
many stages as a general art that is useful for human life in many stages like drinking water,
cooking food, eating, storing grains.
2. Fine art
Works of artistic beauty, elegance and craftsmanship are called fine art works.
Fine art, as distinct from general art, is historically backward. And it is worth seeing with the
eyes and feeling with the mind.
Man created fine art with his knowledge, attitude and imagination. He felt joy and spiritual
fulfillment through the feeling he got from it.
Glass is used to sip water and it is common art. It is a development of fine art that the neck,
handle and mouth of the akkuvala are elaborately worked and artistically seen.
This art has flourished in Tamil in the form of sculpture (god, human, bird, animal). Also,
this art was developed and mastered due to the worship of minor deities in Tamil Nadu.
Through the above evidences, it can be known that the folk handicrafts are the dynastic
developments that came through the way and that they are still developing today along with
the fine art skills like pottery design, painting, and art.
Write and explain other arts related to pottery. (or) Establish that 'soil' is a precious
5
repository for human life.
Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: English & Tamil Year: 2023 -2024

Introduction
Pottery adds pride to rural handicrafts. Also, this art is seen as a pioneer of science in
comparison with other arts. In this way, this article shows how this art was used for music,
education, painting, sculpture, medicine etc.
Pottery and other arts
Pottery as forms of tradition,
a) Science
b) Pedagogy
c) Music
d) Painting
U) Sculpture
f) Medicine
A) Architecture
Here one can see the connection and benefit of other arts.
a) Science
By inventing the pottery wheel, this art is a precursor to science and serves as evidence for
understanding the human race and civilization.
b) Pedagogy
Pottery is a precursor to education. Babylon and the Aryans used a writing system on pottery.
They wrote on wet pottery. Clay was kneaded into small boards and before the moisture dried,
they were written on with a nail-like tool and used as books. Through this we can know that
clay has been used for education.
c) Music
Musical instruments like flute, nathaswaram, mridhangam (kadam), tambourine, manduku,
udukkai are all made of clay.
d) Painting
He paints temple walls and houses with red clay. Clay is used as a mixing material for
applying paints. Folk potters painted Sami idols, horses and other idols with clay.
e) Sculpture
Sculpting may have been done with clay before the development of sculpture. Idols were
probably made of wood and stone before the discovery of iron. Although today idols are made
with the help of cement, clay idols are considered to be the pioneers of idol making.
f) Medicine
Soil has some medicinal properties, cooking with earthenware is delicious and keeps the body
cool by preventing diseases like ulcers. Headache, eye disease, fever, arm and leg weakness
Establish that 'Adhichanallur' is an invaluable repository for archeology in the history of
6 Tamil Nadu.
Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: English & Tamil Year: 2023 -2024

Introduction
Adichanallur Archaeological Site is located in Tuticorin District. Adhichanallur is situated on
the banks of the river Thamirapharani in the south-eastern part near Tirunelveli. It is one of the
most excavated cities in the world. This article aims to bring out the special features of this
city.
First Excavation
The first excavation was carried out in 1876 at Adichanallur. Jagor from Germany conducted
the study. Then again in 1896, 1904 etc. As a result of these studies, the British archaeologist
Alexander Rhea (Alexander) has named Adichanallur as the best archaeological site in South
India. He has also discovered and recorded thousands of ancient objects.
Pottery, iron tools, weapons, jewellery, gold, bronze, rare stone, beads, skeletons etc. have
been found here. Therefore, archaeologists consider Adichanallur to be the ancient cradle of
ancient Tamil civilization.
Artifacts found in excavations
Excavations at Adichanallur have found a large number of idols. The burial ground block in
this area is seen in three layers. Pits made of baked clay are buried in rocky hillsides. There
are also burial mounds with two talismans covered by each other. Many talismans with ancient
Tamil writings have also been found here.
Other items
Black and red pottery, red and black pots are found here. A female figure, rice husks, a deer
and a lizard are depicted on a pot. Iron objects such as gold helmets, knives and swords and
bronze objects have been found.
The culture of the people
According to the archaeological material found in Adichanallur, the culture of the people there
is as follows by 'Kamil Suvilapil'.
The people who lived in Adichanallur were warriors
They learned to use horses
These people knew how to smelt and cast iron and use it to make weapons.
These people have worshiped deities like Murugan, Koravai etc.
It is known that the culture of the people of Adichanallur was that they should have learned
classical music and played the war drum as music in their rituals.
Ongoing Excavations
Five phases of exploration were carried out at Adichanallur in 1876, 1902, 1905, 2004, 2005
on behalf of foreigners and the Archaeological Survey of India. Currently, the 6th phase of
excavation work, which is being carried out from June 2020 on behalf of the Tamil Nadu
Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: Tamil Year: 2023-2024

Government Archeology Department, has been ongoing since 25 May 2020. It is noted that
the Government of Tamil Nadu has allocated 28 lakh rupees for this study.
Conclusion
With the above evidence, Adichanallur is a great treasure trove for archaeology. Also,
we can learn about the industry and technology of the ancient Tamils

7 Explain scratch marks on pottery and black red pottery.

a) Black red pottery
The dot patterns pressed with an iron tool on the beautifully made earthen pot are very
beautiful. Circles and semicircles are drawn in the middle of the base. Large and small bones,
red bells, bronze bells, neck garlands, etc. have been found in burial pots called Thazhis. Most
pottery is made of quality clay and fired in a kiln. They look beautiful in crimson, black color
and black red colors.
b) Scratch codes
Rock paintings have been found in Tamil Nadu since prehistoric times. These belong to the
Stone Age. These are seen in various forms like animal, human paintings, hunting scenes.
Apart from this, symbols etc. paintings have also been found. These correspond to the writing
found in excavations in the Indus Valley. In the excavation conducted by the archeology
department, various drawings, paints, scratch drawings, colored drawing stones etc. have been
found.
The rock paintings gave birth to the later development of painting and sculpture. The artifacts
found at the foot of the Sivaganga date back to 2200 years ago.
Swastika symbols used as seals by the people of the Indus Valley have been found in Vadalur.
Aiyan lake located in Vadalur, Cuddalore district, when it was cleared, black and red clay tiles
and red colored tiles were found in abundance with historical remains. Also a trident like
symbol is found here on a small earthen plate of black red color.
c) Archaic Symbols
Paleolithic people used symbols to express their thoughts. Excavations at places like Vrayyur,
Kodumanal, Kulithalai, Thirkampuliyur, Nagai etc. have found potsherds inscribed with
'Swastika' symbols. These archaic symbols date back to a.d. were in circulation in the 3rd
century.
With the above evidence Adichanallur remains an inexhaustible treasure trove for
archaeology. It is also a repository of precious antiquities. Through this article, we can learn
about black and red colored pottery systems, which took shape as Tamil language symbols, and
then gradually reached dimensions and took the form of lines.
Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: Tamil Year: 2023-2024

UNIT-II
PART-A
1 What are the materials used for building construction in ancient Tamil people?
Clay, wood, mud, bamboo, straw, grass and brick etc. were used for the construction work of
that time.

2 What are the three main elements found in Tamil architecture?

Bearing, wall, tower (plane).

3 State the types of Palladian architecture.

Kudaivara temple, Kattali temple, and construction temple are types of Pallavar architecture.

4 Write about ‘karkali’

A temple structure that is built from top to bottom on a rocky or hilly part protruding from the
ground is called Kattali.

5 Who was the king who built the kallanai?

Cholan karikar peruvalathan

6 Write about Pramandra Talakkal.

This magnificent stone is located at the top of Tanjore Gopuram. Made of one stone. It is 25
and a half feet square and weighs 80 tons.

7 Write the name of Mamallapuram.

Once the Pallava king Narasimha, Mamallan, while out for a walk with his father, drew a
picture of an elephant on a rock. It was only after seeing that that he got the idea of building a
temple for his father. So he gave his name to the city.

8 Which sculpture is an example of monolithic sculpture in India?

Pandava chariots located at Mamallapuram.

9 Mention some of the Chola period temples.

Tanjai Periyakoil, Ariyalur Shivankoil, Peruvudayar Koil, Nellaiappar Koil, Kailasapati Koil
etc. are Chola period temples.

10 Who are the Chola kings featured in Moovarula written by Ottakoothar?

Vikrama Chola, Kulothunga Chola II, Rajaraja Chola II.

11 Which buildings in Chennai are evidence of Indo – Sarocene architecture?

Chennai Ezhilak Building, Chepakkam Palace, High Court Building, Chennai University etc.
are proof.
Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: Tamil Year: 2023-2024

12 Name some of the temples built by Nayak.

Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple, Tiruvannamalai Annamalaiyar Temple, Kanchi
Ekambareesuwar Temple etc.

PART-B
1 Write in detail about Sangam architectural design and constructions.

Introduction
Various arts have flourished in Tamil Nadu for thousands of years. References to the arts abound
in Sangha literature. Painting is the mother of arts and sculpture is its son. Temples of Tamil
Nadu are a repository of sculptures. Arts in stone and copper are killing. This article explains
about the design and construction of architecture, one of such traditional arts.
Architecture
Tamil architecture has enjoyed a special place since the Sangha period. Houses for people to
live in, palaces, mansions and commercial buildings for kings were built during that time. Hence
architecture as an art emerged in Tamil Nadu. Also, the kings who ruled the Tamilnadu regions
in different periods were fascinated by the architecture, so new aspects were developed in the
architecture of Tamilnadu.
Construction materials
In ancient times flint, wood, mud, bamboo, straw, grass and brick etc. were used in the
construction works of that time. Later buildings were made of black stones. And they matured
the clay and fired it in the kiln to build a solid building. Wood has been used as an excellent
building material since then.
Bamboo
Bamboo is a strong and lightweight building construction material. Bamboo is used whole or
broken.
Brick
Fired brick is a strong building material. It is used to make walls and other elements in building
construction.
Structural Methods
People of that time constructed buildings according to their convenience. Before building the
houses, there is a custom of setting up shop fronts at the chosen time. Foundation, walls, roof,
plane or tower etc. are common features of Tamil architecture. Beautiful carvings were done in
the houses so constructed. Various windows were fixed on the walls of the housefor ventilation.
Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: Tamil Year: 2023-2024

Ancient Foundation
At that time solid foundation systems were designed to build buildings. Materials like lime and
black pepper were used for that. They were able to create building structures that stood the test of
time in a time when there were no engineering experts. That is because they made proper use of
the natural materials that were easily available in the environment of that time.
Conclusion
Through the above evidence, the design and constructions of Tamil architecture can be known.
It is also derived from this that the base, wall, tower etc. were the three main elements common
to architecture at that time.
2 Explain technical aspects and conservation of Tamil architecture.
Introduction
Tamil architecture has a special place in architectural technique. This architecture was
prominent in the south of India a thousand years ago. The finer aspects of that architecture, with
temples as primary structures in the social structure, can still be seen widely in many South
Asian countries including India, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. So he can see the technology and
safety of architecture.
Technical Features
Palandamir architecture is seen with great engineering details that amaze even the architectural
expert of this time. The Palandamis have designed many types of beautiful looking windows in
their houses. Then Tamil architecture developed during the Chola period and at the end of the
10th century temples were built on a large scale during the reigns of Rajaraja Chola and
Rajendra Chola. Although they followed the architectural style of the Pallavas, they differed
from them in various respects.
The Cholas built many elaborate temples made of black stone. They also designed various public
structures and developed architecture well.
The height of Tanjore Gopuram built by Rajarasan is 216 feet. If that is the case, we have to
calculate the depth and width of its footprint.
The single stone at the top of Tanjore Gopuram is 25 ½ feet square. Its weight is 80 tons. It is
called 'Pramandhra Talakkal'. How such a huge stone was lifted to a height of 216 feet in those
days when there were no heavy lifting machines is a great wonder.
The manner in which the people of that time constructed temples, palaces, forts, defense
buildings, etc. using stone, wood, copper, iron, lacquer, etc. is an illustration of their historical
excellence, cultural pride and engineering intelligence.
Architecture and Conservation
Like temples and palaces, the safe fortifications and their parts like moats and walls were well
designed by the people of that time. And there is ample evidence that the Tamils excelled in
building fort walls and defensive moats.
Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: Tamil Year: 2023-2024

Safety equipment
Various types of security gates were installed on the high wall. They are,
1. Self-curling quivers that shoot arrows quickly
2. Forceps shaped like a black monkey
3. Catapult traps that throw stones
4. Traps that spill boiling oil on the enemy when he tries to approach
5. Iron smelting furnaces
6. Traps that tighten the neck of the enemy
7. Iron railings that push down enemies trying to climb the wall across the moat
8. Bait traps
9. Needle traps
10. Chain traps
Silapathikaram, the first copy of Tamil, describes that various types of machinery werebuilt in
it.
Conclusion
Through the evidences, it is possible to know that the people of that time had knowledge of
engineering along with military engineering and that they used various technical strategies in
their palaces as well.
3 Establish with relevant evidence how the Pallavas erected rock structures.

 The Pallavar period was the period from 6th century AD to 9th century AD. It was during
this period that the temple was first built in black stone.
 The Pallava period brought about a new vision in Tamil architecture. There were three
types of their architecture namely Kudaivara, Kattali and construction temple.
Kudaivara Temples
 Temples built on top of big mountains were called Kudaivara temple
 They constructed buildings in those days using non-durable wood, bamboo, straw, grass
etc.
 They built buildings by digging out large rocks to construct buildings that could stand.
 Starting at one point of the particular rock and cutting the rock properly according to the
construction design, the construction work will be abandoned if there is a crack in the
Selvar rock. The quality of stones is ascertained through such tests.
 The temple structure is called Kattali, which is a rock or hillock that protrudes from the
ground.
 Construction temples were built with stones in the beginning of the 7th century AD. The
Mamallapuram Beach Temple is a fine example of Tamil temple construction and
technique.
Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: Tamil Year: 2023-2024

Construction temples
 During the Chola period, Tamil architecture was well developed. Temples were built on
a large scale during the reign of Rajaraja Chola Rajendra Chola towards the end of the
tenth century.
 The Cholas followed the construction work of the Pallavas but differed from them in
many ways. Cholas built many temples designed with black stones.
 'Cholan Karikaal Peruvalathan' built the embankment of Cauvery and planted it for
irrigation. After that the Vijayanagara kings established temples with architectural
features in the south.
According to the above evidence, the people of that time built temples and palaces by using
stone, wood, copper, iron, lacquer, etc., dug hills and rocks. Fort defenses, structures, moats,
walls, etc. can be obtained through this method

4 Write about stage design for a play that is featured in Silapathikaram.

Introduction
The word Silapathikaram is made up of two words Silampu and Akhtar. The story is called
Silapathikaram because of the result of Silampuk. Its author is Ilangovadi. Other texts have the
king or the gods as the leader of the song, but Silappathikaram has a citizen named Kovalan as
the song leader, so it is also called Kappiyam by the citizens. This way he can see about the
drama theater recorded by Silapathikaram.
In one of the five epics, Silapathikaram, elements of music, music and drama, which are the
roots of Muthamizh, can be found. It is also called 'Natak Kappiyam' as it contains the essential
elements of drama. So this Silapathikara copy is very helpful to know the ancient drama trend.
Dramatic stage setting
Ilangovadi has recorded about the establishment of a theater two thousand years ago in great
detail and detail in his Silapathikara copy.
Yeniya noolor
Iyalbinin vaazhaadhu
Mannagam oruvazhi vaguthaar
Kondu
The (best) sculpture author who chose the above song has chosen a perfect place to set up the
theater without changing the course. Wood selection
In the high sacred mountains like Potiya Hill, the tall bamboos were cut down to a point where
the knot is only a dream away.
Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: Tamil Year: 2023-2024

According to the scriptural protocol, the cut bamboo trunk was cut into a piece of bamboo
measuring 24 inches (about four stanza) of the thumb of a well-grown average person.
pillars
They erected pillars on all four sides of the platform and fixed the order board on them. A board
has also been installed on the stage. Between these two planks they are raised to a height of four
goals (16 feet).
Two doors
This theater has two entrances for artists to enter and exit.
Paintings
On the top floor of the theater are painted images of the four types of Varuna Buddhas
(Vachirathegan, Vachiratatha, Varuna, Rathakesura) for everyone to worship.
Lights
Illuminated lights are installed so that the shadow of the pillars does not fall in the hall and in
the hall. This means that there were great architects of that time.
Curtains
The people of that time set up curtains coming from one side, curtains coming from two sides
towards the middle, and curtains hidden from top to bottom etc. with beautiful style.
They set up two types of screens, Porumuga Vehini and Karanduvaralezhini, and a canopy with
paintings. All over the theater, famous pearl necklaces such as Sariyum, Thomum and Damam
have been hung beautifully and have beautified the theater very much.
Conclusion
From the above evidence, we can know the importance given to the art of drama by the people
of that time. And we also know that the theater of that time was set up with innovative and rare
works

5 What is Nadukal worship? Explain and write the news about it.

Archaeology, coins, painting, sculpture, literature etc. are used to know the history, customs,
culture, civilization etc. of ancient Tamils. Among these, the inscription is unique. Continuation
of the inscription is the 'nadukal' worship.
Nadukal
Palanthamigha has a custom of planting a nadukal at the burial place of the soldiers who did not
retreat in battle, went forward from the place where they stood and died a heroic death. The way
to do this is to take the Nadukal in memory of the dead hero.
Structure of mesentery
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The places where Nadukal was planted have become temples over time. Worship is also held
there.
In front of the Nadukal, a stick and a knife are planted, oiled and garlanded.
People used to clean the Nadukal with water and offer sacrifices with ghee, paddy, etc.
On the day when the Nadukal was taken, the great glory of the hero was also written on the
Nadukal,
nadukal are widely located in Himachal, Kerala, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka etc. in
India.
In Tamil Nadu, there are many Nadukal found at Sengam, Dharmapuri, Dhenkanikottai etc.
More nadukalhave been taken during the period of Adhyaman and Chera, Chola and Pandya
kings.
In South India, 397 meridians have been found in the state of Karnataka, 22 meridians in Tamil
Nadu and 126 meridians in Andhra Pradesh.
It is noteworthy that in Tamilnadu, a Nadukal engraved with the image of a war cock was found
not only for the men who died a heroic death.
Other Names of Mesentery
Medium stones are known as Vediyappan stone in Tiruvannamalai, Vellore, Tirupattur, Ranipet,
Villupuram, Salem and Dharmapuri districts. The place where these are located is also known
as Vediyappan Temple.
Inscriptions on epitaphs
The king's reign year, the name of the slain hero, news about him, what he was killed in and
what he was killed in were engraved on the Nadukal.
Most of the inscriptions are in circular form. Some are also in Tamil script. No epitaphs written
in vernacular have been found so far. No Nadukal inscription of the Chola period is found in
inscriptions. It is noteworthy that Tamil characters are used in many tombstones
6 Explain and write the special features of Tanjore Great Temple.
The world famous temple of Thanjavur, known as the Great Temple, or Peruvudayar Temple, or
Pragatheeswarar Temple, is situated on the south bank of the Kaveri River in Thanjavur. It is
one of the largest temples built for Lord Shiva in India. This temple is a testament to the
architecture of Palandamizhar and is one of the World Heritage Sites. Through this he can see
the special features of the Great Temple of Thanjavur.
Rajarajacholan I
A symbol of the greatness of the Chola kings, the Great Temple of Tanjore was built by the
Chola Emperor Rajaraja Chola I. The construction of the temple was started in AD 1003-1004
and completed in AD 1010. The inscription in the temple mentions that the chief sculptor of this
temple is 'Kunjaramallan Rasarasab Perundhachan'. It is also noteworthy that this temple stands
majestically even after a thousand years.
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Tanjore Great Temple

Built by Rajaraja Chola I, the temple was initially called Rajarajeswaram and later Tanjore
Peruvudayar Temple. It is also called 'Pragadeeswaram' during Maratha rule. The stones for
building this temple were brought from neighboring states.
 The base of the temple is 5 meters (16 feet) high. Ichile is also the second largest
Nandi in India with a weight of 20 tons.
 Features of the Temple
 The height of the Vimana atop this temple is 216 feet (66m). This is the art of the
Cholas.
 The height of Shiva Lingam in this temple is 12 feet. Tamil language has 12
vowels.
 The height of Shiva Lingam's pedestal is 18 feet and the consonants of Tamil
language are 18.
 The height of the tower is 216 feet and there are 216 vowels in Tamil.
 The Shilingam located in the sanctum sanctorum of this temple is the largest
Shivalingam in the world.
 Rajarajan's construction of a 60 meter high stone temple with 15 storeys in the
Kaveri plains where there are no stones is a testament to his artistry.
 The temple is proud to have been declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in
1987.
 Evidence of the wealth and art of the people during the Chola period can be traced
through this temple.
 The temple stands as a testament to the unique Dravidian architecture, Chola
rule, and civilization of the Tamil people.
 The architecture, sculpture, painting and bronze sculpture in this temple is a great
testimony to the skill of the Cholas of that time.
Conclusion
 Tanjore Periyakoil exhibits the splendor of Chola architecture. Also, this temple
has been declared as a World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Hence, it is undeniable
that this temple stands out as living history even today.

7 Write about the sculptures and temples located in Mamallapuram with proper evidence.

Introduction
Mamallapuram is a city known for its historical sculptures. Mamallapuram is the treasure
trove of Pallavar period sculptures which was the turning point of sculpture as far as
Tamilnadu is concerned. Sculpture includes buildings, their components, decorative forms,
sculptures etc. Through this he can see the sculptures and temples of Mamallapura.
Sculptures and Temples
The historic Pallavar sculptures located at Mamallapuram,
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(a) Beach temple

(b) Pancharats
(c) Varaha Cave Temples
(d) Archunan tapasu rock
can be defined as
(a) Beach Temple
Beach temple It was built with granite stones in the 8th century B. It is the oldest temple in
South India. It consists of one big temple and two smaller temples. It is said that a total of 7
temples were built here and they were destroyed over time due to floods and submersion in the
sea. There is also a sculpture of a lion carved out of a single stone in the temple complex. It is
designed as Goddess Parvati seated on a lion.
(b) Pancharats
Known as the Pancharats or Pandavar Rathas, these 7th century sculptural ensembles are
examples of monolithic sculpture in India. There are five Panchapandas in Mahabharata in one
stone. His wife Draupadi is also sculpted.
These five temples are respectively called Draupadi Ratham, Archunan Ratham, VimanRatham,
Dharmaraja Ratham, Nakula – Sahadeva Ratham
c) Waraga cave temples
Waraga Cave Temple is the famous umbrella temple of the Pallavas. AD Built in the 7th century
AD, these caves exemplify the skill of the ancient Vishwakarmas people. The seemingly random
sculptures in the cave are exquisitely carved. Especially the sculpture of Lord Varaga holding
Goddess Bhumadevi on his horns is very special.
(d) Archunan tapasu rock
The Archunan Tapasu Rock is situated near the Pancharatha sculptures with a height of 43 feet.
This Tapasu Rock, which is divided into two parts, has sculptures of legends in pictures.
It is noteworthy that in one part of these rock formations, Arjuna prays to Paraman for penance
and in another, King Bhagiratha prays to bring the holy river Ganga to earth.
Conclusion
The sculptures in Mamallapuram are so delicate and natural that they have been declared a
World Heritage Site by UNESCO. Through this we can know what is the beauty of Mamallapura
city.
Write in detail about the Gopuram (monumental enterance tower) architecture of the
8
Nayaks.
Introduction
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Contribution of temple art to the history of art Tamil Nadu is known for its royal legacy like
Pallavar, Chola, Pandyar and Visaya Nagara. The temple architecture of the Nayaks who later
ruled Madurai, Thanjavur and Senchi, etc., has also been praised. So this article explains about
the tower architecture of the Nayaks.
Kings
The Nayaka kings ruled with cities like Madurai, Thanjavur, Senchi, Kalahasti etc. as their
capitals. Their mother tongue is Telugu. The Nayaka kings were engaged in repairing the
temples that had been built earlier. They made certain changes in the temple towers. They also
established mandapams with decorative work.
Temples built by Nayak
Madurai Meenakshi Amman Temple, Tiruvannamalai Annamalaiyar Temple, Kalakasti Temple,
Kanchi Ekambareeswarar Temple, Varadarajar Temple, Mylapore Kapaleeswarar Temple,
Trichy Uchi Pillaiyar Temple, Tirupati Esumalayan Temple and many small and big temples
located in Arkadu, Thanjavur, Kumbakonam etc. They have also renovated ancient temples and
done a lot of charity for spirituality.
Gopuram (monumental enterance tower) architecture
Nayaka kings are involved in the arts. Tamil Nadu has got beautiful buildings, sculpturesand
paintings from them. Huge temple halls and idols of Dwarapalagar were created by them.The
main part of the tower is its entrance. They are located inside the tower gate. The entrance
rises up to the first kapotha of the tower and it splits into two inside. Most of the towers
have a two-hole entrance.
The upper floors of the Nayak period towers are built of brick, lime and mortar.
On the gopurams, paintings are drawn to decorate the gopurams in the form of legends, unique
sculptures, sculptural lines.
Without innovation, Nayakars have introduced huge and exaggerated gopurams and multi-story
sculptures on the walls of the gopurams.
The Nayaka kings built huge (150 and 200 feet high) multi-storied towers and foundations to
support them in a very elegant manner. Especially the Madurai and Tanjore Nayaks have paid
more attention to making the towers very high.
A similar arrangement of placing Ganapati and Muruga in small columns on either side of the
tower can be seen in Chola towers. This tradition is found in Visayanagara art and Nayakart.
The interiors and canopies of the tower were beautifully painted. These paintings depict
religious and social events. Thus, after the Pallavas, Pandyas and Cholas, a large number of
temples, mandapas and gopurams were built during the Nayaka period.
Sculptures of Kuravan, Kurathi, Vedan etc. are placed in the temple pillars which can be
respected by all. Through this, it can be seen that the equality of the Nayak period is manifestedin
the art of sculpture and architecture.
Conclusion
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Although the Nayaka kings were mostly involved in the renovation of old temples, the Nayaks
also followed the Palam tradition and established more than ten tiered temple towers, ornate
mandapams etc. in Tamil Nadu from the above evidence.

9 Explain and write about Tirumala Nayakkar Palace and its interior.

Introduction
The palace known as Tirumala Nayakkar Palace or Tirumala Nayak Mahal was built in the 17th
century by the ruler of Madurai, Tirumala Nayak. Two kilometers away from Madurai
Meenakshi Amman Temple, it is designed in the Indo-Saracenic architectural style. This article
aims to bring out the beauty of this temple.
Tirumala Nayak Mahal
Located in Madurai, this temple is considered one of the wonders of South India. Designed by
an Italian architect, only a quarter of the building is believed to remain today. It was renovated
in 1872 by Francis Napier, Governor of Chennai, British India. Tamil Nadu Government
Archeology Department is maintaining it.
infrastructure
a) Ranga vilasam
b) Heavenly vilasam
e) oliyum (light), oliyum
d) Pillars
U) Limestone building
The former are located in parts of the palace.
Building structure
Designed in the architectural style known as Indo Sarasnik, the palace is 58 feet tall. It is
supported by 248 colossal pillars.
On the ceiling are painted legends of Vishnu and Shiva.
At that time the palace consisted of two main parts. One was called the heavenly address and
the other the arena address.
Sorkka Vilasam was the residence of the King and Aranga Vilasam was the residence of his
younger brother Muthiyalu Nayak.
And in this palace block, it is understood that this palace includes various areas such as music
hall, theater hall, Ballaku road, armory, place of worship, residences of other royal family and
snowmen, parks, lakes etc.
Since 1981, considering the development of tourism, the sound and light show has been going
well till date. Through this, the Tamil Nadu government is getting good income.
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National Monument
After independence, Tirumala Nayakkar Palace has been declared as a National Monument.
Presently it is under the protection of Tamil Nadu Archaeological Department. It is open from 9
am to 5 pm for tourists to see.
Conclusion
From the above evidence it is obtained that the magnificence of the Madurai Tirumalai Nayak
Palace and the best example of the architecture of the Madurai Nayaks is the Tirumalai Nayak
Mahal.
10 Which is Chettinad? Explain the layout and features of Chettinad houses.

 Chettinad is not a separate country. It is a famous country within Tamil Nadu. The urban
area comprising 96 villages centered on Karaikudi in Sivagangai district is known as
Chettinadu and Nathukottai.
 Chettinadu was called Chettinad because of the large population of Nathukottai Chettiars
known as Dhanavanikars in this area.
 Structure of Chettinad houses
 The architecture of Chettinad houses is world famous. Architects, experts and
researchers from different countries are studying this architecture.
 The smaller palace is 40 feet wide and 120 feet long and the largest palace is 60 feet
wide and 200 feet long.
 Houses are painted with attractive colors such as green, yellow and red.
 Chettinad houses are also designed with decorative lighting, teak furniture, marble,
mirrors, carpets and crystals.
 These houses have at least 30 rooms. Some houses, such as the Khanadu Khatan Palace,
have more rooms than that.
 The wall is made with a mixture of lime, black pepper and mustard seeds ground into a
check and mixed with egg white.
specialties
Teak doors, wooden desks, huge iron safes, chairs, swings and other woodwork items add beauty
to the home.
Another specialty of Chettinad houses is Athangudi tiles. Today the use of these tiles has
increased not only in Chettinad houses but in all areas.
Chettinad houses have a spacious courtyard on either side of the entrance door. It has wooden
pillars with exquisite carvings.
Scenes from the Ramayana and Mahabharata have been carved in lines at various places in the
mansion.
The Chettinad community has traditionally held their house parties at home. So their house
looks like a big hall. It is worth noting that nowadays some houses have been slightly modified
and used as star hotels.
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From the above evidence, we can know the layout and quality of Chettinad houses. Also the
architecture of Chettinad houses are world famous. It is noteworthy that even today, architects,
experts and researchers from various countries are studying this architectural art.

UNIT III PART-A

Define ‘Kattumarangal’
1 The Kattumarangal(கட்டுமரங் கள் ) were used for catching fish and playing Punal(புனல் ) games.
Theppam, Mithavai, Punai, Parisal etc. are the varieties of Kattumarangal mentioned in Tamil literature.
What are the types of Marakkalangal made by Tamils?
2 Navai, Marakalam, Bengal, Madalai, Kapal, Ambi, Thimil etc. are the Marakkalangal made by ancient
Tamil people.
Who is Kammiyer?
3
Those who excelled in ship technology and sea voyages were known as Kammyers.
Who is the author of the book ‘Kadalodi’?
4
Narasaiya
What were the occupations undertaken by Padavas?
5
Pearling, fishing, sangaruthal (சங் கறுத்தல் ), salt production.
Write about the ancient technique of protecting ships from lightning.
The two ends of a very long piece of wood which carries the sail as the central axis of the ship are
6 covered with copper and joined together. This system is similar to Dipole Discharging used in modern
electronics industry. The thunder arrester will drop it in the water of the sea. This process will prevent
the ship from damage.
What is the work of blacksmiths?
7
Blacksmiths are the one who smelt iron and turned it into steel and made various tools out of it.
State how hardened steel (எஃகு- Ehku) is made.
8 Steel is an alloy metal. Carbon dioxide, and minerals like manganese, nickel, and vanadium are added
to iron to form hardened steel.
Who is the author of the book ‘Kanakathikaram’?
9
Kaarinayanar
Write about ancient coins of Tamil Nadu.
Coins are used to show the importance of maritime trade of the Palandamis. Coins were used as a kind
10
of jewelry and it was considered as a customery by the people of that time. These coins were made of
gold. These coins were small, spherical in shape and also shaped like neem fruit, gooseberry, etc.
PART-B
1. How did the ancient Tamil people showcase their expertise in shipbuilding?
Introduction:
Long ago, the clever Tamilians figured out a smart way to fish using logs. They called it
"katumaram." Picture this: logs put together to make a boat that glided smoothly on the water – simple
yet effective. But the Tamilians didn't stop there. They saw potential for improvement. Instead of just
one log, they arranged three – one in the middle, flanked by two on the sides. This upgrade created a
better boat, showing how good they were at adapting to make things work even smoother.
Then, things got even cooler. They joined five trees together to build a super boat. This wasn't just
about fishing; it was a masterpiece of craftsmanship. This story isn't just about boats; it's about how the
Tamilians were smart in using what they had, making their lives on the water better and showing a deep
connection to the sea. So, these early boats aren't just vessels; they're symbols of the Tamilians'
cleverness and their special relationship with the sea.
Art of shipbuilding:
In the South Pacific Ocean, the largest cargo ship has been discovered in marine excavations off
the coast of Australia. After examining the ship, they said that it is more than 2500 years old and that it
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belongs to Tamils. An Englishman called 'Lieutenant Walker' admired the Tamil ship in 1811 AD. He
said that a ship built by the British should be maintained once in 12 years, while a ship built by the
Tamils would not require repairs for up to 50 years. Thus, the Tamils have excelled in shipbuilding
technology.
There is much sculptural evidence of its use in shipbuilding. The Kanchi Stupa has numerous sculptural
works in the postures visible in the four directions. In a horoscope story there is an allegory of
merchants sailing on a ship. Similarly, a painting in Ajanta shows a shipwreck and sinking. Thus,
ancient paintings and news about the shipping industry have been placed.
Restoration:
Nowadays many countries are reviving their traditional sail building technology and the way they are
used. Today, science and technology have developed so much that we need to recover our forgotten
ancient history. At a time when other countries and citizens used two types of wood, Tamils used 20
types of wood to build ships. Narasaiya has built the bottom of the ship in layers so that the bottom of
the ship can be taken off like a DECKING SYSTEM so that the ship does not sink if the ship is
wrecked during the sea voyage.
From the statement of Narasayya, the author of Kadalodi, the Tamil's deep-seated involvement can be
discerned. The history of the term catamaran is an example of Tamils being legendary pioneers in
shipbuilding. It seems that CATAMARAN is a word widely used all over the world because the British
took the word 'Katumaram' from the Tamils during their rule.
Conclusion:
Tamil Shipbuilding means ship building, maintenance, sailing etc. In this way, we can understand the
ship technology and involvement of the ancient people.
2. Explain the use of iron among the metals used by primitive man.
Iron plays an important role in the development of human civilization from the Stone Age Civilization
to the Iron Age Civilization.
Iron metal discovered by early man was used as weapons and tools by the people of that time.
Archeological studies at places like Kodumanal, Melsiruvalur, Kuttur, Adichanallur, Arikamedu
confirm that iron may have been introduced in Tamil Nadu around 500 BC.
Sangam literature and archaeological historical studies have recorded the flourishing of iron industry in
Tamil Nadu and the export of iron and steel to countries like Rome and Egypt.
Besides, ancient Roman documents record the export of steel from the Chera region of Tamil Nadu
during the Sangam period.
Iron and Siddha Medicine
The Siddhas, who discovered Siddha medicine, referred to iron as Ayam and also in alchemy iron is
classified as base metal. Bogar, one of the eighteen Siddhas, wrote a book called Bogar 7000, which he
wrote separately about the six types of iron, Karaloka, Karanjaloka, Tarapatta Loka, Pasara Loka, Kala
Loka and their properties.
In Siddha medicine it is customary to prepare medicines like Senthuram and Baspam using iron rich
herbs and iron world.
Siddha doctors prescribed medicines like Senthuram and Baspam in the required doses after knowing
the condition of the patient.
The history of the use and origin of iron is said to cure diseases such as gallstones, jaundice, obesity,
jaundice, stomach ache, menstrual cramps, hunger, constipation, etc.
In Hindu medicine, they incorporate a variety of ingredients such as herbs, minerals, substances,
powders, and many other components. They consider these elements as medicinal properties beneficial
for health, and therefore, they utilize substances like iron or those mentioned in the principle to
formulate remedies for various ailments. After identifying these components, they research the ways in
which these substances can be transformed into effective remedies. These findings are then applied to
create medicinal formulations, not only in food but also in various therapeutic practices, particularly in
pediatrics.
3. Write about technological marvels in Iron and Steel Industry Unveiled in Sangam Literature
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In a groundbreaking revelation, Sangam literature provides insights into the advanced technology of the
iron and steel industry that flourished during ancient times. The literary works from the Sangam period
shed light on the sophistication achieved in metallurgy, offering a glimpse into the remarkable
craftsmanship of the people of that era.
Mastering the Art of Metallurgy:
Sangam literature showcases the ancient Tamil people's mastery in metallurgy, particularly in
working with iron and steel. The texts describe intricate processes involved in extracting, refining, and
shaping these metals for various applications.
Innovative Ironworking Techniques:
The literature unveils innovative ironworking techniques employed by ancient artisans. From the
extraction of raw materials to the forging of intricate tools and weapons, the Sangam period witnessed a
high level of technological advancement in the iron industry.
Versatile Applications:
The Sangam texts highlight the diverse applications of iron and steel during that period. Apart from
weapon manufacturing, the people of Sangam era utilized these metals in crafting agricultural
implements, showcasing their understanding of the pivotal role these materials played in societal
development.
Technological Prowess in Steel Production:
Sangam literature not only emphasizes iron but also provides glimpses into early steel production
methods. The advanced knowledge in manipulating carbon content for producing steel alloys is a
testament to the technological prowess of the ancient Tamil metallurgists.
Economic Significance:
The technological advancements in the iron and steel industry had profound economic implications.
The ability to produce high-quality tools and weapons contributed to the region's economic prosperity
through trade and craftsmanship.
Cultural and Historical Context:
The portrayal of iron and steel in Sangam literature adds a cultural and historical dimension to our
understanding of ancient Tamil society. The significance of these metals goes beyond utilitarian
purposes, reflecting the societal values and the importance attached to technological achievements.
In conclusion, the Sangam period stands as a testament to the remarkable technological achievements in
the iron and steel industry. The revelations from the literature not only enrich our historical
understanding but also underscore the ingenuity of ancient Tamil metallurgists who laid the foundation
for advancements in metalworking technologies.
4. Explain the coins in use during the Sangakala Tamil Nadu.
Introduction
The field of numismatics plays a crucial role in understanding the history of Tamil Nadu, contributing
significantly to the establishment of the educational sector. Particularly, the discipline of economic
science be hm,kil,.comes paramount. During the Sangam period, various currencies such as the coins of
the Pandya kings, the Muthuraja kasu, the Peruvazhuthi coins, the Chera coins, and others were
circulated, showcasing the richness of Tamil Nadu. Therefore, this essay aims to illuminate news and
information about the currencies of the Sangam era in Tamil Nadu, offering insights into the economic
excellence of the region during that historical period.

The history and economy of Tamil Nadu can be known through the coins issued by Movendra,
Kunnilam kings who ruled Palandamilagam, and the Indian economic disparity with the coins of other
country kings found in Tamil Nadu.

After the end of barter, the people of that time accepted coins as a proper substitute.

Gold, silver, bronze and iron coins were introduced according to the economic condition of the ruler.
Coins is a multi-purpose term. This word occurs many times in Sangha texts. People of that time
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pierced these coins and used them as a type of jewelry. Ancient literature records that the ancient Ikas
were neem-like and gooseberry-like. These small and spherical gold coins were also used in trade in
those days.

Coins featured kings, deities, religious symbols etc. So these help to know the arts and religions of that
time. The value of a coin is divided into intrinsic value, extrinsic value and antique value. Coins are a
medium of conveying historical information about the civilization, economy, culture, etc. of the time it
was issued. All the kings who ruled Tamil Nadu issued coins with animals, birds and religious motifs
like tiger, fish, horse, bull, lion etc. to give importance to the mother tongue.

Korkai Pandyar coins, Muthukumi Peruvaluthi coins, Makkotai, Kutuvan Gothai coins, Peruvaluthi
coins etc. have been found in the excavation conducted by the archeology department.

Coins of the era of Rajarajan are the most common ancient coins found in Tamil Nadu. Roman copper
coins have been found extensively until the 1st century BC. Mughal emperor Akbar, Rama and Sita
engraved coins and Hyder Ali Tipu Sultan's reign coins with Shiva and Parvati images have emerged.

During the reign of the Nawab of Arcot, coins inscribed a large number of Saiva Vaishnava gods Shiva,
Vishnu, Ganapati, Murugan and Hanuman.

Conclusion

By examining the coins that were in use in Tamil Nadu, it is possible to know about the trade, culture,
balance, religious unity, and tolerance of the ancients.
The shapes of the stones that are collected by the people of the Kurinji land as an occupation are
recognized for their natural beauty.

5. Write in detail about the shapes of beads.

The shapes of the stones that are collected by the people of the Kurinji land as an occupation are
recognized for their natural beauty. The mode of production of the Kurinji land is inherently nature-
inspired. The ancient Tamils, who lived in the hills, used the tusks of elephants as tools to collect gold
by sifting through sand. When they find gold, the Kurinji people pick up stones, recognizing the shapes
of stones placed on gold. Many shapes of stones have been found in archaeological excavations
conducted in Tamil Nadu, where various types of stones were used for different purposes, such as
grinding, crushing, or making jewelry. Through such discoveries, the shapes of stones have been
brought to light, revealing their use in various activities during the Sangam period.

1. Circle Shape (Vattavativam): This type of stones, with white-colored designs and patterns, is
generally found in sizes of 8 cm in diameter for common stones, 5 cm for small stones, and 12 cm for
larger stones. On stones with naturally occurring patterns, various shapes like circles, lines, dots, and
sahasra vatam (a specific design) can be observed.

2. Teapot shape
Teapot shape beads are seen without decorative lines.

3. Biconic shape

The biconical beads have a decorative pattern of tiles painted with white lines. While some beads have
transverse lines, more than 50 percent of beads have three undulating lines on the sides and in the
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middle. Some beads also have three identical lines. Only one bell has a wave line between the two
lines.

4. Spherical form

The fourth form of spherical beads has no white streaks. All the above patterns illustrate the patterns of
waste that occurred when the ancient Tamils transformed raw materials into ornaments.
Finally, in areas like Karur, Gangeyam, Kodumanal, Oonjalur etc., beads of various shapes are found.
Karur Amaravati river basin is rich in carnelian in many forms. A carnelian stone bell recently found in
the Amaravati river basin has a beautiful fish symbol, seal, crescent etc. beautifully arranged in the
center.
6. Write about the Craftsmanship of Gemstones among the Tamil People.

Introduction:

In the mountainous and forested regions inhabited by the Tamil people, a traditional practice of
collecting gemstones has thrived for centuries. This unique trade involves meticulously extracting
gemstones from their natural habitats and transforming them into small, intricately designed ornaments
and beads. The process includes refining these gemstones into tiny nuggets and adorning them as small
jewelry or embellishments on clothing.

Refining Gemstones into Artistic Adornments:

From the gems obtained in these regions, craftsmen fashion delicate and small-sized ornaments. These
gems are carefully cleansed and transformed into small beads or intricate designs, adding a touch of
elegance to the wearer's attire. The refined gemstones are often incorporated into necklaces, earrings, or
other accessories, showcasing the exquisite craftsmanship of the Tamil people.

Utilizing Natural Resources:

The gemstone collection process involves transforming the smallest gemstones into beads or small
embellishments. Some of these beads exhibit a natural crystalline structure, making them ideal for
ornamental purposes. Hence, the extraction and refining of gemstones directly contribute to the creation
of unique and aesthetically pleasing adornments.

Innovative Techniques in Gemstone Processing:

One of the unique methods employed in crafting gemstones involves placing them in a pan, tightly
sealing the pan, and heating it to prevent the gems from escaping. The gems, when subjected to heat,
undergo a transformation in color, attaining vibrant hues. This innovative technique, using a sealed pan
and the application of heat, enhances the visual appeal of the gemstones.

Traditional Attire and Gemstone Adornments:

The refined gemstones are often integrated into traditional attire, enhancing the overall aesthetic of the
clothing. Craftsmen use various sizes and shapes of gemstones, turning them into accessories that
complement the wearer's outfit. This meticulous attention to detail reflects the rich cultural heritage of
the Tamil people.

Diverse Gemstone Applications:

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Apart from their use in jewelry, these gemstones also find applications in other aspects of daily life.
The Tamil people have traditionally used them in religious ceremonies, cultural events, and even as a
form of currency. This multi-faceted use of gemstones highlights their cultural, economic, and spiritual
significance.

Conclusion:

The craftsmanship of gemstones among the Tamil people is a testament to their rich cultural heritage
and artistic ingenuity. The process of collecting, refining, and transforming these gems into intricate
ornaments reflects not only the aesthetic sensibilities of the Tamil people but also their deep connection
with the natural resources of their mountainous and forested homelands.
7. Describe Komedhakakal and Manikkakal.
The types of gems found in ancient Tamil Nadu, such as Ilanjivapukal (sapphire), Neelakkal (blue
stone), Komedhakkal (cat's eye), Pacchaimanikkal (emerald), Maanikkakal (ruby), Civappukkal (coral),
and Pacchaikkal (green stone), are considered as beautiful treasures obtained locally by the people.
(a) Komeetakkal
During the Sangam period, in the town called "Punnaadu," cat's eye gems were found. Komeetakam
refers to cat's eye gems with a bluish tint. These gems were observed in the Surangam (mines), and the
foreign traveler Pliny mentioned them.
In Tamil Nadu, high-quality gems such as Vaidooryam, Komeetakam, and Neelamani were found. Cat's
eye gemstones are also found in Andhra and Kerala. In literature, cat's eye gems are referred to as
Komeetakam. Many gemstones obtained in Tamil Nadu were transported to foreign countries through
trade routes.
Various types of gem-cutting industries flourished, exporting gemstones like pearls, diamonds, and
emeralds through the sea route to foreign countries. The historical book "Periplus" mentions the export
of pearls from the region around Koyambedu in the first century.
(b) Maanikkakal
Maanikkakal, also known as rubies or red corundum, is found in light red or deep red colors. It is one of
the Navaratnas. Its red color is caused by chromium. These gems are found in Thailand, Cambodia,
Afghanistan, and other countries.
In Tamil Nadu, especially in the Surangam (mines) and mountainous regions, rubies are found
abundantly. Even during the Sangam period, the greatness of rubies is highlighted in Tamil literature, as
seen in the poem from Purananuru. Despite the difficulty in obtaining rubies in Tamil Nadu, Sangam-
era people preferred them for their unique qualities.
(c) Other Gems
Apart from cat's eye gems and rubies, various gemstones were found in Tamil Nadu. Ilanjivapakal
(sapphire) is mentioned in literature, and its beauty is emphasized. People in the Coimbatore and Salem
regions specifically mention the presence of sapphires.
In the Cholamandalam region, people appreciated the beauty of emeralds, comparing them to the eyes
of deer, and considered them valuable. Even during the Sangam period, people adorned themselves
with these gems, reflecting the rich cultural heritage of ancient Tamil Nadu.
8. Elaborate on the uses of the gems discovered in ancient Tamil Nadu.
"In ancient Tamil Nadu, the production and export of exquisite gemstones, especially pearls from the
Neelagiri region, were prevalent. Gemstones obtained from this region included:
1. Green Stone (பச்சசக்கல் )
- Found in the coastal region of Kangayam in present-day Tamil Nadu.
- It was highly valued during the Sangam period and was extensively used by the people.
- Kangayam coastal areas, such as Anaimalai, Kodumanal, Karur, Musiri, and Thondi, played a
significant role in the extraction of green stones.
2. Gomedhaka Stone (ககொகமதகக்கல் )
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- Gomedhaka stones were found in the town of Punnaadu during the Sangam period.
- The stones, characterized by a deep red color, were sourced from regions like Andhra Pradesh and
Tripura.
3. Red Stone (சிவப்புக்கல் )
- Red stones, known for their high value, were obtained in abundance in the Kongu region.
- Places like Tirukkambuliyoore, Alagarai, Karur, Urainoor, Alagankulam, Arikkamedu, and
Kodumanal were known for the availability of these red stones.
- These stones were also exported to foreign countries by traders.
4. Uthanira Stone (ஊதொநிறக்கல் )
- Uthanira stones were widely available in coastal cities like Chennai and other seaports.
- These stones were actively exported to foreign countries through seaports, contributing to trade and
commerce.
5. Manikkam Stone (மொணிக்கக்கல் )
- Manikkam, also known as ilangasivappu or adar sivappu, was a gemstone with a bright red or deep
crimson color.
- It was sourced from countries like Thailand, Cambodia, and Afghanistan.
- People in Sri Lanka engaged in gemstone mining and extracted high-quality rubies.
6. Neelakam Stone (நீ லக்கல் )
- Neelakam stones were found in the Shevaroy and Western Ghats regions, particularly in the Kaveri
basin in Tamil Nadu.
- In the past, the extraction of blue sapphires from the Kangayam region contributed significantly to
the gemstone trade.
7. Palinkukkal Stone (பளிங் குக்கல் )
- Palinkukkal stones were mentioned in Sangam literature, particularly in songs praising the Kaveri
River.
- They were used as ornaments, and people in the Kaveri delta areas received them as gifts.
8. Padikakal Stone (படிகக்கல் )
- Padikakal stones were found in abundance in the Kongu region, particularly in places like
Kangayam, Karur, and Alagankulam.
- These stones were associated with good luck, and people used them as currency.
This information provides insights into the types and significance of gemstones found in ancient Tamil
Nadu, highlighting their role in trade, commerce, and cultural practices."
9. Provide details about the advantages of subsoil drainage.
Introduction:
Keeladi, situated approximately 20 km south of the Madurai city along the Vaigai River, has emerged
as a significant archaeological site in Tamil Nadu, India. The excavation at Keeladi sheds light on the
second urbanization phase of the Indus Valley Civilization, dating back around 2200 years. This essay
explores the unique aspects of the Keeladi archaeological excavation, particularly its findings related to
the lifestyle, culture, and knowledge of the ancient Tamil people.
Keeladi Archaeological Site:
Keeladi, located in the Sivagangai district of Tamil Nadu, stands out as one of the most extensive
archaeological sites in the state. It surpasses many other contemporary excavations in Tamil Nadu in
terms of the scale of findings related to ancient urban civilization. The site has yielded a rich array of
artifacts, including exquisite beads, pottery, iron tools, and other items that provide insights into the
daily lives and cultural practices of the people who lived during the Sangam period.
Seventh Phase Excavation:
In the seventh phase of excavation at Keeladi, 13 trenches were dug, revealing a wealth of artifacts.
Notably, seven potteries found in one trench contained inscriptions in ancient Tamil script, contributing
significantly to our understanding of the linguistic and literary heritage of the region. The findings
include gold ornaments, musical instruments, stone tools, copper implements, and various items
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associated with daily life.
Features of the Excavation:
The excavation unearthed a unique red pottery basin in one trench, showcasing distinctive features. The
basin, with a depth of 60 cm and dimensions of 34 cm (length), 30 cm (width), and 24 cm (height),
contained a variety of artifacts. Additionally, five more basins were discovered in the same trench,
displaying an array of items in reddish-brown color.
Cultural Artifacts:
Keeladi has provided a treasure trove of cultural artifacts dating back to over 2600 years. Among the
findings are gemstones, pearls, women's jewelry, terracotta figurines, ivory combs, copper tools, iron
weapons, and more than 5300 beads. Notable structures from the excavation include granaries, brick
structures, and well-planned layouts, indicating a sophisticated urban settlement.
Conclusion:
The Keeladi archaeological excavation stands as a testament to the rich cultural, educational, and
economic heritage of ancient Tamil Nadu. The artifacts and structures discovered offer valuable
insights into the lives of the people during the Sangam period. Keeladi's significance in Tamil history
and its contributions to our understanding of ancient civilizations make it a pivotal site in the world of
archaeology.
10 Establish 'Kodumanal' as a center for civic awareness in Sangam literature.
.
Introduction:
Kodumanal is a town situated to the north of Chennimalai in the Erode district of the ancient Kongu
Nadu. It lies on the northern bank of the Kaveri River, connecting Karur, the capital of the Sangam era,
with the western coast. Therefore, Kodumanal holds historical significance in the ancient trade routes.
This essay aims to establish the historical importance of Kodumanal.
Kodumanal:
In Sangam literature, it received the name 'Kodumanam,' signifying the brilliance of ironwork. Skilled
craftsmen in ironworks, known for creating intricate designs on sturdy iron artifacts, were present in
this region. Kodumanal has been recognized for its significant contributions to industrial and
technological advancements in the fields of engineering and metallurgy.
Industrial Hub:
Kodumanal has evolved into the industrial hub of Tamil Nadu. The town is renowned for its robust iron
industries, producing various tools and ornaments through forging and casting processes. Notable
products include thousands of varieties of ornamental and utilitarian items, such as statues, weapons,
and agricultural tools. The town has been a major exporter of these products to foreign countries,
including Egypt and Rome.
Commercial Relations with Foreign Countries:
Kodumanal has been involved in extensive trade, exporting goods like iron and various commodities to
civilizations like Greece, Rome, and Egypt. The town has gained prominence as an international trade
center, fostering economic and cultural exchange with foreign nations.
Artifacts from Excavations:
Archaeological excavations in Kodumanal have unearthed artifacts such as golden and silver coins
from the Roman Empire, as well as statues and iron tools. Notably, a well-preserved lion sculpture and
an iron pillar have been discovered, dating back to the Chola period, showcasing the town's rich history.
Kodumanal:
In conclusion, the above-mentioned historical records reveal the uniqueness and individuality of
Kodumanal. The town has played a pivotal role in the cultural, economic, and technological progress of
the region. Additionally, Kodumanal has attracted merchants, scholars, and artisans from various
foreign lands, contributing to its status as a prominent historical and industrial center.
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UNIT-V
PART-A
1 Who will support the development of Tamil Science?
Science study magazines in Tamil are being released to promote awareness of science
among students. Science year ceremonies, science forums, and events like "The Sound, The
Light, The Plays" are organized to propagate science and its impact on development
through subsidiary initiatives in Tamil.
2 What are the magazines that publish related news in science?
Magazines such as Health Sprout, Science, Ray of Light, Cattle Ray, Your Body Good,
Science Wing, and Agriculture publish science-related news.
3 What is the purpose of a website as a medium?
A website serves the purpose of immediately presenting and disseminating one's opinions
and information. Reviews and feedback can also be obtained through the website itself..
4 What are some reading tools for e-books?
E-book reading tools include Amazon Dot Com (Kindle), Barnes & Noble's Nook,
SonyReader by Sony, Apple's iPad, and similar devices.
5 Name the locations for software development in Tamil.
Software development locations in Tamil include I.I.D. Chennai, Elder Brother University
Adyar, Buy It Engineering College Thiruperundurai, V.I.D. Vellore, I.I.D. Kanpur, and
Kharagpur.
6 What is the purpose of the Tamil Internet Institute of Education?
The Tamil Internet Institute of Education, initiated by the Tamil Nadu government in the
year 2000, aims to provide high-quality education in Tamil via the internet in fields like
Tamil proofing, language, literature, art, and more to enthusiasts.
7 What educational programs are offered by the Institute of Internet Education?
The Institute of Internet Education offers programs ranging from kindergarten, certificate
education, charter courses, and even an undergraduate degree in Tamil
8 Write the Tamil equivalent of the English word Hard Disk, Element.
Hard Disk –நநநநநநநநந
Element –நநநநநந..
9 Note the Tamil Wiktionary
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The name of the dictionary for Tamil within Wikipedia is Tamil Wiktionary. It serves
as a platform for numerous creative endeavors in Tamil. It's an encyclopedia of
messages compiled in various languages, averaging 267 languages worldwide in
Wikipedia.
10 What is an e-dictionary that aids Tamil learners?
Google Tamil English–E Dictionary is an e-dictionary designed to assist Tamil learners.
11 State two uses of a dictionary.
A dictionary serves as the sole place for literal explanations in various languages. It enables
global communication for university students and enhances language learning and interest.
12 What is the primary objective of the 'Sorkuvait' scheme?
The 'Sorkuvait' scheme aims to safeguard and preserve the Tamil language, prevent its
dilution through influence from other languages, and amplify its usage.
PART-B
Write in detail about today's scientific advancements for the development of the
1
Tamil language.
Introduction

Science belongs to the individual or the nation. It is common to the whole world.
The benefits of science are shared by all, educated and uneducated alike. Scientific
development slowly took root and expanded at the end of the twentieth century. Science
has no language restrictions. Language has functioned only as a tool rather than a hindrance
to its infinite achievements. It is essential for everyone, especially students, to know the
innovations and other scientific and non-scientific facts being discovered in a corner of the
world that has been shrunk by various communication tools. In this revolution of
knowledge, the language also gets involved and enriched and gets the ability to compete
with other countries.

Mother tongue education

Mother tongue education will be of great benefit to us who have to live with the world.
Philosophers note that when learning a foreign language, the concepts of that language are
transformed into their own language cues.

Historical facts show that the thoughts that result from learning in the mother tongue are
the best. Evidence for this is abundant in both the major fields of biology and science.
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Even illiterate people easily understood other hints given in Tattam language. Therefore, it
is obvious that learning and teaching in the mother tongue combined with life can produce
excellent results. If we take the developed countries of the world as evidence, we can see
that all the subjects are being taught through the mother tongue in all those countries.

English's dominance has spread to many countries around the world, making it the most
widely spoken and connecting language. All the information of World Innovations is
readily available in English. Research papers published in other countries are translated
into their language in China and information is exchanged instantly. Thus language acts as
a medium of communication as far as science is concerned. Learning and teaching becomes
easier if the medium of communication is mother tongue.

A strong foundation and clear thinking are needed to make new discoveries through one's
own efforts with basic scientific concepts. Without clarity in thinking, new ideas cannot be
created and implemented.

A 10-minute tutorial can introduce the message you need to know by reading a ten-page
lesson. It is to deeply impress the messages in the mind by providing face-to-face practical
training and to try other trainings based on that training. In this case, the ability of students
to understand can be increased by teaching textual education and formal education through
our mother tongue Tamil.

It has been many years since Tamil was introduced as a medium of instruction. Life and
science subjects are taught in Tamil from primary to high school. Tamil medium education
is also provided in government colleges. However, while the number of students studying
mother tongue education is in majority up to secondary school level, it is less in higher
educational institutions like colleges and universities.

It doesn't matter whether students pursuing an English Language of Instruction degree are
proficient in English or any other subject. As a foot in the river is a foot in the mud, half
there and half here. It is a stagnation in knowledge caused by networking without clearly
understanding elements and concepts. This does not lead to clarity of thought. This can
only be done if the facts of the particular subject are learned by mistake. Tamil, which is
naturally the home language and the language of life, helps a lot in quick understanding
and thinking. And what one gets in college has little to do with the job one gets hired for.
After graduating in science subjects, they work as clerks, typists and managers in banks,
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other government and private institutions. Thus, the training and education he received in
science subjects, the money he personally spent to get his degree, and the money the
government spent on him are wasted.

Conclusion

From the above evidence, it can be seen that we have to do our duty for the development of
today's knowledge and that proper arrangements should be made for students to learn
science subjects in Tamil.

2 What responsibilities do we have for the advancement of Tamil?

Publication of scientific research journals, publication of entertainment science picture
books to create scientific awareness among students, conducting science annual festival,
establishing science forums, spreading scientific ideas through sound and light dramas are
very essential for the development of science Tamil.

The number of periodicals published in the sciences is very small compared with the
weekly periodicals published in other arts. Certain journals like Health Thulur,
Vijnanachudar, Kalaikadir, Vetikadir, Sama Sanathan, Vishna Wing, Budding Agriculture
are continuously engaged in the effort of science dissemination. Readership of these
magazines is very less. Universities should come forward to publish other scientific
journals like these as a service.

In Bharathidasan University, abstracts of research papers in specific scientific fields are

being translated and published in Tamil. Similarly, it is essential to establish a separate
system to keep the students informed of the news happening in all the scientific fields and
to preserve the news.

In many developed countries, including Japan, all research papers published in English are
translated into the native language and presented to researchers. This eliminates the
possibility of study stagnation. This can also be done in Tamil. Difficulties may arise in the
translation of terminology in the beginning. A separate committee should be appointed for
each branch of science to examine the terms in use and newly coined terms, accept the
appropriate ones and prescribe them for use by all. A few bumps in the beginning will get
smoother over time.

The government, one way, the people say that way. The government should document the
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implementation of Tamil as the language of instruction and training in all scientific

disciplines including medicine and engineering. Our answer to those who ask if this is
easily possible is 'yes it is'. A great reformation can easily be effected by a small order.

When science is taught in colleges and universities through Tamil, the students studying in
it will not be able to go to other places in search of employment. Some argue that their
intellectual development will suffer if they are not immediately available. There does not
seem to be any truth in this claim. Because we do not prohibit learning English or other
languages 'as a language'. But one can learn well only by studying it; We deny that it can
be investigated. If there is truth in the above statement, will the number of educated people
in our country be unrelated to the study of Indian science and economic knowledge?

In our country, which produces a large number of graduates every year, there should be a
large number of studies to compete with. But here the situation is different. We are only
teaching graduates ie non-work related education. Therefore, education and employment
should be properly linked.

Today, there is no sector where computers have not entered. In the near future, it may even
become impossible for any department to function without computers. Proper training
courses should be instituted to inculcate the interest of the students in computer-based
Tamil medium education especially in science and vocational subjects.

Clear vision, strong basic education and proper technical training are essential for human
resource development and national progress. In this day when nursery schools and
matriculation schools are increasing, there is a need to raise the slogan of everything
including science in Tamil.

Write an article on the development of computers in Tamil, accompanied by a

3
corresponding illustration."
Introduction

Human society has been constantly trying to develop language ability, a special
ability of the human brain. One of its uses is the taxonomy for natural languages. The
written form of language was the first language technology developed by man. Written
language is the technology developed by human society to preserve its ideas across time
and space. Man began to embody his ideas in various media: pots, rocks, stones, footprints.
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Its present day development is typesetting, print and computer fonts.

Computer Tamil

About 30 years ago, there was no facility to input Tamil into the computer. Tamil
fonts, keyboards are not created. Only if facilities are created for Tamil input first then
other applications can be considered. Later, a facility was developed to input Tamil text in
Roman characters and convert it into Tamil fonts. Software like Adami was developed.
Created fonts for Tamil characters.

As a further development, Tamil keyboards were developed. As a result, there was a

facility to input Tamil directly into the computer. The opportunity to use Tamil in software
such as Word, WordPerfect, Word Star, PageMaker, Ventura has grown.

However, several problems persisted in encoding Tamil fonts into the computer. There was
no standardization in coding for Tamil fonts. A situation persisted where a Tamil document
typed with a particular Tamil software could not be read or edited by another Tamil
software. The ASCII (ASCII) coding system was a hindrance to this. Tamil keyboards are
also not standardized.

The next stage of development

The Tamil language technology that we have seen so far in inscriptions, printing, typing,
printing and computers is the technology used to embed or imprint Tamil text or text on
them. It is the language technology used to preserve Tamil practices over time and space.
They cannot understand the Tamil work or text written on them or written on them by
calligraphy, print, print or computer. Entries can only be stored securely.

This type of language technique can be called passive / passive language technique. This
technique is similar to carving an image into a statue. An immovable statue on which an
image is engraved does not understand itself. Even understanding what we say does not
work.

If the computer can understand and act on the Tamil text written on it as we understand it,
then it is an autonomous or active language technology. It is like a mechanical man. Isn't
the machine human in some way understanding and acting on what we say, so this is
language technology that understands and acts on what we say. This type of language
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technology has also been developed for continental languages such as English and German.

Machine translation

When you type English text with English dictation software like MS Word, spelling
and grammar errors are detected immediately and displayed with a red line. The software
also helps us by providing correct words so that we can correct them immediately. That is,
these softwares work like a language teacher. This can be done because these softwares
also have the language knowledge that the teacher has. It includes automatic spelling and
grammar checkers.

Some software like Dragon, we just need to speak English in front of the computer and
they will type on the computer. This is called speech to text converter. As such, there are
software programs that read the computer to us as it is. These are called text to speech
converters. Beyond this, there are softwares that can understand the content of some pages
and tell us what they mean when we input them into the computer. This is known as
functional abstract conceptualization. Efforts are currently being made to develop software
that can translate text or content in one language into another.

How has all this been possible for Western languages? Vocabulary knowledge and
grammar knowledge of these languages are programmed into the computer. So, just as our
brain understands and acts on language, so does the computer. It is because our brain has
knowledge of our language that the brain understands what we speak and write; We can
also express our thoughts in language. This knowledge must be fed into the computer as
programs. Only then will the above language technology develop.

Can it be in Tamil?

All the above linguistic techniques should be applied to Tamil language as well. Only then
will the range of use of Tamil expand. This work can only be successful if Tamil language
knowledge is presented in a mathematical manner in a computer understandable manner. A
field called Computational Linguistics and Language Technology is growing today as a
field for that. Only if the study of Tamil language is done based on the knowledge of that
department, electronic Tamil and Computer Tamil will develop.

Grammar texts and today's linguistic studies were created for the human brain. If you give
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them to a computer as it is, the computer cannot understand it. They must be converted into
computer programs that can be understood by the electronic chips located in the computer.
All Tamil dictionaries should be converted into computer-readable ones. The capacity of
the human brain is different. The capacity of the computer is different. With background
knowledge, our brain can understand a concept even if it is abstracted or implied. But a
computer cannot do that. So Tamil grammar and dictionary should be given in a format
suitable for computer comprehension.

Conclusion

Today, efforts to include Tamil in the development of Tamil have been largely successful.
Many problems have been solved in the creation of Tamil fonts, keyboards. In turn, Tamil
Wikipedia, blogs and websites are proliferating. All these are welcome Tamil works. But
all these are just the first stage of computerization development. We have now passed this
first stage. From now on, our work should be directed towards the next stage of
development: self-directed active language technology.

4 B.D. F. Explain the use of the system.

PDF format

 PDF is a portable document format(PDF) is a file format developed by Adobe

Systems in 1993 for document exchange. PDF is a software used to represent two-
dimensional documents in a way that is independent of application software,
hardware and operating system. Each PDF file contains a complete description of
the standard-layout 2D document, including the text, fonts, images, and 2D vector
graphics that make up the document. Recently, 3D graphics can be embedded in
PDF documents with Acrobat 3D using U3D or PRC and various other data
formats.

Use of PDF format

 We store many PDF files in our computer but if we mark some important lines in
that file we can easily and immediately see it next time. Sometimes the description
of the important images can be written in the PDF file. What is surprising is that we
can convert PDF files online without any software support.
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 The PDF format is to store a document in electronic form instead of printing it on a

printer. There is no change in the format of the text except the change in the
medium.
 Cover, table of contents, page numbers, feedback, etc. are all embedded in the PDF
document as they are in the print version.
 Instead of turning pages printed on paper with a finger, we turn pages on a screen
with a mouse.

 The page displayed in the PDF reader can be viewed larger or smaller. But the
layout of the page can make the letters bigger or smaller. Images and page size will
be resized accordingly. But the appearance of the page will not change.
 If a page has 10 lines and two images, no matter how much you change, only the
same number of lines and images will appear on that page. The lines on the next
page will not appear on this page. Likewise the lines on this page do not carry over
to the next page.

 Creating eBooks in PDF format is very easy. You can save PDF e-books from the
same process as formatting a document for printing. Applications such as Microsoft
Word, Adobe In-Design etc. are suitable. Saving files as PDF requires a program
called PDF Writer. These are available for free.
 Best to avoid Page Maker app. In this old app it is not possible to set pages with
unicode tamil fonts. So many problems may arise in Tamil e-books created in Page
Maker in future.

 Only a few features can be added to the stored e-book in this system. You can use
programs like Adobe Acrobat to link the headings on the content page to the pages
in the thread. Apart from these minor improvements, no other innovations can be
made in PDF e-books.

5 Write about the design and benefits of a website.

Foreword
In today's world of information technology, the 'Internet' is doing great help to the people
of the world irrespective of language, race, etc. It contributes greatly to the development of
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literature without being restricted to a few specific areas such as science, mathematics, and
science. The ancient Tamil language is also gaining a place for itself on the Internet. A new
genre of literature called 'web flowers' has emerged and is making a great contribution to
the Tamil language which is growing with innumerable genres of literature on the internet.

Website

A society must do today's work with today's tools. A race that does today's work with
yesterday's tools will suffer tomorrow's life. It is inevitable" according to Dr. V. S.
Kulandhasami, we have to do today's work with today's tools. It is on that basis that we
have started using the internet. A separate literary category called blogs has emerged from
it. A website is a service through the Internet that enables an individual to communicate
with others in the world through the Internet, including letters, sound, optical files,
drawings, and images used to communicate from one person to another.
A blog is called a blog in English. By this means weblog (Webblog). On 17-12-1997 John
Barger created and used the name Webblog in English. After this, the name Blog, which is
an abbreviation, was used by Peter Merholz from April 1999.
According to his website, the first blog in Tamil was created by a blogger named Navan on
January 26, 2003. But on 1st January 2003, Karthik Ramas created the first website, as
pointed out in the web magazine Chinta Nadi. Nine of these two blogs are bloggers. com
and Karthik Ramas blog Blackdrive.

Professor M. Ilangovan mentioned in the 8th Tamil Internet Conference Malar that the
blogger Karthikeyan Ramasamy (Karthik Ramas) made the first blog in Tamil. Tamil
Wikipedia also mentions Karthikeyan Ramasamy's website as the first Tamil website.
After the publication of an article on the creation and uses of Tamil web pages in the web
magazine Vekhtigar, many people started to know about Tamil web pages. In the early
days of Tamil blogs, there were problems with the Tamil font, so the development was a bit
slow. From 2003 to 2005, about 1000 blogs appeared. Subsequently, in the period from
2005 to 2007, this number increased to 4000, Professor K. Duraiarasan has mentioned in
the book "Internet and Iniya Tamilum"..
Conclusion
In the history of literature, we call Sangam period, Sangam Maruviya period, Bhakti
literature period, Kappiya period, Cilitakya period, European period, the present period can
be called "Computer era" or "Tamil internet age". contains iThus a variety of Tamil
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literature is quickly carried to the outside world. Thus, the contribution of blogs to the
development of the Tamil language can be seen to be making a great contribution.

Writ an in-depth explanation of the Tamil Wiktionary, specifically focusing on its

6
function as a Tamil dictionary.
TamilWiktionary
 Tamil Wiktionary is a collaborative effort to create a free multilingual alphabet,
including meaning for words, phonetics, example sentences, sequences, etc.
 Not only Tamil – Tamil, English – Tamil, Tamil – English but also French, Sinhala,
Malay language etc. can be interpreted in it. This project was launched on July 24,
2004 as one of the Tamil projects of Wikimedia Corporation.
Uses of Tamil Wiktionary
 Tamil Wiktionary is the name of Tamil Wikipedia's dictionary that does many
creative things for Tamil. Wikipedia is a global information platform.
 2001 - Created in English language. The Wikipedia encyclopedia compiles news in
about 267 languages worldwide. Wiktionaries are part of this. It supports
Wiktionaries for 172 languages. Alphabetical dictionaries contain glossaries.
 Launched in 2004 as an attempt to give meaning to Tamil words, today it ranks
10th in the World Internet Dictionary with 1,918,257 words.
 Tamil words are placed in the order of Tamil – Tamil – English and in the order of
English – Tamil. There are other language equivalents of Tamil (eg English,
French, German, Hindi, Malayalam, Kannada, Sinhala). There is also a facility to
hide English words.
 In the section about father, or Tamil words, the news is given in two major
categories, etymology and nouns for the word father. There is also a title to describe
the etymology.
 Under the heading of Vocabulary words are divided into two categories namely
Tamil – English and English – Tamil. This section contains a dictionary of words
found in Palandamili literature under the category Tamil Dictionary.

Tamil Dictionary
 Immin's dictionary in English-Tamil-Cherman language is special. If you enter
English words, the corresponding Tamil word and meaning will appear. They also
give German language material immediately. Also pure Tamil words are featured
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in the e-dictionary. It has various search facilities.

 English – Tamil, Tamil – English, English – German, German – Tamil are
available so we can get the alternative language and its terms and benefit from this
dictionary.
7 What does 'e-book' mean? Explain its benefits.
 Electronic books or e-books are very popular in today's technological world. Many
printed books are being republished as e-books. And some newly published books
are only published as e-books.
 E-publishing of books enables high quality books to be published internationally at
low cost and in short time. Along with text and images, print books are available.
But technology is giving an opportunity to the extent that e-books can also contain
multimedia such as animation, sound etc.
 Such facilities add to the attractiveness of the e-book and thus increase the
engagement of the students with the book. He looks at the various formats of e-
books and their appearance on mobile devices.
Electronic systems
 An e-book is an electronic or digital version of a book. E-books are generally
developed by publishers to distribute their books through electronic, digital media.
These can be plain text or contain special information about the text. E-books are
published in various formats. Let us see some of the important ones.
 PDF format.
 (HTML) format for publishing on the Internet.
 The new international standard e-Pub (ePub) system.
 All three systems are systems that can be run on all three platforms – computer,
web and mobile devices. To read an e-book in PDF format, you need a PDF reader.
A browser is enough to read an e-book on the web. An e-pub reader is required to
read an e-pub format e-book.
 Although all three systems are considered e-books, there are many differences
between them. The way the text is designed, the tool used for reading, the
experience of reading - these are the main differences.
8 Are creative messages highlighting the creation of Tamil software welcomed?
 A Tamil Software Incubation Center has been started at the Tamil Institute of
Internet Education.
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 This center will have work station, computers with internet connection, software
and other tools.

 The center will help those who have creative ideas and the passion and energy to
develop software in Tamil to carry out the research, testing, development and
presentation of those ideas to the world.

 For creative minds, Tech.Parks and Product/Process Incubation Centers have come
to support them. These are generally operating in institutes like IITs and major
universities around the world.

 The technicians from the factories would come and stay here and try to carry out
new ideas and research projects by using the laboratories, library and other facilities
there in coordination with the professors in these institutes.

 As a result of the development of information technology, there is a great need to

develop new software, so separate software development centers have been
established in educational institutions. The Central Government is also developing
and implementing a Software Technology Park of India (STPI) at Tharamani,
Chennai.
 Such centers have been established in Tamil Nadu at the following locations.

IIT, Chennai

2. Department of Biotechnology, Anna University, Chennai

3. Kongu College of Engineering, Thiruperundurai

4. VIT Vellore

At the Indian level, these centers are also functioning at IIT, Kanpur, Kharagpur etc. Such
centers are used by companies, teachers, students etc. to implement any idea.

 Today there is a need to develop software in Tamil as well. Some have ventured
into this industry and have tended to develop Tamil software. And many people are
interested in developing Tamil software. But they neither have the facilities nor the
capital to build the facilities. So to help them, if we set up software development
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centers with all the necessary facilities, their ideas will take shape; Many software
will evolve; Its usage and demand for new software will increase. So mathematics
will grow.

 Therefore, for the specific purpose of developing software in Tamil, a project was
proposed to the Government of Tamil Nadu to establish a Tamil Software
Development Center at the Tamil Internet Education Institute. The Government of
Tamil Nadu has also accepted it and allocated Rs.45.00 lakhs under the Part-2
project.

 To implement this scheme, an expert committee has been set up in T.E.C. The
committee met and defined the computer and construction facilities to be in place at
the centre. Accordingly, on the ground floor of the TEC, private rooms of
approximately 64 square feet, a discussion hall, a library and a reception hall will be
established.

 The center will have computers, software, other tools and services for Tamil
software development. The Center will help those with creative ideas carry out the
research, testing, development and refinement necessary to bring those ideas to life..

1. Users:
1. Students/Faculty2. Creative minded individuals3. Small and micro enterprises
2.Method of selection of users:

 First they have to apply with their proposed project concept and explain it to the
TEC expert panel.
 A panel of experts will select them based on the nature of the project and the need.
 Selected software developers will each be provided with a 64-square-foot
workspace, a computer, and the necessary software.
 They can avail the TEC library and professional help in TEC.
 T.E.K. A conference hall at Will can also be availed.

3. Period :

The expert panel will decide how much time will be required for the project. This
usually lasts from six months to a year.
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4. Financial Requirement:

The TEC Expert Committee decided that the following fees could be charged as
appropriate to recover the funds required to run the center on a non-profit basis. .
Fee Details:
One month service
V. No Users
fee
1. For a student Rs.1,000/=
2. For an individual Rs.4,000/=
3. For micro, small entrepreneurs and companies Rs.10,000/=

Also, if the software developed is very useful, there is a scheme to give a reasonable
discount on the fee paid by the developer.
9 Explain the concept of a project and elaborate on its intended purpose?
Introduction

Words are the basis of language. Language can be preserved and improved only by
preserving words. As the words multiply, the language grows and grows. From time to time
some words in the language change their meaning; Some words are obsolete; Some words
are newly formed. Compiling all these and publishing them in alphabetic form will be a
creative task for language development.

In that way, the Government of Tamil Nadu wanted to compile and publish
Etymological Alphabets in Tamil for the benefit of scholars, public, researchers and
students.

Thinking that the work would be better only if there was a separate directorate to
implement this, the Tamil Nadu government created the Department Head Office,
Senthamilh Etymology Akaramudi Project Directorate.

Tamil language, which is the oldest language in the world, has a rich grammar, rich
in literature in various fields, and has the power to create terms for all scientific fields from
its vocabulary, which is developing very quickly, requires proper guidance to understand
the meaning of the word clearly.

If creators and educators want to have the ability to know and express each
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vocabulary of Tamil language well, then an etymological dictionary that reveals the roots
of Tamil is very essential for them.

Only a language capable of creating terminology will survive in today's rapidly

growing science; Will grow. Thus the Akaramudi Directorate is carrying out the primary
task of supporting the life and development of a language. Collected all the words of Tamil
language, gave the meaning of those words in English and Tamil, gave the explanation of
the root word from which those words appeared, created and published in the form of
books of Senthamilch etymology with illustrations of rare words; Also uploaded on the
internet.

What makes Tamil language proud is its vocabulary. Gathering all the terms in
more than 600 fields in today's education field and designing Tamil terms equivalent to
them and publishing them in the public space of the website and gathering all the words
that have been published in Tamil dictionaries so far; Among them, the primary objective
of the 'Sorkuvait' project is to make Tamil vocabulary known to the world by
deduplication.

Through the website Sorkuvai.com launched under this scheme, a way has been
made to resolve doubts related to Tamil vocabulary. Doubts related to Tamil vocabulary
can also be resolved through a toll-free phone line which will be launched soon. It is
thought that by using this vocabulary scheme by scholars and linguists all over the world,
Tamil will move from 14th place to 10th place in the list of languages published by the
United Nations Organization (UNESCO).

A separate website has been created for the 'Sorkuvait' project. Tamil scholars,
Tamil enthusiasts, students, public etc. create new Tamil terms related to various fields can
be uploaded on this website. The words will be uploaded and made available for use in the
public space after being analyzed and approved by the expert panel of 'Chorkuvai'.

Primary Objectives of Narrative

To preserve the vocabulary of Tamil language, to increase the vocabulary of Tamil

language, to help avoid mixing of other languages in Tamil language.

10 Write about the E- dictionaries applications and marked messages arrangement.

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Use of electronic dictionaries

Researchers, linguists and linguists are greatly benefited by the availability of e-
dictionaries on the Internet.

1. Look for and buy printed dictionaries. If you get it, you have it. Today, online e-
dictionaries break it down and make it easy for us to look it up. 2. Time is saved. No time
wastage.3. No need to look up the subject with a dictionary. In the e-dictionary you can
find and understand multilingual dictionaries in Tamil and other languages. 4. Tamil E-
Dictionary is widely used by Tamilians around the world. 5. The words have been
compiled and published department wise in the e-dictionary. It is easy for word searchers.
6. It has found a good reception for Tamil language in the world e-dictionary. 7. Multiple
language definitions for a term are available at one place. 8. All of us can upload the case
word, vernacular we know to the e-dictionary in the internet specific e-dictionary (Tamil
Wiktionary) and make it useful for the language and others. 9. E-dictionary increases
global university connectivity and interest in learning a foreign language. 10. Many new e-
dictionaries should be created by the Tamil Nadu government or by us to add new words.
Only then will the superiority of Tamil be known to the world. 11. It is enough for the
universities and colleges to compile the words in their area and post them on their
institutional websites along with the meaning description. It will be a good journey for the
development of e-dictionary. It will also be a relief for Tamil.
12. Tamil e-dictionaries should be created on the Internet to provide definitions of words in
more than ten foreign languages simultaneously.
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UNIT-IV
PART-A
1 Write a short note on Karikalan.
Karikalan's pen name is Tirumavalavan. He built the bridge over the Cauvery river. He
established tree planting, pond cutting, hospitals etc. in his country. The glorious Vangarika
who speaks in praise of Pattinapalai and Purananootrupadal is great.

2 Explain river canal and lake canal.

In agriculture, canal construction method is known as river canal. A river canal is a channel
that brings water directly from the river to the field. A canal used to bring water to the lake
is called a lake canal.

3 What were the Agricultural Technology Boards set up by the Pallava kings?
Plantation, Lake management, Kalanivariam, Panchavariam, Accountancy, Tadiwayvariam
etc. are agricultural technology boards established by the Pallava kings.

4 What is the profession of Aqueducts?

Those who knew the strategy of how to distribute the river water to other water bodies near
them without blocking the river water completely and filling only the lake were called
Aqueducts.

5 What does matpan mean?

A matpan is a pot made of copper. This meter is used to calculate the amount of water
flowing per acre of land. That means there is a small hole at the bottom of the device. He
fills the pot with water. It will be placed on the stone. If all the water comes out through the
hole, it is considered that one acre of land has been flooded. This is known as the matpan
system.

6 What are the main factors involved in lake formation?

Digging of ponds, laying of culverts, irrigation canals, culverts, public wells etc.

7 What are the Elements of pond?

The elements of the pond are the embankment, the water outlet, the mound which is used
to drain the excess water.

8 What are 'wave rocks'?

Due to continuous wave action of stagnant water in the pond, the shore in the pond is
receding. To prevent this, stones are placed in this area. These rocks act as breakwaters and
protect the shore from water erosion. Hence these are called wave rocks.

9 Write a short note on Dam.

The system used to release water from a reservoir is called a dam. It is in a door like
arrangement. This can increase or decrease the amount of water coming out.

10 What is Kalingu?
'Kalingu' means the protective bulwark of the pond. A culvert is used to discharge the water
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that fills the pool above a certain level.

11 What is barter System?

Barter System is the act of giving one thing and getting another thing in return. This is
evidenced by the fact that Umans give salt and receive rice.
Are there ancient texts on aeronautical technology?
12
Purananuru, Silapathikaram, Sivakacintamani, Perunthogai.

PART-B
1 Write in detail about the features of Kallanai Dam.
Introduction

Kallanai is the oldest dam in India. This dam is near Trichy district in Tamil Nadu. It is hailed
by many as Akanta Kaveri. It was built during the British rule. Kolli and Thiruvaranga river
island are nearby. From here Kaveri river reaches East Kallanai.

This kallanai is built to prevent floods and to use the water to increase the irrigated area. This
dam is almost more than 2000 years old. The biggest surprise is that this dam is still holding
back the flood today. Explorers and many more in tourism are amazed to hear that all this is
more than 2000 years old.

History of the Tomb

This stone was built in the 1st century AD by the Chola king called Karikalan. Kallanai is the
oldest of the existing dams and is still in use today. It is said to be the oldest irrigation scheme
in the world. As the foundation of the dam is built on sand, the technology of Palandamizhar
who built this stone is a source of pride till today.

The length of the tomb is 1080 feet and width is 66 feet and height is 18 feet. It is seen with a
wavy texture. The dam is built with only stone and clay. For more than 1900 years Cauvery
has been holding back the flood. A bridge was built over the dam in 1839. It has also become a
tourist spot as a large number of people come from many places to see it every day.

Stone built technology

Centuries ago, the ruler of Tamil 'Karikala Cholan' saw the frequent floods in the Cauvery and
the suffering of the people.

The Tamils also found a way to build a dam over the Cauvery water, which flows two hundred
thousand cubic feet per second.

They brought big rocks over the river Cauvery. Those rocks also got buried in the soil little by
little because of the water. Another rock was placed on top of it and a kind of sticky clay was
coated on the new rock so that it did not dissolve in water and they made it stick to both rocks.
This is the technology used to build this dam.

Syrups of stone

An English explorer named Sir Arthur Corton, who is said to be the father of India's irrigation,
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spent many years exploring this stone and brought to the world the knowledge of dam
construction and irrigation management. He also named the stone as 'Grand Amgat'.

Kallanai was built with only stone and clay. It took more than 30 years to complete it.The dam
was built by hammering rocks together at a depth of 12 feet. The rock was mixed with clay. In
the year 1839, a bridge was built over the Kallanai. If we stand on the bridge, we can see the
wonder of the whole dam and natural flowers. Every day a large number of people from many
countries and towns come to see this stone with amazement and surprise. During the British
rule in the 19th century AD, Captain Major 'Jim Sir Arthur Corton', an expert, renovated the
stone built by Karikalan without demolishing it.

Mani Mandapam of Karikala Chola

This oldest stone has a stone that stands firm after passing many centuries and is proud of the
construction skills of the Tamils. A Mani Mandapam has been erected on the left bank of the
Cauvery River on the road from Thirukkattupalli to Karikala Chola who built it. In this hall,
there is a bronze statue of Karikala Chola sitting on an elephant.

Conclusion

The Kaveri river dam is a testimony that Tamils are proud of. All these three exist without love
for each other. We have learned in every primary school lesson that Karikalan built this dam.
Wherever the Kaveri river flows, there is the name Karikalan. That is why the Cholas called
Kaveri the Karikala Chola Empire.
2 Describe Pallavar Irrigation Structures and Boards.
Introduction
The successors of the Sanga period were the Kalapras. The news about them is not so much
presented by researchers. There were many who came to the throne after them. But there was a
great king in Kanchi before these people. A man named Srivishnu suddenly overthrew the
Pallava Empire in AD. This illustrious king existed before the establishment of the sixth
century. He has been sung by Kadiyalur Uruthirang Kannanar, the poet who sang
Thirumavalavan, also known as Ivan Karikal Peruvalathan. His name is Ilandraiyan. His pride
can be seen from this. There is also news that Ilathraiyan is the grandson of Karikalan. He did
irrigation works very well. The lake built by him is called Thirayan Lake called Thenneri. This
can be traced back to the irrigation works of the Pallavas.
Irrigation works
Various types of irrigation constructions were expanded during the Pallava period. They have
formed many boards. Although the information about them is less in the literature, there are
information about them in the tombstones and inscriptions.
Although they were non-Tamils, they later mixed with Tamils. They have cut down many
forests and converted them into fields. Due to the irrigation works done by them in the
northern part of Tamil Nadu, agriculture is still going well there.

Nattukaal, Aatrukaal

Kooram Seppedu means 'Vidya Vineetha Pallava Paramechura took the hand and dug the lake'.
The Mahendravatik inscription tells about a pond called Mahendra Theertha. The Uttara Merur
Inscription tells about the creation of a pond called Vairamekad Thakam.

Apart from this, there are references to the construction of two canals namely country canal
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and river canal. It seems to be systems that can bring water directly from the river to the field
and systems that bring water to the lake. Apart from this, the fountain drains are said to be
springs. Auvaiyar mentions this in the series 'Ootkalalal Ulakudum'. Water from the dam has
been diverted to many lakes. Apart from these, the irrigation structures named Koortan Vai,
Vaitalai, Thalaivai and Mugavai are used to carry water from the river to the field. Pettavaitali
near Trichy is a good proof of this. Land grants were given to maintain these.

Administrative system

The civic system was well established in small towns. Proper elections have been held. There
was an autonomous administrative system. There were many small committees under this
Chiturakshi. These are called Boards. It can be seen that the Pallava people of those days were
the pioneers of the boards set up by the present government. They are

• Samvatsara Board- General Board

• Horticulture Board – deals with horticulture crops
• Lake Board – Concerns about maintenance of lakes, irrigation of lakes
• Kalani Board – Regarding Maruta land fields
• Pancha Board – deals with tax collection
• Board of Accounts – Management of Lake, Dam, Dam, Kalingu etc
• Roads Board – deals with roads leading to fields, beds
The creation of management system in such a sophisticated scientific manner is still surprising
today. These boards have been functioning under the control of the Gram Sabha. There was an
officer named Velinayam to look after the fences of the Kodikal plantations.
Inscriptions record reports that the lakes were immediately paved over when they broke
through. The Somangalak inscription states that 'Somangalamana Panchanadi Vanach
Chaturvedi Mangalattu lake this day fell on the twelfth year of Mangalatu and it broke in seven
places in one day.
Conclusion
From the above evidence, we can know the irrigation construction, irrigation systems and
agricultural specialty of the Pallavas.
3 Establish how the 'lake' was used in agriculture by the Tamils.
Introduction
Agriculture was the primary part of Tamil life. It was considered essential to life. Due to this
the farmers were elevated in social status. And being a producer of food grains, they lived with
self-respect. Agriculture has been practiced since the beginning of the Sangam period. But they
are also efficient in irrigation, ploughing, fertilization, storage and distribution. Through this,
he can see how the irrigation of lake water has been useful for the agriculture sector.
Water Management (Lake)
Water management of Palandamizhars...! There was a very large aquatic community that was
intertwined in Tamil life. These are the people who managed the water management. Their job
is to bring the water flowing in the river to the lakes, store it and bring it to the farmlands. It is
not uncommon for overflowing river water to be channelled into lakes. It requires a lot of
technology. It fell on their knees. Even when the water in the river is low, how to bring that
water to the lake? They did not know that!. How should the river water be distributed to the
adjacent water bodies without blocking the river water completely and filling only the lake?
These are the people who had known for so long. The name of that section of this aquatic
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community is 'niranikars'. They are responsible for bringing the river water to the water bodies.
Lake Keepers
Is it possible to bring water? Shouldn't that water be tied up and protected? They are the ones
who are fully responsible for that lake. The waterman must allow any activity in the lake like
fishing in the lake and farming in the lake during periods of low water!
Lake Guards
A lake's life is on its shores. If that shore is breached, it will destroy itself and destroy those
who rely on it. That is why the banks of the lake are considered very important and such banks
should always be kept strong. Those who watch the work are called 'Karaiyar'. They are
responsible for the lake! No matter how fortified the shores were, the lakes were always
threatened by enemies. Damping a lake can easily derail a country's economy.
Lake cleaners
Although sangha hymns say that breaking lakes is a great sin, there have always been one or
two kings who did not respect this. There are also enemies who cannot be defeated in an
honest way and destroy such water bodies. The people assigned to protect the lake are the
cleaners or pond keepers. They also chased away trespassers into the lake. A lake spread over
hundreds of acres. In this, goats and cows fall down and die, and sometimes people die. The
cleaners are the ones responsible for the cleanliness of the lake, who are responsible for the
cleanliness of the lake by destroying the plants and algae that grow unnecessarily in the lake to
dispose of such things.
Mothers
The responsibility of bringing the water released from the lake to the gates of the fields
through canals was entrusted to 'Neer Vettiyar' and 'Neer Bachiyar'. They are the ones who
monitor the water for the fields. There were structures like Matagu, Madai, Kumizhi,
Dhoombu on the banks of the lake for irrigation and to release the water during floods. There
was a division to open and close these gates.
They are known as 'Maudars'. A lake's shore is the lifeblood of a lake. It was the Tamils who
were most concerned about making the banks strong. Tamils also excelled in setting up
akkarais.
Lake shore formation pattern
All over the world, when creating lakes, they first create an inner wall made of clay. This
prevents the lake water from leaking. After erecting this wall, other soil will be added to it on
both sides to further strengthen the embankment. It is the prediction of the westerners that
without a clay wall, burn banks cannot be built. However, clay was not used in many of the
lake banks designed by the Tamils. They have made the lake bank using the soil available
nearby. These walls are made by using something like a glue that binds the soil with the soil. It
is noteworthy that not even a drop of water leaks out of it.
Conclusion
Through the above evidence, we can know the agricultural technology that came from Tamil
Nadu and how the lake was used for irrigation.
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4 Write in detail about animal motifs in Sangha literature.
• There is much historical evidence that the knowledge of fauna has prevailed in the
countries of the world since ancient times. Many scientific facts have been established
that man was born from ape.
• The Greek word 'zoology' has become a common term for zoology in all European
countries.
• Animal motifs and seals are found in Indus Valley finds. Archaeology provides
evidence that knowledge of animals was very clear among the Palantamils.
• The ancient genealogies (Ch. 2 to 26) mention fifteen types of male animals and
thirteen types of female animals and their juvenile names.

• Monthly inclusion of animals as the theme of subject areas reinforces knowledge

about animals.

Form of Sangha Literary Animal

• Many of the Sangha hymns depict animal motifs found in Sangha literature.
However, only a few examples will be mentioned here.

• Sangha literature mentions three types of deer namely Irali, Navvi and Mariayan.
Among these deer, Iralai deer is said to be the most beautiful, black in color, with a
dark neck and white base of the neck. Zoologists say that this black-and-white pattern
is present only in males and not in females.

• After drinking the rain water of Karkalat, the male of Irali rests fearlessly with his
partner in the shade of the pitava tree and sways like a swaying cow.
• According to this song, the belly of the male Iralaiman was white at that time, which
is similar to the zoologists' statement that the belly of the Iralaiman is white and the
back is black.
Watching the above mentioned news emphasizes the idea that not only the tiger kills
the elephant but also the elephant kills the tiger.
• Many sangha songs deal with the invasion of crops near forests and the destruction of
crops, the grazing of elephants at night in the paddy fields, and the elephants'
preference for bamboo and bamboo shoots in the forests.
• A tiger does not eat grass even if it is hungry. An elephant does not eat meat even if it
is hungry. The tiger usually kills and eats deer and pigs as its prey. The tiger eats the
animals it has killed by dragging them long distances or grabbing them and storing
them. Tigers have the habit of not eating at the place of killing but sneaking and
eating.
• A tiger has a tendency to eat the same food again and again, even if it smells bad and
hides the leftover food in its den or den. These qualities of the tiger are explained in the
Agana Hundred Hymn (chap. 72).
Monkey and snake
• A person born from a monkey is called a man. The relationship between monkey and
snake is different. Zoologists say that monkeys get very scared when they see a snake.
Pythons are said to hang on trees like tentacles and catch and kill and eat monkeys.
Because of this, monkeys feel fear and trembling when they see a snake.

• It is said that the monkey is afraid of the snake and holds on to the snake for fear that
it will bite if it is released. A sculpture containing this message can still be found at
Ambi, the ruined capital of the Vijayanagar kings.
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• In this way, if we find the different qualities, morphological structures and customs of
animals found in the Sangha literature and compare them with the cultural elements of
the Tamil people, we can see that the animal elements are fragrant with the human
mind.

5 Write how 'ponds' were used for ancient agriculture.

• Agriculture plays an important role in human social development. Early agriculture
depended on the rains. If there is no rain in the proper season, agriculture cannot take
place. Thus, the idea of saving rain water during the rainy season was born. Ponds
came into existence through this thought.
• Bank, Madai, Damaku, Kumizhi, Kalingu etc. are the main elements of the pond.
• In earlier times our ancestors made ponds to prevent water from springs from wasting
away. The water from it was used for drinking and agriculture. Eventually the puddle
widened and turned into a pond.
• A pond is a small, still, land-based body of water formed naturally or artificially by
pooling within a depression.
• The kings who ruled Tamilnadu built many ponds. The ponds built in this way are
known by the names of those kings.
• In the pre-mechanized era, the occupation of the majority of people was agriculture.
People's residences were built around the ponds that were built.
• They were constructed to facilitate agriculture through the drainage of pond water.
Therefore, many agricultural villages were formed around the lake and the name of the
town belonging to the lake was kept as the name of the lake.
• Normally pond is irrigated in three ways. They are rain water, river water, and spring
water.
• Ponds were originally used for drinking water and agriculture. But now pond water is
not used as drinking water. It is used less for agriculture and more for bathing and other
needs.
• There are people involved in the fishing industry in the pond. The fish caught in this
pond are called fresh water fish. They do not absorb salt like marine fishes.
• Many ecosystems are linked by water, and ponds have been found to contain more
biodiversity than large freshwater lakes or river systems.
• Therefore, ponds are habitats for many types of organisms including plants,
amphibians, fish, reptiles, waterfowl, insects and some mammals. Ponds are used as
breeding grounds for these species.
• A cross dam is probably only on one side to retain the rainwater flowing towards the
ditch. It is called Kulakattu. Pool bars are usually straight. Some pools are
exceptionally curved. There are also two dammed ponds.
• Another channel with sluices is also provided to drain the water from the pond in case
of increased rainfall during the monsoon season. If the dam overflows with rain water
or the dam breaks, the hatches of the dam will be opened.
• Theppakulams are ponds built for the needs of temples. They cannot be used for other
applications.
• Ponds are generally shallow bodies of water that are also a source of abundant aquatic
plants and other aquatic life. .
• Many ecosystems are connected by water, and ponds have been found to have more
biodiversity than large freshwater lakes or river systems.
• Therefore, ponds are habitats for many types of organisms including plants, amphibians, fish,
reptiles, waterfowl, insects and some mammals. Ponds are used as breeding grounds for these
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species.
6 Establish how the highlanders took up pastoralism.
• Sangha literature includes octuplets and tenfolds. It is divided into internal and
external. Industry is the basis for raising the standard of living of the people. People set
up businesses based on the land they lived on.

• Hilly land is also called Kurinji. Forested land is called Mullai. Field and field land is
called Marutham. Weaving of sea and sea land is called Neythal.

• Mullai is one of the five types of land tenure known to the ancient Tamils. Forest and
forested areas are mullai land. Mullai land is also known as Sembulam. Tolkappiyar
says that Ayar and Vedtuvar are the names of men in Mullai land.

• Shepherding of goats and cows is the main occupation of the Mullai landowners.
Mulla's land god is called Tirumal. The herdsmen grazed goats and cows and derived
their income from the produce.

• A son born in a shopkeeper who owns goats as his wealth, in the evening lays down
on a palm frond that he carries in his hand. He wakes up in the morning and collects
milk and delivers it to the houses in the village. Then he brings home the food they
give him, says a hymn.

• In the evenings the young ones who walk slowly are tied with ropes. The calves will
raise their voices as if they want the milk udders to contract. On seeing it, cowherds
with necks with jingling bells would go towards the houses to untie the calves.
Akananoor (54: 9-11) mentions that Kovalar would walk behind with a stick in his
hand.

• The bishops who shepherded the flocks knew nothing but shepherding. They herded
the sheep while playing the flute. Narita (364: 9-10) exemplifies that a herd of beaded
goats with grassy hair stops grazing and joins the fold when evening comes.

• Midian stands alone in the middle of the night with a pot and a copper-wired pot with
Colin at his feet. A sheep stands guard over a goat. He makes a fire with a matchstick
and folds his mouth to make a gurgling sound. Agananoor (274:7-8) reveals that the
jackal who came to catch the lamb fled because of that sound.

• It is narrated that the shepherd of the sheep plucks the thorn flower and makes a
wreath (266:1-3), and makes a 'veela' sound with his tongue folded so that the goats
gather together and do not stray. At night he sleeps on a cot next to a sheep, covering
his bed with palm leaves. Another legend (142: 4) also relates the news that Idyan
would fetch milk and sell it to the townspeople at a high price.

• Pastoral women are the ones who rise before the dawn of the morning. She can sell
buttermilk in the nearby town. She will get food equivalent to that. Kurundogai (210:2-
3) says that the women of the pastoral clan buy and rear cows in return for the money
they receive.

• Also in the land of Mullai the birds and animals gather together and roam happily,
and the branches and vines are full of various kinds of fruits, and the richness of the
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forest can be seen from the Five Hundred (414) saying that it is a fertile and fragrant
forest.

• It is unlikely that sheep herding was the only occupation of shepherds in Mullai land in
Sangha literature. They may have first grown in the wild to produce plant food for the goats
and cattle. Then he must have seen crops grown in the neighboring land. Therefore, it can be
seen from this that the people cultivated the forest and plowed it, sowed crops and lived with
what came from it as food.
7 Bring out the features of barter system in Sangam trade.
Barter

Barter means exchanging one thing for another. It is an ancient currency. Commodity exchange
is in circulation all over the world. For example, you can get a bunch of lentils for a bunch of
rice. This was the method followed in the early days. It has many definitions.

Barter in Tamil Nadu

Tamils who lived in ancient times used to barter their daily necessities like rice, dal, salt, milk,
curd, fish, meat etc. without paying money. They paid for only the most expensive items. In
spite of the bartering system in the big cities and towns, in towns and villages barter generally
prevailed. In the villages of Madurai district barter system is still going on. In the literature it is
said that Idayan gave milk in exchange for grain.

Salt in barter

Sangam Tamils knew the use of salt. They have made beds on the weaving land and grown
salt. The place where salt is produced is marked as 'Uppuvilai Kalani' (Kurundogai 269:6). for
food; Salt is called 'Uppamudu' based on its taste. In the beginning, the salt produced by them
was carried in bullock carts and sold in the hinterland. Since they are referred to as
Umansathu, it can be said that they are operating as a business group. There was also sale of
salt by individuals.

It is evident that rice and salt were barter goods of equal value because one of the brides said,
'Can you buy bronze salt right next to rice' (Akananur 140:7). The same message is introduced
by another Akananuttu (390: 8-9) in which a woman who gnaws from village to village as
'Rice and salt are nere, urir, koliro'. This shows that salt has received the same value as rice.

The Narita (183:1-2) mentions that 'He gave his country's grown margarine and extracted
foreign salt'. Akananooru (60:4) introduces the cooking of white rice with salted rice, which
refers to a mother who goes to the salt pan to buy salted rice (269:5-6).

The hunters who live in the forest by hunting have got rice instead of venison, and the women
of the Ayar clan who grow anir have got rice instead of curd (Pura 33:1-6). They have received
paddy in barter (Num. 61:10).

Fish in barter

It can be seen from the five-hundredth verse (49:2) that 'a few fish scrape and get a lot of rice'
in bartering, which is a food product, but not having the same value as rice.

Five Hundred and Five Hundred Verses (7:1-2) mentions that the box-sized crab was a popular
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substitute for fish. Akananuuthu Cheyul (126:11-12) introduces the woman who buys pearls
and jewelry instead of swordfish caught in the Cauvery river basin, saying, 'She will wear the
face of old rice, and the kiss of the betel nut will give her good fortune' (126:11-12). The plate
brought by the fish is filled with butter instead (Five hundred 48:2-3). Here, fish and rice are of
equal value.

In barter system

Alcohol has been the best consumer product of the Sangam Tamils. Liquor called s is obtained
from coconut and palm trees and is also made at home. They are called 'Illads' based on the
fact that they are made in the house. Rice is used as the raw material for this. Apart from s,
liquors called Theral and Naravu are also in use.

Barter also involved alcohol. They bought elephants' horns by giving them (Akananur 245:10-
12). They bought the pearls they got while catching fish (Akananuru 296:8-9).

Other objects

Kurundogai (221:3-4) mentions that a shepherd shepherd came from a pasture on the outskirts
of the town with milk and returned with milk. This can be taken as bringing the milk and
giving it at home and returning to the factory with pulp from there. Guj means food grain, and
it is said that 'he sold milk and got food grain as a price' in the short version (2009:413) of
U.Vesa. has written Based on his text it can also be said that milk and food grains were
bartered. Porunaratupapa (214-217) mentions the barter between the hunters who live in search
of food, the weaving land people who live by fishing, and those who cultivate well with the
help of water.

Honey and ghee are added to yams

Refuse fish ghee
The theme is black and white
Refuse alcohol with deer.
The Kurinji land hunters gave the people of Neythal land honey and yam as two precious
commodities and got fish and dal in return. It is noteworthy that the Nansei cultivators gave up
sweet sugarcane and avala made from paddy and received venison and wine in exchange.
8 Write about the fishing industry as featured in Sangam literature.
Introduction
Tamils have been fishing in the sea for a long time. References to the fishing industry are
widespread in the Sangam literature. Today we call those who go to sea and do fishing as
fishermen. They were referred to as 'Valaignar' during the Sangha period. 'Valayanjar' is a
causal noun meaning one who fishes with a net.
Fishermen
References to fish species are abundant in the Sangam literature. Sangam literature also
contains references to catching fish from water bodies like Madu, Kulam, Kalani. But the word
'fisherman' is nowhere to be found.
An Akananooru song goes into the sea and calls the fishermen 'Thimilon'. Tamil means 'fishing
boat' (Tamil Lexicon, p.1880). There is also a Puranunooru hymn that sings 'Vanparadavar in
Dindim' (Pur. 24). Another hymn (Agham. 60: 1 - 7) mentions going into the sea in Thimil
(also meaning in Thimil - wood) and catching fish.
Women selling fish
Beautiful Bharatava women dressed in turbans sell the fish they have caught in the 'Thimilon',
a fishing boat that goes out into the sea of rising waves and sells them on the streets where the
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festivals take place. Such a well-to-do village is the head of the village', which mentions
fishing by boat and selling fish on the street (Agam. 320: 1-5) Akanahunuthu song.
It is the charitable land of the wealthy Porayan that the father, whose business is to catch red
shrimps in the vast ocean, and who goes fishing in a big boat with a net in his hand, is the
daughter who gives ayilai fish broth made from salt and rice made from rice bought with salt
and added a delicious sour cream to the oil fish broth and kolam fish karuvatta (Agam. 60). : 1
- 7) exemplifies this.
Fish farming
There is also a reference to Perumpanathur Sada within Patuppat that the fish catchers in the
pond are shot as netters. Once upon a time in Muthuven, during the day, a poor man wandered
around in search of material to get rid of his poverty. A Panan who is returning from
Thondaiman Ilandrayan comes across on the way.
Convincing the poor Panan to go to the youth to get rid of his poverty, the Panan explains in
great detail the way he should go. On the way Panan points out, the weaving land reference
and the fisherman's residence are shot at one place. This can be found in the hymn (Purum.
270-274).
Fisherman's residence
If you stay in the nether's residence, you can have a good feast if you stay in the house of the
nether who is fishing with her daughter in the big black pond where the black catfish and
shrimps are multiplying and the mother is keeping the pond with perennial water during the
long summer' (U.Vesa p. 236, 237). It can be known through classical music.
In Maduraikanji (Madhu. 254-256) there is a reference to a netter who catches and sells fish in
the pond. In the pond 'Kambutkozhi fishes with a net of deadly knots which he sold at a high
price by pushing the vines to disturb the good sleep of Kambudkozhi' (U.V.S. p. 365). ) is
called Nachinarkiniyar. Weber means 'web fisher'.
In Pattinapalai, there is a reference to Meen Prasalam (Pt. 197 - 198) in front of the website
where Kaviripumpattinam is described. It means 'Fish leaped fearlessly in front of farmer's
houses'
Conclusion
References to the maritime industry of the ancient Tamils are widely found in Sangha
literature. They used logs and boats to go into the sea and live by catching and selling fish.
They catch and sell fish from lakes, ponds and rivers in the land where they live.
9 Explain and write the agricultural techniques discovered by the ancients.
Introduction

According to the conditions of the four lands, the people of the Sangam period did their
occupations. The land structure and their living environment have been the basis for this. The
Sangha literary index songs reveal about agriculture industry, weaving industry, iron industry,
jewelery industry, painting industry, musical instrument making etc. Among these, references
to agricultural technology have been recorded in various forms. Among them, records on crop
protection methods have received much attention. So this article explains the agricultural
technologies of Palanthamijar.

Agriculture industry

It seems that agriculture also appeared when man appeared. Realizing the necessity of food,
people took up agriculture. Hence agriculture was hailed as the leading industry and life
industry. The word 'agriculture' means 'gift', 'upakaram', 'cultivation' and 'satiam' in Tamil.
Food is the basis of human life. Ancient people lived on forest fruits and pulses. As the
population grew, so did the demand for food. They have used the land for food.
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Creation of arable land

Land and water are essential for agriculture. The people of Kurinji land who lived in the hilly
area have cut and cultivated the land to suit the agricultural industry. They have also destroyed
the forests in the hilly areas and created agricultural lands by cutting down trees. Punam
reformed by cutting and burning the trees was called 'Sudupunam'. Burning the trees helps the
soil to be well-baked and the crops to grow well. The ash obtained by burning the trees has
also been used as fertilizer. The forge where the forest was cleared by fire was called 'Erithin
Kollai'. There are reports that Kuravas created arable land by cutting down trees like Akhil and
Sandalwood in the forests.

Water sources

Kapilar mentions that the world does not exist without water. People have known since ancient
times that agriculture requires water resources. It was considered the king's duty to build water
bodies.

The people of the Sangam period who lived on a tribal basis, used their respective land and
natural water bodies as well as artificial water bodies for daily life and agriculture.

Waterfalls and springs are naturally occurring bodies of water in Kurinji land. The water of the
waterfall and the spring water were used for agriculture.

Plow and live

As the saying goes, 'A wide plow is better than a deep one'. The story of plowing the land with
oxen by several airs is found in the Kurinchithina hymns. They have sown pulses on the
plowed land. Not only oxen but also buffaloes were used for plowing the land during the
Sangam period. To get rid of weeds, to retain moisture, to allow crops to take root and spread,
deep plowing is still practiced by the farmers even today. Tillage, fertilization, weeding,
irrigation and crop protection are essential in agriculture.

Cultivation

The people of Kurinji cultivated five crops like paddy, millet, cotton, hemp and tillage. Ivana
rice is a rice grown in hilly areas. It is also served as 'Malainel'. Ivana paddy has been sown in
the lands cleared by setting fire to the forests in the hills with water from the waterfall.

People who practiced agriculture knew what seasons and what plants would bear fruit. Crops
are planted according to the season. There are messages like plowing and bearing fruit in
winter season and blooming in winter season in a short song.

Intercropping method

It is reported that the people of Kurinji had intercropped millet and cotton between them.
Spread it on millet paper and dry it. From this it can be seen that the Tamils knew the
'intercropping' method of planting one crop in between another crop even during the Sangam
period. Pinnathur A. Narayanasamy Iyer, the first editor of Narita, the Kuravas who lived in the
hilly areas, cultivated eighteen types of crops namely paddy, grass, varaku, samai, millet,
ekaru, thorai, iragi, sesame, dal, lentil, plough, bhanu, duvara, custard apple, sorghum, corn
and rye. It is worth noting that the text is written as resulting.
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Fertilization

During the Sangam period, cattle dung and leaves were used as manure. Manuring is essential
for soil fertility and crop growth. Manuring and mulching are still practiced today.

Crop protection

Protecting the crops grown in hilly areas from birds and animals has been a big task. The
Kurinji Kurans used to drive away animals like elephants and pigs and guard the crops. Kurinji
Nilak Kodichiyar played musical instruments and chased away the parrots.

Weeding

There is a message of pulling the weeds grown in the Nansei fields by hand and cutting the
weeds grown in the Bunsei land with a 'tular' (weeder or weeder). The following verses
mention that the mountain jasmine and maral that have grown as weeds between the Nansei
crop rice and the weeds that have grown in the Bunsei field have been cut with a pruner. It can
be seen in the songs of Kunchinchithana that the animals were chased away by beating the
thong drums so that the animals did not approach during the night harvest.

Grain protection

Harvested by elephants or oxen, the diggers dried the grain well on top of the rocks. By drying
in this way, the moisture in the grains dries up and helps to preserve them for a long time. It
can be known through the Sangha literature that Nansey crops like paddy were stored in
'Koodu' and 'Nedunguttilittum', Bunsey crops such as millet and varaku were stored in 'Kudir'.

Conclusion

Kurinji land people have cleared the forests, burned the trees and cultivated the land. He and
cotton were intercropped between the millet crops. It is known from Sangam literature that
intercropping system flourished among ancient Tamils. The time when the vangai flowers
bloomed was considered the harvest season. The people of the Sangam period used cold, flat,
thal, kavan etc. as crop protection tools.

1 Describe and write the features of 'Korkai' port.

0

Introduction

In ancient Tamil Nadu, trade was carried out by sea in ships. Sea trade was more prevalent than
land trade. Sea trade was cheaper and faster than land trade, so shipping was better. Maritime
trade required ships, and shipbuilding industries took place in every country. Ports were
needed in the respective countries to move ships across the seas to import and export goods, so
port famines were established in each country.

port

Most of the harbors were at bays where rivers joined the sea. There were also few harbors
without estuaries. Lighthouses were erected at every major port. Customs duty is charged on
imports and exports at ports. That toll belongs to the kings of their respective countries.
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Port of Korkai

To the south of the Marungurb Pattinam was the Korkai Gudak Sea and on its western shore
the Korkai Pattinam. Killing is called Periplus and the Greek text Kolkis (Kolklus). Ptolemy
also says this.

At that time the Korakka Gudak Sea penetrated five miles inland. Pearl oysters and conch
shells were produced here. Korkai Muthu is world famous. At that time there was this very
famous Korkai Pannam on the banks of river Tamiraparani.

There was a Pandya prince here. AD After the 10th century, the sea mud of Korkai Gudak
disappeared and has now become land. The Tamiraparani River is the reason why Korakka
Gudak became a sea land.

Pearl and Sang

The site of Korkai Pattinam is now called Maramangalam, three miles west of the coast. AD
The Pandya prince Vetrivetchezhiyan ruled Korkai in the late second century. Not only was the
Korkai Pattinam a port famine, but pearls and conch shells were sold there.

Korkai was the seat and capital of the Pandya kings. Also the pearl city of the Pandyas was a
commercial port of the Pandyas and a naval base of the Pandyas.

The pearl found in the port of Korkai was considered to be the best pearl at that time. Korkai
was under the rule of Pandya kings like Viraporb Pandyan, Maraborb Pandyan, Vetrivel
Chehyan etc.

Even though Nedunjezhiyan ruled from Madurai, he fulfilled all the expectations of the people
of Korkai.

The pearls that accumulate in the sea get stuck in the hooves of Selvar's climbing horses and
fall so much that they become a hindrance to them.

Those who go fishing in the sea give pearls as a price for the catch they eat. The men there
dive into the sea not only to offer pearls but also to take Valampuri conch.

There, Umatyar, who belongs to a salt-producing family, puts pearls in a kilukulupai and plays
with it to his children.

A lover praises that his lover's eye was like a weaver flower that blossoms in the morning in
this field of killing. During the festival, they dress in green clothes and wear pearls and
clinches as garlands.

Elephants brought from Venkatamalai region were used to protect the pearls found in Marabor
Pandyar killing.

In the area of Korkai, there were people called Bharatavar. The women of that village
worshiped the pearl-making industry, and enjoyed themselves by performing Kotti and
Padayal.

Conclusion

From the above evidence we can know what is the speciality of Korkai port. It is also
Code & Subject: GE1210 & தமிழரும் ததொழில் நுட்பமும் Department: Tamil Year: 2023-2024
significant that Periplus, a Greek sailor who came to India in the first century, mentioned Kolki
as Kolki and wrote that it was under Pandyan rule.