Numerical Control and Robotics

 Computer numerical control (CNC) – computer

directs a machine tool through a sequence of
processing steps defined by a program of instructions
 Distinctive feature of NC – control of the position
of a tool relative to the object being processed
 Computations required to determine tool trajectory
 Industrial robotics – manipulator joints are controlled
to move and orient end-of-arm through a sequence of
positions in the work cycle
 Programmable Logic Controller (PLC)
 Microprocessor-based controller that executes a program
of instructions to implement logic, sequencing, counting,
and arithmetic functions to control industrial machines and
processes
 Introduced around 1970 to replace electromechanical
relay controllers in discrete product manufacturing
 Today’s PLCs perform both discrete and continuous
control in both process industries and discrete product
industries
 Supervisory Control

 In the process industries, supervisory control denotes

a control system that manages the activities of a
number of integrated unit operations to achieve
certain economic objectives
 In discrete manufacturing, supervisory control is the
control system that directs and coordinates the
activities of several interacting pieces of equipment in
a manufacturing system
 Functions: efficient scheduling of production,
tracking tool lives, optimize operating parameters
 Most closely associated with the process industries
Supervisory Control Superimposed on
Process Level Control System
 Distributed Control Systems (DCS)
Multiple microcomputers connected together to share and
distribute the process control workload
 Features:
 Multiple process control stations to control individual
loops and devices
 Central control room where supervisory control is
accomplished
 Local operator stations for redundancy
 Communications network (data highway)
Distributed Control System
 DCS Advantages
 Can be installed in a very basic configuration, then
expanded and enhanced as needed in the future
 Multiple computers facilitate parallel multitasking
 Redundancy due to multiple computers
 Control cabling is reduced compared to central controller
configuration
 Networking provides process information throughout the
enterprise for more efficient plant and process
management
 PCs in Process Control

Two categories of personal computer applications in

process control:
1. Operator interface – PC is interfaced to one or more
PLCs or other devices that directly control the
process
 PC performs certain monitoring and supervisory
functions, but does not directly control process
2. Direct control – PC is interfaced directly to the
process and controls its operations in real time
 Traditional thinking is that this is risky
 Enablers of PCs for Direct Control
 Widespread familiarity of workers with PCs
 Availability of high performance PCs
 Cycle speeds of PCs now exceed those of PLCs
 Open architecture philosophy in control system design
 Hardware and software vendors comply with
standards that allow their products to be
interoperable
 PC operating systems that facilitate real-time control
and networking
 PC industrial grade enclosures
 Enterprise-Wide
Integration of Factory Data
 Managers have direct access to factory operations
 Planners have most current data on production times
and rates for scheduling purposes
 Sales personnel can provide realistic delivery dates
to customers, based on current shop loading
 Order trackers can provide current status information
to inquiring customers
 QC can access quality issues from previous orders
 Accounting has most recent production cost data
 Production personnel can access product design
data to clarify ambiguities
Enterprise-Wide PC-based
Distributed Control System
Hardware Components for Automation
 Computer-Process Interface

 To implement process control, the computer must

collect data from and transmit signals to the
production process
 Components required to implement the interface:
 Sensors to measure continuous and discrete
process variables
 Actuators to drive continuous and discrete process
parameters
 Devices for ADC and DAC
 I/O devices for discrete data
 Hardware Components for Automation

Sections:
1. Sensors
2. Actuators
3. Analog-to-Digital Conversion
4. Digital-to-Analog Conversion
5. Input/Output Devices for Discrete Data
Computer Process Control System
 Sensors

A sensor is a transducer that converts a physical

stimulus or variable of interest from one form into a
more useful form (usually an electrical quantity such
as voltage/current) to measure the stimulus.
 The conversion process quantifies the variable, so
that it can be interpreted as a numerical value.
 Sensors Classified

 Classification of Sensors according to:

1. Category of stimulus or physical variable that is
to be measured
2. The type of variables
3. The need of power for operation
 Sensors Classified
 According to Stimulus categories and associated
physical variables
Stimulus Category Examples of Physical Variables

Mechanical Position (displacement: linear and angular), velocity,

acceleration, force, torque, pressure, stress, strain, mass,
density
Electrical Voltage, current, charge, resistance, conductivity, capacitance

Thermal Temperature, heat, heat flow, thermal conductivity, specific heat

Radiation Type of radiation (e.g. gamma rays, x-rays, visible light),

intensity, wavelength
Magnetic Magnetic field, flux, conductivity, permeability

Chemical Component identities, concentration, pH levels, presence of

toxic ingredients, pollutants
 Sensors Classified
 According to the type of variables:
1. Analog : produces a continuous analog signal such
as electrical voltage, whose value varies in an
analogous manner with the variable being measured
- thermocouples, strain gauges, and potentiometers
2. Discrete : produces an output that can have only
certain values
 Binary : limit switch, photoelectric sensors, and
proximity switches
 Digital : produces a digital output signal, either in
the form of a set of parallel status bits or a series
of pulses that can be counted - optical encoder
 Sensors Classified

 According to the need of power for operation:

1. Active : responds to the stimulus without the
need for any external power - Thermocouple
2. Passive : requires an external source of power in
order to operate - Thermistor
 Sensors Classified

 Micro Sensor : refers to measuring devices whose

physical features have dimensions in the micron
range.
 Sensor Transfer Function

The relationship between the value of the physical

stimulus and the value of the signal produced by the
sensor in response to the stimulus
S = f(s)
where S = output signal, s = stimulus, and f(s) is the
functional relationship between them
 Ideal functional form is simple proportional relationship:
S = C + ms
where C = output value at a stimulus value of zero, m is
the constant of proportionality between s and S.
The constant m can be thought as the sensitivity of the
sensor.
 Sensitivity of a Sensor

It is a measure of how much the output or response of a

sensor is affected by the stimulus.
For Example:
the sensitivity of a standard chrome/alumel thermocouple
generates 40.6 microvolts (µV) per degree Celsius (0C)
 Sensor Transfer Function - Problem

 During calibration, an iron/constantan thermocouple is

zeroed (set to emit a zero voltage) at 0°C. At 750°C, it
emits a voltage of 38.8 mV. A linear output/input
relationship exists between 0°C and 750°C. Determine
(a) the transfer function of the thermocouple and
(b) the temperature corresponding to a voltage output
of 29.6 mV.
 Sensor Transfer Function - Problem

 During calibration, an iron/constantan thermocouple emits

a voltage of 1.02 mV at 20°C and 27.39 mv at 500°C. The
reference temperature is to be set to emit a zero voltage at
0°C. Assume the transfer function is a linear relationship
between 0°C and 500°C. Determine
(a) the transfer function of the thermocouple and
(b) the temperature corresponding to a voltage output
of 24.0 mV.
 Selecting a Sensor

 Desirable features for selecting measuring devices used in

automated systems
Desirable Feature Definition and Comments

High accuracy The measurement contains small systematic errors about the
true value
High precision The random variability or noise in the measured values is low

Wide operating range The measuring device possesses high accuracy and precision
over a wide range of values of the physical variable being
measured
High speed response The device responds quickly to change in the physical variable
being measured. Ideally, the time lag would be zero
 Selecting a Sensor

 Desirable features for selecting measuring devices used in

automated systems
Desirable Feature Definition and Comments

Ease of calibration Calibration of the measuring device is quick and easy

Minimum drift Drift refers to the gradual loss in accuracy over time. High drift
requires frequent recalibration of the measuring device
High reliability The device is not subject to frequent malfunctions or failures
during service. It is capable of operating in the potentially harsh
environment of the manufacturing process where it will be
applied
Low cost The cost to purchase (or fabricate) and install the measuring
device is low relative to the value of the data provided by the
sensor.
 Commonly Used Measuring Devices

Measuring Device Description

Accelerometer Analog device used to measure vibration and shock. Can be

used on various physical phenomena (e.g. capacitive,
piezoresistive, piezoelectric).
Ammeter Analog device that measures the strength of an electrical
current
Bimetallic Switch Binary switch that uses a bimetallic coil to open and close
electrical contact as a result of temperature change. A
bimetallic coil consists of two metal strips of different thermal
expansion coefficients bonded together
Bimetallic Analog temperature measuring device consisting of bimetallic
Thermometer coil that changes shape in response to temperature change.
Shape change of coil can be calibrated to indicate temperature.
Dynamometer Analog device used to measure force, power or torque. Can be
based on various physical phenomena (e.g. strain gauge,
piezoelectric effect).
 Commonly Used Measuring Devices

Measuring Device Description

Float transducer Float attached to lever arm. Pivoting movement of lever arm
can be used to measure liquid level in vessel (analog device) or
to activate contact switch (binary device)
Fluid Flow Sensor Analog measurement of liquid flow rate, usually based on
pressure difference between flow in two pipes of different
diameter.
Fluid flow switch Binary switch similar to limit switch but activated by increase in
fluid pressure rather than by contacting object
Linear Variable Analog position sensor consisting of primary coil opposite two
Differential secondary coils separated by a magnetic core. When primary
Transformer (LVDT) coil is energized, induced voltage in secondary coil is function
of core position. Can also be adopted to measure force or
pressure.
Limit Switch Binary contact sensor in which lever arm or push button closes
(Mechanical) (or opens) an electrical contact
 Commonly Used Measuring Devices

Measuring Device Description

Manometer Analog device used to measure pressure of gas or liquid.

Based on comparison of known and unknown pressure forces.
A barometer is a specific type of manometer used to measure
atmospheric pressure
Ohmmeter Analog device that measures electrical resistance

Optical encoder Digital device used to measure position and/or speed,

consisting of a slotted disk separating a light source from a
photocell. As disk rotates, photocell senses light through slots
as a series of pulses. Number and frequency of pulses are
proportional (respectively) to position and speed of shaft
connected to disk. Can be adopted for linear as well as
rotational measurements
Photoelectric sensor Digital sensor consisting of linear series of photoelectric
array switches. Array is designed to indicate height or size of object
interrupting some but not all of the light beams
 Commonly Used Measuring Devices

Measuring Device Description

Photoelectric switch Binary non contact sensor (switch) consisting of emitter (light
source) and receiver (photocell) triggered by interruption of light
beam. Two common types: (1) Transmitted type, in which
object blocks light beam between emitter and receiver; and (2)
retro reflective type, in which emitter and receiver are located in
one device and beam is reflected off remote reflector except
when object breaks the reflected light beam
Photometer Analog sensor that measures illumination and light intensity.
Can be based on various photo detector devices, including
photo diodes, photo transistors, and photo resistors
Piezoelectric Analog device based on piezoelectric effect of certain materials
transducer (e.g. quartz) in which an electrical charge is produced when the
material is deformed. Charge can be measured and is
proportional to deformation. Can be used to measure force,
pressure, and acceleration
 Commonly Used Measuring Devices

Measuring Device Description

Potentiometer Analog position sensor consisting of resistor and contact slider.

Position of slider on resistor determines measured resistance.
Available for both linear and rotational (angular)
measurements.
Proximity switch Binary non contact sensor is triggered when nearby object
induces changes in electromagnetic field. Can be based on any
of several physical principles including inductance,
capacitance, ultrasonics and optics
Radiation pyrometer Analog temperature measuring device that senses
electromagnetic radiation in the visible and infrared range of
spectrum
Resistance Analog temperature measuring device based on increase in
temperature detector electrical resistance of a metallic material as temperature is
increased
Strain gauge Widely used analog sensor to measure force, torque, or
pressure. Based on change in electrical resistance resulting
from strain of a conducting material.
 Commonly Used Measuring Devices

Measuring Device Description

Tachometer Analog device consisting of DC generator that produces an

electrical voltage proportional to rotational speed
Tactile sensor Measuring device that indicates physical contact between two
objects. Can be based on any of several physical devices such
as electrical contact (for conducting materials) and piezoelectric
effect.
Thermistor Contraction of thermal and resistor. Analog temperature
measuring device based on change in electrical resistance of a
semiconductor material as temperature is increased
Thermocouple Analog temperature measuring device based on thermoelectric
effect, in which the junction of two dissimilar metal wires emits
a small voltage that is a function of the temperature of the
junction. Common standard thermocouples include: chromel-
alumel, iron-constantan, and chromel-constantan.
Ultrasonic range Time lapse between emission and reflection (from object) of
sensor high-frequency sound pulses is measured. Can be used to
measure distance or simply to indicate presence of object.