CHAPTER 1

Statistics- the science of collecting, describing, and interpreting data

2 Types of Statistics:
● Descriptive- includes the collection, presentation, and description of sample data
● Inferential- the technique of interpreting the values resulting from the descriptive techniques and
making the decisions and drawing conclusions

Process:
1. Defining the situations/ problems
2. Collecting the data
3. Summarize and calculate
4. Analyze and make a decision

The Language of Statistics:

● Population- the complete collection of individuals or objects that are of interest to the sample
collector
- a collection, or set of individuals, objects, or events whose properties are to be analyze
- entire/ whole
○ Finite population- a population whose membership can or could be physically listed
■ Examples: All employees of a company, all students in a school, the entire population
of a city
○ Infinite population- a population whose membership is unlimited
■ Examples: The number of germs in the patient's body, bacteria in a test tube, the
stars in the sky
● Sample- consists of the individuals, objects, or measurements selected from the population by the
sample collector
- a subset of a population that will be used to produce data
- representation of the whole
● Variable- a characteristic of interest about each individual element of a population or sample (what
is to be gathered)
● Data value- the value of the variables associated with one element of a population or sample. This
value may be a number, a word, or a symbol
● Data- the set of values collected from the variable from each of the elements that belong to the
sample (gathered information)
○ Ways to collect data:
■ Questionnaire
■ Experiment
■ Observation
● Parameter- a numerical value that summarizes the entire population

For every parameter, there is a corresponding sample statistic.

FYI: Parameters describe the population and are fixed in value; a statistic describe the sample and vary in
value.

Types of Variables
1. Qualitative Variables- describes or categorizes an element of a population
a. Nominal- characterize (or describes, or names) an element of a population
i. Examples: hair color, hometown, gender, zip code, plate number
b. Ordinal- incorporates an ordered position, or ranking
i. Examples: level of satisfaction, class rank, Olympic medals
 2. Quantitative Variables- quantifies an element of a population (numbers)
a. Discrete- can assume a countable number of values
i. Examples: Number of planets around the Sun, number of students in a class
b. Continuous- assume an uncountable number of values
i. Examples: Number of stars in the space , height or weight of the students in a
particular class
Data Collection:
Sampling Methods- the process of selecting items or events that will become the sample

1. Biased Sampling- produces data that systematically differ from the sampled population. Repeated
sampling will not correct the bias
a. Convenience samples- sometimes called a grab sample, occurs when items are chosen
arbitrarily and in an unstructured manner from a population
b. Volunteer samples- consist of results collected from those elements of the population on
their own initiative

2. Unbiased Sampling- not biased and produces data that are the representative or the sampled
population
a. Single-stage sampling- a sample design in which the elements of the sampling frame are
treated equally and there is no subdividing or partitioning of the frame
i. Simple random sample- every element in the population or sampling frame has an
equal probability of being chosen. Equivalently, all samples of size n have an equal
chance of being selected.
ii. Systematic sampling method- every kth item of the sampling frame is selected,
starting from a first element, which is randomly selected from the first k elements.

b. Multiple-stage methods- a sample design in which the elements of the sampling frame are
subdivided and the sample is chosen in more than one stage
i. Stratified random sample- obtained by stratifying the population, and then selecting
a number of items from each of the strata by means of a simple random sampling
technique (known as probability sampling)
ii. Proportional stratified sampling- obtained by stratifying the population, and then
selecting a number of items in proportion to the size of the strata from each strata by
means of a simple random sampling technique (known as quota sampling)
iii. Cluster sample- obtained by stratifying the population, and then selecting some or
all of the items from some, but not all, of the strata
*Strata- a subset of a population that shares common characteristics, such as gender, income, or location.

The Data Collection Process

1. Define the objectives of the survey or study
2. Define the variable and the population of interest
3. Define the data collection and data measuring schemes
4. Collect your sample
5. Review the sampling process upon completion of the collection
CHAPTER 2
Types of Graphical Displays
1. Pie charts (Circle graphs)- graphs that show the amount of data belonging to each category as a
proportion part of the circle.
2. Bar graphs- graphs that show the amount of data belonging to each category as a proportionally
sized rectangular area.
3. Pareto diagram- a bar graph with the bars arranged from the most numerous category to the least
numerous category. It includes a line graph displaying the cumulative percentages and counts for
the bars.
4. Dotplot display- displays the data of a sample by representing each data with a dot positioned
along a scale.
5. Stem-and-leaf display- a display of the data of a sample using the actual digits that make up the
data values. The leading digit(s) becomes the stem and the trailing digit(s) becomes the leaf.

Frequency Distribution and Histograms

● Frequency distribution- a listing, often expressed in chart form, that pairs values of a variable with
their frequency.
● Frequency- the number of times the value x occurs in the sample
● Class midpoint (class mark)- the numerical value that is exactly in the middle of each class
● Histogram- a bar graph that represents a frequency distribution of quantitative variables
○ Shapes of Histograms
■ Symmentrical: both sides of this distribution are identical (halves are mirror images)
■ Normal (triangle): a symmetrical distribution is mounded up about the mean and
becomes sparse at the extremes
■ Uniform (rectangular): every value appears with equal frequency
■ Skewed: one tail is stretched out longer than the other. The direction of skewness is
on the side of the longer tail.
■ J-shaped: there is no tail on the side of the class with the highest frequency
■ Bimodal: the two most populous classes are separated by one or more classes. This
situation often implies that two populations are being sampled.

● Cumulative frequency distribution- a frequency distribution that pairs cumulative frequencies with
values of the variable
● Ogive- a line graph of a cumulative frequency or cumulative relative frequency distribution
Measure of Central Tendency- numerical values that locate, in some sense, the center of a set of data
● Mean- also called the arithmetic mean, represented by x̄, the middle point by the weight

● Median- the middle position when the data are ranked in order according to size, represented by x͂
○ Finding the mean involves three basic steps:
■ Rank the data
■ Determine the depth (position) of the median
Formula for ungrouped data: Formula for grouped data: (to find the median class)

■ Determine the value of the median

FYI: The value of the depth is NOT the value of the median, it’s just the position or the place
○ Median formula for the grouped data:

Lcb = lower class boundaries - 0.5

n = total number of the data (summation of f)
cf< = cumulative frequency less than the cumulative frequency of the median class
f = frequency of the median class
i = class width/ interval
● Mode- the value of x that occurs the most frequently
○ Mode formula for the grouped data:

● Midrange- the number exactly midway between the lowest data value (L) and the highest data
value (H)

● Range- the difference in value between the highest data value (H) and the lowest data value (L)

Measure of Dispersion- describe the amount of spread that is found among the data
● Variance

● Standard deviation
○ Formula: *use the complete answer (decimal) in variance
Measure of Position- used to describe the position a specific data value possesses in relation to the rest
of the data
*First, rank the data from lowest to highest
● Quartile- divide the data into four equal parts, or quarters
● Decile- divide the data into ten equal parts
● Percentile- divide data into one hundred equal parts
For Ungrouped data:

For Grouped data:

Step 1: to determine Qk/ Dk/ Pk

Step 2: substitute the value of the median class to the median formula
* use the answer in step 1 to substitute in n/2

CHAPTER 3
Linear Correlation- measures the strength (and direction) of a linear relationship between two variables

Interpretation:
● ± 0.0 - ± 0.10 No correlation
● ± 0.11 - ± 0.39 Weak ± Correlation
● ± 0.40 - ±0.69 Moderate ± Correlation
● ± 0.70 - ±0.89 Strong ± Correlation
● ± 0.90 - ± 1 Perfect ± Correlation
Linear Regression
1. Slope

2. Y-intercept

3. The line that fits best

4. Substitute the value of x to answer the question