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Proportions
Head Types
Structure
Anatomy
Aging
Facial Features
Movement
DRAIIN6THE
HUMAN HEAD
 Burne uouarth

bY lhe aulhor or Dynamic Anaromy

Watson-Guptill Publications/ New York

Paperback Edition
Ftrst Pnnttng 1989

Copynght c:l 1965 by Burne Hogarth

Ftrsl published 1965 1n New York by Watson-Guplill Publicalions.

a dtvtston or Billboard 1-'Vbllcatlons, Inc .
1515 Broadway, New York. NY 10036

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 64-14763

ISBN 0-8230-1375-8
ISBN 0-8230-1376-6 (pbk)

All nghts reserved No part of th1s publication may be

reproduced or used 1n any form or by any means-graphiC.
electrontc , or mechantcal, mctudtng photocopytng, recordtng.
taptng or 1nformat1on storage and retneval systems- wtthout
wntten permtsston of tne publisher

Manufactured 1n U S A

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 197 96 95 94 93 92 91 90 89
To my wife Constance;
to my children Richard
and Ross, Michael and Mary.
When these embers are reduced
to ashes, who finally will
know its warmth?
This is for them, after all.
Table
Ol
contents
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

I. Basic Structures and Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11,.

Great Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Cranial Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Facial Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Contour of Cranial Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Contour of Facial Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Proportions ancl Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Drawing Cranial and Facial Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
F o1·m Stt'Uctut·es of the Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,.
Forms of Skull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21,.
Four Close-ups of Skull . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Forms of Facial Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Lower Jaw (Mandible) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Facial Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
P roportions and Measurements ............... ·. . . . . . . . . 92
Refin~ment of Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Eye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Nose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Mouth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1,.7
Ear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
A natomy: Major Muscle Masses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Mouth Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
J aw Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Eye and Socket Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Superficial Scalp and Face Muscles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
F unction of Anatomy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
II. Head Movement 60

Head Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Constructing a Rotating Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
Drawing a Three-Quarter View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Four Views of Head in Rotation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Proof of Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Positioning Side Plane and Jaw Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Side Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Jaw Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Up and Doten Movement of Head . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
How Movement Affects the Brow Line . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Ear Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Checking Proportions and Placement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76

III. Facial Change : Wrinkles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82

Three Wrinkle Pattet"Yls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83

Frontal Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Oblique Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Lateral Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Tension and Pressure W rinkles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Example of Tension and Pressure Wrinkles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Sag and Shrinkage Wrinkles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Example of Sag and Shrinkage Wrinkles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
lntemction of Wrinkle Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Parallel Effect of Pressure and Tension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Pressure Reaction to Head Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Opposition of Tension and Sag Wrinkles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Contrary Effect of Pressure Rifts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95

IV. Facial Cha nge: Aging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96

At Birth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
6 Months . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
1 Year . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
2 Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
31;'2-4 Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
6- 7 Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8-9 Years ...... .. . . ..... .. . ..... . ....... .... ... ........ 100
11-12 Years ........................ . .. . ................ 100
14-15 Years ................... . ..... ....... ... ... ...... 101
18-20 Years ............. . . ....... .. . .. .. .... .... ....... 101
25 Years ..... . ......................................... 102
30 Years ............................... .. . .. ........... 102
35 Years .......................................... . .... 103
40 Years .................. . .... . ....................... 103
45 Years ...................... .. ....... . ............... 104
50 Years ............................................... 104
55 Years ............................................... 105
60 Years ....................... ..... ............. .... . . 105
65 Years ........... . ....... . .... . .. ... ................. 106
70 Years .............................. .. ............... 106
75 Years ................... ...... ........... . .......... 107
80 Years ............................................... 1 07
V. Head Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 08

Three Types of Heads .................................... 109

Broad-Headed (Brachycephalic) ........................... 109
Applying Proportions in Drawing ..................... 111
Head Proportions ................................... 111
Facial Features ........................ . ............ 111
Long-Headed (Dolichocephalic) ........................... 112
Moderately Arched Forehead .......................... 112
High, Arched Forehead ............................... 11!2
Facial Features ..................................... 112
Intermediate or Medium-Headed (Mesocephalic) ............ 115
Female Head ............................ . ........... 11.5
Proportions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Facial Features ..................................... 115
Facial Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Steep Slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Diagonal Slope ...................................... 117
Moderate Slope ...................................... 117
Examples of Head Types ............................. 118

VI. Gallery of Great Heads ................................... 126

A Summary and Documentation of Drawing Principles ....... 127

Index ...................................................... 156

9
 Introduction

10
Among all the subjects which the artists of ancient Greece,
the alt student is called upon reaches its greatest refinement
to draw, none is more com- in the Renaissance, and has
plex than the human head. been followed by artists and
The head presents subtleties art teachers to the present day.
of form, structure, and propor- The systems of proportions
tion which are a continuing and concepts of form which a1·e
challenge not only to art stu- presented in Drawing the Hu-
dents, but to professionals. To man Head arc essentially those
many, drawing the head is not which were perfected by the
merely a perpetual challenge, Greek sculptors. The anatom-
but a perpetual struggle. ical information was first as-
Watching students wrestle sembled by the artists of the
with the problems of drawing Renaissance. Although modes
the head for many years, I have of artistic eA1Jl'ession change
long hoped to see a book which from one era to another, we
would take some of the guess- are still building on the foun-
work out of their struggles : a dation laid by these remark-
book which would systemati- able men.
cally assemble the basic facts Drawing the Human Head
that every artist needs to know begins with a definition of the
in order to draw the head con- major masses of the head-the
vincingly. cranial and facial masses-
Drawing the Hwnan Head and demonstrates how to draw
fulfills this hope. Based on their shapes, contom·s, and
the author's widely respected proportions. Via d1·awings and
drawing classes at the School diagrams, we then move closer
of Visual Arts in New York, to the individual structures
this is the most comprehensive that form the head: the forms
book now available on this vital of the skull and facial mass;
subject. The author does not the jaw; and the nine dom-
pretend that this is the ulti- inant facial features, from
mate book on the human head. brow ridge to chin box.
The ultimate book will never We then examine each facial
be written. After all, Rem- feature individually, defining
brandt, the greatest of all por- the shapes and contours within
trait painters, was still discov- each feature. For example, the
ering new insights about the nose is not a single shape-not
human head in the final years merely a wedge-shaped mass
of his life. -but an assemblage of upper
D 'tawing the Human Head and lower nasal masses, nos-
is simply an attempt to orga- tril wings, septal cartilage,
nize basic information: sys- and other subtle, .interlocking
tems of proportion, concepts forms. The intricate forms of
of form, anatomical facts, and the eye, ear, and mouth are
other data which have formed analyzed in the same way.
the basis of sound draftsman- Having visualized the head 11
ship for more than 2000 years. as form, we now look beneath
None of this material is the surface to the artistic anat-
radically new. On the contrary, omy of the head. The word ar-
this approach to drawing- tistic must be emphasized. This
this method of visualizing the is not a medical anatomy book
human head, the human face, and the student is not expected
and its features-begins with to memorize Latin names. The
 function of artistic anatomy is ic), long-headed ( dolichoce-
to provide the artist with a phalic ),and intermediate(meso-
sound basis for creative expres- cephalic) . The reader notes the
sion. As shown in these pages, facial features of each head
the musculature of the head type, then sees how the various
reveals the blend of expressive head types and their features
form and anatomical function merge in an infinite number of
which has inspired draftsmen variations. The immense va-
.from the Lime of Leonardo. riety of human faces and fea-
With this structural infor- tures is emphasized in a gal-
mation in mind, we can now lery of drawings surveying the
examine the head in motion. various head types as they
The reader is shown how to appea1· in racial and ethnic
construct a head as it rotates groups around the world.
from front view to three-quar- Drawing the Human Head
ter view to side view; and as concludes with a selection of
the head moves up and down. great heads in sculpture, paint-
Finally, the reader is given a ing, drawing, and the graphic
checklist of the relationships arts, from the time of the
between the features; this Greeks to the art of our own
checklist is intended to help centm·y. The purpose of this
him arrive at an accurate gallery is to document the prin-
placement of the features as ciples of head construction
the head moves. upon which this book is based.
Wrinkle patterns are not a The reader will discover a re-
random phenomenon, but fol- markable continuity from the
low definite routes over the work of anonymous Greek and
surface of the face. In dia- Roman sculptors, through the
grammatic drawings, the read- great artists of the Renais-
er follows the courses of the sance and Baroque periods,
three major wrinkle patterns; down to such contemporary
studies the types of wrinkles masters as Picasso and Rouault.
caused by tension, pressure, All have drawn strength and
sag, and shri nkage; and inspiration from the classical
watches the interaction of the conception of the head which
wrinkle patterns. is summarized in these pages
The aging of the head is al- by a masterful draftsman and
ways a difficult problem for an outstanding teacher.
the artist. To explain the subtle
changes that take place from Donald Holden
childhood to old age, a series
of drawings follow the develop-
ment of a single head from
birth to the age of eighty, trac-
ing the changes in proportions
and facial detail that happen
gradually, year by year.
The scientific classification
of head types is extremely use-
ful to the artist. An extensive
series of drawings describes
the general characteristics of
the three basic head types :
broad-headed (brachycephal-
DRAIIN6 THE
HUMIN HEAD
 1.
Basic
Structures
and Forms

14
GREAT MASSES

The basic shape of the head

consists of two major divisions.
The first and greater part is
the egg-shaped brain case of
the skull : the cranial mass.
The second and lesser part is
the tapered half-cut cylinder
of the face and lower jaw: the
.facial mass.

Head F orm,
T hree-Quarte1· Down View

Head F orm,
Three-Quarter Up View

15
 Cranial Mass F acial Mass
The Cl'anial mass is quite even The facial mass, on the other
and regulal': a simple, curved hand, is uneven and il'regula1·:
dome in general outline. a somewhat hard-cornel'ed, tri-
angular form.

C1·anial Mass, Facial Mass,

Th'f·ee-Qua-rteT Down View Ext'reme Up View

16

CTanial and Facial Masse~, Lowe?· Jaw Fonn,

Three-QttaTte?· V1'ew Back View
Contour of Cranial Mass
Seen from the side, the cranial
mass curves upward from the
mounded ridge of bone just
above the rim of the eye socket.
This is the supe1·ciliary arch
or visor of the brow. Beginning
at the frontal depression in the
bridge of Lhe nose the crani urn
rises up the forehead to the
vault of the skull and sweeps
backward across the crown in
a great curve toward the lower
occipital bulge at the base of
the head. The base line of the
skull then proceeds horizon-
tally forward to meet the hinge
of the jaw. From the jaw
hinge, the brain case line con-
tinues obliquely upward to the
starting point at the bridge of
the nose. This line forms the
bounda1·y between the two
great masses of the head: the
cranial mass above, and the
facial mass below.

CROWN

CRANIAL MASS

SUPEI:WILIARY ARCH

LOWER OCCIPITAL BULGE

17
.JAW HINGE

FACIAL MASS
 Contour of Facia l Mas The facial mass descends along up the lower edge of the jaw
the projecting nasal line from line to the angle of the jaw.
the bridge of the nose. At Here it rises steeply, almost
the point of the nose, the facial vertically, to the jaw hinge
mass scoops sharply inward in the base of the head. The
and swings over the bulge of boundary line, connecting the
the teeth to the protruding hinge with the nose bridge, di-
mound of the chin. From here, vides the facial mass from the
the contour moves angularly cranial mass.

CRANIAL MASS - - - - - - - - - - -

NASAL LINE

JAW HINGE /
/
/
/
/

FACIAL MASS

18
BULGE OF TEETH

ANGLE OF JAW

JAW LINE
Proportions and
Measurements
The size relations between the
cranial mass and the facial
mass reveal two different sets
of proportions.

FRONT VIEW
From a direct front view, the
cranial mass and the facial
mass tend to be equal in size.

SIDE VIEW

From a side view, the cranial

mass is virtually twice as large
as the facial mass.

19
 DRAWING CORRECT STEP 1
FRONTAL PROPORTIONS
Frontally, the head, with its
When you draw the head, it two great masses, is clearly
is helpful to visualize these egg-shaped. In order to estab-
proportions in the following lish the shape correctly, first
manner. draw the outline of this ovoid
form.

STEP 2
Now divide the simple head
shape lengthwise in equal
halves with a center line (A-B)
drawn from crown to chin.

STEP 3
Take the width of one of the
halves of the egg (C-D) and
measure this against the ver-
tical center line (A-B) . If you
have drawn the egg propel"ly,
the center line (A-B) should
be three times the length of the
20 horizontal line (C-D). Thus,
the total width of the head ( C-
E) is just two thirds the
length. If your first drawing
of the head shape is too long
or too short, use these space
divisions to eliminate the dis-
tortion.
DIVIDING CRANIAL
AND FACIAL MASSES
Now, using this egg shape as
your norm for the front view
head, draw it again and divide
it with a horizontal line (A-B)
midway between top and bot- CRANIAL MASS
tom. This line reveals the equal
measU'tes of the two major
masses: the cranial mass
above, and the facial mass be-
low. If you then divide the egg
with a vertical line (C-D), the A
point where the vertical and
horizontal lines cross (E)
identifies the position of the FACIAL MASS l
bridge of the nose in the mid-
region of the head.

DRAWING CORRECT
SIDE VIEW PROPORTIONS

To establish the plan of the

side view head, take two egg-
shapes of identical size and
draw them one over the other,
the first upright, the second
horizontal. The downward
bulge will identify the lower
jaw. The backward bulge (the
widest part of the horizontal
egg) becomes the back of the
head. Note that the height
(A-B) and width (C-D) of
the side view head are equal.
Furthermore, if you drop
another vertical line (E-F) at
the inner edge of the upright 21
egg, you find that the width
(C-D) divides into three equal
parts. Finally, if you visualize
the upper egg as the cranial
mass, you will see that the
cranial mass is twice the size
of the facial mass.
 Drawing Cr anial and
Facial Masses
This series of drawings shows
how to simplify the two major
masses when you draw difficult
views and extreme positions of
the head. What is most im-
portant in this first stage is to
set down a firm and correct
foundation upon which to build
the smaller forms. Specific de-
tails of these smaller forms are
left for later refinement. See
how easily a difficult view of
the head may be solved by
starting the drawing with the
initial placement of the two
great masses. Note the flatness
of the under-jaw and skull base.

22

Back View Three-Qua?·ter Top View

 23

Oblique Side Up View Three-Quarter F-ront Up View

 FORM STRUCTURES Forms of SkuU
OF THE HE AD Examined in detail, the cranial
mass takes on the appearance
The form structures are the of a helmet, flattened at the
hard, bony, skeletal pa.rts of sides, with a short, thick visor
the head o1· body. Or they are projecting in front. The helmet
the tensile, fiTm, cartilaginous consists of five shapes f used
par ts. These are the rigid together.
f'ramewo·r k m· support struc-
tu.res of the body, upon which
all the soft, limber, or supple
tissues depend. Having es-
tablished the basic form of the
two great masses, we will look
more closely at the for m struc-
tures which give the brain case
and the facial region their spe-
cial qualities. We shall see how
the upper mass becomes a
skull and how the lower mass
becomes a face with features.
We shall not describe these
structures as mere anatomical
parts, but as forrns which are
used in drawing the head.

On the frontal curve of the

dome, we see the shell of the
forehead ( jTontal bone) which
rises to the mid-region of the
crown.

On top, we see the crown or

vault of the dome {pa'rietal
bone) which partly covers the
top, sides, and rear of the head.

In back, we see the rear bulge

(occipital bone) which encases
the skull base.

On the side of the skull, we see

the slightly concave temple
wall (tempo?·al bone) .
24
In the lower front region we
see the heavy visor of the brow
(superciliary arch). This
prominence is actually a con-
tinuation of the forehead fron-
tal bone, but it is useful to vi-
sualize it as a separate form.
 PARIETAL BONE

FRONTAL BONE

OCCIPITAL BONE
 Four Close-ups of Skull
In these close-ups, see bow the
five fused shapes of the skull
are expressed.

CROWN
The crown has its own subtle
but distinct contour, with
slight dips where the five
shapes meet.

REAR BULGE
The rear bulge is a somew hat
stronger shape than the crown.
The top edge of this bulge
aligns with the upper eyelid.

26
TEMPLE WALL
The terntJle wall curves inward.

BROW VISOR
The brow visoT is a powerful,
thrusting form, especially no-
ticeable in a three-quarter
front view.

27
 Forms of Facial Mass STRUCTURE OF JAW
Although the cranial mass is At its front-the central re-
larger, the smaller facial mass gion of the chin mound ( 1)-
commands more interest and the jaw is tight, constricted,
attention, for it is here that the somewhat angular. Just above
more decisive features appear. is the dental arch ( 2) of the
Indeed, the visual impact of lower teeth. As the arch curves
the face and its features is so back and ends, the jaw widens
great that the student must and develops two broad, plate-
force himself never to forget like structures ( 3) (the ra-
the relative proportions of the mus) which rise steeply to each
two great masses. Failure to jaw hinge ( 4) alongside the
give the cranial mass its cor- ears. The jaw ends in two spur-
rect size always labels a draw- like formations above each
ing as amateurish. In the fa- ramus, neither of which ap-
cial mass there a1·e ten visually pears on the external aspect
prominent forms. One of these of the face.
is p1·imary and dominant: the
lower jaw. The remaining nine
are the eyes, nose, and other
features.

Lower Jaw (Mandible)

The jaw is the decisive form in
producing the contour of the
face as a whole. It is the largest
bone structure of the facial
mass. Beyond this, it has the
unique characteristic of being
the only movable bone struc-
ture of the head. In general,
the lower jaw is shaped like a
horseshoe.

28

Horseshoe of Jaw: Hm·seshoe of Jaw:

Three-Qua'rter Down View Three-Quarter Up View
 (3) RAMUS

(2) DENTAL ARCH

(1) CHIN MOUND

 PROFILE OF JAW TWO CLOSE-UPS OF JAW Facial Features
From a side view, the base of Observe how the horseshoe of The nine secondary forms of
the jaw is not horizontal. From the jaw is drawn. The chin is the face, small as they are,
the chin, it gently rises 12 to angular. The jaw corners are have the greatest visual im-
15 degrees up to the angle of aligned parallel with the chin. pact. The subtle differences in
the jaw. From the angle or jaw The ram'u,s projections are these forms are what make one
corner, the contouT is a steep widespread and equal in face different from another.
diagonal to the jaw hinge. height. Although the visor or brow
1·idge is really part of the cra-
nium, note that we also include
it here as a facial feature. The
nine secondary feature forms
are:
B1·ow ridge or visor of the
cranial cap, widespread and
horizontally arched across the
mid-facial region.
Tapered wedge of the nose,
descending steeply from under
the brow ridge.

Eye socket, depressed and

placed against both sides of
the nose, opening immediately
below the arch of the brow.

Cheek bones, thickly formed,

mounded along the lower out-
side rim of each eye socket.
Barrel of the mouth, rounded
and heavy-set, protruding be-
low the prominent overhang of
the nose.
Box of the chin, below the
mouth barrel and farther for-
ward.

Angle of the lower jaw or jaw

corner, forming the rear edge
of the facial area.

30 Side arch of the cheek bone,

starting from the cheek bone,
swept back and arched toward
the mid-ear.

Shell of the ear, beyond the

upper edge of the jaw, at the
side of the face.
CHIN BOX
P roportions and
Measurements

BROW RIDGE
The middle of the b1·ow ridge,
at its base, ia the depressed
bridge of the nose. This is the
exact midpoint of the head.
Here, at the midway line, the
head is five eye-lengths wide.
The brow ridge itself is fou'r
eye-lengths wide.

NOSE
Centrally located in the facial
mass, the tapered wedge of the
nose descends to a point mid-
way between the bridge of the
nose and the base of the chin.
The width of the nose at its
base is equal to the width of the
eye.

Distances ft·om bridge to Base of nose is one eye wide.

midway point to base oj
chin are equal.
EYE SOCKET

Starting at the base of the

brow bone1 the socket extends
halfway down along the length
of the nose. The outer edge of
the socket lies just above the
projecting cheek bone.

CHEEK BONE
The base line of the cheek bone
aligns with the base of the
nose. In frontal views1 the in-
ner depression of the cheek
bone is roughly midway along
a diagonal line (30 degrees)
from the eye socket to the 33
angle of the jaw.

Cheek bone aligns with Ch eek bone depression is

base of nose. midway on diagonal line.
 MOUTH BARREL CHIN BOX JAW CORNER
Starting at the nose base, the Projecting from under the The angle of the lower jaw
mouth barrel extends two mouth barrel, the chin extends aligns with the lower lip of the
thirds the distance down from one third the distance upward mouth barrel.
the nose to the chin. The sides to the nose. At its widest point,
of the barrel align with the the chin box is equal to the
centers of the eye sockets. width of the mouth barrel.

34
Mouth barrel aligns with
centers of sockets and
widest points of chin.
 CHEEK BONE ARCH
The side arch of the cheek bone
starts at the lower rim of the
eye socket, and aligns with the
midpoint of the nose. The arch
ends just below the middle of
the ear, in line with the back
edge of the jaw.

EAR
The ear begins at a line drawn
up from the rear edge of the
jaw. The ear base aligns with
the base of the skull, the base
of the cheek bone, and the base
of the nose. The top of the ear
aligns with the protruding
brow ridge. The peak of the
eyebrow hair will identify
the height of the ear, in rela-
tion to the brow.

35
REFINEMENT EYELIDS
OF FEATURES The eye may be conceived as a
Among the nine feature forms, partially exposed internal or-
fom· have a more complex and gan of the body. Covering the
involved quality: the eye, nose, exposed bulge of the eyeball
mouth, and ear. Two of these are the upper and lower eye-
are carried to a new phase of lids. The upper lid is more
form development. Examining active and moveable than the
the mouth bulge, we shall ob- lower. lt is also the larger of
serve the special quality of the the two lids and more fully
fleshy cover, the lips. Drawing curved. The wider arc of the
the eye socket, we must con- upper lid swings around the
sider the eyeball and the eye- eyeball at its equatorial middle.
lids. The lower lid curves a1·ound a
small arc at the base of the
Eye eyeball.
Almost spherical and about one
inch in diameter, the eyeball
lies within the deep cavity (the
orbit) of the eye, cushioned in
fatty tissue and situated partly
to the front of the socket open-
ing. On all sides of the socket
rim, the eye is protected by
great projecting structures of
bone: the high nasal bone to
the inside; the overhanging
brow ridge (the snpercilia1·y
arch) above and to the outside;
the protruding cheek mound
(the zygomatic bone) below.

37
SIDE VIEW OF EYELIDS
The greater curve of the upper
lid and smaller curve of the
lower lid are more clearly seen
from a three-quarter or side
view of the eye. Note that the
lower lid lies on a backward
slope of 45 degrees from the
outthrust upper lid.
 SHAPE OF EYE AXIS OF EYE
The highest point of the curve These points, joined with a
of the upper lid is close to the line, show the oblique axis of
inside corner of the eye, ap- the eye. The eye opening is not
proximately one third of an a symmetrical almond shape.
eye-width away. The low point
of the lower lid is one third of
an eye-width from the outside
corner.

Axis of Eye

High and Low Points of Eye

Axis of Eye:
Three-Quarte't Down View

39

Axis of Eye:
Three-Quarter Up View
 PLACEMENT OF PUPIL
With these curves in place, the
pupil of the eye appears sus-
pended from under the upper
lid, and slightly above the rim
of the lower lid.

EYE MUSCLE FORMATION IJil.

Surrounding the entire eye
is a large, widespread, oval
muscle : the orbicttlaris oculi.
It consists of two parts: the
01·bital part, which encircles
the entire eye socket from the
brow ridge down to the middle
cheek bone; and the palpebral
part, the eyelids, which encase
the eye itself. Both parts of
the orbicularis muscle close
the eye by compression. The
greater orbital part vigorously
contracts the 1·egion around the
Eye Muscles, socket, while the eyelids cur-
Greatly Compressed
tain the eye briskly but gently.

40

Eye Muscles,
Pa1·tially Compressed Eye Mt(;Scles
 Nose FORMS OF NOSE
In general form, the nose is a The nose consists of four im-
triangular, wedge-shaped portant forms: the upper nasal
block, narrow and depressed at mass, with its supporting nasal
its root under the brow ridge, bone and upper cartilage; the
b1·oad and prominent at its lower elliptical ball of the nose,
base in the mid-region of the the alar cartilage with its
face. curved hook (the septum) ;
the two sidewise, expanding
nostril wings, the ala carti-
lages, triangular in shape and
joining the projecting ball to
form the nostril cavities in the
base of the nose.

TM·ee-Quarter Up View

42

T ht·ee-Quarter Down View

NOSTRIL WINGS
 PROPORTIONS OF NOSE FORMS UPPER NASAL MASS NOSE BASE
The length of the nose is half The upper nasal mass gener- Across the width of the nostril
the length of the facial mass ally divides the nose length at wings, the base of the nose
(from the nose bridge to the the halfway mark. Somewhat measures one eye-width.
base of the chin) . The hook of below this point, the nostril
the nose attaches to the pillars wings reach their high point.
of the uppe1· lip.

T hree-Qua'rter View

-
Side View

44
SHAPE OF UNDER PLANE SEPTAL CARTILAGE
The under plane of the nose is The septal cartilage (the hook
decisively triangular, its broad of the nose), divides the under
base gently curved on the upper plane from the nose tip to the
region of the mouth barrel base, forming the steep-sided,
(the maxilla) . triangular nostril cavities.

. . -,,-=......_
45

Septal Cartilage
MAXILLARY ARCH

MANDIBULAR ARCH

CHIN PROMINENCE

..
 Mouth
The substructure of the mouth
is formed by the two great den-
tal arches of the teeth: the up-
per (maxillary) arch and the
lower (mandibular) arch. Set
together, both arches support
the curving mouth barrel.

....
SIDE VIEW PROPORTIONS FRONT VIEW PROPORTIONS
OF MOUTH OF MOUTH

From the base of the nose, the The outermost points of the
mouth bulge drops two thirds dental cuTve align with the
the distance from nose to chin. centers of the eye sockets.

47
 LIPS
Overlying the arches of the
upper and lower jaws is the
broad, circular mouth muscle
(orbicularis oris), with its
prominently developed lip for-
mations.

UPPER LIP

The upper lip is a \videspread,

gently curving arch, grooved
in the center with a shallow
depression. It is shaped like a
flattened, extended M.

Front View, Three-Quarter

Three-Quarter Up View

48

M Fo1·rnation
TUBERCLE

rhe center of the groove (tu-

bercle) on the lip thrusts slight-
ly forward like the prow of a
ship.

PHU,TRUM

The central depression of the

upper lip ( JJhiltrurn) mounts
and narrows at the septal car-
tilage in the base of the nose.
The two edges of the philtrum
are the pillars of the lip.

LOWER LIP
The lower lip contour is like
an extended W. Two elliptical
lobes develop outward from
the center to form the arms of
theW, while the middle of the
lip dips to receive the tubercle
from above. Both lips have thin
marginal rims.

49

W Fonnation
 COMPARISON OF UPPER
AND LOWER LIPS
The upper lip is somewhat
more arched and wider than
the lower. Because it covers
the greater dental arch of the
upper teeth, the upper lip is
the longer of the two. The Upper lip is wide1",
lower lip is therefore recessed moTe arched.
on the arch of the lower row of
teeth. It is recessed 30 degrees
in relation to the upper lip.

Side view shows 'recessed

lower lip.

50
INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS LIP MOVEMENTS
This generalization obviously The lower lip is more active
does not apply to individuals and mobile than the upper. Its
with an outthrust lower jaw. placement on the free-moving
In such cases, the lower lip pro- lower jaw guarantees greater
trudes and the upper lip activity. The lower lip is also
recedes. moved by an ample set of lower
mouth, chin, and jaw muscles.

Lips Ret1·acted and Open

LiJJS Drawn Down,

with Jaw D1·opped

51

Lips Comp1·essed
 Ear FORMS OF EAR
The ear is shell-shaped in form The ear has four major forms:
and general structure. Its the wide, outer encircling rim
outer contour is formed like a (helix); the smaller inside rim
C, wider at the top and nar- (antihelix ), which encloses the
rower at the base. In the cen- depressed bowl; the lower
ter, it has a bowl-like depres- fleshy base (lobule) ; the firm
sion, the concha, large enough projection (tragus) which
to admit the curve of the overhangs the opening to the
thumb. Ill> ear canal. The inner rim (anti-
helix), divides at the top into
two arms, forming a bent Y
shape. Below the tragus is a
small notch, just under and
outside the ear canal opening.
The tubercle, a small knot on
the upper outside curve of the
helix, is sometimes called Dar-
win's point. The curve of the
C Formation helix turns into the bowl of the
ear and implants itself in the
central wall. 'Y

A~TIHELIX

52
PROPORTIONS OF EAR WIDTH COMPARED TO LENGTH
The entire ear lies within two The width of the ear is half
lines drawn from the top of the the length . This measure
eyebrow and the base of the occurs only at the highest part
nose. The ear divides vertically of the ear, the helix or outer
into th1·ee generally equal rim.
parts.

First part: from the top of the

ear to the point where the helix
attaches to the side of the head.

Second part: the mid-region of

the ear is occupied entirely by
the bowl (concha) . The tragus
is at the exact midpoint of the
ear.

Third part: the lobe of the

ear. The bottom of the lobe
aligns with the base of the
nose.

53
PLACEMENT OF EAR Back Wall of Ear
On the side plane of the head,
the ear tips slightly backward
at an angle of 15 degrees. Seen
from the back, the outer rim
of the ear stands away from
the head at an angle of almost
20 degrees. This view clearly
reveals the rounded back wall
of the central bowl.

55

Ear tips backward 15°.

 A~ATOMY :l\1A.JOR
MUSCLE MASSES
The muscles of the head and
face divide into four general
groups: the muscles of the
mouth; the mw~cles of the eye
and eye socket; the muscles
of the jaw; the supP.rfir ial
muscles of the scalp and face.
The most important muscles
are those 'Nhich produce the
larger surface forms, the visu-
ally prominent masses. Pri-
marily, these are the muscles
of the mouth and jaw. The eye
and socket muscles are sec-
ondary. T he others are minor
. they are barely seen. '
smce

.J aw Muscles

-...;.._- TEMPORALIS: PASSING UNDER

ZYGOMATIC ARCH TO
TE MPORAL BONE, ASSISTS
MASSETER I N RAISING JAW
AND CLENCH ING TEETH.

r---....:...,_- MASSETER : RAISES JAW AND

CLENCHES TEETH.

56
Mouth Muscles

LE\"ATOR LABll SUPERIORIS

ALAEQUE NASI: HAISES HIGH
INSIDE UPPER LIP, INCLUDING
NOSTRIL WING.

LEVATOR LABII SUPERIORIS:

RAISES UPPER LIP NEAR
NOSTRIL WINGS.

CANINUS (LEVATOR ANGULI

ORIS) : WITH ZYGOMATICUS,
RAISES CORNER OF MOUTH.

ZYGOMATICUS (MAJOR AND

MINOR) : RAISES MOUTH
UPWARD AND OUTWARD.

ORBICULARIS ORIS : CIRCLES

::\-lOuTH, COMPRESSES AND
P URSES LIPS.

BUCCINATOR:
OF MOUTH BACKWARD,
FLATTENS AND
TIGHTENS LIPS.

RISORIUS: PULLS CORNER

MOUTH SIDEWARD AND
OUTWARD.

TRIANGULARIS (DEPRESSOR
ANGULI ORIS) : PULLS CORNER
OF MOUTH DOWNWARD.

QUADRATUS (DEPRESSOR LABII

INFERIORIS): PULLS LOWER 57
LIP DOWNWARD AND
OUTWARD.

MENTALIS: RAISES AND

TIGHTENS CHIN, THRUSTS
LOWER LIP UP AND OUTWARD.
CORRUGATOR : ASSISTS
ORBICULARIS IN COMPRESSING

ORBICULARIS OCULI: CLOSES

EYELIDS AND GOMPRESSF.8
EYE OPENING FRO'M ABOVE

ORBICULARIS TO TIGHTEN
INNER EYE SLIT BY
WRINKLING SKIN IN ROO'l'
OF NOSE.
 Superficial Scalp
and Face Muscles

IUS, FRONTAL PART:

DRAWS SCALP TO FRONT,
WRINKLES FOREHEAD SKIN
AND PULLS EYEBROWS
UPWARD.

EPICRANIUS, OCCIPITAL PART :

ORAWS SCALP BACKWARD
AND DOWNWARD.

PLATYSMA : LYING CHIEFLY

ON NECK, DRAWS LOWER LIP
DOWNWARD AND OUTWARD.

F unction of Anatomy
The purpose of artistic anat-
omy is not to dissect and ex-
pose muscles, but to analyze
and evaluate forms. The stu-
dent must observe which forms
are major, minor, or superfi-
cial; which ones have signifi-
cant visual impact i and which
ones are scarcely visible. Fur-
thermore, he must evaluate
head forms in general, study-
ing the relations between bony 59
skeletal forms, r igid carti-
laginous forms, and flexible
muscular forms. The artist
studies anatomy not as an end
in itself, but as a g1·oundwork
for the expressive interpreta-
Eye and Socket Muscles tion of visual form.
 2.
Head
Movemenl

60
To draw the moventent of the Constructing a Rotating Head Step 2: Now draw horizontal
head means to record the (A-B) and vertical (C-D)
changing aspects and relations Step 1: Draw a full front view lines which divide the ovoid
of head forms when the head head shape in correct propor- shape at the midpoint in both
changes position. How do we tion. directions. These are the a.ri!i
draw the varied views of the lines: the horizontal axis (A-
head? How are the major B) identifies the brow line;
masses related when the head the vertical axis (C-D) defines
changes direction? How are the bilateral symmetry of the
the features expressed when face and features.
seen from above and below?
How are the significant planes
and structures positioned when
the head turns? When the head
moves, a new set of form 'rela-
tions appears. The student
must strive to observe these
changes and draw them with-
out distortion.

HEAD ROTATION
To draw the head in a full
front view or a direct side
view is elementary. The simple
relations of the cranial and
facial masses, front and side,
have been explained in Chapter
1. The difficulty occurs when
the head rotates from a front
view to a three-quarter view.
A question arises about the
back of the head. How much of
the cranial bulge will be shown
at the rear in relation to a
given amount of turn? Here is
a simple solution.

61
 Step 3: Our chief interest is in Step 4 : On this curved line Step 5 : Now, how much of the
the 1.'ertical axis, the center ( C-E-D), the new center of the cranium will appear at the
line which records every side- face, sketch the wedge of the rear? The answer is clear. The
wise movement of the face and nose in three-quarter view. amount of turn the head makes
features. To make the head Then lightly draw the lips and in front will produce a simila'r
turn from a front view to a a new outline on the right side amo·unl of turn in back. Mea-
new position, draw a new ver- of the face. This new outline sure the distance between the
tical center line ( C-E-D) from must be held generally within midpoint of old center line (F)
crown to chin. This line curves the original ovoid shape. and the midpoint of the new
to show the characteristic center line (E). Add this mea-
bulge of the ovoid mass. The sure to the head at the rear
midpoint (E) of the curve is (A-G). This gives you the cor-
at the horizontal brow line. rect amount of cranial bulge
Keep brow line level and un- in back, corresponding to the
changed. amount of turn in front. Mea-
surement A-G equals E-F.

Drawing a
Three-Quarter View
With these measurement lines
in place, complete the shape of
the skull and draw in the fea-
tures. This is !l good time to
review the details of the sec-
ondary forms we studied in the
preceding chapter. Check the
62 horizontal line-up of the nose
base, cheek bone, ear, and skull
base. The edge of the mouth
and chin should align with the
center of the eye. The ear
should attach on a horizontal
line drawn from the outside
corner of the eye.
\
\
.\
\
\ B
 Four Views of Head P roof of Method
in Rotation Let us, for the sake of argu-
When you have mastered the ment, raise an important ques-
procedure, try it on a series of tion: Is the foregoing method
heads showing various turns reliable for any stage in the
to left and right. In all views, rotation of the head? It is.
note how each measure A-B Here is the proof. Suppose that
equals measure C-D. we wish to give the head its
greatest possi ble rotation,
from a front view to a full side
view. First, we draw the front
ovoid shape and divide it, as
before, in halves. We then take
the measure A-B (half the
width of the front view head)
D
and transpose it to C-D, which
·completes the cranial mass.
Finally, we sketch in the full
profile. Our method gives us a
good side view head. But is it
proportionally correct? Recall
Chapter 1, in which we demon-
strated that the side view head
divides vertically into th1·ee
equal parts. Measure the above
head : A-B, B-C, and C-D are
exactly equal.
Sliglzt Tu1·n to Left G'reate't Turn to Left

64

Slight Turn to Right Very G'reat T'urn to Right

 POSITIONING SIDE
PLANE AND JAW LIN E
In drawing the many possible
views of the rotating head, two
problems impede our attempts
to achieve sound proportions.
These are the placement of the
side plane (A-B) and jaw line
(C-D). The side plane, which
begins at the corner of the
brow, changes with every turn
of the head. But the jaw line
tends to remain unchanged re-
gardless of the rotation!

66
 Side Plane
The side plane of the face be-
gins decisively at the brow
point, just above the outside
corner of the eye. Here the
front and side planes meet,
then fall obliquely inward to
the cheek bone, mouth edge,
and chin. The line of the side
plane lies on a steep 15 degree
drop from brow to chin.

ROTATION OF SIDE PLANE

Hard-cornered as the brow
point is, the line (A-B) on
which it lies is quite circular,
going around the middle of the
head. This curvature means
that when the head turns, the
side plane of the head (C-D)
rotates in the same proportion
as the center line (E-F).
 PLACEMENT OF SIDE PLANE
To locate the side plane for
any given turn of the head, fol-
low this simple procedure:

Step 1 : Draw a front view

head and put in the vertical
(A-B) and horizontal (C-D)
axes. These axes meet at the
center point of the face (E).
On the brow line (horizontal
axis C-D) indicate the two
brow points (F and G).

Step 2: If we give the head a

turn to the right, the center
point of the face will move
from E to H. A new center line
( A-H-B) is established. F
shows where the left brow
point appeared on the front
view, step 1. Note the new lo-
cation of the right brow point
(G).

Step 3: The measure E-H rep-

68 resents the amount of rotation
of the center point. The rota-
tion of the old left brow point
to its new location (F-I ) should
equal E-H. Beginning at the
new brow point (I), complete
the 15 deg1·ee drop of the en-
tire plane from brow to chin.
FVUR EXAMPLES OF brow point shifts from the
SIDE PLANE PLACEMENT same distance (A to B) as the
center facial line shifts from
In these four head views, the the front to a new position (C
side plane is established by to D). In all cases the pai-ti-
first resetting the brow point tions are held to the line of
as demonstrated above. Keep the brow, whether the line is
this simple rule in mind: The curved or flat.

Left Turn, Down View Right Tu'rn, Up View

69

Right Tu1·n, In this view (full turn, ?~ight

Deeper Down View profile) measu'res A-B and
C-D meet at brow point.
Jaw Line
The jaw line, from any view,
tends to remain unchanged no
matter how the head turns.
This means that the edge of
the egg shape, when drawn as
a front view, will continue to
define the jaw line as the head
turns. As the head rotates, the
RELATION OF SIDE PLANE
jaw line stays where we orig-
TO JAW LINE FRONT VIEW
inally drew it! This seems to
be a startling assertion. But The jaw contour has this sur- Seen from a front view, the
observe the jaw outline as the prising characteristic because mouth-to-jaw plane (A-B) ap-
head rotates and you shall see of the widespread, flat form of pears greatly compressed or
this principle borne out. the lower-side-facial area. foreshortened.
From the edge of the mouth to
the jaw, the surface is quite
even and without projections.

...
THREE-PHASE ANALYSIS
OF JAW LINE
In this three-phase drawing,
we see three positions of rota-
tion in one head.

Center line (A) is a front

view; center line (B) is a
three-quarter view ; center line 71
(C) is a side view. In all these
views, the jaw line does not
change. It is constant for all
positions. Try seeing each head
separately with the jaw line:
It is roughly correct for each
view of the head.
 ANALYSIS OF ROTATION more of its side as the box 1'0-
tates. This expansion of the
However, as the head tu:rns, side plane holds the jaw line
first a little, then more, the to a constant position. No mat-
side plane of the jaw appears to ter how much the head turns,
e'J.,-pand and widen, like the flat the jaw line remains exactly in
side of a box which reveals the same place.

72
)
UP AND DOWN
MOVEMENT OF HEAD
The brow line, which lies across
the middle of the head at the
bridge of the nose, is the hori-
zontal axis of the head. Below
this line, the facial mass be-
gins. All up and down move-
m.ent of the head starts with
this line. If the head tips down,
the axis line drops; if the head
lifts up, the line rises.

How Movement Affects

the Brow Line
The amount of rise or fall of
the brow line off the ho'rizontal
position represents how much
curvature the brow arch will
show. The brow curvature is
reflected in a sequence of sim-
ilar curves over the entire sur-
face of the head, from top to
bottom.

73

BROW LINE AXIS DOWN VIEW UP VIEW

In a diTect frontal view, the In a down view, the drop of the In an up view, the rise of the
brow line axis is a horizontal brow permits a corresponding brow gives the chin base a cor-
line. d1·op of the crown. We see the responding lift. We see the
top of the skull. under plane of the jaw.
 ~,
--
/'
I

'(
\
 Ear Placement
When the head moves up and
down, special care must be
given to the placement of the
ear. The ear always goes in an
opposite direction to the facial
tilt. When the face is down, the
ear is up; when the face is up,
the ear is down. Thi::> rule ahm
applies to the skull base.

/
I
I
I .
I

I 'I
I

Head Up Head Down

METHOD OF PLACEMENT
To place the ear on a tilted
head, set up two track lines :
the first from the brow corner;
the second from the nose base.
Swing these tracks as the brow
axis line indicates, curving
down or up as the head posi-
tion demands. Place the ear
within the tracks, fixed to the
jaw line. The skull base aligns
with the ear base.

THREE-QUARTER UP VIEW
If the head is seen from an ex- ,
tremely low angle, the brow
curve takes on an extremely 75
arched appearance. This qual-
ity also appears in the jaw base
I
and smaller features like the
mouth, lips, and chin. Note
how the amount of ?'ise of the
brow curve determines the rise Face down: ear appears Face up: ear is now
of the chin base. high in this view. very low.
 Checking Proportions
and Placement
Once the ear is properly placed
on the head, we must check the
remaining features of the face
for accurate placement and
proportions. The following
points are offered as a check
list for up views and down
views of the head.

BASE OF NOSE
The base of the nose is one
eye-length wide. Check the eye
with the nose width for accu-
racy.

EYE PLACEMENT

To place the eye correctly in

its socket, draw a line upward
from the edge of the nostril
wing to the brow. The inside
corner of the eye starts from
this line.

76
MOUTH AND CHIN
The corner of the mouth holds
to a line d1·awn down from the
center of the eye. This line also
identifies the side of the chin.

JAW CORNER
The jaw corner lines up with
the opening of the mouth and
the lower lip. In three-quarter
up and down views, this corner
lies on a 45 deg1·ee line that
starts at the nose bridge and
curves across the face.

77
 UNDER-JAW

Seen from below, the muscle

mass connecting the chin to the
neck slopes down at a 15 degree
angle. Its form looks like a wide
funnel-opening thrust into the
horseshoe form of the lower
jaw.

EYE FORM
The eye, in upshot and down-
shot, shows two remarkably
different curves. Here, when
the eye is seen from above, the
lower lid curve is round, while
the upper lid is hardly curved,
almost a straight line. When
the eye is seen from below (see
facing page), the appearance
is reversed. The upper lid is
greatly curved, and the lower
lid is flat.
78
EYE PUPILS
Study the pupils of the eyes,
both in up and down views, and
in rotating views of the head.
In these positions, the eye pupil
disc is an ellipse, a circle in
perspective. In a j1·ont view,
when the eye moves up or
down, the ellipse is ho1·izontal:
shallow from top to bottom. In
a partial side view, the ellipse
is veTtical: shallow from left
to right.
Up view : pupil is
horizontal ellipse.

Down view : pupil is

ho1·izontal ellipse.

Pa1·tial side view : pupil is

vertical ellipse.

79
 EXTREME HIGH AND
LOW VIEWS
Seen from an extremely high
or low position, the great ovoid
form of the cranial mass dom-
inates the shape of the head.
The irregular facial forms
tend to become subordinate to
the spherical brain case.

Extrente Down View

Extteme Up View

80
VOICE BOX (ADAM'S APPLE)
When the head moves in any
direction, you can locate the
voice box by drawing a line
from the center of the nose
through the center of the lips.
Moving downward, the line
strikes the voice box in the
center of the neck.

Upshot Side View, Left:

Finding Cente·t of Neck.

NECK COLUMN
The neck column, curving
backward in a long arc, may
then be added from the skull
base.

81

Extreme Three-Quarte1·
Up View, Right: Finding
Center of Neck.
 3.
Facial
Change:
Wrinkles

82
In Chapters 1 and 2, the head
has been seen as a standard,
generalized structure. The dis-
cussion has been limited to
averages and similarities of all
heads. We shall now proceed
to the factors which determine
facial differences. In the next
two chapters, we shall explore
two forms of facial change:
wrinkling and aging.
THREE WRINKLE
PATTERNS
W1·inkling of the face occurs
for a variety of reasons. The
most common reasons relate to
incidental facial activity, such
'
as chewing, grimacing, wink-
ing, pouting, squinting, ex-
pressions of pleasure and dis-
taste, and demonstrations of
emotion. Other reasons relate
to psychological stress and in-
ner tensions, as well as aging,
muscular flaccidity, or loss of
firmness in flesh. ' Vhatever the
origin of wrinkles, their de-
velopment follows three major
patterns: frontal, oblique, and
lateral.

83
Frontal Pattern
The j?·ontal patte'rn of wrinkles
is heavily concentl'ated in the
central region of the face. This
pattern has its root in the nose
bridge, and at the base.
 NOSE BRIDGE
At the bridge, the frontal pat-
tern starts with a deep hor-
izontal groove across the root
of the nose, accompanied by an
intense inward compression of
the eyebrows. As the eyebrows
compress, vertical furrows rise
in the center of the brow arch,
swing slightly out, then close
in an elliptical curve at the
base of the forehead. As the
eyebrows collide, the skin folds
seem to squeeze or crush. Note
the upward movement of the
frontal pattern, high in the
nose.

Horizontal G·roove

Vertical F u,rrows

84
NOSE BASE

At the base of the nose, two

\\Tinkle movements occur: one
thrusts upward to the nostril
wings; the other drags down-
\Vard to the mouth and chin.
These movements are largely
vertical.

UPWARD MOVEMENT DOWNWARD MOVEMENT

The upward thrust from the The downward movement be-

nose base produces a sharp gins lightly around the nostril
curling of the flesh around the wings. From he1·e, a deep chan-
nostril wings. The action is nel emerges and swings around
high and arched. The upper lip the mouth bulge, then closes in 85
is pulled upward from the cen- a tight curve, circling the fron-
ter. The nose tip, while it does tal prominence of the chin. The
not move, takes on a forced, lower lip is forced out when the
outthrust appearance. The mouth is closed.
effect is like an expression of
distaste.
 Oblique P attern
The oblique pattern of wrinkles
develops above and below the
inside curve of the eye socket,
and the inner contour of the
cheek bone. The oblique pattern
belongs to the inner eye, the
brow, and the cheek bone, as
the frontal pattern belongs to
the nose, the mouth, and the
chin. The oblique pattern lies
adjacent to the frontal pattern.
Its main directions are angular
and outward. It moves both up
and down.

86
PATTERN BEGINS AT EYE
The oblique pattern begins in
the deep inner curve of the eye
socket below the nose root. Two
wrinkle movements develop:
below, a depressed ring edges
the socket and lower eye and
moves downward over the
cheek; above, the pattern moves
from the socket curve over the
mid-brow to the base of the
forehead.

87
 CHEEK JAW AND NECK
The oblique pattern descends The downward movement con-
across the cheek. Decisive rifts tinues across the middle of the
appear. In aged persons, the jaw and its undersurface, then
cheek bone is exposed, with a cascades in fleshy channels
hollow below. down the side of the neck to the
protruding collar bones.

88
ASCENDING MOVEMENT ZIG-ZAG MOVEMENT
The wrinkles rise from the The oblique pattern is like a
compression line of the eye- zig-zag movement up and down
brow and inner socket. Then the face, starting at the inner
they range up and outwa1·d in curve of the eye socket.
an arc that curves around the
mid-brow. The movement
turns and ends in a series of
horizon tal rifts across the
lower forehead.

89
 Lateral Pattern
The lateral pattern consists of
all the wrinkles on the side re-
gion of the face, neck, and
back of the head. This diffuse
pattern shows isolated funows
and rifts which emanate from
the outer eye, ear, jaw line,
and back of the neck below the
skull base.

90
CROW'S FEET SIDE VIEW OF CROW'S FEET EAR
The fan-like wrinkles which Fl·om a side view, the crow's The wrinkles which develop
start at the outer corner of the feet show a radiating effect. around the ear merge with
eye are commonly called crow' s Near the eye corner, the those of the jaw line and neck.
feet. wrinkles are deeply creased. At the forward edge of the ear,
As they flare outward, they slight rifts curl around the
As the eyelids terminate, a split into finer, less decisive rim; slip down to the lobe; then
se1·ies of creases fan out from wrinkles, especially on the side descend to a sel'ies of furrows
the socket, wheel upward of the fm·ehead and cheek. cutting the line of the jaw.
around the brow corner and These move on to the under-jaw
across to the ear, and spread and neck, becoming deeper
downward to the cheek bone fleshy channels. From the rear
arch. of the neck below the ear, COl'-
rugations move down to meet
the jaw wrinkles, flowing down
together toward the neck base.
The ear is like an island divid-
ing a flowing stream.

91
 TENSION AND
PRESSURE WRINKLES
Wl'inkles tend to develop in the
skin which covers the crevices
and 'recessed regions of the
head and face. In these places,
rifts, creases, and folds appear
when the skin responds to some
movement of the head, jaw, or
facial muscles. For instance,
wrinkles occuT when we laugh,
frown, sneeze, squint, wink,
tilt or swing the head. The pull
of muscle~; causes tension
wrinkles. The contraction or
squeeze of muscles causes pres-
sure wrinkles.

Example of Tension and

Pressure Wrinkles
The skin creases when thrusts
develop from the action of
eyebrows, eyes, cheeks, and
mouth. Creases under the chin
and jaw are forced by the tilt
and inward pul~ of the head.

92
SAG AND
SHRINKAGE WRINKLES
Another variety of wdnkles
occurs as a result of the aging
of the skin and fleshy fibers of
the head. The flesh loosens and
the skin shrivels; the tissues
lose their firmness and elas-
ticity. This creates what we
may call sag and shrinkage
wrinkles. These tend to be ran-
dom and unpredictable. Sag
wrinkles are usually loose or
flaccid, taking a downward
course, as they are pulled by
the force of gravity. Shrinkage
wrinkles look dried out and
withered in the heavier, thicker
tissues of the face; a shrunken
and cross-gl~ained effect may
be seen, for example, on the
lips, chin, cheeks, and ear lobes
of aged persons.

Example of Sag and

Shrinkage Wrinkles
Note the sag of the loose, hang-
ing folds below the chin and
jaw. Shrinkage may be seen on
the brow, cheek, lips, and back
of the neck. Note the cross-
grained, shriveled appearance.

93
 INTERACTION OF
WRINKLE PATTERNS
The three major wrinkle pat-
terns interact: they are not
independent or compartmen-
talized. In these fom· examples,
observe the groupings and then
draw your ovvn examples from
persons near at hand. Observe
the tension and pressure wrin-
kles, and the sag and shrink-
age wrinkles.

Parallel Effect of Pressure Reaction to

94 Pressure and Tension Head Thrust
An expression of concentration When the head is thrust force-
causes pt·essure wrinkles to fully into the neck, extreme
appear between the eyebrows. pressure creases girdle the en-
At the same time, incipient ten- tire perimeter of the lower jaw
sion folds develop on the side and chin.
of the mouth and cheek.
Opposition of Tension
and Sag Wrinkles
Here we see two contrary ten- Contr ary Effect of
dencies. The upward pull of P ressur e Rifts
the eyebrows reveals tension The retracted mouth produces
wrinkles on the forehead, tension in the lips and chin. At
while the neck region expresses the same time, a severe con-
an over-all downward drift of traction (pressure) in the
sag wrinkles. Note further the brow and nose bridge effects
subtle shrinkage creases on the an opposite pressure on the
lips of this older woman. nose above the nostril wing.

95
 4.
Facial
Chanue:
AUiDU

96
 As the head ages, changes take 3
place in head proportion, skull
development, and bone articu-
lation in brow, nose, jaw, and
teeth. Growth in flesh, tissue,
skin, lips, ears, eyelids, and
hair all contribute to the de-
scriptive aspects of aging. Less
obvious, but no less important,
are changing head positions,
body attitudes, and gestures;
these add subtlety and distinc-
tion to the head in growth,
maturity, and decline. The fol-
lowing sequence of illustra-
tions will analyze the progres-
sive aging of the head, as form
and detail change year by
1
year.

AT BIRTH
Proportion: facial mass, 1
part; cranial mass, 3¥2 parts.
Forehead and nose meet in con-
tinuous S-curve. Ear quite
large, set forward toward face.
Jaw short ; flat, undeveloped
jaw angle. Nose appears large, 3
compared to mouth and chin.
Eye closed; has compressed,
bulged appearance. Sparse,
downy hair (but occasionally
profuse) covers bead from 2
crown backward. Short neck;
appears feeble and weak. 4

6 MONTHS
Proportion: facial mass, 1
part; cranial mass, 3 parts. 1 97
Facial mass fuller; jaw slight-
ly increased. Nose appears
smaller. Note roundness of
cheek, chin, and neck. Mouth
tends to be full, curved, open.
Hair longer, fine, feathery.
Eye alert, responsive.

l
 1 YEAR 3
Proportion: facial mass, 1
part; cranial mass, just 'U,nder
3 parts. Pronounced S-curve of
forehead and nose. Eye, mouth,
and lips active and eager. Chin,
cheek and neck fat developed;
chubby appearance. Neck
somewhat longer.

2 YEARS
3
Proportion : facial mass (still
increasing) , 1 part; cranial
mass, 23/t parts. S-curve of
forehead and nose maintained.
Small, short nose. Hair thicker
and profuse. Jaw and chin
more developed; cheek, jaw
and neck fat evident. Mouth
soft and curved, but firmer and
more controlled. Neck some-
I
what longer. I
1 4
98
 3Yz-4 YEARS
2 Proportion : facial mass (still
3
increasing) , 1 part; cranial
mass, 21;'2 parts. S-curve of
forehead and nose persists.
Nose slightly longer. Cheek
full and rounded. Jaw larger;
chin curved, somewhat prom-
inent. Under-jaw fat and neck
fat disappearing; neck longer.
Lips firmer; mouth more com-
petent and expressive.

6-7 YEARS
3 Proportion ; facial mass (still
increasing), 1 part; c1·anial
mass, 21!:'1 parts. Orbits almost
as large as adult. Nose still
curved, but longer; tip up-
thrust. Mouth region larger.
Chin round, more prominent;
jaw angle more vertical; jaw
larger. Neck longer. S-curve
of rear head bulge and neck
evident. Hair unTuly, thicker,
more adult.

99
1
 8-9 YEARS
Proportion : facial mass (still
increasing), 1 part, cranial
mass, 21,4 parts. Forehead
changed somewhat; brow arch
showing, nose bridge deepen-
ing. Nose longer, more devel-
oped, but still curved; tip up-
thrust. Lips still curved;
mouth region increased. Jaw
leaner; chin longer, more
pointed, but still rounded.
Neck longer. S-curve of head
bulge and neck maintained.

11-12 YEARS
Proportion: facial mass, 1
part; c1·anial mass, almost 2
parts. Head somewhat smaller
than adult, but mature ratio
appears. Brow bulge and nose
bridge more apparent. Nose
longer, more articulated; tip
still up. Mouth firmer; chin
larger; jaw heavier and
broader. Adam's apple puts
in slight appearance (voice
change beginning). Neck lon-
ger and slightly thicker.

100 1
 14-15 YEARS
Proportion : mature level
reached; facial mass, 1 part,
3 cranial mass, 2 parts. F'rom
here on, head propo1·tion con-
tinues at this ratio. Brow
thicker. Nose bridge deepens.
Nose tip still up. Jaw corner
more angular; chin firmer, less
rounded. Adam's apple more
pronounced. Neck longer, a bit
heavier. Back head bulge still
present, still immature.

18-20 YEARS
Young adult stage achieved.
Understructure of head comes
through; leaner facial appear-
ance. Cheek softness disap-
pears. Deeper nose bridge;
nose tip less evident. Jaw angle
firm. Mouth more firm; lip
softness disappears. Neck
muscles stronger, more devel-
oped. Skin texture firmer,
thicker.

101
 25 YEARS
Deep nose bridge; nasal bone
more pronounced. Lean cheek
and cheek bone. Chin mound
more decisive; under-jaw re-
gion firm and even. Mouth
more reserved.

30 YEARS
Eye appearance deeper set,
searching, incisive. Early de-
velopment of creasing, starting
at outer corner of eye and fore-
head. Mouth, chin mound, and
jaw line firm. Slight fleshiness
under-jaw.

102
35 YEARS
First appearance of softness
and fleshiness under jaw; chin
mound cleavage occurs. Mouth
wrinkle emerges. Under eye
sag ; fmther increase of eye
and brow wrinkles. Neck less
lean, somewhat heavier. More
reserved, less intense facial as-
pect and bearing.

40 YEARS
Hair somewhat thinner. Deep-
er-set eye; eye socket shows
more clearly. Forehead and
eye wrinkles advance. Mouth
crease more pronounced. Chin
mound tighter, less rounded.
Under-jaw sag advances; chin
shows clear separation from
jaw. Neck heavier. Slight
fleshy 1·oll at back of neck.

103
 45 YEARS
Hair thinner, graying and re-
ceding at temples. Definite
crow's feet wrinkle group
forming at outer corner of eye.
Under-chin sag droops slightly
toward neck. Chin mound quite
distinct. Jaw corner fleshy, less
lean. Neck less firm; early
wrinkles starting on side; flesh
on rear neck reflects increased
body weight.

50 YEARS
Frontal hair thinned out; side
hair recessed. Grayness con-
tinues. Upper lid line sags. Eye
deeper-set in socket. Fleshy
pouch beginning under lower
1id. Wrinkles in mid-forehead.
Deeper nose bridge. Cheek
flesh sags; cheek bone evident.
Secondary sag appears at side
of chin. Soft flesh under-jaw
sinks toward neck. Jaw line
fleshy and unclear. Neck wrin-
kles increase.

104
 55 YEARS
Hair quite thin on crown; gen-
erally gray. Under-eye pouch
more decisive. Cheek bone and
zygomatic arch apparent. Tem-
poral wall and brow corner
pronounced. Chin mound more
angular. Back neck fold
deeper; front of neck shows
sagging, folding, and shrink-
age.

60 YEARS
Cranium generally bald. Bony
features of skull apparent
throughout. Eye takes on
grave, concentrated look. Nose
forms more distinct. Lower
facial region (especially chin,
jaw, and neck) appears slack,
I
,
flaccid. Ear less firm; shrink-
age of forms evident. Facial
expression shows tiredness,
less energy.

105
 65 YEARS
General flesh and bone shdnk-
age; hollows and recesses of
skull become clear. Folds and
creases deepen around mouth,
jaw, and neck. Fatigue appears
in eyebrow, eye and forehead
wrinkles. Eyebrow hair some-
what profuse and unruly look-
ing. Placement of head on neck
reflects slightly stooped, less
erect body posture.

70 YEARS
Tooth loss causes jaw shrink-
age; jaw angle less steep. Chin
more prominent. Nose seems
enlarged. Mouth folds deeper,
more extreme; lips appear
tighter, more compressed. Ob-
vious hair growth on ears.
Scalp hair finer and lank; loses
coarseness and vigor. Network
of smaller wrinkles develops
throughout head. Placement of
head on neck reflects increas-
ing stoop of body.

106
75 YEARS
Loss of teeth; further gum and
jaw shrinkage. Chin less fleshy,
thrust further forward. Cross-
cut wrinkles emerge on shrink-
ing lips. Substructure of skull
emerges from below skin. Head
tends to hang forward in walk-
ing; balanced backward while
sitting. General weariness in
facial expression.

80 YEARS
Senescence and debility over-
take head from this stage and
beyond. Loss of teeth creates
undershot bony look of jaw.
Jaw angle quite low and flat.
Mouth collapsed and wrinkled.
Cheek sunken. Flesh withered
throughout the head, including
ear and neck. Hair fine, thin,
silky. Deep sag on upper lid
line; upper eyelid droops
markedly. Generally feeble
appearance.

107
 5.
Head
TYnes

108
We have studied some factors
of head structure and facial
change common to all members
of the human family. People
the world over are generally
alike. But we must recognize
that there are enormous varia-
tions in detail : there are diver-
gcnt head types, races, and
populations, as well as varied
culture groups, and an infinite
diversity of individual faces.

THREE TYPES OF HEADS

Among the peoples of the earth,
there are three different head
types. These are broadly clas-
sified according to the cephalic
index, an established standard
of head measurement.

BROAD-HEADED
(BRACHYCEPHALIC)
Heads in this category are
characterized by a wide skull,
yet features and facial aspects
may be remarkably varied.

109
....
Applying Proportions
in Drawing
In drawing this type-or any
other-do not try to apply the
proportions exactly. The draw-
ing is apt to become forced and
stilted. If the head is visually
convincing--even if the pro-
portions are not exactr--you
have produced an acceptable
solution. See how these three
examples of broad heads p1·ove
this contention.

Facial Features
Individuals with medium to
low foreheads tend to have 111
... compact, square, relatively
Head Proportions short faces and features.
When you draw the broad-
headed skull, you may find that
the width of the skull is at
least four fifths the length.
 LONG-HEADED Moderately Arched Forehead High, Arched Forehead
(DOLICHOCEPHALIC) The forehead shell, among long The forehead may present a
Compared to the broad heads, beads, varies greatly. In some, high, arched eminence which
the long heads seem to have ex- the cranium shows a moderate curves into the cranial vault.
ceedingly narrow skulls. The slope.
width of the skull is generally
three fourths the length.

112
Facial Features
Persons with a high, vaulting
forehead tend to have a gen-
erally longer facial structure
from crown to chin, with a
more extended nose and ears.
INTERMEDIATE OR
MEDIUM-HEADED
(MESOCEPHALIC)
Persons in this group generally
fall between the two extremes.
The forehead is neither highly
arched nor markedly shallow.
•

Female Head Proportions Facial Features

Although the female head ap- The proportions of the inter- Persons with a medium-high
pears more delicate in detail, mediate group lie between forehead tend to have a more
it still conforms to the same those of the broad and the long ovoid facial stlucture, with
head type: broad, long, or in- heads. Skull width is some- somewhat shorter nose, ears,
termediate. This is an inter- what less than four fifths and and chin.
mediate example. Confirm this larger than three-quarters the
by categorizing the head types length of the skull.
of the women you observe
around you. 115
 FACIAL SLOPE
There are major differences in
the slope of the face, when the
face is seen from the side view.
This slope reflects the forward
thrust of the front teeth (in-
cisors) as compared vvith the
forehead (disregarding the
nose, of course) . Three char-
acteristic profiles emerge.

Steep Slope
When the facial angle is steep,
the slope is vertical. Individ-
uals in this group show the
least projection of the front
teeth (prognathism).

116
Diagonal Slope
At the other extreme, the pro-
file is markedly slanted. There
is a profound projection of the
dental bulge.

Moderate Slope
Between these two extremes,
the middle group shows a mod-
erately upright profile.

117
 EXAMPLES OF
HEAD TYPES
No one particular group of
persons can be identified by a
single head type classification
or facial slope. Head form
variations run through the in-
dividuals of all population
groups the world over. In the
following drawings, we shall
see a sampling of persons,
chosen merely for visual in-
tel·est and physical variety,
who reveal the various head
form traits in varying rela-
tionships.

118

Southe-rn Eu1·opean Man Equador Indian Man

(I taly) : B1·oad H ead Type; ( Jiva-ro): Medi~mtHead T ype;
Steep Facial Slope. M odet·ate Facial Slope.
 119

Southern India-Ceylon Man: Northeastern India Woman

Medium Head Type; (Bengal): Medium Head
Diagonal Facial Slope. Type; Steep Facial Slope.
 Easten1- Eu1·opean Man Central African Pygmy
(Uk-raine): BroadHead Type; (Congo): B1·oad Head Type;
Steep Facial Slope. Diagonal Facial Slope.

120

North Aj1i.can Man (Be1·ber, North American Eskirno Man

M o1·occo) : Long H ead Type; (A 'rctic Fringe) : Medium
Steep Facial Slope. Head Type ; Moderate
Facial Slope.
Central Eu'ropean Man Guatemala Indian Woman:
(A ustria) : Broad Head Type; M edittm Head Type;
Steep Facial Slope. Moderate Facial Slope.

121

Asia Minor Woman West Af'rican Man (Nigeria) :

(Turkey): Medium Head Long Head Type;
Type; Moderate Facial Slope. Moderate Facial Slope.
 West Eut·opean Man (Great Northern Japanese Man
Britain) : Long Head Type; (Ainu) : Broad Head Type;
Steep Facial Slope. Steep Facial Slope.

122

Indonesian Woman (Java): Eastern Asian Woman

B1·oad Head Type; (Japan): Medium Head
Moderate Facial Slope. Type; Moderate Facial Slope.
Southwestern Eu'ropean Man Western United States Indian
(Spain) : Long Head Type; Man (Sioux) : Broad Head
Steep Facial Slope. Type; Moderate Facial Slope.

123

N ortheaste'rn A ust1·alian Central Aj1'ican Woman

Man: Long Head Type; (Congo): Long Head Type;
Moderate Facial Slope. Diagonal Facial Slope.
 Eastern Asian Man (China): New Guinea Man (Papua}:
Medium Head Type; Broad Head Type;
M ode1·ate Fac,ial Slope. Moderate Facial Slope.

124

Middle Eastern Man (han): Northern Eu1·opean Man

Medium Head Type; (Sweden): Long Head Type;
Mode'rate Facial Slope. Steep Facial Slope.
Near Easte·r n Man (Saudi South Af'rican Bushman
Arabia): Long Head Type; (Kalihari Desert): Long
Steep Facial Slope. Head Type; Diagonal
Facial Slope.

125

Polynesian Man (Samoa):

Broad Head Type;
ModeTate Facial Slope.
 6.
&allerv
Ol
&real
Heads

126
A SUMMARY AND knowledge. This process de-
DOCUMENTATION OF mands an understanding of
DRAWING PRINCIPLES useful, workable materials;
trained motor and technical
skills; and, more decisively, a
We have come to a point where comprehension of forms, their
it is possible to assess the draw- o1·de1·ed relations and asso-
ing principles presented in the ciated meanings, all of which
preceding chapte1·s. In the fol- we sometimes call the language
lowing pages, we shall repro- of art. Only those who work to
duce a gallery of heads by mas- master this knowledge, who
ters of drawing, painting, and Jearn the language of forms,
sculpture. With this gallery of may conceivably produce a
great examples, we shall work of art.
attempt to document our prop- Knowledge of form, there-
ositions of form and structure, fore, is essential to every work
order and prop01-tion, as well of art. At this stage of our
as our generalizations about work, we will attempt to show
the organization of contours, that art must sta1·t from a con- HEAD OF A YOUTH
planes, tonal values and tactile cise body of form discipline, a (BROKEN FROM A STATUE)
surfaces. We shall seek to dem- grammar of forms, if you will. Marble Sculpture
onstrate empirically that the In the following pages, we shall Greek, early Fifth Century B.C.
material in this book is formed recapitulate these factors in (ca. 490 B.C.)
from observations which can the works of masters whose
be verified in art works across outlook and interest spring The Met-ropolitan Museum
the centuries, from early Greek from a common fund of infor- of Art, Rogers Fund, 1919.
times to the present day. mation. In exploring this gal-
In every work of art, a syn- lery of great heads, we shall In this archaic Greek head, the
thesis exists between the pro- search out certain salient fea- basic masses are established
jection of an idea and the tures which, we hope, will with rigo1·ous simplicity and
shaping of a form. When an illuminate and reinforce the clarity. Despite the loss of de-
idea is perceived mentally as propositions advanced in this tails in the chipped nose, lips,
an image, the visualizing pro- book. lids and ear, the structure of
cess is called imagination. The Lest there be any misappre- the ovoid cranial mass and the
act of making the image visible hension as to the intent of this tapered facial mass still force-
in some material (clay, paint, book, we must assert that it fully assert the decisive char-
carbon, graphite, etc.) is called deals only with the p'recursory acter of the head.
art. In the shaped material, we measures upon which a work
see the embodiment of the of art is based. Our purpose It is wise to remember, as the
imagined idea as a form. The has been to lay the ground- early Greek sculptor shows us,
fm·m-a created object-is a work of form comprehension. that the essence of drawing lies
work of art. But once this foundation is es- in developing the great masses
Now, while all of us may be tablished, and the reader has first. Whatever forms may be
able to imagine or perceive reached a stage of freedom added later, these primary
images, not everyone is cap- wherein this basic knowledge structures alone are capable of
able of shaping forms. The per- is taken for granted, the read- producing the fundamental
ception of images- the process er's performance moves into form of the head. 127
we call imagination-is de- the domain of personal expres-
rived from the experience of sion. From here, the common-
our senses and their capacity place similarity of form is
to apprehend what happens in reconstructed by individual
nature. But the process of temperament into the sense
making images into forms de- values of the shaped image, the
pends on a special system of aesthetic work of art.
HEAD OF A YOUTH HEAD OF AN ATHLETE
(DETAIL OF A STATUE) M a·rble Scul7Jtu,1·e
Ma·rble Sculpture Roman copy of a Greek
Greek, Fifth Century B.C. Sculpture, 3rd Quarter
( 450-425 B.C.) Fourth Century B.C.
The Met1·opolitan Museum The Metropolitan Museum
of ATt, Fletcher Fund, 1926. of A ·r t, Rogers Fund, 1911.

In this downshot view of a This classic Greek bead gives

Greek youth, the cranial form us three views of the secondary
fully supports the external forms and features:
mass of hair and curls.
Side View: In the side view,
The view from above the head see how the eyelids are located
presents a clear distinction be- on an oblique line from the ad-
tween the two different curves vanced upper lid to the reces-
of the eyelids. Seen this way, sive lower lid. Further, note
the upper-lid curve is inhibited how this oblique line, if con-
and quite flat, in contrast to tinued, tends to meet the cor-
the rounder curve of the lower- ner of the jaw. From this point,
lid line. a line carried horizontally to-
ward the profile will carry into
Here we see how the eyes are the mouth slit and lower lip.
set in the sockets just below the
overhanging brow bone. They Front View: Check the width
are spaced the length of an eye of the mouth in this front view
apart. In another sense, this and observe how the mouth
measure between the eyes can corners terminate on lines car-
be taken from the extreme ried down from the midpoints
width of the nostril wings. of both eyes. This relationship
can be seen in all three views
of the head on this page.

Three-Quarter View: Finally,

judge the correct placement of
the near eye in the three-quar-
ter view. The inner corner of
the eye will be seen to start on
a point directly above the edge
of the nostril wing.

129
 HEAD OF AN APOSTLE
Black and white chalk
on white paper
Anthony van Dyck
(1559-1641)
The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, Gift of
M'r. and Mrs. Janos Scholtz,
1952.

In an upshot foreshortening
of the head seen from below,
van Dyck shows how the eye-
lid curves are reversed. Set
against the raised plane of the
head and the arched swing of
the brow, the upper lids take
on a marked crescent-shaped
curve while the lower lids are
virtually straight.

The foreshortened up view is

further emphasized in the ellip-
tic shapes of the pupil discs;
the upthrust triangular nose
base; the low-set cheek bones
on the curved facial plane; and
the thrust of the chin mound
through the beard, implying
the recessed understructure of
the jaw.

130
PORTRAIT OF AN OLD MAN HEAD OF A MAN PORTRAIT HEAD OF THE
Marble Sculpture Marble Sculpture EMPEROR CARACALLA
Roman, F irst Century B.C. Roman, First Century B.C. Marble Sculpture
The Metropolitan Museum (Late Republican Period) Roman, Third Century A.D.
of Art, RogeTs Fund, 1921. The Metropolitan Museum The Metropolitan Museum
of Art, Rogers Fund, 1917. of Art, Samuel D. Lee Fund,
This lean, long-jawed indi- 1940.
vidual presents an excellent Despite the missing fragment
example of the frontal wrinkle of the nose, this head clearly The upward dh·ection of the
pattern which emanates from shows the emerging wrinkle oblique wrinkle pattern is pTe-
the narrow nose root at the patterns of the nose. Note how sented with incisive clarity
bridge and the nostril wings at the oblique pattern, starting in this portrait. The pattern
the base. The Wl'inkle pattern from the inner corner of the thrusts from across the nose
can be traced in the vertical eye and moving into the mid- bridge and projects angularly
compressions that stal't from face, is distinguished from the over the brow to merge with the
the eyebrows and engage the frontal pattern, which turns furrows of the mid-forehead.
horizontal forehead furrows. around the nostril wing and This vigorous accent is no over-
Then the pattern emerges from holds to the lower cheek con- statement, for it injects a re-
the nose wings and com·ses tour. The w i de-set lateral vealing psychological tension
downward, holding to the pe- wrinkle group, beginning at in the imperious characteriza-
rimeters of the mouth bulge the outer eye corner, radiates tion of the emperor's personal-
and chin mound. upward to the forehead and ity.
downward to the extreme edge
This trenchant portrait, with of the jaw and neck. In an over-all classification,
its gaunt face and narrow cra- this head can be assigned to
nial box, gives us an explicit Of the three generic classes of the intermediate or mesoce-
specimen of the long-headed or head type, this version appears phalic skull type, wherein the
dolichocephalic skull form. to be a remarkable example of general configuration of the
the broad-headed or brachy- cranium is neither broad nor
cephalic type. narrow.

131
PORTRAIT OF A YOUNG MAN PORTRAIT OF AN UNKNOWN Again, the deep hollow of the
(PERHAPS AUGUSTUS) MAN (DETAIL) eye socket is joined to the nose
Ma1·ble Sculpture Pencil on paper forms which spread to form
Roman, Augustan Period Jean-Auguste Dominique the triangular nose wedge. The
(ca. 30 B.C.) Ingres (1780-1867) mouth bulge is more subtly ex-
pressed; since the subject is an
The Met1·opolitan Museum The Met1·opolitan Museum older person, the cheek folds
of A1·t, Rogers Fund, 1919. of Art, Rogers Fund, 1919. and mouth line are specially
emphasized to exp1·ess the nu-
This profile view confu·ms the A penetrating simplicity emer- ances of incipient shrinkage
means by which the front neck- ges in a drawing developed wrinkles. The upper head mass
line is established under the from a single source of light. is drawn in a linear shorthand;
jaw. A line starting from the In this manner, Ingres shows the stroked modeling of the
tip of the nose, touching the the massed side plane of the hair explains the cranial vault
lips, and continuing down- head, with the shadow edging underneath.
ward strikes the forward pro- the depressed temple wall and
jection of the laryngeal box or the emerging cheek mound.
Adam's apple.

In another note on form place-

ment, see how the ear is set at
the side of the jaw line. The
length of the ear equals the
distance between the eyebrow
and nose base.

133
 PORTRAIT OF AN OLD WOMAN LADY IN A RIDING HABIT- LADY WITH A PINK (DETAIL)
(DETAIL) L' AMAZONE (DETAIL) Oil on canvas
Oil on canvas Oil on canvas Rembrandt van Rijn
Frank Duveneck (1848-1919) Gustave Courbet ( 1819-1877) ( 1606-1669)
The Metropolitan Museum of The Metropolitan Museum of The Met?·opol.itan Museum of
Art, Morris K. Jesup Fund, A1·t, Bequest of M-rs. H. 0. Art, Bequest of Benjamin Alt-
1923 . Havemeyer, 1929. man, 1913 .
The look of old age : how ably While Com·bet draws attention Rembrandt's consummate skill
the artist has juxtaposed the to the compelling near eye with as a draughtsman is seeming-
hard-edged bony projections its dark accent, the artist's ly belied in the casual, almost
beneath the corrugated fleshy mastery of draughtsmanship careless, use of the brush with
sUJ·faces. Most notably, he de- is revealed in the muted hand- which forms and contours are
fines the furrowed brow and ling of the mouth, the sensi- coarsely laid in. But under-
sockets with the eyes sunk tive treatment of the lip curves neath these surface aspects,
deeply within. Especially with their subtle range of form the positions of the decorative
praiseworthy is the handling tones. How artfully he permits headband and the fillet of
of the tight lips holding to the the slight sidewise tilt of the peat·ls reveal two counter-
bony forms. The lips are head to expose the nose in a curves of the cranial vault; the
checked with cross-grain rifts, double relief: the nose contour first curve moves over, the sec-
while on the perimeter two cur- is keyed against a darkened ond around the upper crown.
tains of sagging cheek folds facial plane; the structured At the same time, the pearl on
descend, laced with surface ir- nose base is silhouetted against the forehead subtly engages
regularities. Although a wealth a lightened cheek plane. From the curving center line of the
of detail is recorded, the artist here, the lip channel, descend- frontal plane of the head.
has not overstepped the sensi- ing darkly, engages the deli-
tivity with which these subtle cate mouth forms and the bare- The facial planes recede in tone
form nuances are disclosed. ly perceptible chin mound. from top to bottom (compare
Then, from below, the ribbon the forehead and chin base),
frames the jaw and joins the and from left to right (check
dark mass of hat and hair, the value changes on each of
thrusting the head into an im- the pearls). The most artful
pressive three-dimensional re- tt·eatment of structural rela-
lief. tionships can be seen in the
handling of the eyes. The mod-
eling indicates the degree of
turn and the progression of
value from the near to the far
eye. But far more effective is
the finesse of accent between
both. The near eye--with its
heightened color contrast,
translucent pupil, and keenly
inserted highlight-commands
the central head bulge and be-
134 comes the focal point of the en-
tire head.
PORTRAIT OF AN OLD MAN
Oil on wood
Peter Paul Rubens
(1577-1640)
The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, Egleston Fund, 1922.

The condition of age is essen-

tially a result of the withering
and shrinking of the bony and
fleshy tissues. Under extreme
illumination, Rubens estab-
1ishes with subtlety and econ-
omy the data of old age. In the
silve1·y sheen of fine hair on the
balding crown and in the pa-
triarchal beard, we find the
dark accents of the understruc-
tures : the cranial bulge, the
deep-set sockets, the elevated
cheek mounds, the articulated
nose projection, the contracted
mouth corners. Then he adds
the finer nuances of fleshy
rifts on the brow, the nose
bridge, the eye corner, and the
cheek cover. His final tactics
are the acute insertion of the
profuse eyebrow hair, the sag-
ging eye fold, the pendulous
ear lobe, and most engaging,
the high, white collar which
thrusts the head downward in-
to the confirmed body stoop of ARISTOTLE CONTEMPLATING ing with clay. We begin by ob-
old age. THE BUST OF HOMER (DETAIL) serving the triangular block-
Oil on canvas ing of the nose wedge, the forc-
Rembrandt van Rijn ing of the upper nose plane, the
( 1606-1669) pushing down of the side plane,
the cutting of the nose base and
The Metropolitan Museum of gouging of the nostril. Then
Art, 1961. we slowly drift from the un-
Unless a profound knowledge mannerly paint stroke into the
of form can be called upon, flesh, bone, and vibrant pres-
boldness of execution cannot ence of the living man. The
show anything but the mere eyes peer from the deep sock-
exercise of the brush. To be ets in translucent shadows; the
137
authentic and significant, slack half-hidden mouth, barely
stroke and form must be in- open, begins to phrase wordless
tegrated. In this head, Rem- sounds. This is when paint,
brandt shows restless brush- controlled by the intelligence
work which is built up like the of form, passes into the realm
technique of a sculptor model- of art.
 YOUNG WOMAN WITH A HEAD OF A YOUNG BOY DON BERNARDO DE IRIARTE
WATER JUG (DETAIL) Red chalk on paper oa on canvas
Oil on canvas Jean-Baptiste Greuze Francisco de Goya
Johannes Vermeer (1725-1805) (1746-1828)
(1632- 1675) The Metropolitan Museum of The Metropolitan M'tt,seum of
The Metropolitan Museum of Art, Rogers Fun,d, 1949. A1·t, Bequest of Mary Stillman
Art, Gift of Henry G. Mar- Harkness, 1950.
quand, 1889. Command of a youthful head
in this view can come only Underscoring accents in the
The light source, directed from from a profound awareness of recessive areas of forms is one
the left, pl'Oduces a clear ex- the total head mass. The over- means by which Goya extracts
pression of planes in high and all structural unity is given the qualities of his sitter's
low relief; the effect is one of cohesion by the spherical build- identity. For example, the
structural simplicity and spa- up of lines, which are worked dark touches under the nose tip
tial coherence of all the parts. in curved array from the left and the nostril cavity tend to
This even-tempe1·ed precision eye region and then course out- define a lean, taut, angular
is almost prosaic, except when ward to the rotund perimeter slope. Low tones at the lip line
we note how Vermeer has used of the head. The features are and mouth co1·ners create are-
the bonnet to play out the bal- kept consistent with the con- tention of the upper lip and
ance of the head mass. The ception of the upshot view. protrusion of the lower lip. In-
thin material becomes a veil Strong curved accents hold the cised values at the outer eye
through which the opaque vol- circumferential upper lid lines; edges and nose b1·idge induce a
ume of the cranium is re- lesser curves engage the nose swelling convexity in the eyes.
vealed; the subtle penetration base, mouth, and lips; then the And the inflected contour of
of light permits the rear skull spheroid curves reverse to take the jaw base tends to send the
and neck to be shown. Against up the under arcs of cheeks, chin mound out and open the
this, a reverse shift illumi- chin, and neck. lower lip. Goya's understand-
nates the translucent plane of ing of form is so precise that it
the right face and chest. Fi- is with his light passages that
nally he releases a semi-trans- he reaches the intensity of char-
parent glow through the left acterization. See how the light
bonnet wing, against which the strokes bulge the eye, lift the
contour of the facial mass is nose, raise the nostl'il, assert
securely enclosed. the lips, swell the cheeks, pro-
ject the chin.

138
HEAD OF THE VIRGIN HEAD OF A WOMAN HEAD OF A MAN
Black and -red chalk on pape'r Black crayon on paper Red and black chalk
Leonardo da Vinci Ludovico Carracci Fran~ois le Moyne
(1452-1519) (1551-1619) (1688-1737)
The Metropolitan M'useum of The Met-ropolitan Museum of The Met'ropolitan Museum of
Art, Dick Fund, 1951. A1·t, Rogers Fund, 1950. Art, Rogers Fund, 1910.
Leonardo conceives the head In contrast with Leonardo, The head, from a high view
as a great sphere on which he Carracci takes a low viewing above the crown, shows how
introduces the secondary forms position and exploits the over- forms relate to the great cir-
and features. He initiates his curved directional relation- cumferential brow curve. The
approach with a central light ship of the major and minor cranial box, with its helmet-
source directed from above the masses. Holding to this device, like vault, is well presented, as
head. Then, modeling the glo- Carracci is able to expose all is the relationship of nose base,
boid mass, he develops curva- the under planes of his head cheek bone, ear lobe, and skull
ture with a continuous grada- forms : the brow r idge and eye base on the low curve under
tion of values toward the un- socket; the nose base; the lip the brow arc. Especially note-
dersurface of the right con- recesses; the chin mound and worthy is the handling of the
tour. Selectively, he relieves undercut jaw surface; the mouth and eye curves on the
the major features with heav- cheek plane and neck column. foreshortened frontal plane of
ier pressures and lightly This done, Can'acci simply the face. The finesse of the in-
searches out the minor forms darkens each of the undersur- side socket curve and the tight,
with softer touches. He skill- faces, including the back- elliptical pupil discs lend ve-
fully manipulates the hair as a ground, and fuses the whole racity to this downshot head.
background to his forms, dark- into a homogeneous mass of
ening the mass to show the il- structured forms.
luminated brow and cheek,
lightening the tones to empha-
size the intensified mouth and
ci1in.

139
 MAN IN PRAYER PORTRAIT OF A MAN PORTRAIT OF A YOUNG MAN ....
Tempera and oil on wood IN A TURBAN Tempera and oil on wood
Robert Campin Tempera and oil on wood Giovanni Bellini
(active 1418-1444) Rogier van der W eyden (1430?-1516)
The Met?·opolitan Museum of (ca. 1400-1464) The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, Bequest of Mary Stillman The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Jules S. Bache Col-
Harkness, 1950. Art, The Jules S. Bache Col- lection, 1949.
lection, 1949.
With an extraordinary econ- This notable example of the
omy of means, Campin lets us According to van der W eyden, head as living sculpture is
see the facial qualities which painting is conceived as a col- firmly shaped with light-dark
characterize aging. Relying oring of forms in relief, with planes. The hair is built like a
mostly on the rigid substratum drawing as a primary base. helmet which shows tonal and
of the skull overlaid with a flac- This linear tendency enables linear turns of form. The
cid flesh covet·, he skillfully de- him to edge his contours with structuring of the eyes, lids,
scribes the simple forehead darks in order to elevate his and pupils is so secure that
furrows; the emerging cheek forms in relief. If the drawing even the eyeball is given its
mounds; the flat mantle of flesh is consistent and precise, form spheroid form by the light.
drooping in undulant folds control is elegantly sustained. Note the suave detailing of the
below the jaw; the constrained However, if an error occurs, nose: the curving tip, the nos-
mouth and chin; the elongated the effect is noticeable. In this tril wings, the side plane join-
ear; the sagging eye and mouth respect, we note that the right ing the girdle of the socket. The
wrinkles, with the spare bridge mouth corner seems overex- mouth and lips-the project-
and crow's-feet rifts; and final- tended, just beyond the mid- ing tubercle, the incurving cor-
ly the marginal tufts of fine- point of the eye above. At first ners-give full knowledge of
spun hair on the cranial vault. glance, this seems to put the every form. The strong jut of
mouth out of drawing. Yet, if the chin and jaw in front of the
we look at the tone of the dental recessive plane of the face com-
bulge under the lips, we see pletes a memorable impression
the true structural position. of unity.
The retracted mouth corner is
not a distot'tion; it is a wry
expression the painter has ob-
served and recorded. See how
the cheek curve responds to the
mouth tension on the right,
while the left side remains re-
laxed and passive.

140
 THE MUSICIANS tion of the ovoid facial contour, old. The youth in the back-
Oil on canvas and the facial forms are gen- ground (second from right)
Michelangelo Amerighi erally small, soft, and imma- appears to be the oldest. Note
Caravaggio (1560/5-1609) ture. While the front neck line the more decisive facial angu-
shows a slight mound of the larity: the deeper nose bridge,
The Metropolitan Mt(,Seum of voice box, the neck column is emerging nasal bone, distinct
Art, Rogers Fund, 1952 slender and the body mass has under-eye curve, more assert-
little bulk. This youth, we in- ive cheek tautness. He is be-
It is interesting to note the age fer, is a teen-ager, hardly more tween nineteen and twenty
levels of the four youths than fourteen years old. The years of age. What of the youth
Caravaggio shows us. How old second youth from the left is with his back to us? The firm
are they, and on what basis older-. Not only does the jaw planes of the nose tip suggest
shall we decide? On the ex- corner appear, but the firmer a level of maturity, unlike the
treme left is the youngest. Ob- jaw line, cleft chin, flatter round nose of the first lad. But
serve the smooth curve of the cheek contour, and somewhat the subtle rise of the cheek-
cheek and jaw line. The turn inflected nose tend to prove bone and brow against the un-
of the cheek is scarcely affected this. Observe the more mature inflected jaw angle shows him
by any show of the cheek bone body frame and the thicker to be somewhere between the
under the round fleshy surface. neck column. This lad is about oldest and the youngest. Hence,
The chin is simply a continua- seventeen or eighteen years he is about sixteen years old.

142
STUDY FOR THE LIBYAN SIBYL PORTRAIT OF PORTRAIT OF MARGARET WYAT'l',
Red chalk WILLIBALD PIRKHEIMER LADY LEE (DETAIL)
Michelangelo Buonarroti Eng'raving Tempera and oil on wood
(1475-1564) Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) Hans Holbein the Younger
The Metropolitan Museum of The Metropolitan Museum of (1497/ 98-1543)
Art, Purchase, 1924, Joseph Art, Fletcher Fund, 1919. The Metropolitan Museum of
Pulitzer Bequest. Art, Bequest of Benjamin Alt-
The modeling process, as Du- man, 1918.
In this overview of the head, rer performs it, is almost like
Michelangelo turns the posi- carving. A multiple series of The development of depth in
tion almost into a profile while fine-spaced lines is stroked in this spare and meticulous head
tipping the mass over to its to extract the topographical is accomplished by overlapping
side. This subtle attitude is as- array of forms and textures. form over form in sequence,
sel·ted with a number of small He explores the undulant and playing out contrasting
but decisive clues. Just above course of hair, the thick-set areas of tone. To this end, Hol-
the nose bridge, he shows the brow, the heavy eyes, the broad bein takes advantage of a
far brow bulge. On the eye, nose, the full-hewn lips, the three-quarter yjew and pene-
the arc of the upper lid domi- ample chin, and the pendulous trates the facial contour with
nates the lower and tends to jowl. Form after form, he ex- the incisive nose, the taut chin,
force the orb deep into the plores the relative sequence of the fine extension of the eye-
socket. The swing of the upper planes in depth. But there is no lash. Great curving a1·cs on the
lip curve goes beyond the cen- passage so perceptive as the in- headpiece produce a series of
ter groove and 1·otates the cisive probing of the mouth, turns like a tunnel through
mouth into view. Heavy ac- chin, and jaw. The lips pro- which the head emerges; then
cents under the forms on the trude over the maxillary bulge, the device is carried to the
right produce a box-like effect and this joins the far-left con- neckband to let the chin and
which fm·ther suggests the tour of the higher cheek. The jaw through, and to the neck-
oblique tilt. The spiraling neck under-mouth recess is inflected lace and collar to ring the neck
wrinkles show the twist of the against the thrust of the jut- and shoulders. His modeling of
head in our direction. This ting chin, which brings the left forms is only incidental to his
twist is confirmed by the si- outline into play toward the linear effect, for his use of tone
multaneous lift of the shoulder inner face. Below, the heavy is introduced to support and
in reverse, which confirms the jaw flesh swings from left to enhance an overlapping edge.
wrench-tilt position. right under the dark curls. See how the tone on the chin
Then the rear neck fold l'e- base and behind the nose line
vel·ses and rings the throat qualify these edges.
with a fatty collar to engage
and complete the facial line.

143
 1

PORTRAIT OF MADAME GRANT, JONKER RAMP AND HIS turned and down-turned heads,
LATER PRINCESSE DE TALLEY- SWEETHEART (DETAIL) the wry facial tensions around
RAND-PERIGORD (DETAIL) Oil on canvas the mouths hold clearly to the
Oil on canvas Frans Hals (after 1580-1666) maxillary dentures and the
Louise Elisabeth jaw formations. And while
The Metropolitan Museum of Hals' uninhibited brush com-
Vigee-Le Brun (1755-1842) A1-t, Bequest of Benjamin municates a spontaneous effect
The Metropolitan Museunt of Altman, 1913. of gaiety, we still find in the
Art, Bequest of EdwardS. squint of the eyes, the stretch
Harkness, 1940. A mobile expression, as in this of the lips, the lift of the
capricious show of laughter cheeks, the drop of the jaw, the
A lyrical treatment of a head and merriment, depends on a solid skull structures under-
requires grace of attitude, deli- rigorous grasp of structure to neath. This adherence to form
cacy of form, sensuousness of effect an agreeable result. produces a Falstaffian humor,
surface, and suavity of brush Otherwise, an inexact knowl- while an ign01·ance of form re-
work. The lightness of the ele- edge of facial structure may veals the floundering distor-
vated head is reinforced in the produce an eccentric or per- tions of the amateur.
rise of the upper eye and brow verse grimace. In these up-
curves, the lift of the lip forms
and mouth corners, the upward
tilt of the nose, the elongation
of the neck column. The sin-
uous brush rhythms of hair,
undulant curls, and swaying
ribbons induce a feeling of
lightness. All this may tend to
convey an excess of mannered
and superficial charm. But the
attempt, however inane, is al-
ways secure in the artist's fun-
damental knowledge of form.

144
ADORATION OF THE MAGI very old, infancy and youth
Pen and bistre drawing are revealed in fullness of flesh
with wash and roundness of forms, while
Guercino (1591-1666) maturity and age are ex-
pressed in dryness of tissue
The Metropolitan Museum of and angularity of bony sup-
Art, Rogers Fund, 1908. ports. The line only briefly
makes a concession to a wrinkle
In this spirited drawing, Guer- here and there, but it is the
cino confirms with great sim- wash tone which puts the com-
plicity that aging is not merely pact volume of these heads in
a matter of wrinkling, but also relief. And it is this use of
a change in structural forms. massed form and plane that
In the disparate age levels does the work of age charac-
from the very young to the terization.
PORTRAIT OF HENRI LEBASQUE
(DETAIL)
Oil on canvas
Georges Rouault (1871-1958)
The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, Purchase, 1951, Joseph
Pulitzer Bequest.
When a Fauve painter like
Rouault expresses a head in a
tragic mood, the brush may
slash and stab; but rough-
hewn and raw as this head
first appears, it still affirms a
knowledge and mastery of
forms. See how Rouault holds
to the mouth bulge, the maxil-
laries over which the lips are
scored, and the nose wedge,
blocked and clipped. And how-
ever disparate the eyes, they
relate to the socket position.
Finally, the disposition of the
ears, cheek bones, and facial
planes confu·m the artist's
structural planning. The result
is an unde1·lying sense of order
over which, as on a battlefield,
a destructive struggle has
taken place.

STUDY FOR HENRY IRVING

AS PHILIP II OF SPAIN
Oil on canvas tonal recession, moves fl'Om
the intense upper right of the
James Abbot McNeill Whistler hat and cheek plane to the
(1834-1903) lower left chin and jaw. Then
The Metropolitan Museum of the slash of the mouth, the nose
Art, Gift of GeorgeS. Hellman, base, the bearded chin, the
1955. touches of eyes and ears are
affixed, and the whole is se-
At first glance, this seemingly cm·ely inserted into the collar 147
rudimentary and unfinished and shoulders. The fleeting,
painting projects an immate- nondescript impression is dis-
rial, amorphous quality. While pelled as the head takes on a
the details may be vague, there plastic totality in space. The
is nevertheless a studied unity head solidly exists, though de-
in the assemblage of masses. tails are missing, as if veiled
The light play, expressed in in an atmospheric haze.
 BOY WITH A BASEBALL
(DETAIL)
Oil on canvas
George Benjamin Luks
(1867-1933)
The Metropolitan Museu,m of
Art, Gift of Edward J.
Gallagher, Jr., 1954.
This vigorous result is not a
mere show of facility, but
the product of self-confidence
which comes from a vast sur-
plus of knowledge. Against a
tonal background, the brush
plays on structures relieved in
light which tugs at the cap,
hair, cheek bones, nose, mouth,
and jaw. Then lesser values
cut back recesses and lateral
planes until the structiD·ed
masses evolve into a coherent
whole. From here, the finish is
a simple matter of abbreviated
touches of pupils, nostrils, lips,
chin, and hair accents.
•

HEAD OF A WOMAN _.
Chalk on paper
trolled and the chaotic, Picasso
Pablo Picasso (born 1881) is never unsuTe of himself. His
The Metropolitan Museum of treatment may be crude, but
Art, Gift of M1·. and Mrs. his forms are always in o1·der.
Justin K . Thannhauser, 1950. First, he presents the ovoid
head mass. Then he imbeds the
148
The suggestion of weight and eye under the brow, but care-
bulk in the structured masses fully related to the edge of the
of the left side of the head con- nostril wing. The implied ear
trast with the vaporous, un- is correctly placed, as are the
clarified mass of the right side. suave, soft mouth with the phil-
Although the artist draws in a trum channel, and the well-
rough-hewn manner which im- formed cheek and side plane
plies a conflict between the con- joining the chin.
STUDY FOR A PORTRAIT OF PORTRAIT OF HEAD OF A MAN
EDOUARD MANET (DETAIL) AMBROISE VOLLARD Silverpoint
Lead pencil on paper Pencil on paper Alphonse Legros (1837-1911)
Edgar Degas (1834-1917) Pablo Picasso (born 1881) The Met?·opolitan Museum of
The Metropolitan Museunt of The Met1·opolitan Museum of Art, Gift of the A-rtist, 1892.
Art, Roge1·s Fund, 1918. Art, Elisha Whittelsey
Collection, 1947. In drawing a head, a problem
A great draughtsman is at his not easily grasped is the fact
best when he can, like Degas, The artist's approach seems that the over-all mass curves
use his vast knowledge to be dry, plodding, and parsimoni- from top to bottom and f1·om
subtle and suggestive when ous; not an elegant, virtuoso left to right. Legros explains
forms are modest and unim- performance. But look at the this with a fine network of
portant, and then assert swift, personality Picasso has drawn: linear strokes, building great
staccato accents at those cru- the humorless, intractable cast masses overla1d with smaller
cial points where form becomes of the man. Picasso's slow, forms in consistent tonal re-
significant. In this portrait, a exacting line and form ex- cession. The distinction is
tentative, casual stroking is plain the character as well as shown in the gradual descent
given to the wispy hair, mus- the identity of the sitter. The of the tones, using an over-
tache, and beard, while light artist digs out the obstinate set head left light. As the facial
flicks of the pencil barely tell of the mouth over the stubborn plane curves from top to bot-
of the brow, cheek, and nose jaw ; the lips stretch to the left tom, the value lowers and the
planes. We scarcely realize of the face, and to emphasize forms sink slowly in depth.
that Degas is tempering the the pugnacious thrust, he Only briefly does the nose
eye with the rapier-like touch grinds a tone under the right emerge in light; but the lower
of the pupils; incising the nose bearded jaw and cheek. He lip and chin are progressively
base, ear curves, and neck line; mounts the blunt nose over the set downward, as are the upper
at the same time taking up the lift of the dentiD·es and takes and lower lids. The left-to-
slack gray of the mustache and in the pair of cold, aloof eyes. right curvature is governed by
beard with the tensions of He delineates the large vault of an inc1·easing modulation of
mouth and cheek. The result is the skull edged with the·scrub- darks across the mounds of
deceptively effortless and dis- by fringe of hair; the lackluster form until the side plane of the
arming; yet underneath, how ear joined to the thick neck; head is reached; then a gen-
adroit and unequivocal are the and the whole of the head mass eral, almost uniform darkness
means which produce it. erected on the heavy, phleg- obscures the right mass. Note
matic body. A pervasive grace- the care with which forms are
lessness is suggested in the reduced in depth of plane with-
man th1·ouglz the art. out hard edges.

149
150
LE VENTRE LEGISLATIF YEUX CLOS
Lithograph Lithograph
Honore Daumier (1808-1879) Odilon Redon
The Metropolitan Museum of The Met1·opolitan M~tseum of
Art, Rogers Fund, 1920. Art, Dick Fund, 1925.

The art of caricature needs an A vague half-light diffuses the

exacting fund of information entire left side of the head and
with which to play out the ex- implies a concealment of form.
tremes of exaggeration and Ordinarily, such an ambiguous
grotesquerie. In his gallery of approach might lead to a feeble
rascals, knaves, and black- and inarticulate result. The
guards, Daumier is savage and right side, however, is given a
vitriolic. But whatever his tem- more concentrated light, which
per, he never lets his craft lose exposes the lucid forms of the
discrimination or self-posses- eye and socket structures, the
sion. His art, though it renders nose and cheek planes, the
the gross and obnoxious, can- mouth and jaw formations.
not be incautious or careless. Here and there, the line
Treading close to absurdity, he accents on lips, nostrils, eyes,
is always scrupulous in his and hair redeem the unified
control of form. He provokes appearance of the head. Before
laughter at his victims while the vaporous tone may have
the artist goes unscathed. seemed neutral; now, with
these accents of light and line,
the shaded region takes on a
mysterious, occult, poetic qual-
ity.
LA FILLE-MERE (DETAIL)
Etching
Jean-Louis Forain
(1852-1931)
The Metropolitan Museum o.f
Art, Rogers Fund, 1921 .
Terse, edged planes, massed
with dark areas, are sufficient
to establish an individual's
identity. Forain's approach is
sculptural in its simplicity. He
holds to a continuity of facial
structure, moving from crown
to brow, cheek bone to jaw. His
incisive edge and loosely
stroked line give a documen-
tary realism to his characteri- 151
zations. As he shows with tell-
ing impact, exclusion of details
need not disqualify an effective
solution.
BEGGING
Lithograph
Kathe Kollwitz (1867-1945)
The Met'ropolitan Museum of
Art, Dick Fund, 1928.
PORTRAIT OF HELENE BELLON
Oil on canvas
~.
Pierre Auguste Renoir
(1841-1919)
The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, Gift of Miss G. Louise
Robinson, 1940.
Sound structu1·e in drawing
always conveys respect and
confidence in the intent of an
artist, however specialized his
intent may be. Between Renoir
and Kollwitz the expressive re-
sults may stand diametrically
opposed to one another. Koll-
witz' withered distortion pro-
jects pathos; Renoir proclaims
vitality. The arid, granulated
line and tone of Kollwitz con-
trasts with the full-blown form
and volume of Renoir. But
whatever the artist's method
of conveying his meaning, one
fact is clear : the mastery of
ordered form lies at the bot-
tom of all good art.
 /
PORTRAIT OF HENRY BECQUE
Drypoint source on three views of his
subject, lays bare sculptur-
Auguste Rodin (1840-1917) esque planes; gouges and un-
The Metropolitan Museum of dercuts ledges of structure; 153
Art, Rogers Fund, 1922. delicately chips and scrapes
lesser depressions. The over-
When a sculptor works out a head light is used as a tool to
graphic problem, his tendency examine the relationships of
is to render volumes in space forms to the variations of tex-
by chiseling and carving with ture. The end result is decisive
line. Rodin, using a top-light clarity.
 PORTRAIT OF MLLE. VALTESSE
DE LA BIGNE
Pastel on canvas
Edouard ~anet (1832-1883)
The Metropolitan Museum of
Art, Bequest of Mrs. H. 0 .
Havemeyer, 1929.
As Hodin is a carver, Manet is
a painter. Light is used here
not to explain forms but to ex-
hibit the personality of the sit-
ter and to extol the sensuality
of materials. See how ~anet
varies his stroke, from the
swaying rhythms of the hair
to the sensitive caress of the
flesh ; from the delicate touches
of the features to the nimble
cadence of the ruff. The joy of
his line is as beguiling as the
plasticity of his surfaces. And
the correctness of his forms--
their placement, accenting,
and highlighting-matches the
charm of the sitter.

IE4
 Index

156
Accents, 138 ages, 97-107; ill us. of, 31; place-
Adam's apple, 81, 100, 101, 133 ment of, 55, 75; proportions of,
Aging of the head, 97-107, 137, 35, 53; wrinkles, 91
140, 145 Ear bones, see Antihelix; Concha;
Alar cartilage, 42 Helix; Tragus; Tubercle
Antihelix, 52; il1us. of, 52 Epicranius, frontal part, 59; occip-
ital part, 59
Bellini, Giovanni, illus. by, 141 Eye, 37-41, 78; at various ages,
Brow, 127 97-107; axis of, 39; placement
Brow line, how movement affects, of, 76, pupils, 79; shape of, 39;
73 wrinkles, 87, 91
Brow ridge, 30; ill us. of, 31; pro- Eyeball, 37; ill us. of, 36, 37
portions of, 32 Eyelids, 37- 38, 127, 129, 130; illus.
Brow visor, 26 of, 37, 38; side view of, 38
Brow wrinkles, 92, 93 Eye muscles, 40; see also Curruga-
Brachycephalic, 109-111, 131 tor; Orbicularis oculi; Procerus
Buccinator, 56 Eye socket, 17, 30; ill us. of, 31,
Buonarroti, Michelangelo, see 47; proportions of, 33
Michelangelo Buonarroti
Facial mass, 15-59 passim; contour
Campin, Robert, illus. by, 140 of, 18; illus. of, 16, 17, 18, 19
Caninus, 56 Facial slope, 116-117
Caravaggio, Michelangelo Amer- Features, proportions of, 32
ighi, illus. by, 142 Forain, Jean-Louis, illus. by, 150
Carracci, Ludovico, illus. by, 139 Forehead, ill us. of, 7
Cephalic index, see Head types Frontal bone, 24; ill us. of, 25
Cheek bone, ill us. of, 31; propor-
tions of, 33, 35 Goya, Francisco de, illus. by, 138
Cheek wrinkles, 88, 92, 93 Greuze, Jean-Baptiste, illus. by,
Chin, at various ages, 97-107 138
Chin box, 30; illus. of, 31; propor- Guercino, illus. by, 145
tions of, 34
Chin line, illus. of, 30 Hals, Frans, illu.s. by, 144
Chin mound, 28; ill us. of, 29; see Head movement, 61-79; rotating,
also Dental arch ; Jaw hinge ; 61-72; up and down, 73-79
Mandible; Ramus Head proportions, 19-21; drawing
Concha, 52, 53; ill us. of, 52 frontal, 20; drawing side view,
Conugator, 58 21
Com·bet, Gustave, illus. by, 134 Head types, 109-115; broad-headed,
Cranial mass, 15-59 passim; con- 109-111; long-headed, 112-113;
tour of, 17; ill us. of, 16, 17, 18 medium-headed, 115
Crown, 26 Helix, 52, 53; ill us. of, 52
Crow's feet, 91 Holbein, Hans, iUus. by, 143

Darwin's point, see Tubercle Ingres, Jean-August-Dominique, il-

Daumier, Honore, illus. by, 150 lus. by, 133
Da Vinci, Leonardo, illus. by, 139
Degas, Edga1·, illus. by, 149 Jaw, at various ages, 97-107; pro-
Dental arch, 28; ill us. of, 29 file of, 30; wrinkles, 88
Dental cut·ve, illus. of, 47 Jaw angle, 30 ; ill us. of, 31
Depressor labii inferioris, see Jaw bones, see Mandible; Ramus 157
Quadratus Jaw corner, 77, 129; illus. of, 30;
Dolicocephalic, 112-113, 131 prop01·tions of, 34
Durer, Albrecht, illus. by, 143 Jaw hinge, 17, 28; illus. of, 17, 18,
Duveneck, Frank, illus. by, 134 29
Jaw, lower, see Chin mound; Den-
tal arch; Jaw hinge; Mandible;
Ear, 30, 52-55, 133; at various Ramus
Jaw line, 66, 71- 72; relation of side Nasal orbit, illus. of, 36 Tragus, 52; illus. of, 52
plane to, 71 Neck, 81, 88; at various ages, 97-
Jaw muscles, see Masseter; Tem- 107 ; wrinkles, 88, 93 Under-jaw, 78; ill us. of, 22
poralis Nose, 30, 31, 42-45, 137; at various Upper nasal mass, 44; ill us. of, 44
ages, 97-107; illus. of, 31; pro-
Kollwitz, Kathe, illus. by, 152 portions of, 32, 44 Van der Weyden, Rogier, illus. by,
Nose base, 44; placement of, 76; 140
Laryngeal box, see Adam's apple wrinkles, 85 Van Dyck, Anthony, illus. by, 130
Legros, Alphonse, iUus. by, 149 Nose bridge, 17, 18, 77; ill us. of, Van Rijn, Rembrandt, see Rem-
Le Moyne, Franc;ois, illua. by, 13!> 17, 1!>; wrinkles, 81 brandt van Rijn
Levator anguli oris, see Caninus Vermeer, Johannes, illus. by, 138
Levator labii superioris, 56 Occipital bone, 24; ill us. of, 25 Vigee-Le Brun, Louise Elisabeth,
Levator labii superioris nasi, 56 Orbicularis oculi, 40, 58 illus. by, 144
Lips, 48-51 ; comparison of upper Orbicularis oris, 48, 56 Voice box, see Adam's apple
and lower', 50; movements, 51; Orbit, 40; ill us. of, 36
see also Mouth; Orbicularis oris; Whistler, James Abbot McNeill, iJ-
Philtrum; Tubercle Palpebra, 40 lus. by, 147
Lobule, 52; ill us. of, 52 Parietal bone, 24; ill us. of, 25 Wrinkles, 83-95, 140, 145; frontal
Lower jaw, see Chin mound; Den- Philtrum, 49; ill us. of, 49 pattern of, 83-85; interaction of,
tal arch; Jaw hinge; Mandible; Picasso, Pablo, illus. by, 148, 149 94; lateral pattern of, 90-91;
Ramus Platysma, 59 oblique pattern of, 86-89; sag
Lower occipital bulge, 17; ill us. of, Procerus, 58 and shrinkage, 93; tension and
17 Proportions, changing with age, 97- pressure, 92
Luks, George Benjamin, illus. by, 107; checking correct, 76-79
148 Pupils, placement of, 40 Zygomatic arch, 37, 105; ill us. of,
36
Mandible, 28; ill us. of, 28; see also Quadratus, 56 Zygomaticus, 56
Chin mound ; Dental arch; Ra-
mus; Jaw hinge Ramus, 28, 30; ill us. of, 29, 30
Mandibular aTch, 47; ill us. of, 46 Rear bulge, 26
Manet, Edouard, illus. by, 153 Redon, Odilon, illus. by, 151
Mass, cranial, see Cranial mass; Rembrandt van Rijn, illus. by,
facial, see Facial mass 135, 137
Masseter, 57 Renoir, Pierre Auguste, illus. by,
Maxilla, 45 152
Maxillary arch, 47; illus. of, 46 Risorius, 56
Mentalis, 56 Rodin, Auguste, illus. by, 154
Mesocephalic, 115, 131 Rouault, George, illus. by, 146
Michelangelo Buonarroti, illus. by, Rubens, Peter Paul, illus. by, 136
143
Mouth, 46-47, 140; at various ages, Scalp muscles, see Epicranius, Pla-
97-107; front view proportions, tysma
47; side view proportions, 47; see Septal cartilage, 45; ill us. of, 45
also Lips Septum, 42; illus. of, 48, 49
Mouth barrel, 30, 45; ill us. of, 31; Side plane, 66-69; placement of,
proportions of, 34; see also Max- 68-69; relation of jaw line to,
illa 71; rotation of, 67
Mouth bones, see Mandibular arch; Skull, see Cranial mass; Frontal
Maxi11ary arch bone; Occipital bone; Parietal
Mouth muscles, see Buccinator; Ca- bone; Temporal bone; Supercil-
n in us; Levator labii superioris; iary arch
Levator labii superioris nasi; Superciliary arch, 17, 24; ill us. of,
Mentalis; Orbicularis oris; Quad- 17, 25, 36
ratus; Risorius; Triangularis;
Zygomaticus Temple wall, 26
Temporal bone, 24; illus. of, 25
Nasal bones, 37; see also Alar car- Temporalis, 57
tilage; Septum Tubercle, 49, 52; ill us. of, 49, 52
Edited by Donald Holden
Designed by William Harris
Composed in Twelve Point Century Expanded
 Drawing the Human Head repre- Burne Hogarth is one of the
sents a landmark in art mstruction founders of the School of Visual Arts
books. A comprehensive work on the in New York City, where he served as
human head, th1s outstanding hand- Coordinator of Curriculum. Design,
book is so unique in concept and and Art History. His famed lecture
approach that no artist's library will be demonstrations of anatomy and draw-
complete w1thout it. This remarkable ing provided the material for Dynamic
volume belongs alongside the au- Anatomy. Drawing the Human Head,
thor's other h1ghly acclatmed books- Dynamic Figure Drawing, Drawmg
Dynamic Anatomy. Dynam1c Fig ure Dynamic Hands, and Dynamic Ught
Drawing, Drawmg Dynam1c Hands. and Shade.
and Dynamic Ught and Shade. The author received h1s education
In a dramatic series of 300 extra- and art background in Ch1cago,
ordinary draw1ngs and d1agrams. where he started a diversified profes-
Burne Hogarth masterfully analyzes sional career that embraces some
the basic structure. proportions. and forty years of experience in art educa·
anatomy of the human head. He tion. fine art, illustration, advertising,
carefully delineates the precise form and newspaper art. He achieved
and musculature of every facial worldwide recognition with his illustra-
feature; he outlines wrinkle patterns tions tor the Sunday newspaper fea-
and demonstrates how to draw the ture "Tarzan" and has since published
human head from every angle. Step- D Tarzan of the Apes and Jungle Tales
by-step, he clearly explams how to of Tarzan m book form. His cartoons,
age the face year by year, from b1rth drawings, prints, and paintings have
to old age. been exhibited at the Musee des Arts
Stress1ng the pnmary need to draw Decoratifs of the Louvre in Paris.
the head and body artistically, not A past president of the National
merely m the med1cal book manner, Cartoonists Society and member of
the author defines head types accord- the Board of Governors, Hogarth was
ing to structure and explains what awarded the N.C.S silver plaque for
features go with these types. To Illus- best 1n illustration and advertising in
trate the enormous dtvers1ty of head 1974, 1975, and 1976. He was also
structures and proportions. he then named artist of the year in 1975 at the
displays a sampling of heads from Pavilion of Humor in Montreal, Can-
racial and ethmc groups throughout ada. In 1986 he received the lifetime
the world. Caran D'Ache Award in Lucca, Italy,
To supplement his own magnificent
drawings, Mr. Hogarth offers a gallery CONTENTS and m 1988 was awarded the Lauriers
d'Or (Golden Laurels) by the
of great heads 1n art that exemplify C.E.S.A.R. Art Soctety in Paris.
his principles. Starting with Greek BASIC Burne Hogarth teaches analytical
sculpture and Roman portrait heads, figure drawing at Art Center College
he includes works by such masters as
STRUCTURES of Design in Pasadena, California,
Bellini, Campin, Caravaggio, Carracci, AND FORMS and makes his home in Los Angeles.
Courbet, Daum1er. Degas, Durer,
Goya, Greuze, Guercino, Hals, HEAD
Holbem, lngres, Kollwitz. Legros, Jacket des1gn by Bob Fillie
Leonardo. Manet. Michelangelo, MOVEMENT
Picasso. Redan, Rembrandt. Renoir,
Rodin, Rouault, Rubens, van Dyck, FACIAL CHANGE: WATSON-GUPTILL PUBLICATIONS
Vermeer, and Whistler. 1515 Broadway
Drawmg the Human Head is a
WRINKLES New York. NY 10036
bas1c reference work and a beautiful
art book unsurpassed 1n scope and FACIAL CHANGE :
authority. A dist1llat1on of the author's AGING
unique teaching methods, it is a ISBN 0-8230-1 376- b
classic in its field and 1s md1spensable
for every art student, art teacher,
HEAD TYPES 90000
portrait and figure pa1nter, sculptor.
illustrator, and cartoonist. GALLERY OF
160 pages. av.. X 11. Over 300 black- GREAT HEADS
and-white illustrations. Index.