Subfiles package example

Overleaf

1 Chapter 1
Introduction
Chapter 1 introduces the fundamental concepts of heat transfer, including the
three modes of heat transfer (conduction, convection, and radiation), the re-
lationship between heat transfer and thermodynamics, and the importance of
heat transfer in engineering applications. The chapter also discusses the units
and dimensions used in heat transfer analysis and provides a methodology for
solving heat transfer problems.

Key Concepts
1.1 What and How?
Heat transfer is defined as the transfer of thermal energy due to a temperature
difference. The three modes of heat transfer are:
• Conduction: Heat transfer through a solid or stationary fluid due to a
temperature gradient.
• Convection: Heat transfer between a surface and a moving fluid due to
a temperature difference.
• Radiation: Heat transfer between surfaces due to electromagnetic waves,
even in the absence of a medium.

1.2 Physical Origins and Rate Equations

The rate equations for the three modes of heat transfer are derived from physical
principles.

Conduction
Fourier’s law describes heat conduction:
dT
qx′′ = −k
dx

1
where:
• qx′′ : Heat flux in the x-direction (W/m2 )
• k: Thermal conductivity of the material (W/m · K)

• dT
dx : Temperature gradient in the x-direction (K/m)

For a plane wall with steady-state conduction, the heat flux is:
T1 − T2
qx′′ = k
L
where L is the thickness of the wall.

Convection
Newton’s law of cooling describes convective heat transfer:

q ′′ = h(Ts − T∞ )

where:
• q ′′ : Heat flux (W/m2 )
• h: Convection heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 · K)
• Ts : Surface temperature (K)

• T∞ : Fluid temperature far from the surface (K)

Radiation
The Stefan-Boltzmann law describes radiative heat transfer:

Eb = σTs4

where:
• Eb : Emissive power of a blackbody (W/m2 )
• σ: Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 · K 4 )

• Ts : Surface temperature (K)

For a real surface, the emissive power is:

E = εσTs4

where ε is the emissivity of the surface (0 ≤ ε ≤ 1).

2
1.3 Relationship to Thermodynamics
Heat transfer is closely related to the first and second laws of thermodynamics.
The first law (conservation of energy) is used to analyze heat transfer processes,
while the second law (entropy) provides limits on the efficiency of heat engines.

First Law of Thermodynamics

For a control volume, the first law is:

Ėin − Ėout = Ėst

where:
• Ėin : Rate of energy entering the control volume (W )

• Ėout : Rate of energy leaving the control volume (W )

• Ėst : Rate of energy storage within the control volume (W )

Second Law of Thermodynamics

The second law states that heat cannot spontaneously flow from a colder body to
a hotter body. The efficiency of a heat engine is limited by the Carnot efficiency:
TC
ηCarnot = 1 −
TH
where:
• TC : Temperature of the cold reservoir (K)
• TH : Temperature of the hot reservoir (K)

1.4 Units and Dimensions

The SI system of units is used throughout the text. Key units include:
• Length: meter (m)

• Mass: kilogram (kg)

• Time: second (s)
• Temperature: kelvin (K)

• Energy: joule (J)

• Power: watt (W )

3
1.5 Analysis of Heat Transfer Problems: Methodology
The methodology for solving heat transfer problems involves:
1. Identifying the known quantities and what needs to be found.
2. Drawing a schematic of the problem.
3. Making appropriate assumptions.
4. Applying the relevant heat transfer equations.
5. Solving for the unknowns.
6. Verifying the results and discussing their significance.

Key Equations
• Fourier’s Law (Conduction):
dT
qx′′ = −k
dx

• Newton’s Law of Cooling (Convection):

q ′′ = h(Ts − T∞ )

• Stefan-Boltzmann Law (Radiation):

Eb = σTs4

• First Law of Thermodynamics:

Ėin − Ėout = Ėst

• Carnot Efficiency:
TC
ηCarnot = 1 −
TH

Constants and Properties

• Thermal Conductivity (k): Found in tables for common materials (Ap-
pendix A).
• Convection Heat Transfer Coefficient (h): Typically ranges from
2 W/m2 · K (free convection in air) to 10, 000 W/m2 · K (forced convection
in liquids).
• Stefan-Boltzmann Constant (σ): 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 · K 4 .
• Emissivity (ε): Ranges from 0 (perfect reflector) to 1 (perfect emitter).

4
Summary
Chapter 1 provides a foundational understanding of heat transfer, including
the three modes of heat transfer (conduction, convection, and radiation), their
rate equations, and their relationship to thermodynamics. The chapter also
introduces the methodology for solving heat transfer problems and emphasizes
the importance of units and dimensions in engineering analysis.

2 Chapter 2
Introduction
Chapter 2 of Fundamentals of Heat and Mass Transfer focuses on the fundamen-
tals of heat conduction. The chapter introduces Fourier’s law, the concept of
thermal conductivity, and the heat equation, which governs temperature distri-
bution in a medium. The chapter also discusses boundary and initial conditions
necessary for solving heat conduction problems.

2.1 The Conduction Rate Equation

The conduction rate equation, also known as Fourier’s law, is the foundational
equation for heat conduction. It is given by:
dT
qx = −kA (1)
dx
• qx : Heat transfer rate in the x-direction (W)
• k: Thermal conductivity of the material (W/m·K)
• A: Cross-sectional area through which heat is conducted (m2 )

• dT
dx : Temperature gradient in the x-direction (K/m)

The heat flux qx′′ is defined as the heat transfer rate per unit area:
qx dT
qx′′ = = −k (2)
A dx

Direction of Heat Flow

The direction of heat flow is always normal to the isothermal surfaces (surfaces
of constant temperature). The minus sign in Fourier’s law indicates that heat
flows in the direction of decreasing temperature.

5
2.2 Thermal Properties of Matter
Thermal conductivity k is a material property that quantifies the ability of a
material to conduct heat. It varies with temperature and material type. For
most materials, k can be found in tables or calculated using empirical relations.

2.2.1 Thermal Conductivity

Thermal conductivity k is defined as:

qx′′
k= dT

(3)
dx

2.2.2 Other Relevant Properties

Other important thermal properties include:
• Specific Heat c: The amount of heat required to raise the temperature
of a unit mass of a substance by one degree (J/kg·K).
• Thermal Diffusivity α: A measure of how quickly heat diffuses through
a material, given by:

k
α= (4)
ρc

where ρ is the density of the material (kg/m3 ).

2.3 The Heat Diffusion Equation

The heat diffusion equation (or heat equation) is derived from the conservation
of energy and Fourier’s law. It describes how temperature T varies with time
and space in a conducting medium.

General Form of the Heat Equation

For a three-dimensional, transient heat conduction problem, the heat equation
is:
 2
∂2T ∂2T

∂T ∂ T
=α + + (5)
∂t ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

• ∂T
∂t : Time rate of change of temperature (K/s)
• α: Thermal diffusivity (m2 /s)
∂2T 2 2
• ∂x2 , ∂∂yT2 , ∂∂zT2 : Second spatial derivatives of temperature (K/m2 )

6
Simplified Forms of the Heat Equation
• Steady-State: If the temperature does not change with time, ∂T
∂t = 0,
and the heat equation reduces to:

∂2T ∂2T ∂2T

+ + =0 (6)
∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2
• One-Dimensional: For heat conduction in the x-direction only:

∂T ∂2T
=α 2 (7)
∂t ∂x

2.4 Boundary and Initial Conditions

To solve the heat equation, boundary and initial conditions must be specified.
These conditions define the temperature or heat flux at the boundaries of the
domain and the initial temperature distribution.

Types of Boundary Conditions

• Dirichlet Condition: Specifies the temperature at the boundary:

T (x = 0, t) = T0 (8)

• Neumann Condition: Specifies the heat flux at the boundary:

∂T
−k = q0′′ (9)
∂x x=0

• Robin Condition: Specifies a convective boundary condition:

∂T
−k = h(T∞ − T (x = 0, t)) (10)
∂x x=0

where h is the convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 ·K) and T∞ is

the ambient temperature.

Initial Condition
The initial condition specifies the temperature distribution at time t = 0:

T (x, y, z, t = 0) = Ti (x, y, z) (11)

7
2.5 Summary
Chapter 2 introduces the fundamental concepts of heat conduction, including
Fourier’s law, thermal conductivity, and the heat equation. The chapter also
discusses the importance of boundary and initial conditions in solving heat
conduction problems. Key equations include:
• Fourier’s law: qx = −kA dT
dx

• Heat flux: qx′′ = −k dT

dx
 
∂2T ∂2T ∂2T
• Heat equation: ∂T
∂t =α ∂x2 + ∂y 2 + ∂z 2

• Boundary conditions: Dirichlet, Neumann, and Robin conditions

These equations and concepts form the basis for analyzing heat conduction
in various geometries and under different conditions.

3 Chapter 3
Introduction
Chapter 3 focuses on one-dimensional, steady-state heat conduction. The chap-
ter covers the analysis of heat transfer through plane walls, cylindrical and
spherical systems, and extended surfaces (fins). The key concepts include ther-
mal resistance, the heat diffusion equation, and the application of boundary
conditions to solve for temperature distributions and heat transfer rates.

3.1 The Plane Wall

The simplest case of one-dimensional, steady-state conduction is heat transfer
through a plane wall. The temperature distribution and heat transfer rate are
derived using Fourier’s law.

Temperature Distribution
For a plane wall with constant thermal conductivity k, the temperature distri-
bution is linear:
T1 − T2
T (x) = T1 − x (12)
L
• T (x): Temperature at position x (K)
• T1 : Temperature at x = 0 (K)
• T2 : Temperature at x = L (K)
• L: Thickness of the wall (m)

8
Heat Transfer Rate
The heat transfer rate qx through the wall is given by:
T1 − T2
qx = kA (13)
L
• qx : Heat transfer rate (W)
• A: Cross-sectional area of the wall (m2 )

Thermal Resistance
The thermal resistance Rt,cond for conduction through a plane wall is:
L
Rt,cond = (14)
kA

3.2 An Alternative Conduction Analysis

An alternative approach to solving conduction problems involves using the con-
cept of thermal resistance networks. This method is particularly useful for
composite walls.

Composite Wall
For a composite wall made of multiple layers, the total thermal resistance is the
sum of the individual resistances:

Rt,total = Rt,1 + Rt,2 + . . . + Rt,n (15)

The heat transfer rate through the composite wall is:
T∞,1 − T∞,2
qx = (16)
Rt,total

• T∞,1 : Temperature of the fluid on one side of the wall (K)

• T∞,2 : Temperature of the fluid on the other side of the wall (K)

3.3 Radial Systems

Heat conduction in cylindrical and spherical systems is also analyzed. The
temperature distribution and heat transfer rate are derived for these geometries.

9
Cylindrical Systems
For a cylindrical system (e.g., a pipe), the temperature distribution is:
 
T1 − T2 r
T (r) = T1 − ln (17)
ln(r2 /r1 ) r1
• T (r): Temperature at radius r (K)
• T1 : Temperature at r = r1 (K)
• T2 : Temperature at r = r2 (K)
• r1 : Inner radius (m)
• r2 : Outer radius (m)

The heat transfer rate through the cylindrical wall is:

2πkL(T1 − T2 )
qr = (18)
ln(r2 /r1 )
• qr : Heat transfer rate (W)
• L: Length of the cylinder (m)

Spherical Systems
For a spherical system, the temperature distribution is:
 
T1 − T2 1 1
T (r) = T1 − − (19)
1/r1 − 1/r2 r1 r
The heat transfer rate through the spherical wall is:

4πk(T1 − T2 )
qr = (20)
1/r1 − 1/r2

3.4 Summary of One-Dimensional Conduction Re-

sults
The key results for one-dimensional, steady-state conduction in different geome-
tries are summarized below:

• Plane Wall:
T1 − T2
qx = kA (21)
L
• Cylindrical System:
2πkL(T1 − T2 )
qr = (22)
ln(r2 /r1 )

10
 • Spherical System:
4πk(T1 − T2 )
qr = (23)
1/r1 − 1/r2

3.5 Conduction with Thermal Energy Generation

When thermal energy is generated within a conducting medium (e.g., due to
electrical resistance or nuclear reactions), the heat equation must account for
this generation.

Heat Equation with Generation

For a plane wall with uniform thermal energy generation q̇ (W/m3 ), the heat
equation becomes:

d2 T q̇
+ =0 (24)
dx2 k
The temperature distribution is:
q̇
T (x) = Ts + (L2 − x2 ) (25)
2k
• Ts : Surface temperature (K)

• L: Half-thickness of the wall (m)

3.6 Heat Transfer from Extended Surfaces (Fins)

Extended surfaces, or fins, are used to enhance heat transfer from a surface
by increasing the surface area. The analysis of fins involves solving the heat
equation with appropriate boundary conditions.

Fin Equation
The governing equation for a fin of uniform cross-sectional area is:

d2 T hP
− (T − T∞ ) = 0 (26)
dx2 kAc

• h: Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 ·K)

• P : Perimeter of the fin (m)

• Ac : Cross-sectional area of the fin (m2 )

• T∞ : Ambient temperature (K)

11
Fin Efficiency
The efficiency of a fin ηf is defined as the ratio of the actual heat transfer to
the maximum possible heat transfer:
qf qf
ηf = = (27)
qmax hAf (Tb − T∞ )

• qf : Actual heat transfer from the fin (W)

• Af : Surface area of the fin (m2 )
• Tb : Base temperature of the fin (K)

3.7 Other Applications of One-Dimensional Con-

duction
The chapter also discusses other applications, such as the bioheat equation, ther-
moelectric power generation, and nanoscale conduction. These topics extend the
basic principles of conduction to more complex and specialized scenarios.

3.8 Summary
Chapter 3 provides a comprehensive analysis of one-dimensional, steady-state
heat conduction. Key concepts include:

• Fourier’s law and thermal resistance

• Temperature distributions in plane walls, cylinders, and spheres
• Heat transfer with thermal energy generation

• Analysis of extended surfaces (fins)

The equations and principles covered in this chapter are essential for solving
a wide range of heat conduction problems in engineering applications.

4 Chapter 4
Introduction
Chapter 4 extends the analysis of heat conduction to two-dimensional, steady-
state problems. The chapter covers methods for solving the heat equation in two
dimensions, including separation of variables, graphical methods, and numerical
techniques such as finite difference methods.

12
4.1 General Considerations and Solution Tech-
niques
Two-dimensional heat conduction problems require solving the Laplace equa-
tion:

∂2T ∂2T
+ =0 (28)
∂x2 ∂y 2

Separation of Variables
The method of separation of variables assumes that the temperature distribution
can be expressed as a product of functions of each coordinate:

T (x, y) = X(x)Y (y) (29)

Substituting into the Laplace equation and separating variables leads to
ordinary differential equations for X(x) and Y (y).

4.2 The Method of Separation of Variables

The solution to the separated equations typically involves trigonometric, expo-
nential, or hyperbolic functions, depending on the boundary conditions.

Example: Rectangular Plate

For a rectangular plate with specified boundary conditions, the temperature
distribution can be expressed as a series solution:
∞
X  nπx   nπy 
T (x, y) = Cn sin sinh (30)
n=1
L L

• Cn : Coefficients determined by boundary conditions

• L: Length of the plate (m)

4.3 The Conduction Shape Factor and the Dimen-

sionless Conduction Heat Rate
The conduction shape factor S is a dimensionless parameter that simplifies the
calculation of heat transfer in complex geometries:

q = kS∆T (31)
• S: Shape factor (m)
• ∆T : Temperature difference (K)

13
4.4 Finite-Difference Equations
Numerical methods, such as the finite-difference method, are used to approxi-
mate the solution to the heat equation for complex geometries and boundary
conditions.

Discretization
The domain is divided into a grid, and the derivatives in the heat equation are
approximated using finite differences:

∂2T Ti+1,j − 2Ti,j + Ti−1,j

2
≈ (32)
∂x (∆x)2

∂2T Ti,j+1 − 2Ti,j + Ti,j−1

≈ (33)
∂y 2 (∆y)2

Finite-Difference Form of the Heat Equation

The finite-difference form of the Laplace equation is:
Ti+1,j − 2Ti,j + Ti−1,j Ti,j+1 − 2Ti,j + Ti,j−1
2
+ =0 (34)
(∆x) (∆y)2

4.5 Solving the Finite-Difference Equations

The finite-difference equations can be solved using iterative methods such as
the Gauss-Seidel method or matrix inversion techniques.

4.6 Summary
Chapter 4 provides methods for solving two-dimensional, steady-state heat con-
duction problems. Key concepts include:

• Separation of variables for analytical solutions

• Conduction shape factor for simplified heat transfer calculations
• Finite-difference methods for numerical solutions

These methods are essential for analyzing heat transfer in complex geome-
tries and under various boundary conditions.

14
5 Chapter 5
Introduction
Chapter 5 focuses on transient (time-dependent) heat conduction. The chapter
covers the lumped capacitance method, analytical solutions for transient con-
duction in various geometries, and numerical methods for solving transient heat
conduction problems.

5.1 The Lumped Capacitance Method

The lumped capacitance method is used when the temperature within a solid
can be assumed to be uniform. This assumption is valid when the Biot number
Bi is small:
hLc
Bi = < 0.1 (35)
k
• h: Convective heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 ·K)
• Lc : Characteristic length (volume/surface area) (m)
• k: Thermal conductivity (W/m·K)

Temperature Response
The temperature response of a lumped system is given by:
 
T (t) − T∞ hAs
= exp − t (36)
Ti − T∞ ρV c
• T (t): Temperature at time t (K)
• T∞ : Ambient temperature (K)
• Ti : Initial temperature (K)
• As : Surface area (m2 )
• ρ: Density (kg/m3 )
• V : Volume (m3 )
• c: Specific heat (J/kg·K)

5.2 Validity of the Lumped Capacitance Method

The lumped capacitance method is valid when the internal thermal resistance
is much smaller than the external convective resistance, as indicated by a small
Biot number.

15
5.3 General Lumped Capacitance Analysis
For more complex transient problems, the lumped capacitance method can be
extended to include radiation and variable convection coefficients.

5.4 Spatial Effects

When the Biot number is not small, spatial temperature variations must be
considered. The heat equation for transient conduction is:
 2
∂2T ∂2T

∂T ∂ T
=α + + (37)
∂t ∂x2 ∂y 2 ∂z 2

• α: Thermal diffusivity (m2 /s)

5.5 The Plane Wall with Convection

For a plane wall with convective boundary conditions, the temperature distri-
bution can be found using separation of variables. The solution is typically
expressed as an infinite series.

5.6 Radial Systems with Convection

For cylindrical and spherical systems, the temperature distribution is found
using similar methods, with solutions expressed in terms of Bessel functions for
cylinders and spherical harmonics for spheres.

5.7 The Semi-Infinite Solid

A semi-infinite solid is a model for transient conduction in a solid that extends
to infinity in one direction. The temperature distribution is given by:
 
T (x, t) − Ti x
= erf c √ (38)
Ts − Ti 2 αt
• erf c: Complementary error function
• Ts : Surface temperature (K)

5.8 Objects with Constant Surface Temperatures

or Surface Heat Fluxes
For objects with constant surface temperatures or heat fluxes, the temperature
response can be found using analytical solutions or numerical methods.

16
5.9 Periodic Heating
Periodic heating problems involve time-varying boundary conditions. The tem-
perature response is typically found using complex Fourier series.

5.10 Finite-Difference Methods

Numerical methods, such as finite-difference methods, are used to solve transient
conduction problems with complex geometries and boundary conditions.

5.11 Summary
Chapter 5 provides methods for analyzing transient heat conduction problems.
Key concepts include:
• Lumped capacitance method for small Biot numbers
• Analytical solutions for transient conduction in various geometries
• Numerical methods for complex problems
These methods are essential for understanding and predicting temperature
responses in transient heat conduction scenarios.

6 Chapter 6
Introduction
Chapter 6 introduces the principles of convective heat transfer. The chapter cov-
ers the physical origins of convection, the development of velocity and thermal
boundary layers, and the governing equations for convective heat transfer.

6.1 The Convection Boundary Layers

Convective heat transfer involves the movement of fluid, which leads to the
development of boundary layers.

Velocity Boundary Layer

The velocity boundary layer is the region near the surface where the fluid ve-
locity changes from zero at the surface to the free-stream velocity u∞ .

Thermal Boundary Layer

The thermal boundary layer is the region where the fluid temperature changes
from the surface temperature Ts to the free-stream temperature T∞ .

17
6.2 Local and Average Convection Coefficients
The local convection coefficient hx is defined as:

qx′′
hx = (39)
Ts − T∞

• qx′′ : Local heat flux (W/m2 )

• Ts : Surface temperature (K)

• T∞ : Free-stream temperature (K)

The average convection coefficient h̄ is obtained by integrating hx over the

surface area.

6.3 Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Flow can be laminar or turbulent, depending on the Reynolds number Re:
ρu∞ L
Re = (40)
µ

• ρ: Fluid density (kg/m3 )

• u∞ : Free-stream velocity (m/s)

• L: Characteristic length (m)
• µ: Dynamic viscosity (kg/m·s)

Laminar Flow
In laminar flow, the fluid moves in smooth layers, and heat transfer is primarily
by conduction.

Turbulent Flow
In turbulent flow, the fluid motion is chaotic, leading to enhanced heat transfer.

6.4 The Boundary Layer Equations

The governing equations for the boundary layers are derived from the Navier-
Stokes equations and the energy equation.

18
Momentum Equation
The momentum equation for the velocity boundary layer is:

∂u ∂u ∂2u
u +v =ν 2 (41)
∂x ∂y ∂y

• u, v: Velocity components in the x and y directions (m/s)

• ν: Kinematic viscosity (m2 /s)

Energy Equation
The energy equation for the thermal boundary layer is:

∂T ∂T ∂2T
u +v =α 2 (42)
∂x ∂y ∂y

• α: Thermal diffusivity (m2 /s)

6.5 Boundary Layer Similarity: The Normalized

Boundary Layer Equations
The boundary layer equations can be normalized to reveal similarity solutions,
which simplify the analysis of convective heat transfer.

6.6 Physical Interpretation of the Dimensionless

Parameters
Dimensionless parameters, such as the Reynolds number Re, Prandtl number
P r, and Nusselt number N u, provide insight into the physical mechanisms of
convective heat transfer.

Prandtl Number
The Prandtl number P r is the ratio of momentum diffusivity to thermal diffu-
sivity:
ν
Pr = (43)
α

Nusselt Number
The Nusselt number N u is the ratio of convective to conductive heat transfer:
hL
Nu = (44)
k

19
6.7 Boundary Layer Analogies
Analogies between momentum and heat transfer, such as the Reynolds analogy,
provide useful relationships for estimating convection coefficients.

6.8 Summary
Chapter 6 introduces the fundamental principles of convective heat transfer.
Key concepts include:

• Development of velocity and thermal boundary layers

• Local and average convection coefficients
• Laminar and turbulent flow regimes
• Governing equations for boundary layers

• Dimensionless parameters and their physical significance

These concepts are essential for understanding and analyzing convective heat
transfer in various engineering applications.

7 Chapter 7
Introduction
Chapter 7 focuses on external flow, which refers to fluid flow over external
surfaces such as flat plates, cylinders, spheres, and tube banks. The primary goal
is to understand convective heat transfer in these scenarios, which is governed
by the interaction between the fluid and the surface. The chapter introduces
empirical methods, boundary layer concepts, and correlations for calculating
heat transfer coefficients.

Key Concepts
7.1 The Empirical Method
The empirical method involves using experimental data to develop correlations
for heat transfer coefficients. These correlations are often expressed in terms
of dimensionless numbers such as the Nusselt number (N u), Reynolds number
(Re), and Prandtl number (P r).

20
7.2 The Flat Plate in Parallel Flow
For a flat plate in parallel flow, the heat transfer coefficient can be determined
using boundary layer theory. The flow can be laminar, turbulent, or mixed,
depending on the Reynolds number.

Laminar Flow over an Isothermal Plate

For laminar flow (Rex < 5 × 105 ), the local Nusselt number is given by:

hx x
N ux = = 0.332Re1/2
x Pr
1/3
k
where:
• hx : Local heat transfer coefficient (W/m2 · K)
• x: Distance from the leading edge (m)

• k: Thermal conductivity of the fluid (W/m · K)

• Rex : Reynolds number at distance x, Rex = u∞ x
ν

• P r: Prandtl number, P r = ν
α

• u∞ : Free-stream velocity (m/s)

• ν: Kinematic viscosity (m2 /s)

• α: Thermal diffusivity (m2 /s)
The average Nusselt number over the entire plate is:
1/2
N uL = 0.664ReL P r1/3

where ReL is the Reynolds number based on the plate length L.

Turbulent Flow over an Isothermal Plate

For turbulent flow (Rex ≥ 5 × 105 ), the local Nusselt number is:

N ux = 0.0296Re4/5
x Pr
1/3

The average Nusselt number for a mixed boundary layer (laminar followed by
turbulent) is:  
4/5
N uL = 0.037ReL − 871 P r1/3

21
7.3 Methodology for a Convection Calculation
The general methodology for calculating convection heat transfer involves:
1. Identifying the flow regime (laminar, turbulent, or mixed).

2. Selecting the appropriate correlation for the Nusselt number.

3. Calculating the heat transfer coefficient h.
4. Using Newton’s law of cooling to find the heat transfer rate:

q ′′ = h(Ts − T∞ )

7.4 The Cylinder in Cross Flow

For a cylinder in cross flow, the heat transfer coefficient depends on the Reynolds
number and the angle of incidence. The average Nusselt number is given by:

N uD = CRem
DP r
1/3

where C and m are constants that depend on the Reynolds number (found in
Table 7.2 of the textbook).

7.5 The Sphere

For a sphere, the average Nusselt number is:
 
1/2 2/3
N uD = 2 + 0.4ReD + 0.06ReD P r0.4

This correlation is valid for 3.5 ≤ ReD ≤ 7.6 × 104 and 0.7 ≤ P r ≤ 380.

7.6 Flow Across Banks of Tubes

For flow across banks of tubes, the heat transfer coefficient depends on the ar-
rangement (in-line or staggered) and the Reynolds number. The average Nusselt
number is:
N uD = CRem DP r
1/3

where C and m are found in Table 7.5 of the textbook.

7.7 Impinging Jets

For impinging jets, the heat transfer coefficient is highly localized and depends
on the jet velocity, diameter, and distance from the surface. Correlations for
impinging jets are typically empirical and can be found in specialized literature.

22
7.8 Packed Beds
For packed beds, the heat transfer coefficient is influenced by the fluid velocity,
particle size, and bed porosity. Correlations for packed beds are complex and
often require experimental data.

Key Equations
• Laminar Flow (Flat Plate):
N ux = 0.332Re1/2
x Pr
1/3

• Turbulent Flow (Flat Plate):

N ux = 0.0296Re4/5
x Pr
1/3

• Mixed Boundary Layer (Flat Plate):

 
4/5
N uL = 0.037ReL − 871 P r1/3

• Cylinder in Cross Flow:

N uD = CRem
DP r
1/3

• Sphere:  
1/2 2/3
N uD = 2 + 0.4ReD + 0.06ReD P r0.4

• Flow Across Tube Banks:

N uD = CRem
DP r
1/3

Constants and Properties

• Reynolds Number (Re): Calculated as Re = u∞ L
ν , where L is the
characteristic length (e.g., plate length, cylinder diameter).
• Prandtl Number (P r): Calculated as P r = αν , where ν is the kinematic
viscosity and α is the thermal diffusivity. Values for common fluids can
be found in Appendix A of the textbook.
• Nusselt Number (N u): Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient, N u =
hL
k .

• Thermal Conductivity (k): Found in tables for common fluids and

materials (Appendix A).
• Kinematic Viscosity (ν): Found in tables for common fluids (Appendix
A).
• Thermal Diffusivity (α): Calculated as α = k
ρcp , where ρ is density and
cp is specific heat.

23
Summary
Chapter 7 provides a comprehensive overview of external flow heat transfer,
focusing on empirical correlations for different geometries (flat plates, cylinders,
spheres, tube banks). The key to solving problems in this chapter is identifying
the correct correlation based on the flow regime and geometry, and then applying
the appropriate dimensionless numbers (Re, P r, N u). Constants and fluid
properties are typically found in tables or calculated using known values.

8 Chapter 8
Introduction
Chapter 8 focuses on internal flow, which refers to fluid flow inside ducts, pipes,
or channels. The primary goal is to understand convective heat transfer in
these scenarios, which is governed by the interaction between the fluid and
the internal surface of the duct. The chapter introduces hydrodynamic and
thermal considerations, fully developed flow, and correlations for calculating
heat transfer coefficients.

Key Concepts
8.1 Hydrodynamic Considerations
Internal flow is characterized by the development of hydrodynamic and ther-
mal boundary layers. The flow can be laminar or turbulent, depending on the
Reynolds number (ReD ).

Reynolds Number for Internal Flow

The Reynolds number for internal flow is defined as:
ρum D um D
ReD = =
µ ν
where:
• ρ: Fluid density (kg/m3 )
• um : Mean velocity (m/s)
• D: Hydraulic diameter (m), D = 4Ac
P , where Ac is the cross-sectional area
and P is the wetted perimeter.
• µ: Dynamic viscosity (P a · s)
• ν: Kinematic viscosity (m2 /s)
For laminar flow, ReD < 2300. For turbulent flow, ReD > 4000.

24
8.2 Thermal Considerations
The thermal behavior of internal flow is characterized by the development of
a thermal boundary layer. The Nusselt number (N uD ) is used to describe the
heat transfer coefficient.

Fully Developed Flow

For fully developed laminar flow in a circular tube with constant surface tem-
perature, the Nusselt number is:
N uD = 3.66
For fully developed laminar flow with constant heat flux, the Nusselt number
is:
N uD = 4.36

Turbulent Flow
For turbulent flow in a smooth tube, the Dittus-Boelter equation is commonly
used:
4/5
N uD = 0.023ReD P rn
where:
• n = 0.4 for heating (Ts > Tm )
• n = 0.3 for cooling (Ts < Tm )

8.3 Energy Balance

The energy balance for internal flow is given by:
q = ṁcp (Tout − Tin )
where:
• q: Heat transfer rate (W )
• ṁ: Mass flow rate (kg/s)
• cp : Specific heat (J/kg · K)
• Tout : Outlet temperature (K)
• Tin : Inlet temperature (K)

8.4 Laminar Flow in Circular Tubes

For laminar flow in circular tubes, the Nusselt number depends on the boundary
conditions (constant temperature or constant heat flux). The thermal entry
length (Lth ) is given by:
Lth ≈ 0.05ReD P rD

25
8.5 Turbulent Flow in Circular Tubes
For turbulent flow, the heat transfer coefficient is higher, and the thermal entry
length is shorter. The Dittus-Boelter equation is widely used for turbulent flow.

8.6 Noncircular Tubes

For noncircular tubes, the hydraulic diameter (Dh ) is used in place of D in the
Reynolds and Nusselt numbers. Correlations for noncircular tubes are similar
to those for circular tubes.

8.7 Heat Transfer Enhancement

Heat transfer enhancement techniques, such as using fins or roughened surfaces,
are often employed to increase the heat transfer coefficient.

Key Equations
• Reynolds Number:
um D
ReD =
ν
• Nusselt Number (Laminar Flow, Constant Ts ):
N uD = 3.66

• Nusselt Number (Laminar Flow, Constant q ′′ ):

N uD = 4.36

• Nusselt Number (Turbulent Flow, Dittus-Boelter):

4/5
N uD = 0.023ReD P rn

• Energy Balance:
q = ṁcp (Tout − Tin )

Constants and Properties

• Reynolds Number (ReD ): Calculated using the hydraulic diameter Dh .
• Prandtl Number (P r): Found in tables for common fluids (Appendix
A).
• Nusselt Number (N uD ): Dimensionless heat transfer coefficient.
• Thermal Conductivity (k): Found in tables for common fluids and
materials (Appendix A).
• Specific Heat (cp ): Found in tables for common fluids (Appendix A).

26
Summary
Chapter 8 provides a comprehensive overview of internal flow heat transfer,
focusing on laminar and turbulent flow in circular and noncircular tubes. The
key to solving problems in this chapter is identifying the flow regime, selecting
the appropriate correlation for the Nusselt number, and applying the energy
balance to determine heat transfer rates.

9 Chapter 9
Introduction
Chapter 9 focuses on free (or natural) convection, which occurs due to buoyancy
forces caused by density differences in a fluid. These density differences are
typically due to temperature gradients. The chapter introduces the governing
equations, similarity solutions, and empirical correlations for calculating heat
transfer coefficients in free convection.

Key Concepts
9.1 Physical Considerations
Free convection is driven by buoyancy forces, which arise from density variations
in the fluid. The Grashof number (Gr) is used to characterize the relative
importance of buoyancy to viscous forces:
gβ(Ts − T∞ )L3
GrL =
ν2
where:
• g: Acceleration due to gravity (m/s2 )
• β: Thermal expansion coefficient (1/K)
• Ts : Surface temperature (K)
• T∞ : Fluid temperature far from the surface (K)
• L: Characteristic length (m)
• ν: Kinematic viscosity (m2 /s)

9.2 Governing Equations

The governing equations for free convection are the continuity, momentum, and
energy equations. These equations are simplified using the Boussinesq approx-
imation, which assumes that density variations are small and only affect the
buoyancy term.

27
9.3 Similarity Solutions
For simple geometries (e.g., vertical plates), similarity solutions can be used to
solve the governing equations. The similarity variable (η) is defined as:
 1/4
y Grx
η=
x 4
where y is the vertical coordinate and x is the horizontal coordinate.

9.4 Empirical Correlations

Empirical correlations are used to calculate the Nusselt number for free con-
vection. These correlations depend on the geometry and the Rayleigh number
(Ra), which is defined as:
gβ(Ts − T∞ )L3
RaL = GrL P r =
να
where P r is the Prandtl number.

Vertical Plate
For a vertical plate, the average Nusselt number is:
(
1/4
0.59RaL (Laminar,RaL ≤ 109 )
N uL = 1/3
0.10RaL (T urbulent,RaL > 109 )

Horizontal Plate
For a horizontal plate, the Nusselt number depends on whether the surface is
heated facing upward or downward. For a heated surface facing upward:
1/4
N uL = 0.54RaL (Laminar,104 ≤ RaL ≤ 107 )
1/3
N uL = 0.15RaL (T urbulent,RaL > 107 )

Horizontal Cylinder
For a horizontal cylinder, the average Nusselt number is:
1/4

 0.36 + 0.518RaD
[1+(0.559/P r)9/16 ]4/9
(Laminar)
N uD = 0.387Ra
1/6
 0.60 + D
(T urbulent)
[1+(0.559/P r)9/16 ]8/27

9.5 Combined Free and Forced Convection

When both free and forced convection are significant, the combined effect can
be estimated using:

1/3
N ucombined = N u3f orced + N u3f ree

28
Key Equations
• Grashof Number:
gβ(Ts − T∞ )L3
GrL =
ν2
• Rayleigh Number:
RaL = GrL P r

• Nusselt Number (Vertical Plate, Laminar):

1/4
N uL = 0.59RaL

• Nusselt Number (Vertical Plate, Turbulent):

1/3
N uL = 0.10RaL

• Nusselt Number (Horizontal Cylinder):

1/4
0.518RaD
N uD = 0.36 +
[1 + (0.559/P r)9/16 ]4/9

Constants and Properties

• Grashof Number (GrL ): Characterizes buoyancy-driven flow.

• Rayleigh Number (RaL ): Combines Grashof and Prandtl numbers.

• Prandtl Number (P r): Found in tables for common fluids (Appendix
A).
• Thermal Expansion Coefficient (β): Found in tables for common
fluids (Appendix A).
• Kinematic Viscosity (ν): Found in tables for common fluids (Appendix
A).

Summary
Chapter 9 provides a comprehensive overview of free convection, focusing on
buoyancy-driven flow and heat transfer. The key to solving problems in this
chapter is identifying the geometry, calculating the Grashof and Rayleigh num-
bers, and selecting the appropriate empirical correlation for the Nusselt number.

29
10 Chapter 12
Introduction
Chapter 12 delves into the principles of thermal radiation, which is the transfer
of energy by electromagnetic waves. The chapter covers the fundamental con-
cepts of radiation, including blackbody radiation, real surface properties, and
the interaction of radiation with matter.

12.1 Fundamental Concepts

Thermal radiation is emitted by all matter at a temperature above absolute
zero. The radiation is characterized by its wavelength λ and frequency ν:

c = λν (45)

• c: Speed of light in vacuum (3 × 108 m/s)

• λ: Wavelength (m)
• ν: Frequency (Hz)

12.2 Radiation Heat Fluxes

The radiation heat flux q ′′ is the rate of energy transfer per unit area due
to radiation. The Stefan-Boltzmann law describes the radiation emitted by a
blackbody:

Eb = σT 4 (46)

• Eb : Emissive power of a blackbody (W/m2 )

• σ: Stefan-Boltzmann constant (5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 ·K4 )
• T : Absolute temperature (K)

12.3 Radiation Intensity

Radiation intensity I is the energy emitted per unit solid angle per unit area
perpendicular to the direction of propagation:
dE
I= (47)
dA cos θ dω
• dE: Energy emitted (W)
• dA: Area element (m2 )

30
 • θ: Angle between the normal to the surface and the direction of radiation
• dω: Solid angle element (sr)

12.4 Blackbody Radiation

A blackbody is an idealized surface that absorbs all incident radiation and emits
the maximum possible radiation at a given temperature.

Planck’s Law
Planck’s law describes the spectral distribution of blackbody radiation:

2πhc2
Eλ,b (λ, T ) =
(48)
λ5 ehc/(λkB T ) −1

• Eλ,b : Spectral emissive power (W/m3 )

• h: Planck’s constant (6.626 × 10−34 J·s)
• kB : Boltzmann constant (1.381 × 10−23 J/K)

Wien’s Displacement Law

Wien’s displacement law gives the wavelength at which the spectral emissive
power is maximum:

λmax T = 2898 µm · K (49)

12.5 Emission from Real Surfaces

Real surfaces emit less radiation than a blackbody. The emissivity ϵ is the ratio
of the radiation emitted by a real surface to that emitted by a blackbody at the
same temperature:
E
ϵ= (50)
Eb

12.6 Absorption, Reflection, and Transmission by

Real Surfaces
When radiation is incident on a real surface, it can be absorbed, reflected, or
transmitted. The absorptivity α, reflectivity ρ, and transmissivity τ are defined
as:

α+ρ+τ =1 (51)

31
12.7 Kirchhoff ’s Law
Kirchhoff’s law states that the emissivity of a surface is equal to its absorptivity
at the same temperature and wavelength:

ϵ=α (52)

12.8 The Gray Surface

A gray surface is one for which the emissivity and absorptivity are independent
of wavelength. For a gray surface, the net radiation heat transfer between two
surfaces is:

q1−2 = σA1 F1−2 (T14 − T24 ) (53)

• A1 : Area of surface 1 (m2 )

• F1−2 : View factor from surface 1 to surface 2

12.9 Environmental Radiation

Environmental radiation includes solar radiation and atmospheric radiation.
The solar constant Gs is the radiation flux received from the sun at the outer
edge of the Earth’s atmosphere:
2
Gs ≈ 1367 W/m (54)

12.10 Summary
Chapter 12 provides a comprehensive understanding of thermal radiation. Key
concepts include:

• Blackbody radiation and Planck’s law

• Emissivity, absorptivity, reflectivity, and transmissivity

• Kirchhoff’s law and gray surfaces

• Environmental radiation and solar constant

These concepts are essential for analyzing and predicting radiation heat
transfer in various engineering applications.

32