Compiled by: Fatima Rizwan

Chapter 4 (Networks and the effects

of using them )
Common network devices:
✓ Network interface card (NIC)
✓ Media access control (MAC) address
✓ Internet protocol (IP) address
✓ Data packet.
Note: 1- NIC is also known as LAN and ethernet
2- MAC address is also known as hardware address/ physical
address/ Internet Address
3- IP address is also known as TCP (transmission control
protocol)
Network Interface Card:
A network interface card (NIC) is an internal device which is
used to allow a computer to connect to a LAN. An NIC turns
binary data into an electrical signal that allows access to a
network. The NIC is usually integrated into the motherboard.
Each NIC is given a unique MAC address. When installed in a
device, this uniquely identifies that device.
Wireless network interface cards (WNICs) use wireless
connectivity, utilizing an antenna to communicate with
networks via microwaves.

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Media access control (MAC) address

The media access control (MAC) address is a number which
uniquely identifies a device when it is connected to a network.
If the NIC card is replaced, the MAC address will also change.
The MAC address is sometimes referred to as the physical
address because it uniquely identifies a device. MAC
addresses are useful when trying to identify network faults
because they never change.

For example, here the first six hex digits identify a device made
by Apple and the second set of six hex digits are the unique
serial number of the device itself.
Internet protocol (IP) addresses
Whenever a device like computer connects to the internet it is
given an internet protocol (IP) address. This is usually assigned
to the computer by the internet service provider (ISP).
Because the operation of the internet is based on a set of
protocols (rules), it is necessary to supply an IP address.
Internet protocols define the rules that must be agreed by
senders and receivers of data communicating through the

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internet. An IP address essentially identifies the location of a

device on a network.
This means that if you are using your laptop at home, it will
have been given an IP address when it connected to the
internet. If you now take your laptop to a coffee shop, and log
into the internet again, it will be assigned a new IP address.
Unlike the MAC address which remains constant, the IP address
changes each time you log in at different locations.
There are two versions of IP: IPv4 and IPv6.
Data packets
Data is moved around networks in the form of data packets.
Whenever a user sends some data, it is split up into a number
of packets and each packet is transmitted separately. Packets
of data will usually have a header which contains:
• The sender’s IP address
• The receiver’s IP address
• The sequence/identity number of the packet
• The packet size
• How many data packets make up the whole message

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When a router receives a packet of data, it checks the

destination IP address against the stored routing table. A data
packet will pass through a number of routers before it reaches
its final destination.
Hubs
Hubs are hardware devices that can
have a number of other devices
connected to them. They are used to
connect devices together to form a local
area network (LAN), often in the same building. A hub will
take a data packet received at one of its ports and broadcast it
to every device connected to it.
Disadvantages:
1- Hubs are not very secure because every device will receive
every data packet
2-There will be unnecessary traffic on the network, which
results in reduced bandwidth.
Switches
A switch stores the MAC addresses of all devices on the
network. Each port on the switch connected to a device will
have a matching MAC address.

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The switch matches the MAC

address of an incoming data
packet arriving at one of its
ports, and directs it to the
correct device. None of the other devices will see this data
packet.
Advantages:
1- Switches are more secure than hubs because only the
intended device is sent the data
2- Network traffic is reduced so bandwidth is not reduced
Similarities of Hubs and Switches
• Both a hub and a switch are used to connect devices in a
LAN
• Both hubs and switches use data packets
Differences in hubs and switches:
• Hubs send data packets to every device on the network;
whereas switches send data packets to a specific device
only
• Security is lower with hubs than with switches
• Traffic point (discussed before)
• A switch uses MAC address and lookup table to determine
the destination od the device where as this isn’t the case
in hub.
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Note:
• A switch uses a look-up table to determine the destination
device
• Switches use MAC addresses to locate the destination
device.
Bridges
Bridges are devices that connect one LAN to another LAN that
uses the same protocol (communication rules) so that they
can function as a single LAN.

Unlike routers, bridges cannot communicate with other

external networks, such as the internet.
Routers
Routers are used to route data packets from one network to
another network, based on IP addresses. It can do this
because each router has its own IP address. Routers are used
to join a LAN to the internet. It also joins a LAN to a WAN.

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How router sends data packets to another network?

Ans: 1-Router creates the data packets
2-Data is sent in the form of data packets. Each data
packet contains IP address of the next router.
3-The router reads the IP address
4-It checks the IP address against the routing table
5-Then the router using the IP address works out the
destination computer
6-The router stores the IP address.
Describe the details of computer addresses that are
stored by a router?
Ans: 1-It stores the IP address which is given to every
device connected to the internet by internet service
provider. IP address contains 4 numbers separated by full
stop.

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2-It also stores MAC address which is a unique number

given to every device on the network. It contains 6 pairs
of hexadecimal digits.
Note: The part of the router where IP addresses are
stored is the routing table.
Differences between Bridge and Router
Bridge Router
1-The main objective of a router is to
1-The main objective of a bridge is to
connect various types of network
connect LANs together
together

2-Routers scan a device’s IP address 2-Bridges scan a device’s MAC address

3-Data is sent out using data packets 3- Data is sent out using data packets

4-Connected networks will use 4-Connects networks together that

different protocols use the same protocols

5-A routing table is used to direct 5-Bridges do not make use of routing
data packets to the correct device tables

6-A router has more than two ports 6-A bridge has only two ports

Wi-Fi and Bluetooth

Similarities:
1- Both Wi-Fi and Bluetooth offer wireless communication
between devices.
2- They both use electromagnetic radiation for data
transmission.
3- Both use security when sending data

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4- Both allow several devices to be connected

Differences
1- Bluetooth can be connected to maximum 7 devices where
as WIFI depends on the type of router used
2- Bluetooth uses key matching encryption for data
transmission security whereas WIFI uses WEP and WPA
3- Bluetooth has maximum range of 30 meters where as WIFI
has maximum range of 100 meters nut it can be
obstructed by walls.
Bluetooth is a wireless networking technology designed for
very short-range connections.
How it works?
Bluetooth sends and receives radio waves in a band of 79
different frequencies (known as channels). When a device
wants to communicate, it picks one of the 79 channels at
random to pair with another device. If the channel is already
being used, it randomly picks another channel. Once paired, to
minimize the risks of interference with other devices, the
devices constantly change the channels they are using (several
times a second). This is known as spread-spectrum frequency
hopping. Bluetooth uses key encryption to create a secure
wireless personal area network (WPAN).
Bluetooth is useful (advantages):

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• When transferring data between two or more devices

which are very close together
• When the speed of data transmission is not critical
• For low-bandwidth applications (for example, when
sending music files from a mobile phone to a headset).
• Bluetooth has shorter password
• Bluetooth is cheaper
Disadvantages:
• Short distance of coverage
• Less secure
WiFi is a wireless networking technology makes it possible to
connect devices with a wireless connection to a network or to
a single computer.
How can security system be improved in a WIFI network?
Ans: 1-Secure the network with strong password
2-Enable WPA (WIFI protected access) encryption
3-Enable WEP (wired equivalent privacy) encryption
How it works?
Wi-Fi sends and receives radio waves in several different
frequency bands – 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz are the most common at
the moment. Like Bluetooth, each band is also further split into
channels. The 5GHz band has a faster data transfer rate but a
shorter signal range.

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Advantages:
• Wi-Fi offers much faster data transfer rates
• It gives better security than Bluetooth
• A Wi-Fi enabled device (such as a computer or
smartphone) can access, for example, the internet
wirelessly at any access point (AP) or ‘hot spot’ up to 100
metres away.
Disadvantages:
• Strength of signal is weaker
• Physical obstacles can interfere with signal/can cause
disconnection
Cloud computing (storage)
Cloud computing is a method of data storage where data is
stored on remote servers – there may be thousands of servers
in many different locations. The same data is stored on more
than one server in case of maintenance or repair, allowing
clients to access data at any time. This is known as data
redundancy. The physical environment of the cloud servers is
owned and managed by a hosting company.
There are three common cloud storage systems:
• Public cloud – this is a storage environment where the
customer and cloud storage provider are different
companies.

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• Private cloud – this is storage provided by a dedicated

environment behind a company firewall.
• Hybrid cloud – this is a combination of the two previous
environments; some data can be put in private cloud
whereas some can be put in public account which isn’t
sensitive.
Instead of, or in addition to, saving data on a local hard disk or
other storage device, a user can save their data ‘in the cloud’.
Advantages of cloud computing (storage)
• Customer files stored in the cloud can be accessed at any
time, from any device, anywhere in the world, as long as
internet access is available.
• There is no need for a customer to carry an external
storage device with them or even use the same computer
• The cloud provides the user with remote backup of data.
• If a customer has a failure of their hard disk or backup
device, cloud storage will allow recovery of their data.
• The cloud system offers almost unlimited storage capacity
• The ability to synchronise (sync) files ensures they are
automatically updated across all devices

Disadvantages of cloud computing (storage)

• Data is less secure like data loss etc (given below)
• If the customer has slow internet connection, they could
have many problems accessing or downloading their data

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• Costs can be high if a large storage capacity is used

• The potential failure of the cloud storage company is
always possible – this poses a risk of loss of all backup
data.
Local area network (LAN)
Local area networks (LANs) are usually within one building or
geographically near each other. A typical LAN will consist of a
number of computers and devices (for example, printers)
which will be connected to hubs or switches. One of the hubs
or switches will usually be connected to a router to allow the
LAN to connect to external networks, such as the internet.
Advantages of networking computers together
using LANs:
• They allow the sharing of resources such as hardware (e.g.
printers and scanners) and software (e.g. word processors
and photo editing software)
• They permit easy communication between users of the
LAN (e.g. by using simple text messaging between
computers on the network)
• They use a network administrator that ensures security
and use of the LAN is constantly monitored (e.g. the
administrator can maintain passwords and also monitor
data traffic within the network).

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There are also disadvantages of networking computers

using LANs:
• Easier spread of viruses throughout the whole network
• Queues for shared resources (such as a printer) which can
be frustrating
• Slower access to external networks
• Increased security risk when compared to stand-alone
computers
• If the main server breaks down, in many types of network
structures, the network will no longer function properly
Wireless local area network (WLAN)
Do not involve any wiring or cabling
• Provide wireless network connection overs a short distance
• They use radio or infrared signal's instead of cables
• Devices known as Access Points (APs) are used for a larger
range
• APs usually use spread spectrum technology (larger range)
Describe the process of using WiFi to connect to a WLAN
1-The computer/device sends data to its wireless adapter and
the data is converted into radio waves.
2-The radio waves are transmitted and wireless adapter
receives the radio waves.

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3-Radio waves are converted into data and the wireless router
responds by pairing
4-Wireless router checks if the password is correct.

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Wide area networks (WANs)

Wide area networks (WANs) are
used where computers or
networks are situated a long
distance from each other geographically (for example, in a
different city or country). If a number of LANs are joined
together using a router, then they can form a WAN.
The network of ATMs (automated teller machines) used by
banks is one of the most common examples of the use of a
WAN. Because of the long distances between devices, WANs
usually make use of some public communications network
(such as telephone lines or satellites), but they can use
dedicated or leased communication lines, which can be less
expensive and also more secure (less risk of hacking, for
example).
Other authentication methods
Types of authentication:
• Passwords (done in ch8)
• Zero login
• Biometrics

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• Magnetic stripes
• Smart cards
• Physical tokens
• Electronic tokens
Zero login
Zero login essentially relies on devices being smart and secure
enough to instantly recognize a user by a number of features
based on:
• Biometrics
• Behavioral patterns
Biometrics examples
• Fingerprint recognition
• Face recognition
Behavioral patterns example
• How you walk
• Your typing speed
• Your normal location
• How you swipe the screen
These behavioral patterns, coupled with biometric data, should
be enough to uniquely identify a user, and allow them into a
system without actually supplying any passwords or other
security information.
The advantages of zero login
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• Better security (it is difficult to copy biometrics and

behavioral patterns)
• An easier and much quicker way to login to a system
Disadvantages
• How do users know when they are being monitored?
• How do you know if and when you have been logged out?
• How well protected is it in reality?
Magnetic stripe cards
The cards have a magnetic stripe
on the reverse side (made up of
tiny magnetic particles). Each
particle can act as a north-pole or
a south-pole (which corresponds
to the two binary values of 0 and
1). The stripe is read by swiping it
through a card reader. Data such as name, ID number, sex,
and date of birth may be contained on a magnetic stripe when
used as a security device to allow entry to a building, for
example.
Advantages of magnetic stripe cards
• They are easy to use.
• It is not an expensive technology.
• Magnetic cards can be remotely deactivated (if lost or
stolen)

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• The cards can be multi-purpose (for example, door key

cards, network access cards or used in vending machines
to buy food or drink).
Disadvantages of magnetic stripe cards
• Less secure than, for example, biometric methods (no
encryption is used and the stripe contents can be copied
fairly easily).
• The cards wear out with a lot of use.
• Magnetic readers often fail to read the cards on first
attempt.
Smart cards
The chip on the smart card can store data such as name,
security number, sex, date of birth and a PIN. Smart cards can
therefore be used as a security device. If the card is in a wallet
or a pocket as the owner of the card walks up to a security gate,
readers on either side of the gate quickly scan the security data
stored on the RFID tag embedded in the card. The user will then
be invited to enter a PIN on the keypad. If all details match,
then access will be allowed.
Physical tokens

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A physical (or hardware) token is a form of authentication in

the form of a physical, solid object.
How physical tokens are used?
• The customer inserts their debit card into the
top of the token device and the device either
recognizes the card as genuine or rejects it.
• The device then asks the customer to press
‘IDENTIFY’ and then enter their PIN.
• A one-time password (OTP) is then shown on
the device screen – this is usually an eight-digit
code.
• The customer now goes back to their bank web page and
enters the eight digit code.
• They are now given access to their account.
Advantage:
• This increases security, because a thief needs to have in
their possession: the token device, a cloned card and the
PIN to allow them to gain access.
Two types of physical tokens
• Disconnected physical token – in this type of token, a
separate device is used, requiring the user to key in data
manually using a keypad
• Connected physical token – this type of token transmits
the generated one-time password directly to a computer

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through a USB connection; the user does not need to

manually enter data
Electronic tokens
Electronic (software) tokens are software installed on a user’s
device, such as a smartphone. This website requires electronic
tokens to be used to authenticate the user. The user has
already installed the electronic token app on their smartphone.
Process
• When the website requests the user to authenticate who
they are, the user opens the app on their smartphone.
• The app generates a one-time password (OTP) which is
valid for less than a minute.
• The user enters this OTP together with some other form of
authentication, such as PIN, touch ID or face ID.
• The access is allowed
Electronic conferencing
Types of electronic conferencing
• video conferencing
• audio conferencing
• web conferencing
Video conferencing

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Video conferencing is a communication method that uses

both video and sound between a number of people, who
may be in a different part of the country or live overseas.
The basic hardware includes:
• webcams
• large monitors/television screens
• microphones
• speakers
Note: Software used is also important
There are a few items to consider when a conference is about
to begin:
• It is essential to agree a time and date for the conference
to take place.
• The delegates in each conference room must log into the
video-conference system.
• The video-conference set-up needs to be checked before
the meeting goes live.
• Webcams need to be placed in the correct position so that
all the delegates in the room are seen
• Microphones need to be placed centrally so that all of the
delegates can speak

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• It is important for one person to be the main contact in

each conference room to make sure each delegate is able
to be heard; this is more important if more than two
video-conference rooms are linked up at the same time.

Advantages of using video conferencing

• As people are in their own building, it is much easier to
access important documents
• It is possible to hold conferences at short notices
• Not travelling physically to meetings reduces costs:
‒ reduced travelling costs like petrol
‒ no need to pay for hotel accommodation
‒ people are still paid their wage even though they are not
in the office

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• It may be better to use video conferencing than have

delegates travel to potentially unsafe places around the
world
• It is better for the environment – less travel means less
pollution
• It connects people in an organization who might be
otherwise left out
• Saves time of travelling
Disadvantages of using video conferencing
• There are sometimes delays while talking.
• Images can jerk – usually due to poor internet
• It can be very expensive to set up
• There can be problems if the delegates live in different
countries where the time zone differences are large.
• Training people to use the system correctly can be both
costly and time consuming.
• It can be demotivating for staff if they believe that one of
the perks of their job is international travel
• The whole system relies on a good network connection – if
it breaks down then it is unusable.
Audio/phone conferencing
Audio conferencing is a method of communication, held
between people using audio (sound) equipment. Audio
conferencing can be done over the standard telephone
network.
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Procedure
• The organizer of the audio/phone conference is given two
PINs by the phone company. One PIN is the personal PIN
(e.g. 2151) given to the organizer and the second PIN is the
participant’s PIN (e.g. 8422).
• The organiser contacts all of the participants and informs
them of their PIN and the date and time of the phone
conference.
• When the phone conference is about to start, the
organiser dials the conference phone number and, once
they are connected, keys in their personal PIN (2151 in this
case).
• The participants then call the same conference phone
number to join in – once they get through they each input
the PIN given to them by the organiser (8422 in this case).
Without this PIN, it would be impossible to join the phone
conference.
Note: The equipment required for an audio conference over a
standard telephone network normally just includes a standard
telephone.
Advantages of audio conference rather than video
conference?
Ans: 1-Audio conferencing doesn’t have time lag
2-Lip sync errors doesn’t occur in audio conferencing
3-It is less expensive
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4-Audio conferencing doesn’t need internet

Difference between video and web conferencing?
Ans: 1-Video conferencing uses the internet where as web
conferencing uses phone or VOIP.
2-Sound quality is low on video conferencing than web
conferencing
3-Video conferencing require specialized equipment where as
web conferencing only uses computer
4-Video conferencing participants use shared microphone and
speakers whereas web conferencing participants sit on their
own computers
Other equipment’s through which audio-conferencing can be
held
• A computer (with built-in microphones and speakers). This
makes use of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP)
• External microphone and/or speakers
• An internet phone. It is possible to connect an internet
telephone into the router or other internet device.
• A standard phone
Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP): These are set of rules that
enable people to use internet to make telephone calls.
How VOIP works?

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VoIP allows an organizer to create a group of people to take

part in the conference call. The group is created by dragging
and dropping user details into the group. When the
conference is to take place, the organizer clicks on the
required group and the conference is initiated. Using VoIP
allows communication using voice, instant messaging and
video (by using an attached webcam).
Disadvantage of doing VOIP using telephone numbers
• The quality of the sound will be low
• Echoing of voice
• Very noisy line can happen, making it difficult to
understand
Web conferencing
Web conferencing is a method of communication uses the
internet to permit conferencing to take place. It is also known
as webinar or webcasts. It allows communication through
video, text and audio. Built in microphones and speakers are
used.
Types of meeting that can take place with video conferencing:
• Business meetings
• Presentations
• Online education
Equipment’s needed
• Computer
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• Stable internet connection

Features
• The host’s computer screen can be shared.
• It is possible for any delegate to draw or write on a
‘whiteboard’ using their own keyboard or mouse.
• It is possible to transmit images or videos using the
webcam throughout the conference.
• Documents can be shared by first uploading them to the
website before the conference begins.
• It is possible to chat verbally or by using instant messaging
throughout the conference.
All these conferences need
• Built in microphone and speakers
Tell 3 hardware devices that can allow one to connect to the
internet?
Ans: 1-NIC
2-Router
3-Hub/switch
Tell advantages of:
Wifi: 1-There is no need to connect through cables
2-It can be used in multiple devices

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3G/4G: 1-It is not affected by snow, hail or satellite

communication
2-It can be accessed while on move
Describe how data is sent from a networked computer to a
computer on a different network.
1-The network software in the original computer determines
that the destination computer is on a different network using IP
addresses
2-Data is sent to the switch/hub and then passed to router
3-the router then passes it to the router of the other network
and that router passes it to the switch/hub.
4-Through switch/hub it goes to the destination computer.
Note: Internet is a WAN
Why is the default password changed?
Ans: 1-To maintain the security so that unauthorized user
cannot access.
2-So that people cannot access the personal data on the router
How to set up the network of computers?
Ans: 1-Purchase the hardware
2-Download the software’s on the computer
3-Purchase the Hub/Switch
4-Install Network interface card
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