1

SOME IMPORTANT MATHEMATICAL FORMULAE

Circle : Area = π r2; Circumference = 2 π r.
Square : Area = x2 ; Perimeter = 4x.
Rectangle: Area = xy ; Perimeter = 2(x+y).
1
Triangle : Area = (base)(height) ; Perimeter = a+b+c.
2
3 2
Area of equilateral triangle = a .
4
4
Sphere : Surface Area = 4 π r2 ; Volume = π r3.
3
2 3
Cube : Surface Area = 6a ; Volume = a .
1
Cone : Curved Surface Area = π rl ; Volume = π r2 h
3
π
Total surface area = . r l + r π 2

Cuboid : Total surface area = 2 (ab + bh + lh); Volume = lbh.

Cylinder : Curved surface area = 2 π rh; Volume = π r2 h
Total surface area (open) = 2 π rh;
Total surface area (closed) = 2 π rh+2 π r2 .

SOME BASIC ALGEBRAIC FORMULAE:

1.(a + b)2 = a2 + 2ab+ b2 . 2. (a - b)2 = a2 - 2ab+ b2 .

3.(a + b)3 = a3 + b3 + 3ab(a + b). 4. (a - b)3 = a3 - b3 - 3ab(a - b).
2 2 2 2
5.(a + b + c) = a + b + c +2ab+2bc +2ca.
6.(a + b + c)3 = a3 + b3 + c3+3a2b+3a2c + 3b2c +3b2a +3c2a +3c2a+6abc.
7.a2 - b2 = (a + b)(a – b ) .
8.a3 – b3 = (a – b) (a2 + ab + b2 ).
9.a3 + b3 = (a + b) (a2 - ab + b2 ).
10.(a + b)2 + (a - b)2 = 4ab.
11.(a + b)2 - (a - b)2 = 2(a2 + b2 ).
12.If a + b +c =0, then a3 + b3 + c3 = 3 abc .

INDICES AND SURDS

am m n mn (ab)m = a m b m
1. am an = am + n 2. = a m − n . 3. (a ) = a . 4. .
an
m am −m = 1
a y
5.   = . 6. a 0 = 1, a ≠ 0 . 7. a x
m . 8. a = a ⇒ x = y
b b m a
9. a x = b x ⇒ a = b 10. a ± 2 b = x ± y , where x + y = a and xy = b.

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LOGARITHMS
a x = m ⇒ log m = x (a > 0 and a ≠ 1)
a
1. loga mn = logm + logn.
m
2. loga   = logm – logn.
n
3. loga mn = n logm.
log a
4. logba = .
log b
5. logaa = 1.
6. loga1 = 0.
1
7. logba = .
log a b
8. loga1= 0.
9. log (m +n) ≠ logm +logn.
10. e logx = x.
11. logaax = x.
PROGRESSIONS
ARITHMETIC PROGRESSION
a, a + d, a+2d,-----------------------------are in A.P.
nth term, Tn = a + (n-1)d.
n
Sum to n terms, Sn = [ 2a + (n − 1)d ] .
2
If a, b, c are in A.P, then 2b = a + c.
GEOMETRIC PROGRESSION
a, ar, ar2 ,--------------------------- are in G.P.
a(1 − r n ) a(r n − 1)
Sum to n terms, Sn = if r < 1 and Sn = if r > 1.
1− r r −1
a
Sum to infinite terms of G.P, S∞ = .
1− r
If a, b, c are in A.P, then b2 = ac.
HARMONIC PROGRESSION
Reciprocals of the terms of A.P are in H.P
1 1 1
, , , ----------------- are in H.P
a a + d a + 2d
2ac
If a, b, c are in H.P, then b = .
a+c
MATHEMATICAL INDUCTION
n(n + 1)
1 + 2 + 3 + -----------------+n = ∑ n = .
2
n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
12+22 +32 + -----------------+n2 = ∑ n =
2
.
6
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n 2 (n + 1) 2
13+23 +33 + ----------------+ n3 = ∑n 3
=
4
.
PERMUTATIONS AND COMBINATION
n!
n Pr =
( n − r) ! .
n!
nCr = .
r!( n − r ) !
n!= 1.2 3.--------n.
nCr = nCn-r.
nCr + nCr-1 = (n + 1) Cr.
(m + n)!
(m + n)Cr = .
m!n!
BINOMIAL THEOREM

(x +a)n = xn + nC1 xn-1 a + nC2 xn-2 a2 + nC3 xn-3 a3 +------------+ nCn an.

nth term, Tr+1 = nCr xn-r ar .

PARTIAL FRACTIONS
f (x)
is a proper fraction if the deg (g(x)) > deg (f(x)).
g(x)
f (x)
is a improper fraction if the deg (g(x)) ≤ deg (f(x)).
g(x)
1. Linear non- repeated factors
f (x) A B
= + .
(ax + b)(cx + d) ax + b (cx + d)
2. Linear repeated factors
f (x) A B C
= + + .
(ax + b)(cx + d) 2
ax + b (cx + d) (cx + d) 2
3. Non-linear(quadratic which can not be factorized)
f (x) Ax + B Cx + D
= 2 + .
(ax + b)(cx + d) ax + b (cx 2 + d)
2 2

ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY
1. Distance between the two points (x1, y1) and (x2, y2) in the plane is
(x 2 − x1 ) 2 + (y 2 − y1 ) 2 OR (x1 − x 2 ) 2 + (y1 − y 2 ) 2 .
2. Section formula
 mx 2 + nx1 my 2 + ny1 
 ,  (for internal division),
 m+n m+n 
 mx 2 − nx1 my 2 − ny1 
 ,  (for external division).
 m−n m−n 

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3. Mid point formula

 x1 + x 2 y1 + y 2 
 , .
 2 2 

4. Centriod formula
 x1 + x 2 + x 3 y1 + y 2 + y3 
 , .
 3 3 
5. Area of triangle when their vertices are given,
1
2
∑ x1 (y2 − y3 )
1
= [ x1 (y 2 − y3 ) + x 2 (y3 − y1 ) + x 3 (y1 − y 2 ) ]
2
STRAIGHT LINE
Slope (or Gradient) of a line = tangent of an inclination = tanθ.
Slope of a X- axis = 0
Slope of a line parallel to X-axis = 0
Slope of a Y- axis = ∞
Slope of a line parallel to Y-axis = ∞
y 2 − y1
Slope of a line joining (x1, x2) and (y1, y2) = .
x 2 − x1
If two lines are parallel, then their slopes are equal (m1= m2)
If two lines are perpendicular, then their product of slopes is -1 (m1 m2 = -1)
EQUATIONS OF STRAIGHT LINE
1. y = mx + c (slope-intercept form)
y - y1 = m(x-x1) (point-slope form)
y −y
y − y1 = 2 1 (x − x1 ) (two point form)
x 2 − x1
x y
+ = 1 (intercept form)
a b
x cosα +y sinα = P (normal form)
Equation of a straight line in the general form is ax2 + bx + c = 0
a
Slope of ax2 + bx + c = 0 is –  
b
m1 − m 2
2. Angle between two straight lines is given by, tanθ =
1 + m1m 2
Length of the perpendicular from a point (x1,x2) and the straight line ax2 + bx + c
ax1 + by1 + c
= 0 is
a 2 + b2

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Equation of a straight line passing through intersection of two lines a 1x2 + b1x + c1
= 0 and a2x2 + b2x + c2 = 0 is a1x2 + b1x + c1 + K(a2x2 + b2x + c2 ) = 0, where K is
any constant.
Two lines meeting a point are called intersecting lines.
More than two lines meeting a point are called concurrent lines.
Equation of bisector of angle between the lines a1x + b1y+ c1 = 0 and
a1x + b1 y + c1 a x + b 2 y 2 + c2
a2x + b2y + c2 = 0 is =± 2
a12 + b12 a 22 + b22

PAIR OF STRAIGHT LINES

1. An equation ax2 +2hxy +by2 = 0, represents a pair of lines passing through origin
generally called as homogeneous equation of degree2 in x and y and
2 h 2 − ab
angle between these is given by tanθ = .
a+b
ax2 +2hxy +by2 = 0, represents a pair of coincident lines, if h2 = ab and the same
represents a pair of perpendicular lines, if a + b = 0.
2h
If m1 and m2 are the slopes of the lines ax2 +2hxy +by2 = 0,then m1 + m2 = −
b
a
and m1 m2 = .
b
2. An equation ax2 +2hxy +by2+2gx +2fy +c = 0 is called second general second
order equation represents a pair of lines if it satisfies the the condition
abc + 2fgh –af2 – bg2 – ch2 = 0.
The angle between the lines ax2 +2hxy +by2+2gx +2fy +c = 0 is given by
2 h 2 − ab
tanθ = .
a+b
ax2 +2hxy +by2+2gx +2fy +c = 0, represents a pair of parallel lines, if h2 = ab and
af2= bg2 and the distance between the parallel lines is
2 g 2 − ac
.
a(a + b)
ax2 +2hxy +by2+2gx +2fy +c = 0, represents a pair of perpendicular lines
,if a + b = 0.

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TRIGNOMETRY
1 2
Area of a sector of a circle = r θ .
2
Arc length, S = r θ.
opp adj opp adj hyp hyp
sinθ = ,cosθ = ,tanθ = ,cotθ = , secθ = , cosecθ = .
hyp hyp adj opp adj opp
1 1 1 1
Sinθ = or cosecθ = , cosθ = or secθ = ,
cos ecθ sin θ sec θ cos θ
1 1 sin θ cos θ
tanθ = or cotθ = , tanθ = , cotθ = .
cot θ tan θ cos θ sin θ
sin2θ + cos2θ = 1; ⇒ sin2θ = 1- cos2θ; cos2θ = 1- sin2θ;
sec2θ - tan2θ = 1; ⇒ sec2θ = 1+ tan2θ; tan2θ = sec2θ – 1;
cosec2θ - cot2θ = 1; ⇒ cosec2θ = 1+ cot2θ; cot2θ = cosec2θ – 1.

STANDARD ANGLES
0 or
π π π π π 5π
00 0 30
or 450 or 600 or 900 or 150 or 750 or
6 4 3 2 12 12
Sin 1 1 3 3 −1 3 +1
0 2 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
Cos 3 1 1 3 +1 3 −1
1 2 0
2 2 2 2 2 2
Tan 1 3 −1 3 +1
0 1 ∞
3 3
3 +1 3 −1
Cot 1 3 +1 3 −1
∞ 1 0
3 3 3 −1 3 +1
Sec 2 2 2 2 2
1 1 ∞
3 2
3 +1 3 −1
Cosec 2 2 2 2 2
∞ 2 1
2 3 3 −1 3 +1

ALLIED ANGLES
Trigonometric functions of angles which are in the 2nd, 3rd and 4th quadrants can be
obtained as follows :
If the transformation begins at 900 or 2700, the trigonometric functions changes as
sin ↔ cos
tan ↔ cot
sec ↔ cosec

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where as the transformation begins at 1800 or 3600, the same trigonometric functions
will be retained, however the signs (+ or -) of the functions decides ASTC rule.
COMPOUND ANGLES

Sin(A+B)=sinAcosB+cosAsinB.
Sin(A-B)= sinAcosB-cosAsinB.
Cos(A+B)=cosAcosB-sinAsinB.
Cos(A-B)=cosAcosB+sinAsinB.
tan A + tan B
tan(A+B)=
1 − tan A tan B
tan A − tan B
tan(A-B)=
1 + tan A tan B
π  1 + tan A
tan  + A  =
4  1 − tan A
π  1 − tan A
tan  − A  =
4  1 + tan A
tan A + tan B + tan C − tan A tan B tan C
tan(A+B+C)=
1 − (tan A tan B + tan B tan C + tan C tan A)
sin(A+B) sin(A-B)= sin 2 A − sin 2 B = cos 2 B − cos 2 A
cos(A+B) cos(A-B)= cos 2 A − sin 2 B

MULTIPLE ANGLES

2 tan A
1.sin 2A=2 sinA cosA. 2. sin 2A= .
1 + tan 2 A
3.cos 2A = cos 2 A − sin 2 A
=1-2 sin 2 A .
= 2 cos 2 A − 1
1 − tan 2 A
=
1 + tan 2 A
2 tan A 1
4. tan 2A= , 5. 1+cos 2A= 2 cos 2 A , 6. cos 2 A = (1 + cos 2A) .
1 − tan A
2
2
1
7. 1-cos 2A= 2sin 2 A , 8. sin 2 A = (1 − cos 2A) , 9.1+sin 2A= (sin A + cos A) 2 ,
2
10. 1-sin 2A= (cos A − sin A) = (sin A − cos A) 2 , 11.cos 3A= 4 cos3 A − 3cos A ,
2

3 tan A − tan 3 A
12. sin 3A= 3sin A − 4sin 3 A , 13.tan 3A= .
1 − 3 tan 2 A

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HALF ANGLE FORMULAE

θ
2 tan  
θ θ 2 2 θ 2 θ
1) sin θ = 2sin cos . 2) sin θ = . 3) cos θ = cos − sin .
2 2 θ 2 2
1 + tan 2  
2
θ
1 − tan 2  
2 θ 2 θ 2
4) cos θ = 1 − 2sin . 5) cos θ = 2 cos − 1 . 6) cos θ = .
2 2 θ
1 + tan 2  
2
θ
2 tan  
2 2 θ 2 θ
7) tan θ = . 8) 1 + cos θ = 2 cos . 9) 1 − cos θ = 2sin .
θ 2 2
1 − tan 2  
2
PRODUCT TO SUM

2 sinA cosB = sin(A+B) + sin(A-B).

2 cosA sinB = sin(A+B) – sin(A-B).
2 cosA cosB = cos(A+B) + cos(A-B).
2 sinA sinB = cos(A+B) – cos(A-B).

SUM TO PRODUCT
C+D C−D
Sin C + sin D = 2sin   cos  .
 2   2 
C+D C−D
Sin C –sin D = 2 cos   sin  .
 2   2 
C+D C−D
Cos C + cos D = 2 cos   cos  .
 2   2 
 C+D C−D
Cos C- cos D = −2sin   sin  
 2   2 
OR
 D+C  D−C
Cos C- cos D = 2sin   sin  
 2   2 

PROPERTIES AND SOLUTIONS OF TRIANGLE

a b c
Sine Rule: = = = 2R , where R is the circum radius of the
sin A sin B sin C
triangle.
b 2 + c2 − a 2
Cosine Rule: a2 = b2 + c2 -2bc cosA or cosA = ,
2bc

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a 2 + c2 − b2
b2 = a2 + c2 -2ac cosB or cosB = ,
2ac
a 2 + b2 − c2
c2 = a2 + b2 -2ab cosC or cosC = .
2ab
Projection Rule: a = b cosC +c cosB
b = c cosA +a cosC
c = a cosB +b cosA
Tangents Rule:
 B−C b−c A
tan  = cot   ,
 2  b+c 2
C−A c−a B
tan  = cot   ,
 2  c+a 2
A−B a−b C
tan  = cot   .
 2  a+b 2
Half angle formula:
A (s − b)(s − c) A s(s − a) A (s − b)(s − c)
sin   = , cos   = , tan   = .
2 bc 2 bc 2 s(s − a)
B (s − a)(s − c) B s(s − b) B (s − a)(s − c)
sin   = , cos   = , tan   = .
2 ac 2 ac 2 s(s − b)
C (s − a)(s − b) C s(s − c) C (s − a)(s − b)
sin   = , cos   = , tan   = .
2 ab 2 ab 2 s(s − c)
Area of triangle ABC = s(s − a)(s − b)(s − c) ,
1 1 1
Area of triangle ABC = bcsin A = ac sin B = ab sin C .
2 2 2
LIMITS

1. If f ( − x ) = f ( x ) , then f ( x ) is called Even Function

2. If f ( − x ) = − f ( x ) , then f ( x ) is called Odd Function

3. If P is the smallest + ve real number such that if f ( x + P ) = f ( x ) , then f ( x ) is called

a periodic function with period P.

4. Right Hand Limit (RHL) = xlim

→a+
( f ( x ) ) = lim
h →0
( f ( a + h) )
Left Hand Limit (LHL) = xlim
→a−
( f ( x ) ) = lim
h →0
( f ( a − h) )
If RHL=LHL then lim
x→a
( f ( x ) ) exists and
lim ( f ( x ) ) = RHL=LHL
x→a

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1
5. Lt = 0 , if p > 0 and nLt n p = ∞ if p > 0
n →∞ np →∞

sin x tan x x x
6. Lt = Lt ( x in radians ) = xLt = Lt =1
x →0 x x → 0 x → 0 sin x x → 0 tan x
sin x 0 tan x 0 π
7. Lt = Lt =
x →0 x x → 0 x 180
sin x 2
8. Ltπ =
x→ x π
2

sin −1 x tan −1 x
9. lim = 1 = lim
x →0 x x →0 x
x n − an
10. lim = nan − 1 , where n is an integer or a fraction.
x→a x−a

ax − 1 ex − 1
11. lim = log a , lim = log e = 1
x →0 x x →0 x
n
 1 1
12. lim  1 +  = e , lim ( 1 + n ) n = e
x →∞  n x →0

13. lim kf ( x )  = k lim f ( x )

x→a x→a

14. lim  f ( x ) ± g ( x )  = lim f ( x ) ± lim g ( x )

x→a x→a x →a

15. lim f ( x ) .g ( x ) = lim f ( x ) .lim g ( x )

x→a x→a x→a

 f ( x)  lim f ( x)
= provided lim g( x ) ≠ 0
x→a
lim 
 g ( x)  lim g ( x)
x→a x→a
x→a

16. A function f ( x ) is said to be continuous at the point x = a if

(i) lim f ( x ) exists (ii) f ( a ) is defined (iii) lim f ( x ) = f ( a)

x→a x→a

17. A function f ( x ) is said to be discontinuous or not continuous at x = a if

(i) f ( x ) is not defined at x = a (ii) lim f ( x ) does not exist at x = a

x→a

(iii) xlim f ( x ) ≠ lim f ( x ) ≠ f ( a )

→a+0 x→a−0

18. If two functions f ( x ) and g ( x ) are continuous then f ( x ) + g ( x ) is continuous

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 Trig Cheat Sheet

Definition of the Trig Functions

Right triangle definition
For this definition we assume that Unit circle definition
p For this definition q is any angle.
0 < q < or 0° < q < 90° .
2 y

( x, y )
hypotenuse 1
y q
opposite x
x
q
adjacent
opposite hypotenuse y 1
sin q = csc q = sin q = =y csc q =
hypotenuse opposite 1 y
adjacent hypotenuse x 1
cos q = sec q = cos q = = x sec q =
hypotenuse adjacent 1 x
opposite adjacent y x
tan q = cot q = tan q = cot q =
adjacent opposite x y

Facts and Properties

Domain
The domain is all the values of q that Period
can be plugged into the function. The period of a function is the number,
T, such that f (q + T ) = f (q ) . So, if w
sin q , q can be any angle is a fixed number and q is any angle we
cos q , q can be any angle have the following periods.
æ 1ö
tan q , q ¹ ç n + ÷ p , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,K
è 2ø 2p
sin ( wq ) ® T=
csc q , q ¹ n p , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,K w
æ 1ö 2p
sec q , q ¹ ç n + ÷ p , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,K cos (wq ) ® T =
è 2ø w
cot q , q ¹ n p , n = 0, ± 1, ± 2,K p
tan (wq ) ® T =
w
Range 2p
csc (wq ) ® T =
The range is all possible values to get w
out of the function. 2p
-1 £ sin q £ 1 csc q ³ 1 and csc q £ -1 sec (wq ) ® T =
w
-1 £ cos q £ 1 sec q ³ 1 and sec q £ -1 p
-¥ < tan q < ¥ -¥ < cot q < ¥ cot (wq ) ® T =
w

© 2005 Paul Dawkins

 Formulas and Identities
Tangent and Cotangent Identities Half Angle Formulas (alternate form)
sin q cos q q 1 - cos q 1
tan q = cot q = sin = ± sin 2 q = (1 - cos ( 2q ) )
cos q sin q 2 2 2
Reciprocal Identities
q 1 + cos q 1
csc q =
1
sin q =
1 cos
2
=±
2
cos 2 q =
2
(1 + cos ( 2q ) )
sin q csc q
1 1 q 1 - cos q 1 - cos ( 2q )
sec q = cos q = tan = ± tan 2 q =
cos q sec q 2 1 + cos q 1 + cos ( 2q )
1 1 Sum and Difference Formulas
cot q = tan q =
tan q cot q sin (a ± b ) = sin a cos b ± cos a sin b
Pythagorean Identities cos (a ± b ) = cos a cos b m sin a sin b
sin 2 q + cos 2 q = 1
tan a ± tan b
tan 2 q + 1 = sec 2 q tan (a ± b ) =
1 m tan a tan b
1 + cot 2 q = csc 2 q Product to Sum Formulas
1
Even/Odd Formulas sin a sin b = éëcos (a - b ) - cos (a + b ) ùû
sin ( -q ) = - sin q csc ( -q ) = - csc q 2
1
cos ( -q ) = cos q sec ( -q ) = sec q cos a cos b = éë cos (a - b ) + cos (a + b ) ùû
2
tan ( -q ) = - tan q cot ( -q ) = - cot q 1
sin a cos b = éësin (a + b ) + sin (a - b ) ùû
Periodic Formulas 2
If n is an integer. 1
cos a sin b = éësin (a + b ) - sin (a - b ) ùû
sin (q + 2p n ) = sin q csc (q + 2p n ) = csc q 2
Sum to Product Formulas
cos (q + 2p n ) = cos q sec (q + 2p n ) = sec q
æa + b ö æa - b ö
tan (q + p n ) = tan q cot (q + p n ) = cot q sin a + sin b = 2sin ç ÷ cos ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
Double Angle Formulas
æa + b ö æa - b ö
sin a - sin b = 2 cos ç ÷ sin ç ÷
sin ( 2q ) = 2sin q cos q è 2 ø è 2 ø
cos ( 2q ) = cos 2 q - sin 2 q cos a + cos b = 2 cos ç
æa + b ö æa - b ö
÷ cos ç ÷
= 2 cos 2 q - 1 è 2 ø è 2 ø
æa + b ö æa - b ö
= 1 - 2sin 2 q cos a - cos b = -2sin ç ÷ sin ç ÷
è 2 ø è 2 ø
2 tan q
tan ( 2q ) = Cofunction Formulas
1 - tan 2 q
æp ö æp ö
Degrees to Radians Formulas sin ç - q ÷ = cos q cos ç - q ÷ = sin q
è2 ø è2 ø
If x is an angle in degrees and t is an
angle in radians then æp ö æp ö
csc ç - q ÷ = sec q sec ç - q ÷ = csc q
p t px 180t è2 ø è2 ø
= Þ t= and x = æp ö æp ö
180 x 180 p tan ç - q ÷ = cot q cot ç - q ÷ = tan q
è2 ø è2 ø

© 2005 Paul Dawkins

 Unit Circle

y
( 0,1)
p æ1 3ö
æ 1 3ö çç 2 , 2 ÷÷
ç- , ÷ 2 è ø
è 2 2 ø p æ 2 2ö
2p 90° çç , ÷÷
æ 2 2ö 3 è 2 2 ø
ç- , ÷ 3
è 2 2 ø 120° p
3p 60° æ 3 1ö
4 çç 2 , 2 ÷÷
æ 3 1ö 4 45° p è ø
ç- , ÷ 135°
è 2 2ø 5p
6
6 30°
150°

( -1,0 ) p 180° 0° 0 (1,0 )

360° 2p x

210°
7p 330°
11p
6 225°
æ 3 1ö 6 æ 3 1ö
ç - ,- ÷ 5p 315° ç ,- ÷
è 2 2ø è 2 2ø
4 240° 300° 7p
æ 2ö 4p 270°
ç-
2
,- ÷ 5p 4 æ 2 2ö
è 2 2 ø 3 3p ç
2
,-
2
÷
3 è ø
æ 1 3ö 2 æ
ç - ,- ÷ 1 3ö
2 2 ç ,- ÷
è ø è2 2 ø
( 0,-1)

For any ordered pair on the unit circle ( x, y ) : cos q = x and sin q = y

Example
æ 5p ö 1 æ 5p ö 3
cos ç ÷= sin ç ÷=-
è 3 ø 2 è 3 ø 2

© 2005 Paul Dawkins

 Inverse Trig Functions
Definition Inverse Properties
y = sin -1 x is equivalent to x = sin y cos ( cos -1 ( x ) ) = x cos -1 ( cos (q ) ) = q
y = cos -1 x is equivalent to x = cos y sin ( sin -1 ( x ) ) = x sin -1 ( sin (q ) ) = q
y = tan -1 x is equivalent to x = tan y
tan ( tan -1 ( x ) ) = x tan -1 ( tan (q ) ) = q
Domain and Range
Function Domain Range Alternate Notation
p p sin -1 x = arcsin x
y = sin -1 x -1 £ x £ 1 - £ y£
2 2 cos -1 x = arccos x
y = cos -1 x -1 £ x £ 1 0£ y £p tan -1 x = arctan x
p p
y = tan -1 x -¥ < x < ¥ - < y<
2 2

Law of Sines, Cosines and Tangents

c b a

a g

Law of Sines Law of Tangents

sin a sin b sin g
= = a - b tan 12 (a - b )
=
a b c a + b tan 12 (a + b )
Law of Cosines b - c tan 12 ( b - g )
=
a 2 = b2 + c 2 - 2bc cos a b + c tan 12 ( b + g )
b 2 = a 2 + c 2 - 2ac cos b a - c tan 12 (a - g )
=
c = a + b - 2ab cos g a + c tan 12 (a + g )
2 2 2

Mollweide’s Formula
a + b cos 12 (a - b )
=
c sin 12 g

© 2005 Paul Dawkins

USEFUL TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Definitions
sin x
tan x =
cos x
1 1 1
sec x = cosec x = cot x =
cos x sin x tan x

Fundamental trig identity

(cos x)2 + (sin x)2 = 1
1 + (tan x)2 = (sec x)2
(cot x)2 + 1 = (cosec x)2

Odd and even properties

cos(−x) = cos(x) sin(−x) = − sin(x) tan(−x) = − tan(x)

Double angle formulas

sin(2x) = 2 sin x cos x cos(2x) = (cos x)2 − (sin x)2
cos(2x) = 2(cos x)2 − 1
cos(2x) = 1 − 2(sin x)2

Half angle formulas

2
sin( 21 x) = 21 (1 − cos x)

2
cos( 21 x) = 21 (1 + cos x)


Sums and differences of angles

cos(A + B) = cos A cos B − sin A sin B
cos(A − B) = cos A cos B + sin A sin B
sin(A + B) = sin A cos B + cos A sin B
sin(A − B) = sin A cos B − cos A sin B

** See other side for more identities **

 USEFUL TRIGONOMETRIC IDENTITIES

Unit circle properties

cos(π − x) = − cos(x) sin(π − x) = sin(x) tan(π − x) = − tan(x)
cos(π + x) = − cos(x) sin(π + x) = − sin(x) tan(π + x) = tan(x)
cos(2π − x) = cos(x) sin(2π − x) = − sin(x) tan(2π − x) = − tan(x)
cos(2π + x) = cos(x) sin(2π + x) = sin(x) tan(2π + x) = tan(x)

Right-angled triangle properties

cos π2 − x = sin(x) sin π2 − x = cos(x)

π
Shifting by 2

cos(x) = cos(x) cos(x) = cos(x) cos(−x) = cos(x)

cos(x + π2 ) = − sin(x) cos(x − π2 ) = sin(x) cos( π2 − x) = sin(x)
cos(x + π) = − cos(x) cos(x − π) = − cos(x) cos(π − x) = − cos(x)
cos(x + 3π
2 ) = sin(x) cos(x − 3π
2 ) = − sin(x) cos( 3π
2 − x) = − sin(x)
cos(x + 2π) = cos(x) cos(x − 2π) = cos(x) cos(2π − x) = cos(x)

sin(x) = sin(x) sin(x) = sin(x) sin(−x) = − sin(x)

sin(x + π2 ) = cos(x) sin(x − π2 ) = − cos(x) sin( π2 − x) = cos(x)
sin(x + π) = − sin(x) sin(x − π) = − sin(x) sin(π − x) = sin(x)
sin(x + 3π2 ) = − cos(x) sin(x − 3π2 ) = cos(x) sin( 3π
2 − x) = − cos(x)
sin(x + 2π) = sin(x) sin(x − 2π) = sin(x) sin(2π − x) = − sin(x)

tan(x) = tan(x) tan(x) = tan(x) tan(−x) = − tan(x)

tan(x + π2 ) = − cot(x) tan(x − π2 ) = − cot(x) tan( π2 − x) = cot(x)
tan(x + π) = tan(x) tan(x − π) = tan(x) tan(π − x) = − tan(x)
tan(x + 3π
2 ) = − cot(x) tan(x − 3π
2 ) = − cot(x) tan( 3π
2 − x) = cot(x)
tan(x + 2π) = tan(x) tan(x − 2π) = tan(x) tan(2π − x) = − tan(x)

** See other side for more identities **

 Common Derivatives and Integrals

Derivatives
Basic Properties/Formulas/Rules
d
dx
( cf ( x ) ) = cf ′ ( x ) , c is any constant. ( f ( x ) ± g ( x ) )′ =f ′ ( x ) ± g ′ ( x )
d n
dx
( x ) = nx n −1 , n is any number.
d
dx
( c ) = 0 , c is any constant.
 f ′ f ′ g − f g ′
(f =g )′ f ′ g + f g ′ – (Product Rule)   = – (Quotient Rule)
g g2
d
dx
( )
f ( g ( x ) ) = f ′ ( g ( x ) ) g ′ ( x ) (Chain Rule)

g′( x)
dx
e( )
d g ( x)
= g′( x) e ( )
g x d
dx
( ln g ( x ) ) =
g ( x)

Common Derivatives
Polynomials
d
dx
(c) = 0
d
dx
( x) = 1
d
dx
( cx ) = c
d n
dx
( x ) = nx n−1 d
dx
( cx n ) = ncx n−1
Trig Functions
d d d
( sin x ) = cos x ( cos x ) = − sin x ( tan x ) = sec2 x
dx dx dx
d d d
( sec x ) = sec x tan x ( csc x ) = − csc x cot x ( cot x ) = − csc2 x
dx dx dx

Inverse Trig Functions

d
( sin −1 x ) =
1 d
( cos −1 x ) = −
1 d
( tan −1 x ) =
1
1 + x2
dx 1 − x2 dx 1 − x2 dx
d
( sec −1 x ) =
1 d
( csc −1 x ) = −
1 d
( cot −1 x ) = −
1
1 + x2
dx x x2 −1 dx x x2 −1 dx

Exponential/Logarithm Functions
(
d x
dx
a ) = a x ln ( a )
d x
dx
( e ) = ex
d
dx
( ( x )) , x > 0
ln =
1
x
d
dx
( ln=x)
1
x
, x≠0
d
dx
( =
log a ( x ))
1
x ln a
, x>0

Hyperbolic Trig Functions

d d d
( sinh x ) = cosh x ( cosh x ) = sinh x ( tanh x ) = sech 2 x
dx dx dx
d d d
( sech x ) = − sech x tanh x ( csch x ) = − csch x coth x ( coth x ) = − csch 2 x
dx dx dx

Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus I & II notes. © 2005 Paul Dawkins
 Common Derivatives and Integrals

Integrals
Basic Properties/Formulas/Rules
∫ cf ( x ) dx = c ∫ f ( x ) dx , c is a constant. ∫ f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( x ) dx ± ∫ g ( x ) dx
∫ a f ( x=
) dx F (=
x) a F ( b ) − F ( a ) where F ( x ) = ∫ f ( x ) dx
b b

∫ a cf ( x ) dx = c ∫ a f ( x ) dx , c is a constant. ∫ a f ( x ) ± g ( x ) dx= ∫ a f ( x ) dx ± ∫ a g ( x ) dx
b b b b b

f ( x ) dx = 0 f ( x ) dx = − ∫ f ( x ) dx
a b a
∫a ∫a b

f ( x ) dx ∫ f ( x ) dx + ∫ f ( x ) dx dx c ( b − a )
b c b b
∫=
a a c ∫a c=
If f ( x ) ≥ 0 on a ≤ x ≤ b then ∫ a f ( x ) dx ≥ 0
b

If f ( x ) ≥ g ( x ) on a ≤ x ≤ b then f ( x ) dx ≥ ∫ g ( x ) dx
b b
∫a a

Common Integrals
Polynomials
1 n +1
∫ dx= x+c ∫ k dx
= k x+c ∫ x dx
= x + c, n ≠ −1
n

n +1
⌠ 1= 1
∫x = ∫ x=
−n
 dx ln x + c
−1
dx ln x + c dx x − n +1 + c, n ≠ 1
⌡x −n + 1
p p p+q
⌠ 1 = 1 1 q +1 q
 ln ax + b + c ∫=
x q dx x= +c +c
q
dx x
⌡ ax + b a q +1
p
p+q

Trig Functions
∫ cos u=
du sin u + c ∫ sin u du = − cos u + c ∫ sec u= du tan u + c 2

∫ sec u tan u=
du sec u + c ∫ csc u cot udu = − csc u + c ∫ csc u du = − cot u + c 2

∫ tan
= u du ln sec u + c ∫ cot
= u du ln sin u + c

∫ sec u du= ln sec u + tan u + c ∫ sec =u du

1
2
( sec u tan u + ln sec u + tan u ) + c
3

∫ csc u du= ln csc u − cot u + c ∫ csc

3 1
u du =−
2
( csc u cot u + ln csc u − cot u ) + c

Exponential/Logarithm Functions
au
∫e
u
du= e + c
u
∫a =
u
du +c ∫ ln u=
du u ln ( u ) − u + c
ln a
e au
∫ e sin ( bu=
au
) du
a 2 + b2
( a sin ( bu ) − b cos ( bu ) ) + c ∫ ue du =( u − 1) e
u u
+c

e au ⌠ 1=
∫ e au
cos ( =
bu ) du
a 2 + b2
( a cos ( bu ) + b sin ( bu ) ) + c 
⌡ u ln u
du ln ln u + c

Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus I & II notes. © 2005 Paul Dawkins
 Common Derivatives and Integrals

Inverse Trig Functions

⌠ 1 u
du sin −1   + c ∫ sin
−1
 = du u sin −1 u + 1 − u 2 + c
u=
⌡ a2 − u2 a
⌠ 1 u
du u tan −1 u − ln (1 + u 2 ) + c
1 1
∫ tan
−1
= du tan −1   + c u=
⌡ a +u a
2 2
a 2
⌠ 1 1 u
sec −1   + c ∫ cos
−1
 = du du u cos −1 u − 1 − u 2 + c
u=
⌡ u u −a
2 2 a a

Hyperbolic Trig Functions

∫ sinh=
u du cosh u + c ∫ sech u tanh u du =
− sech u + c ∫ sech =
u du tanh u + c
2

∫ cosh= sinh u + c ∫ csch u coth u du =

− csch u + c ∫ csch u du =
− coth u + c
2
u du

∫=tanh u du ln ( cosh u ) + c =
∫ sech u du tan sinh u + c
−1

Miscellaneous
⌠= 1 1 u+a ⌠= 1 1 u−a
 2 du ln +c  2 du ln +c
⌡ a −u 2
2a u − a ⌡ u −a 2
2a u + a
u 2 a2
∫ a + u du = a + u + ln u + a 2 + u 2 + c
2 2 2

2 2
u 2 a2
∫ u 2 − a 2 du
=
2
u − a 2 − ln u + u 2 − a 2 + c
2
u 2 a2 u
∫ a 2 − u 2 du
=
2
a − u 2 + sin −1   + c
2 a
u−a a2  a −u 
∫ 2au −=
u 2 du
2
2au − u 2 + cos −1 
2  a 
+c

Standard Integration Techniques

Note that all but the first one of these tend to be taught in a Calculus II class.

u Substitution

∫ a f ( g ( x ) ) g ′ ( x ) dx then the substitution u = g ( x ) will convert this into the

b
Given
g (b)
integral, ∫ f ( g ( x ) ) g ′ ( x ) dx = ∫ f ( u ) du .
b
a g(a)

Integration by Parts
The standard formulas for integration by parts are,
b b
∫ udv =
uv − ∫ vdu ∫a uv a − ∫ vdu
b
udv =
a
Choose u and dv and then compute du by differentiating u and compute v by using the
fact that v = ∫ dv .

Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus I & II notes. © 2005 Paul Dawkins
 Common Derivatives and Integrals

Trig Substitutions
If the integral contains the following root use the given substitution and formula.
a
a 2 − b2 x2 ⇒ x= sin θ and cos 2 θ = 1 − sin 2 θ
b
a
b2 x2 − a 2 ⇒ x = sec θ and tan 2 θ = sec 2 θ − 1
b
a
a 2 + b2 x2 ⇒ x= tan θ and sec 2 θ =1 + tan 2 θ
b
Partial Fractions
⌠ P ( x)
If integrating  dx where the degree (largest exponent) of P ( x ) is smaller than the
⌡ Q ( x)
degree of Q ( x ) then factor the denominator as completely as possible and find the partial
fraction decomposition of the rational expression. Integrate the partial fraction
decomposition (P.F.D.). For each factor in the denominator we get term(s) in the
decomposition according to the following table.

Factor in Q ( x ) Term in P.F.D Factor in Q ( x ) Term in P.F.D

A A1 A2 Ak
ax + b ( ax + b )
k
+ + +
ax + b ax + b ( ax + b ) 2
( ax + b )
k

Ax + B A1 x + B1 Ak x + Bk
( ax 2 + bx + c ) + +
k
ax 2 + bx + c ax + bx + c ( ax 2 + bx + c )
2 k
ax + bx + c
2

Products and (some) Quotients of Trig Functions

∫ sin x cos x dx
n m

1. If n is odd. Strip one sine out and convert the remaining sines to cosines using
sin 2 x = 1 − cos 2 x , then use the substitution u = cos x
2. If m is odd. Strip one cosine out and convert the remaining cosines to sines
using cos 2 x = 1 − sin 2 x , then use the substitution u = sin x
3. If n and m are both odd. Use either 1. or 2.
4. If n and m are both even. Use double angle formula for sine and/or half angle
formulas to reduce the integral into a form that can be integrated.
∫ tan x sec x dx
n m

1. If n is odd. Strip one tangent and one secant out and convert the remaining
tangents to secants using tan = 2
x sec 2 x − 1 , then use the substitution u = sec x
2. If m is even. Strip two secants out and convert the remaining secants to tangents
using sec 2 x = 1 + tan 2 x , then use the substitution u = tan x
3. If n is odd and m is even. Use either 1. or 2.
4. If n is even and m is odd. Each integral will be dealt with differently.
( cos x ) = (1 − sin x )
3 3
Convert Example : cos 6 x= 2 2

Visit http://tutorial.math.lamar.edu for a complete set of Calculus I & II notes. © 2005 Paul Dawkins