MAT1100 LECTURE NOTES

Pre-requisite: O level Mathematics

Course Outline

1. Set theory: Definition; subsets; set operations; De Morgan’s laws; Sets of Numbers:
Natural numbers; integers; rational numbers; real numbers; complex numbers;
arithmetic operations on complex numbers.
2. Relations; Functions; domains and range; composite functions; inverse functions.
3. Linear and Quadratic functions: Completing the square; maximum / minimum values
and graphs of quadratic functions; quadratic equations and inequalities; applications.

4. Polynomial functions: Factor and remainder theorems; graphs; equations, inequalities.

5. Rational functions: Domain; range; graph; equations; inequalities.

6. Modulus functions: Domain; range; graph; equations; inequalities.

7. Trigonometric functions: Domain; range; graph; identities; sum angle identities;

equations.

8. Differential calculus: Limits, continuity and derivatives of polynomial, rational and

trigonometric functions; product, quotient and chain rules; implicit differentiation;
tangent lines.

9. Transcendental Functions: Exponential functions; logarithmic functions; inverse

trigonometric functions; properties, graphs and derivatives.

10. Applications of Derivatives: Related rates of change; extreme values of functions; graphs
of rational functions.

11. Integral Calculus: indefinite integrals; substitution; integration by parts; integration of

rational functions; areas between curves.

12. Binomial Expansions: Factorials; Binomial formula for positive integral exponents;
expansion for (1 + x) n.

Prescribed Textbooks

1. Backhouse J. Wouldsworth S, Horil P. J. F and Wood J. R (1999) Essential Pure

Mathematics, Single Volume Edition, Longman Group ISBN: 0582066581
2. Kaufmann R. N., Barker V. C., Nation R. D., Algebra and Trigonometry 9th Edition
(2011) Brooks/Cole Cengage Learning. ISBN: 1439040396
3. Larson R., Hodgkins A. (2013) College Algebra and Calculus, 2nd Edition, Brooks/ Cole
Cengage Learning. ISBN:1133105183

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 4. Higher Mathematics, 2012 Edition, Pearson Baccalaureate. ISBN: 9780435074968
5. Any A – Level Mathematics textbook is an added resource.

Mode of delivery: 3 lectures, 1 clinic and 1 tutorial per week

Assessment
1. Continuous Assessment 40%
1.1 Clinics 10%

1.2 Quizzes 10%

1.2 Tests 20%

2. Final Examination 60%

Total 100%

Important Notice and dates for all assessments

1. Students must attend all lectures, tutorials and clinics. Attendance register shall be
conducted during tutorials and clinics.
2. Quizzes will sometimes be conducted during clinics and students will be required to
do them in their respective groups.
3. In addition to the examination, four quizzes and two tests will be given during the
academic year.
4. Only a student who has been prevented by illness or other unavoidable causes from
presenting himself/herself from any test/quiz/examination may apply to the Dean of
his/her school to seek permission for a deferred test quiz/examination. Permission
should be obtained from the Assistant Dean of his/her school before missing any
assessment.
5. Students must have folders to keep all their assessment papers.

Assessment Date
Quiz 1 29th March, 2025

Quiz 2 27th April, 2025

Test 1 17th May, 2025

Quiz 3 5th July, 2025

Quiz 4 10th August, 2025

Test 2 7th September, 2025

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Term 1

1. Sets

1.1 Set Theory

Sets make a foundation of mathematics. The concept of a set appears in all branches of
mathematics. It formalizes the idea of grouping objects together and viewing them as a
single entity.
1.1.1 Basic Definitions
Definition 1.1.1 A set is any well defined list or collection of objects, called elements
or members.
Sets are denoted by capital letters, say A, B, C,⋯. The elements or members of a set are
denoted by lowercase letters a, b, c, ⋯.
Example 1.1.1 If P is a set of all vowels then it is written as 𝑃 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}.
If A is the set of all even integers between 1 and 100, it may be written in set builder
notation as 𝐴 = {𝑥: 1 < 𝑥 < 100 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎𝑛 𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟}. In this notation x
represents even numbers between 1 and 100.

If p is an element of set A we write 𝑝 ∈ 𝐴. If p does not belong to A we write 𝑝 ∉ 𝐴.

For example, if B is a set of positive numbers then 5 ∈ 𝐵. −2 ∉ 𝐵 since −2 is a
negative integer.

Definition 1.1.2 Two sets A and B are said to be identical or equal, written 𝐴 = 𝐵, if
each member of A is also a member of B and vice versa. Thus 𝐴 = 𝐵 if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 ⇒𝑥 ∈ 𝐵
and if 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵 ⇒𝑥 ∈ 𝐴.
For example, the sets 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑢, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜} and 𝐵 = {𝑖, 𝑢, 𝑒, 𝑜, 𝑎} are identical or equal.
Note that the order in which the elements are written does not matter.
Definition 1.1.3 If all the elements of A are in B and 𝐴 ≠ 𝐵 (A is not equal to B), then
A is said to be proper subset of B, and we write 𝐴 ⊂ 𝐵.
If all the elements of A belong to B and we are not sure whether A and B are identical,
we simply say that A is a subset of B, and we write 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵.
For example, if A is the set of all rain days in March and B is the set of all days in
March, then clearly 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵.
Note: 1. A set A is a subset of B if and only if every element of A is an element of B.
2. If 𝐴 ⊆ 𝐵 and 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴 then 𝐴 = 𝐵.

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 Definition 1.1.4 All sets under investigation are subsets of a fixed set called the
universal set. In this course, we shall denote the universal set by U.
On the other hand it is also possible to have a set which has no elements. This set is
called an empty set or a null set, and it is denoted by ∅.

For example, the set 𝑃 = {𝑥: 𝑥 2 = −1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 𝑖𝑠 𝑎 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟} = ∅.

By convention, ∅ is a subset of every set.

The number of elements in a set, say A, is denoted by 𝑛(𝐴). For example, if

𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, the 𝑛(𝐴) = 3.

Sets can also be represented pictorially in a diagram called a Venn diagram, in which
the sets are depicted by a enclosed areas in a plane.
However, in this course we will not waste time on Venn diagrams.

Definition 1.1.5 A set of sets is called a collection or class or family of sets.

For example, B = {{1,2}, {3}, {1,2,3}} is a class and the members of B are the sets
{1,2}, {3}, and {1,2,3}.
Definition 1.1.6 The power set of set A, denoted by ℙ(A) or 2𝐴 , is the class of all
subsets of A. In particular, if 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐}, then
ℙ(𝐴) = {𝐴, {𝑎}, {𝑏}, {𝑐}, {𝑎, 𝑏}, {𝑎, 𝑐}, {𝑏, 𝑐}, ∅}.

The number of elements in the power set of set, say A is given by 𝑛(ℙ(𝐴)) = 2𝑛(𝐴) .
For example, 𝑛(ℙ(𝐴)) = 2𝑛(𝐴) = 23 = 8.

Definition 1.1.7 A set is said to be finite if it has exactly m elements, where m is a

positive integer. Otherwise it is said to be infinite.
For example, the set 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢} is finite while the set ℕ = {1,2,3, ⋯ } the set of
all positive is infinite.
By conversion a null set ∅ is finite.

1.1.2 Set Operations

There are basically four set operations, namely the union, intersection, ,relative
complement and absolute complement or simply complement.

Definition 1.1.8 The intersection of two sets A and B, denoted by 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵, is the set of
all elements which belong to both A and to B, i.e.,
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.

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 Example 1.1.2 Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}. Then
𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑒}

Definition 1.1.9 The union of two sets A and B, denoted by 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵, is the set of all
elements which belong to A or to B, i.e.,
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ∈ 𝐵}.
Example 1.1.2 Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}. Then
𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}
Clearly, if A and B are finite disjoint sets, then 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is finite and

𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵).

If the sets A and B intersect, then the number of elements in 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 is given by
𝑛(𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) = 𝑛(𝐴) + 𝑛(𝐵) − 𝑛(𝐴 ∩ 𝐵).

Definition 1.1.10 The relative complement of a set B with respect to set A or simply
the difference of A and B, denoted by 𝐴 − 𝐵 𝑜𝑟 𝐴\𝐵, is the set of elements which
belong to A and do not belong to B, i.e.,
𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ∉ 𝐵}.

Example 1.1.3 Let 𝐴 = {𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑, 𝑒} and 𝐵 = {𝑎, 𝑒, 𝑖, 𝑜, 𝑢}. Then

𝐴 − 𝐵 = {𝑏, 𝑐, 𝑑}
Note: 1. The sets 𝐴 − 𝐵 and B are disjoint i.e. (𝐴 − 𝐵) ∩ 𝐵 = ∅.
2. 𝐴 − 𝐵 ⊆ 𝐴.

Definition 1.1.11 The absolute complement or simply the complement of set A,

denoted by 𝐴′, is the set of elements which do not belong to A but belong to the
universal set U, i.e.,
𝐴′ = {𝑥: 𝑥 ∈ 𝑈, 𝑥 ∉ 𝐴}.

1.1.3 Laws of Algebra of Sets

Sets under the above operations satisfy various laws which can be proved, though the
proofs will not be done this course.
1. The idempotent laws:
(a) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴 = 𝐴
(b) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴 = 𝐴
2. The Associative laws:
(a) 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∪ 𝐶

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 (b) 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∩
3. The Commutative laws:
(a) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∪ 𝐴
(b) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵 = 𝐵 ∩ 𝐴
4. The Distributive laws:
(a) 𝐴 ∪ (𝐵 ∩ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵) ∩ (𝐴 ∪ 𝐶)
(b) 𝐴 ∩ (𝐵 ∪ 𝐶) = (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵) ∪ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)
5. The Identity laws:
(a) 𝐴 ∪ ∅ = 𝐴
(b) 𝐴 ∩ ∅ = ∅
(c) 𝐴 ∪ 𝑈 = 𝑈
(d) 𝐴 ∩ 𝑈 = 𝐴
6. The Complement laws:
(a) 𝐴 ∪ 𝐴′ = 𝑈
(b) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐴′ = ∅
(c) (𝐴′ )′ = 𝐴
(d) 𝑈 ′ = ∅
(e) ∅′ = 𝑈
7. De Morgan’s laws:
(a) (𝐴 ∪ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∩ 𝐵′
(b) (𝐴 ∩ 𝐵)′ = 𝐴′ ∪ 𝐵′
8. The Difference law:
𝐴 − 𝐵 = 𝐴 ∩ 𝐵′
1.1.4 Sets of Numbers
Sets of numbers are denote by symbols which are given below:
ℤ = the set of integers i.e. ℤ = {⋯ , −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, ⋯ }
ℕ = the set of natural numbers (positive integers or counting numbers) i.e.
ℕ = {1,2,3, ⋯ }
ℚ = the set of rational numbers: numbers which can be expressed as an integer
over another integer.
ℚ′= the set of irrational numbers: numbers which cannot be expressed as an
integer over another integer.
ℝ = the set of real numbers

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 ℂ = the set of complex numbers (to be done later).

NOTE: 1. ℕ ⊂ ℤ ⊂ ℚ ⊂ ℝ
2. ℚ′ = the set of irrational numbers, of the form √2, √3, 𝜋, etc.
3. ℝ = ℚ ∪ ℚ′.

4. The set of real numbers can be represented graphically by points on a

straight line called the number line as follows:

⋯ -2.5 -2 -1 0 1 √2 3⋯ ℝ
1.1.5 Intervals
Let a and b be distinct real numbers with, say, 𝑎 < 𝑏. Then intervals with
end points a and b are denoted and defined as follows:

(i) The set denoted by (𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 < 𝑥 < 𝑏} is an open interval from a to b.

o o ℝ
a b
Note: 1. In this set the numbers 𝑎, 𝑏 ∉ (𝑎, 𝑏).
2. (𝑎, 𝑏) is a set which contains all the numbers between a and b, and it is
an infinite set. It contains an infinite number of elements. For example,
for the set (0,2), 0,2 ∉ (0,2). However it contains all the numbers
1 1 10
between 0 and 2, like 10 , 2 , 1, √2, √3, 9 , etc.

(ii) The set [𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}, is a closed interval from a to b.

ℝ
a b

Note: 1. Here the numbers 𝑎, 𝑏 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏].

2. [𝑎, 𝑏] is a set which contains the numbers a, b and the other numbers
between a and b. It is also an infinite set. It contains an infinite
number of elements.

(iii) The set (𝑎, 𝑏] = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 < 𝑥 ≤ 𝑏}, is an open- closed interval from a to b.

ℝ
a b
Note: 1. Here the number 𝑎, ∉ (𝑎, 𝑏] but 𝑏 ∈ (𝑎, 𝑏].

(iv) The set [𝑎, 𝑏) = {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑎 ≤ 𝑥 < 𝑏}, is a closed-open interval from a to b.

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 o ℝ
a b
Similarly, here the number 𝑎 ∈ [𝑎, 𝑏) and 𝑏 ∉ [𝑎, 𝑏).

It should also be noted that

1. An interval is a subset of ℝ and it is infinite.

2. An interval is open if it does not include its end points and is closed if it
includes its endpoints.
3. A parenthesis “( “or “)” is used to indicate that an endpoint does not
belong to the interval, and the bracket “[ “or “]” is used to indicate that an
endpoint does belong to the interval.

Example 1.1.5 Given the sets A  (2 ,6], B  [5 , 3] , C  [1 , 8) and
X   10 , 10 is the universal set. Use the number line to find the following sets:

(i) A (ii) X  A (iii) ( A  C ) (iv) ( B  A)  C

Solution: (i) (−10, −2] (6,10)

ℝ
−10 −2 𝐴 6 10

𝐴′ = (−10, −2] ∪ (6,10)

(ii) 𝑋
ℝ
−10 −2 𝐴 6 10

(−10, −2] (6,10)

𝑋 − 𝐴 = (−10, −2] ∪ (6,10) = 𝐴′

(iii) (−10, −1) 𝐴 ∩ 𝐶 = [−1,6] (6,10)

𝐶

−10 −2 −1 𝐴 6 8 10 ℝ

∴ (𝐴 ∩ 𝐶)′ = (−10, −1) ∪ (6,10)

(iv)
𝐶

𝐵
−10 −5 −2 − 1 3 6 8 10

𝐵 − 𝐴 = [−5, −2]

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 ∴ (𝐵 − 𝐴) ∩ 𝐶 = ∅.

Now we shall introduce a symbol ∞, called infinity. It is not a number itself. Thus,
∞ ∉ ℝ. However, it is perceived to be greater than any real number, whereas the
symbol −∞ (minus infinity) is perceived to be less than any real number.

Definition1.1.12 Let a be any real number. Then the set of real numbers x satisfying
𝑥 < 𝑎, 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎, 𝑥 > 𝑎 𝑜𝑟 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎, is called an infinite interval with endpoint a.
The infinite interval is said to be open or closed according as whether the endpoint a
does or does not belong to the interval.

The four intervals may also be denoted and defined as follows:

(−∞, 𝑎) = {𝑥: 𝑥 < 𝑎, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ},

(−∞, 𝑎] = {𝑥: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ},
(𝑎, ∞) = {𝑥; : 𝑎 > 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ}
[𝑎, ∞) = {𝑥: 𝑎 ≥ 𝑥, 𝑥 ∈ ℝ}.

Graphically, the infinity intervals 𝑥 < 𝑎, 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎, 𝑥 > 𝑎 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎 are represented as

follows:

o {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 < 𝑎} = (−∞, 𝑎)
a

 {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≤ 𝑎} = (−∞, 𝑎]
a

o {𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 > 𝑎} = (𝑎, ∞)
a

{𝑥 ∈ ℝ: 𝑥 ≥ 𝑎} = [𝑎, ∞)
a
Note that the set of real numbers,ℝ, as an infinite interval, can be written as (−∞, ∞).
By convention, this interval is both open and closed.
Graphically, ℝ can be represented as follows:

−∞ ∞
ℝ = (−∞, ∞)

1.1.6 Rational Numbers

𝑝
A rational number is a real number which can be expressed in the form 𝑞 where p

and q are integers and 𝑞 ≠ 0. In view of this, any rational number can be represented
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as a decimal. Some representations terminate at after a finite number of steps, i.e. all
later terms in the expansion are zero. For example,
1
= 0.5000 ⋯
2
1
= 0.2500 ⋯
4

But other expansions never terminate, such as

1
= 0.3333 ⋯
3
8
= 1.14285714257 ⋯
7
1 8
In the expansion of 3, 3 is repeated after the decimal point and in 7, 142857 is

repeating after the decimal point. This is always true for rational numbers.
1 8
Now it is awkward to express non terminating decimals such as and in the form
3 7

given above. To remove this ambiguity, we place a bar over the set of numbers which
is to be repeated indefinitely. In this notation we write, for example,
0.50

0.250
1
 0.3
3
8
 1.142857
7
NOTE: Every repeating decimal expansion is a rational number.

Example 1.1.6 Show that each of the following numbers is a rational number:
(a) 3.3 (b) 25.12 (c) 0.29432

Solution: (a) Let a  3.3 . Multiplying by 10 both sides we have

10a  33.3
 10a  a  33.3  3.3
30
 9a  30  a 
9
30
 3.3  , which is a rational number.
9

(b) Let p  25.12 . Multiplying both sides by 100, yields

100 p  2512.12

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  100 p  p  2512.12  25..12
2487
 99 p  2487  p 
99
2487 829
 25.12   , which is a rational number.
99 33

(c) Let t  0.29432 . Multiplying both sides by 1000, yields

10000t  29432.432
 100000t  100t  29432.432  29.432
29403 3267 1089
 99900t  29403  t    , which is a rational
99900 11100 3700
number.

1.1.7 Irrational Numbers

An irrational number cannot be expressed as a ratio of two integers.
For example, 2 , √3 , √5 etc. are irrational numbers and they cannot be expressed in the
p
form , p, q  ℤ, where q  0 .
q

In this course we shall not consider the proof of any of irrational numbers i.e. numbers which
p
can note be expressed in the form , p, q  ℤ, where q  0 .
q
However.by construction we can show that a irrational number 2 lies on the number

line. Hence √2 is a real number i.e. 2  ℝ. In general, every irrational number is a real
number.

1 1

⋯ -1 0 1 √𝟐 2 ⋯
1.1.8 Complex Numbers

Some problems cannot be solved using real numbers alone. For example, we cannot find a
real number x such that 𝑥 2 = −1. To handle such problems, the new symbol i had to be
introduced with the property 𝑖 = √−1 or 𝑖 2 = −1. i is called an imaginary number.

Definition 1.1.13 A complex number is an ordered pair of real numbers (𝑎, 𝑏), and is
written 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 . The number a is called the real part of 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, and b is its imaginary part.

Definition 1.1.14 The arithmetic operations on complex numbers are defined as follows:
(a) Two complex numbers 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 and 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 are equal if and only if 𝑎 = 𝑐 and 𝑏 = 𝑑
(b) Addition: (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) + (𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑) = (𝑎 + 𝑐) + 𝑖(𝑏 + 𝑑)
(c) Multiplication: (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏) × (𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑) = (𝑎𝑐 − 𝑏𝑑) + 𝑖(𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑑)

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Example 1.1.7 Evaluate each of the following:
(a) (4 + 𝑖) + (3 − 5𝑖)
(b) (2 + 3𝑖) − (7 + 4𝑖)
(c) (2 − 3𝑖)(2 + 5𝑖)

Solution: (a) (4 + 𝑖) + (3 − 5𝑖) = (4 + 3) + 𝑖(1 + (−5)) = 7 − 4𝑖

(b) (2 + 3𝑖) − (7 + 4𝑖) = (2 − 7) + 𝑖(3 = 4) = −5 − 𝑖
(c) (2 − 3𝑖)(2 + 5𝑖) = 2(2 + 5𝑖) − 3𝑖(2 + 5𝑖) = 4 + 10𝑖 − 6𝑖 + 15
= 19 + 4𝑖
Definition 1.1.15 The complex numbers 𝑧1 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 and 𝑧2 = 𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏 are said to be
conjugates of each other, and they have a property that (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏) = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2.

If 𝑧 is a complex number, then the conjugate of a complex number is denoted by 𝑧̅.

For a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏, the conjugate of 𝑧 is 𝑧̅ = (𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏).

Note that 𝑧𝑧̅ = (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏) = 𝑎2 + 𝑏 2.

Example 1.1.8 The conjugate of −3 + 7𝑖 is −3 − 7𝑖 and the conjugate of −3 − 7𝑖 is

−3 + 7𝑖.
a  ib
Definition 1.1.16 To divide a complex number 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏 by 𝑐 + 𝑖𝑑 i.e. to evaluate , we
c  id
multiply both the numerator and the denominator by the conjugate 𝑐 − 𝑖𝑑 of the denominator
and obtain
a  ib c  id (ac  bd )  (bc  ad )i ac  bd bc  ad
   2 i 2
c  id c  id c d
2 2
c d 2
c d2

Example 1.1.9 Express the given complex numbers in the form 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑑.
4  7i  4  2i 6i
(a) (b) (c)
5i  6  5i 2i
4+7𝑖 4+7𝑖 5+𝑖 4(5+𝑖)+7𝑖(5+𝑖) 20+4𝑖+35𝑖−7
Solution: (a) = × = =
5−𝑖 5−𝑖 5+𝑖 52 +12 25+1
13+39𝑖 13 39 1 3
= = + 𝑖= + 𝑖
26 26 26 2 2
−4+2𝑖 −4+2𝑖 −6+5𝑖 −4(−6+5𝑖)+2𝑖(−6+5𝑖) 24−20𝑖−12𝑖−10
(b) = × = (−6)2 +52
=
−6−5𝑖 −6−5𝑖 −6+5𝑖 36+25
14−32𝑖 14 32
= = − 𝑖
61 61 61
6−𝑖 6−𝑖 −2𝑖 −12𝑖+2 2 12 1
= × = = − 𝑖 = − 3𝑖.
2𝑖 2𝑖 −2𝑖 4 4 4 2

Modulus of a Complex number

12
A real number can be represented as a point on a straight line. Similarly, a complex number
can be represented as a point on a diagram called an Argand diagram. Since a complex
number has two components, the real and imaginary parts, it can be represented as point in a
plane.

The complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is represented by a point (𝑥, 𝑦), where x and y are Cartesian
coordinates. In view of this, the Argand diagram used to represent complex numbers is the
Cartesian coordinate system. The x – axis in the Argand diagram is called the real axis and the
y – axis is called the imaginary axis.
𝑦
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠

𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑥𝑖𝑠
O 𝑥

Example 1.1.10 The complex numbers 𝑧1 = −2 + 3𝑖, 𝑧2 = 3 + 2𝑖 and 𝑧3 = 4 − 3𝑖 are

represented by the points 𝐴(−2,3), 𝐵(3,2) and 𝐶(4, −3) on an Argand diagram as given in
the diagram below.
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑦
𝐴(−2,3)
𝐵(3,2)

O 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑥

𝐶(4, −3)

Example 1.1.12 Show that the complex conjugates 𝑧 = 4 + 2𝑖 and 𝑧̅ = 4 − 2𝑖 on an Argand

diagram.
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑦

(4,2)

O 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑥
(4, −2)

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 Note that complex conjugates will always be placed symmetrically above and below the real
axis.
Complex numbers can also be represented by vectors in the Argand diagram, as shown below.
𝑖𝑚𝑎𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑟𝑦 𝑦

𝐴(−1,3)
𝐵(4,2)

O 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑙 𝑥

A vector has length. This shows that a complex number also has a length called the modulus
of a complex number.
𝑦

𝐴(4,3)
5
4
𝑥
O 3
The length of the vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝐴 = √32 + 42 = √9 + 16 = 5 by Pythagoras theorem. Equally the
modulus of a complex number 𝑧 = 3 + 4𝑖 is |𝑧| = √32 + 42 = √9 + 16 = 5.
Generally the modulus of a complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 is denoted by |𝑧| = |𝑥 + 𝑦𝑖| and is
given by
|𝑧| = |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .
Example 1.1.13 given that 𝑧 = 5 − 2𝑖, find |𝑧|.
Solution: = 5 − 2𝑖 = 5 + (−2)𝑖 ⇒ |𝑧| = √52 + (−2)2 = √25 + 4 = √29.
1.1.9 Surds and Manipulation of Surds

The square root of a prime number is a surd. Surds are used to write numbers exactly. For
example, √2, √3 + 4, √11. Surds cannot be evaluated exactly because they give never-
ending, non repeating decimal fractions, for example, √2 = 1.414213562 ⋯ .

Surds are manipulated using the following rules:

1. √𝑎𝑏 = √𝑎 × √𝑏
a a
2. 
b b

14
 Note: a a a

Example 1.1.14 Simplify:

20
1. 28 2. 3. 5√6 − 2√24 + √294
2
Solution: 1. √28 = √4 × 7 = √4 × √7 = 2√7
√20 √4×5 √4×√5 2√5
2. = = = = √5
2 2 2 2
3. 5√6 − 2√24 + √294 = 5√6 − 2√4 × 6 + √49 × 6
= 5√6 − 2√4 × √6 + √49 × √6
= 5√6 − 4√6 + 7√6

Example 1.1.15 Evaluate:

1. (2√7)(3√7) 2. (√5 + √2)2 3. (2√3 − √5)(2√3 + 2√5)

4. (2√5 − 3√2)(2√5 + 3√2)
Solution: 1. (2√7)(3√7) = 2 × √7 × 3 × √7 = (2 × 3) × (√7 × √7) = 6 × 7 = 42
2. (√5 + √2)2 = (√5 + √2)(√5 + √2) = √5(√5 + √2) + √2(√5 + √2)
3. (2√3 − √5)(2√3 + 2√5) = 2√3(2√3 + 2√5) − √5(2√3 + 2√5)
= 2(2)√3 × √3 + 2(2)√3 × √5 − 2√5 × √3 − 2√5 × √5
= 4(3) + 4√15 − 2√15 − 2(5)
= 12 + 4√15 − 2√15 − 10
= 2 + 2√15

1.1.10 Rationalization of the Denominator of a Fraction involving Surds

To rationalize the denominator of a fraction involving surds is to make the denominator free
of surds.

The rules to rationalize surds are as follows:

1
1. Fractions in the form of , multiply the numerator and the denominator by √𝑎 i.e.
a
1 √𝑎 a
× so that the fraction becomes .
√𝑎 √𝑎 a
1
2. Fractions in the form , multiply the numerator and the denominator by the
a b
conjugate a  b of the denominator. Thus
1 a b a b
  .
a b a b a2  b
1
3. Fractions in the form , multiply the numerator and the denominator by the
a b
conjugate a  b of the denominator. Thus

15
 1 a b a b
  .
a b a b a2  b

Example 1.1.15 Rationalize the denominator of each of the following:

3 1 2 3 4 2 5 8 32
1. 2. 3. 4. .
5 2 1 2 2 32 5

3 3 √5−√2 3√5−3√2 3√5−3√2 3√5−3√2

Solution: 1. = × = 2 2 = =
√5+√2 √5+√2 √5−√2 (√5) −(√2) 5−2 3

3(√5−√2)
= = √5 − √2.
3

1+√2 1+√2 1+√2 1(1+√2)+√2(1+√2) 1+√2+√2+2

2. = × = 2 =
1−√2 1−√2 1+√2 12 −(√2) 1−2

3+2√2
= = −3 − 2√2.
−1

√3+4√2−5√8 √3+4√2−10√2 √2 √3(√2)+4(2)−10(2)

3. = × =
√2 √2 √2 2

√6+8−20 √6−12
= =
2 2

√3−2 √3−2 √3+2√5 √3(√3+2√5)−2(√3+2√5)

4. = × = 2 2
√3−2√5 √3−2√5 √3+2√5 (√3) −(2√5)

3+2√15−2√3−4√5 3+2√15−2√3−4√5
= =
3−20 −17

4√5+2√3−2√15−3
= 17
.

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