4 Digital Signal Processing

x(t)

t
0
(a) Continuous-time signal

xT (n)

nT
–3T –T 0 T 3T

n
–3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3
(b) Discrete-time signal

Fig. 1.1 Continuous-Time and Discrete-Time Signals

n is referred to as a sequence of samples, or sequence in short. If a continuous-time signal x(t) is sampled

every T seconds, a sequence x(nT) results. In general, the sequence values are called samples and the
interval between them is called the sample interval, T. For convenience, the sample interval T is taken as
1 second and hence x(n) represents the sequence. The important sequences are the unit sample sequence,
the unit step response, the exponential sequence and the sinusoidal sequence.

1.2.1 Unit-impulse Function

The unit-impulse function is defined as
(t) = 0, t 0 (1.1)
and

(1.2)
Ú d (t )dt = 1
The Eqs. 1.1 and 1.2 indicate that the area of the impulse function is unity and this area is confined to
an infinitesimal interval on the t-axis and concentrated at t = 0. The unit impulse function is very useful
in continuous-time system analysis. It is used to generate the system response providing fundamental
information about the system characteristics. In discrete-time domain, the unit-impulse signal is called
a unit-sample signal.
 Classification of Signals and Systems 5

It is defined as
Ï1, n = 0
(n) = Ì (1.3)
Ó0, n π 0
Similarly, the shifted unit-impulse sequence [n 2 k] is defined as

Ï1, n = k
[n – k] = Ì (1.4)
Ó0, n π k
which is shown in Fig. 1.2(b).
The shifted unit-impulse sequence [n 1 k] is defined as

Ï1, n = - k
[n + k] = Ì (1.5)
Ó0, n π - k
which is shown in Fig. 1.2(b).

1.2.2 Unit-step Function

The integral of the impulse function (t) gives,
t
Ï1, t>0
Ú d (t ) dt = ÌÓ0, t<0
(1.6)

Since, the area of the impulse function is all concentrated at t = 0 for any value of t , 0 the integral
becomes zero and for t . 0, from Eq. 1.2, the value of the integral is unity. The integral of impulse
function is called the unit-step function, which is represented as

Ï1, t>0
u(t) = Ì (1.7)
Ó0, t<0
The value at t = 0 is taken to be finite and in most cases it is unspecified. The discrete-time unit-step
signal shown in Fig. 1.2(c) is given by
1, n ≥ 0
u(n) = ÏÌ (1.8)
Ó0, n < 0
Similarly, the shifted unit-step sequence u[n 2 k] is defined as
Ï1, n≥k
u[n – k] = Ì (1.9)
Ó0, n<k
which is shown in Fig. 1.2(d).
The shifted unit-step sequence u[n 1 k] is defined as
Ï1, n ≥ - k
u[n + k] = Ì (1.10)
Ó0, n < - k
which is shown in Fig. 1.2(d).
6 Digital Signal Processing

1.2.3 Unit-ramp Function

The unit-ramp funtion r(t) can be obtained by integrating the unit-impulse function twice or integrating
the unit-step function once, i.e.
t a
r (t ) = Ú Ú d (t ) dt da (1.11)

t t
= Ú u(a ) da = Ú 1 ◊ da

That is,
Ï0, t < 0
r(t) = Ì (1.12)
Ó t, t>0
A ramp signal starts at t = 0 and increases linearly with time, t. The unit-ramp signal in discrete-time
domain, shown in Fig. 1.2(e) is given by
Ï0, n<0
r(n) = Ì (1.13)
Ón, n≥0

1.2.4 Unit-pulse Function

A unit-pulse function, P(t), is obtained from unit-step signals as shown in Fig. 1.2(f) and is
given by

P(t) = u ÊÁ t + ˆ˜ - u ÊÁ t - ˆ˜
1 1
(1.14)
Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯

Ê 1ˆ Ê 1ˆ 1
The signals u Á t + ˜ and u Á t - ˜ are the unit-step signals shifted by units in the time axis towards
Ë 2¯ Ë 2¯ 2
the left and right, respectively.
Figure 1.2 shows the graphical representation of all the above functions.

1.2.5 Complex Exponential Signal

The complex exponential signal is defined as x(t) = est where s = s 1 jw, a complex number.
 Classification of Signals and Systems 7

Fig. 1.2 (a) Unit-impulse Function (b) Shifted Unit-impulse Sequence (c) Unit-step Function
(d) Shifted Unit-step sequence (e) Unit-ramp Function (f) Unit-pulse Function
8 Digital Signal Processing

x(t) = est = e(s + jw)t

= est (cos wt + j sin wt) (1.15)
Then this signal x(t) is known as a general complex exponential signal whose real part cos wt est
and imaginary part est sin wt are exponentially increasing (s > 0) or decreasing s < 0 as shown in Fig.
1.3(a) and (b) respectively.
If s = s, then x(t) = est which is a real exponential signal. As shown in Fig. 1.4, if (s > 0), then
x(t) is a growing exponential; and if (s < 0), then x(t) is a decaying exponential. When s = 0,
x(t) = 1, is a constant.
x(t)
x(t)

t t

(a) (b)

Fig. 1.3 (a) Exponentially Increasing Sinusoidal Signal and (b) Exponentially Decreasing Sinusoidal Signal

x(t) x(t)

t t
(a) (b)
Fig. 1.4 Continuous-time Real Exponential Signals (a) (s > 0) and (b) (s < 0)

1.2.6 Complex Exponential Sequence

Let x(n) = Can be the complex exponential sequence, where ‘C’ and ‘a’ are in general complex numbers
expressed as
C = Aejq
a = rejw0
Now, x(n) = Aejq (rejw0)n (1.16)
= Ar n e j(w 0 )
n +q

For r = 1,
x(n) = Ae j (w 0n+q )
x(n) = A(cos(w 0 n + q ) + j sin(w 0 n + q )) (1.17)

Thus x(n) is a complex signal whose real part is A cos (w0n + u) and imaginary part is A sin (w0n + u).
Figures 1.5 (a)–(c) show the graphical representation of complex exponential sequences for various
cases.
 Classification of Signals and Systems 9

Fig. 1.5(a) Real Part of Discrete-time Complex Exponential for r = 1

When r , 1, we get a complex signal whose real and imaginary parts are damped sinusoidal signals.

Fig. 1.5(b) Real Part of Discrete-time Complex Exponential for r , 1

When r . 1, we get a complex signal whose real and imaginary parts are growing sinusoids.
If x(n) = Arn, we get real discrete time exponential sequence. Depending on the value of r, we get
different cases to consider.

Fig. 1.5(c) Real Part of Discrete-time Complex Exponential for r . 1

Case (i) If r = 0, x(n) = 0

Case (ii) If r > 1, the magnitude of real exponential sequence grows exponentially as shown in Fig.
1.6(a).

Case (iii) If 0 < r < 1, the magnitude of real exponential sequence decays exponentially as shown
in Fig. 1.6(b).
10 Digital Signal Processing

x(n)

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 n

Fig. 1.6(a) Discrete-time Real Exponential Sequence for r . 1

x(n)

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 n

Fig. 1.6(b) Discrete-time Real Exponential Sequence for 0 , r , 1

Case (iv) If r < – 1, the sequence grows exponentially and alternates between positive and negative
values as shown in Fig. 1.6(c).

Case (v) If −1 < r < 0, the sequence decays exponentially and alternates between positive and nega-
tive values as shown in Fig. 1.6(d).

Case (vi) If r = –1, the signal alternates between A and 2A as shown in Fig. 1.6(e).

1.2.7 Sinusoidal Signal

A continuous-time sinusoidal signal can be represented as
x(t) = A cos (w0t + q) (1.18)
where A is the amplitude, w0 is the radian frequency in radians per second, and q is the phase angle
in radians. The sinusoidal signal x(t) is shown in Fig. 1.7, which is periodic with fundamental period
 Classification of Signals and Systems 11

x(n)

–3 –1 2 4
–4 –2 0 1 3 5 n

Fig. 1.6(c) Discrete-time Real Exponential Sequence for r , −1

x(n)

–3 –1 2 4
–5 –4 –2 0 1 3 5 n

Fig. 1.6(d) Discrete-time Real Exponential Sequence for 21 , r , 0

x(n)

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 n

Fig. 1.6(e) Discrete-time Real Exponential Sequence for r = −1

12 Digital Signal Processing

x(t)
2p
T0 = 2π
w0 A T0 = ω
0
The reciprocal of the fundamental period T0 is
called the fundamental frequency f0. A cos θ

1
f0 = 0 t
T0

Therefore, w0 = 2pf0 which is called the funda-

mental angular frequency. Using Euler’s for- –A
mula, we have the real part as Fig. 1.7 Continuous-time Sinusoidal Signal
A Re{ej(w0t + q)} = A cos (w0t + q) (1.19)
and imaginary part as
A Im{ej(w0t + q)} = A sin (w0t + q) (1.20)

Example 1.1 Find the following summation:

5
(a) Â e 2 nd ( n - 2 ) (b) Â sin 2n d (n + 7)
n =- n =-5

Solution
(a) Â e 2 nd ( n - 2 ) = e 2 n = e4
n=2
n =-

5
(b) Â sin 2nd (n + 7) = 0
n =-5

1.2.8 Properties of d (t)

1. Ú d (t )dt = 1 2. Ú x(t )d (t )dt = x(0)
3.
Ú x(t )d (t - t0 )dt = x(t0 ) 4. Ú x(l )d (t - l )d l = x(t )
1
5. d (at ) = d (t ) 6. d (−t ) = d (t)
a
7. x(t) d (t ) = x(0) 8. d (t ) = du(t )
dt
t
9. u(t ) = Ú d (t )dt 10. x(t) d (t − t0) = x(t0)

t2

Ú x(t )d
n
11. x(t0) d (t − t0) = x(t) 12. (t - t0 )dt = (-1)n x n (t0 )
t1
 Classification of Signals and Systems 13

Proof
d
Èx(t )d (t - t0 )˘˚ = x(t ) d� (t - t0 ) + x� (t ) d (t - t0 )
dt Î
= x(t )d� (t - t0 ) + x� (t0 ), t1 < t0 < t2

Integrating, we get
t2 t 2 t 2
d
Ú dt Î
È x ( t )d ( t - t 0 ) ˘
˚ dt = ÚÎ È x ( t )d� (t - t )˘ dt + x� (t )dt
0 ˚ Ú 0
t
1 t 1 t 1

t2
ÈÎx(t )d (t - t0 )˘˚ t12 = Ú x(t )d� (t - t0 ) dt + x� (t0 )
t

t1
LHS = 0.
Therefore,
t2

Ú x(t )d�(t - t0 )dt + x� (t0 ) = 0

t1
t2
i.e.,
Ú x(t )d�(t - t0 ) dt = - x� (t0 )
t1
t2
Similarly, Ú x(t )d��(t - t0 )dt = - ��x(t0 )
t1

t2

Ú x(t )d
n
Hence, (t - t0 )dt = (-1)n x n (t0 )
t1

CLASSIFICATION OF SIGNALS 1.3

Both continuous-time and discrete-time signals are further classified as
(i) Deterministic and non-deterministic signals
(ii) Periodic and aperiodic signals
(iii) Even and odd signals
(iv) Causal and noncausal signals
(v) Energy and power signals

1.3.1 Deterministic and Non-deterministic Signals

Deterministic signals are functions that are completely specified in time. The nature and amplitude of
such a signal at any time can be predicted. The pattern of the signal is regular and can be characterised
mathematically. Examples of deterministic signals are
(i) x(t) = at This is a ramp whose amplitude increases linearly with time t and slope a.
(ii) x(t) = A sin w t. The amplitude of this signal varies sinusoidally with time and its maximum
amplitude is A.