GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 | MODULE #17

I. Carbohydrates
CARBOHYDRATES - Carbohydrates are
macronutrients and are one of the three
main ways by which our body obtains its
energy. They are called carbohydrates as
they comprise carbon, hydrogen and oxygen
at their chemical level. Carbohydrates are essential nutrients which include
sugars, fibers and starches. They are found in grains, vegetables, fruits and
in milk and other dairy products. They are the basic food groups which play
an important role in a healthy life.
The food containing carbohydrates are converted into glucose or blood
sugar during the process of digestion by the digestive system.
Our body utilizes this sugar as a source of energy for the cells, organs and
tissues. The extra amount of energy or sugar is stored in our muscles and
liver for further requirement. The term 'carbohydrate' is derived from a
French term 'hydrate de carbone' meaning 'hydrate of carbon'. The general
formula of this class of organic compounds is Cn(H2O)n.

A. Classification of Carbohydrates
The carbohydrates are further classified into simple and complex which is
mainly based on their chemical structure and degree of polymerization.

• Simple Carbohydrates (Monosaccharides and Disaccharides)

Simple carbohydrates have one or two sugar molecules. In simple
carbohydrates, molecules are digested and converted quickly resulting
in a rise in the blood sugar levels. They are abundantly found in milk
products, beer, fruits, refined sugars, candies, etc. These
carbohydrates are called empty calories, as they do not possess fiber,
vitamins and minerals.
Plants, being producers, synthesize glucose
(C6H1206) using raw materials like carbon
dioxide and water in the presence of
sunlight. This process of photosynthesis
converts solar energy into chemical energy.
Consumers feed on plants and harvest
 energy stored in the bonds of the compounds synthesized by plants.

1. Monosaccharides
Glucose is an example of a carbohydrate monomer or monosaccharide.
Other examples of monosaccharides include mannose, galactose, fructose,
etc. The structural organization of monosaccharides is as follows (right side
image).
Monosaccharides may be further classified depending on the number of
carbon atoms:
(i)Trioses (C3H6O3): These have three carbon atoms per molecule.
(ii)Tetroses (C4H6O4): These monosaccharides have four carbon atoms per
molecule.

2. Disaccharides
Two monosaccharides combine to form a disaccharide. Examples of
carbohydrates having two monomers include- Sucrose, Lactose, Maltose,
etc.

• Complex Carbohydrates (Polysaccharides)

Complex carbohydrates have two or more sugar molecules; hence they are
referred to as starchy foods. In complex carbohydrates, molecules are
digested and converted slowly compared to simple carbohydrates. They are
abundantly found in lentils, beans, peanuts, potatoes, peas, corn, whole-
grain bread, cereals, etc.

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Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates formed by the polymerization of
a large number of monomers. Examples of polysaccharides include starch,
glycogen, cellulose, etc. which exhibit extensive branching and are
homopolymers made up of only glucose units.
1. Starch is composed of two components- amylose and amylopectin,
Amylose forms the linear chain and amylopectin is a much-branched
chain.
2. Glycogen is called animal starch. It has a structure similar to starch,
but has more extensive branching.
3. Cellulose is a structural carbohydrate and is the main structural
component of the plant ceil wall. It is a fibrous polysaccharide with
high tensile strength. In contrast to starch and glycogen, cellulose
forms a linear polymer.

B. Functions of Carbohydrates
• The main function of carbohydrates is to provide energy and food to
the body and to the nervous system.
• Carbohydrates are known as one of the basic components of food,
including sugars, starch, and fiber which are abundantly found in
grains, fruits and milk products..
• Carbohydrates are also known as starch, simple sugars, complex
carbohydrates and so on.
• It is also involved in fat metabolism and prevents ketosis.
• Inhibits the breakdown of proteins for energy as they are the primary
source of energy.
• An enzyme by name amylase assists in the breakdown of starch into
glucose, finally to produce energy for metabolism.

C. Sources of Carbohydrates
1. Simple sugars are found in the form of fructose in many fruits.
2. Galactose is present in all dairy products.
3. Lactose is abundantly found in milk and other dairy products.
4. Maltose is present in cereal, beer, potatoes, processed cheese,
pasta, etc.
5. Sucrose is naturally obtained from sugar and honey containing
small amounts of vitamins and minerals.
These simple sugars that consist of minerals and vitamins exist commonly
in milk, fruits, and vegetables. Many refined and other processed foods

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 like white flour, white rice, and sugar, lack important nutrients and
hence, they are labeled "enriched." It is quite healthy to use vitamins,
carbohydrates and all other organic nutrients in their normal forms.

D. Carbohydrate Foods
Eating too much sugar results in an abnormal increase in calories, which
finally leads to obesity and in turn low calories leads to malnutrition.
Therefore, a well-balanced diet needs to be maintained to have a healthy
life. That is the reason a balanced diet is stressed so much by dietitians.

The differences between the good and bad carbohydrates

GOOD CARBOHYDRATES BAD CARBOHYDRATES

High in nutrients Low in nutrients

Moderate in calories High in calories
Low in sodium and saturated High in sodium and saturated fats
fats
Low in trans-fat and cholesterol High in trans-fat and cholesterol
They are complex carbs. For Foods considered bad carbs rarely have
instance: Legumes, vegetables, any nutrition value. Some of the food
whole grains, fruits and beans. include white flour, rice, pastries, sodas
and processed foods.

II. LIPIDS

LIPIDS - Lipids are organic compounds

that contain hydrogen, carbon, and
oxygen atoms, which form the
framewark for the structure and
function of living cells.
These organic compounds are nonpolar molecules, which are soluble
only in nonpolar solvents and insoluble in water because water is a polar
molecule. In the human body, these molecules can be synthesized in the
liver and are found in oil, butter, whole milk, cheese, fried foods and also
in some red meats.

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A. Properties of Lipids
Lipids are a family of organic compounds, composed of fats and oils. These
molecules yield high energy and are responsible for different functions
within the human body. Listed below are some important characteristics of
Lipids.
1. Lipids are oily or greasy nonpolar molecules, stored in the adipose
tissue of the body.
2. Lipids are a heterogeneous group of compounds, mainly composed
of hydrocarbon chains.
3. Lipids are energy-rich organic molecules, which provide energy for
different life processes.
4. Lipids are a class of compounds characterized by their solubility in
nonpolar solvents and insolubility in water.
5. Lipids are significant in biological systems as they form a mechanical
barrier dividing a cell from the external environment known as the cell
membrane.

B. Lipid Structure
Lipids are the polymers of fatty acids that contain a
long, non-polar hydrocarbon chain with a small
polar region. containing oxygen. The lipid structure
is explained in the diagram (image in the right side).

C. Classification of Lipids
• Monoglycerides or simple lipid – are storage lipids such as neutral
fats and waxes
• Diglycerides/Triglycerides or Compound Lipid – phospholipids,
glycolipids and lipoproteins
• Polyglycerides or Derived Lipids – the building blocks for simple
and complex lipid such as fatty acids and alcohols, hydrocarbons,
fat soluble vitamins A, D, E and K and sterols

D. Types of Lipids

Within these two major classes of lipids, there are numerous specific
types of lipids, which are important to life, including fatty acids,
triglycerides, glycerophospholipids, sphingolipids and steroids. These are
broadly classified as simple lipids and complex lipids.

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• Simple Lipids - Esters of fatty acids with various alcohols.
i. Fats: Esters of fatty acids with glycerol. Oils are fats in the liquid
state
ii. Waxes: Esters of fatty acids with higher molecular weight
monohydric alcohols

• Complex Lipids - Esters of fatty acids containing groups in addition to

alcohol and fatty acid.
i. Phospholipids: These are lipids containing, in addition to fatty acids
and alcohol, phosphate groups. They frequently have nitrogen-containing
bases and other substituents, e.g., in glycerophospholipids the alcohol is
glycerol and in sphingophospholipids the alcohol is sphingosine.
ii. Glycolipids (glycosphingolipids): Lipids containing a fatty acid,
sphingosine and carbohydrate.
iii. Other complex lipids: Lipids such as sulfolipids and amino lipids.
Lipoproteins may also be placed in this category.

• Precursor and Derived Lipids

These include fatty acids, glycerol, steroids, other alcohols, fatty
aldehydes, and ketone bodies, hydrocarbons, lipid-soluble vitamins, and
hormones. Because they are uncharged, acylglycerols (glycerides),
cholesterol, and cholesteryl esters are termed neutral lipids. These
compounds are produced by the hydrolysis of simple and complex lipids.
Some of the different types of lipids are described below in detail.

i. Fatty Acids - Fatty acids are carboxylic acids (or organic acid), usually
with long aliphatic tails (long chains), either unsaturated or saturated.
a. Saturated fatty acids
➢ Lack of carbon-carbon double bonds indicate that the fatty
acid is saturated. The saturated fatty acids have higher
melting points compared to unsaturated acids of the
corresponding size due to their ability to pack their molecules
together thus leading to a straight rod-like shape.
b. Unsaturated fatty acids
➢ Unsaturated fatty acid is indicated when a fatty acid has more
than one double bond.

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 ➢ "Often, naturally occurring fatty acids possess an even
number of carbon atoms and are unbranched.
➢ On the other hand, unsaturated fatty acids contain a cis-
double bond(s) which create a structural kink that disables
them to group their molecules in straight rod-like shape.
E. Functions of Lipid:
• Energy storage
• Serve as an important constituent of the structure of cells.
• Providing energy to produce hormones.
• Insulates the body
• Protection of skin from drying up
• Buoyancy, it keeps one afloat
• Helps in food digestion

F. Examples of Lipids
There are different types of lipids. Some examples of lipids include butter,
ghee, vegetable oil, cheese, cholesterol and other steroids, waxes,
phospholipids, and fat-soluble vitamins. All these compounds have similar
features, Le. insoluble in water and soluble in organic solvents, etc.

• Waxes
➢ Waxes are "esters" (an organic compound made by replacing the
hydrogen with acid by an alkyl or another organic group) formed
from long-alcohols and long-chain carboxylic acids.
➢ Waxes are found almost everywhere. The fruits and leaves of many
plants possess waxy coatings that
➢ can safeguard them from small predators and dehydration. Fur of a
few animals and the feathers of birds possess the same coatings
serving as water repellants.

• Phospholipids

➢ Membranes are primarily composed of phospholipids that are

Phosphoacylglycerols.
➢ Triacylglycerols and phosphoacylglycerols are the same, but, the
terminal OH group of the phosphoacylglycerol is esterified with

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 phosphoric acid in place of fatty acid which results in the formation
of phosphatidic acid.
➢ The name phospholipid is derived from the fact that
phosphoacylglycerols are lipids containing a phosphate group

• Steroids

➢ Our bodies possess chemical messengers known as hormones,

which are basically organic compounds synthesized in glands and
transported by the bloodstream to various tissues in order to
trigger or hinder the desired process.
➢ Steroids are a kind of hormone that is typically recognized by their
tetracyclic skeleton, composed of three fused six-membered and
one five-membered ring, as seen above. The four rings are assigned
as A, B, C & D as observed in the shade blue, while the numbers in
red indicate the carbons.

• Cholesterol

➢ Cholesterol is a wax-like substance, found only in animal source

foods. Triglycerides, LDL, HDL, VLDL are different types of
cholesterol found in the blood cells.
➢ Cholesterol is an important lipid found in the cell membrane. It is a
sterol, which means that cholesterol is a combination of steroids
and alcohol. In the human body, cholesterol is synthesized in the
liver. These compounds are biosynthesized by all living cells and are
essential for the structural component of the cell membrane.
➢ In the cell membrane, the steroid ring structure of cholesterol
provides a rigid hydrophobic structure that helps boost the rigidity
of the cell membrane. Without cholesterol, the cell membrane
would be too fluid.
➢ It is an important component of cell membranes and is also the
basis for the synthesis of other steroids, including the sex
hormones estradiol and testosterone, as well as other steroids such
as cortisone and vitamin D.

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 GENERAL BIOLOGY 1 | MODULE #18

PROTEINS – Proteins are any of a class of nitrogenous organic

compounds that consist of large molecules composed of one or more
long chains of amino acids and are an essential part of all living
organisms, especially as structural components of body tissues such as
muscle, hair, collagen, etc., and as enzymes and antibodies. Amino acids
are the building blocks of proteins and these are classified as essential
amino acids and non- essential amino acids.

A. Types of Proteins

❖ Motility protein - allow movement of cells and their organelles

❖ Structural protein - provides support, strength and protection
Enzymes-catalyze or speed up biochemical reactions in the body
❖ Transport protein -- carry molecules from one place to another or
across cell membranes
❖ Hormones-signaling between different cell types; stimulation or
inhibiting functions
❖ Cell surface receptor - label cells for targets for hormones, viruses,
growth factors, recognition of self- transmission of nerve impulse
❖ Neurotransmitter - signaling between neurons or brain cells.
❖ Immunoglobulins - recognition of foreign substances that enters
the body (antigen)
❖ Poisans/Toxins - chemicals for defense and capture of food such as
snake venoms.

B. Structure of Proteins
Proteins are structured differently based on functions; it can be:
1. Primary protein structure with a long chain of monomers (single
amino acid) connected by peptide, as it becomes a long chain, it is
called polypeptide.
2. Secondary protein structure the long chain of polypeptides folded
and form into sheets or helices.
3. Tertiary protein structure resulted when chain interactions happen
and it went to three-dimensional folding pattern

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 4. Quaternary protein structure combination of 4 chains polypeptides
into a single unit such as the hemoglobin protein

C. Functions of Proteins
1. Structural support for nails and hair, collagen and ligaments, skin,
nails and hairs are waterproof because it is keratinized, it is made
of proteins
2. Transporting molecule, proteins in the form of hemoglobin carry
oxygen in the blood to different organs of the body, it means less
hemoglobin less oxygen
3. Receiving and sending signals, messengers as hormones doing
special functions
4. Brain and nerves functions by producing brain chemicals that
allows us react faster

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 5. Movement - muscles have proteins that allow movement these are
actin and myosin
6. Defense against disease as antibodies fight viruses and bacteria
7. Catalyst/speed up of biochemical reactions in the body in the form
of enzymes
8. Cellular construction especially growth and repair of cells and
tissues and source of energy.

D. What are enzymes?

▪ They are all proteins, which is one reason why we need protein in our
diet.
▪ They are all biological catalysts.They speed up a reaction without
being used up; this means they can be used over and aver again
▪ A small amount of enzyme can affect the change of a large amount of
chemical.
▪ The way enzymes work is affected by temperature, pH and pressure.
They can be denatured (destroyed) by excessive heat.
▪ The reactions are reversible.
▪ Enzymes are specific, that is they control only one reaction. So,
maltase only acts on maltose, sucrase on sucrose etc.

E. Types of Enzymes
1. Metabolic enzymes
Metabolic enzymes are intra-cellular (meaning, inside your cells),
produced by the body to help the cells carry out a variety of
functions and complex biochemical reactions related to its
multiplication and replenishment. Examples of activities performed
include breathing, talking, moving, thinking, breathing and
maintenance of the immune system. Another important function
of the enzyme is to neutralize poisons and carcinogens such as
pollutants and tobacco smoke, changing them into less toxic forms
that the body can eliminate.
Did you know that sperm cells of male species have fertilizing
enzymes, too? Yes! As soon as the sperm cell touch the egg cell, it
will break the protective cover of egg cell and can bore a hole to let
the sperm cell in and locked it, producing a fertilized egg cell,
making it protected from other sperm cells and the fertilization
process proceed uninterrupted:

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 2. Digestive enzyme
Their main attribute is to convert food into nutrients; which are taken in by the
bloodstream.
The digestive enzymes are produced by the body to break food
substances into forms that can be absorbed and assimilated by the
body. These are the enzymes primarily manufactured in the
pancreas and intestine and to a lesser extent in the salivary glands
and the stomach. In the digestive system enzymes break down
large insoluble molecules (e.g., starch, proteins and fats) into small
soluble molecules that can be absorbed into the blood from the
small intestines. The main digestive enzymes are as listed below:

If we don't have enough digestive enzymes, we can't break down our food-
which means even though we're eating well, we aren't absorbing all that
good nutrition. Other important enzymes are:

Maltase - Converting complex sugars from grains

Phytase - Helps with overall digestion, especially in producing the B
vitamins into glucose
Lactase – Digesting milk sugar (lactose) in dairy products
Sucrase - Digesting most sugars And many more which are not highlighted
here.

There are around 45 important nutrients that are needed by the body.
Without these 45 nutrients, the body cannot function properly and people
must get them from outside sources. Nutrients, enzymes included,
cooperate with each other and they act like catalysts; thus, they promote
assimilation and absorption. 90 percent of your digestion and absorption
takes place in your small intestine.

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 3. Food enzymes
Food enzymes are ingested by the body through the raw food that we
eat daily. When ingested, foods that contain enzymes provide us with
digestive enzymes, elementary for our digestion.
No enzymes will lead to problems...common conditions arising from
lack of enzymes from the system.

➢ Constipation - slow movement of the bowels leading to colon

cancer
➢ Bloating-gas is present in the digestive system and this is very
uncomfortable.
➢ Heartburn-the painful feeling when stomach acid is going up the
esophagus.
➢ Ulcers- the stomach wall has wounds and feels painful when eating
or drinking.
➢ Allergies- uncomfortable reactions to foods and substances such as
sea foods or odors.
➢ Lack of energy- feeling tired always even if you sleep all night.

In general, the main benefits of enzymes are detoxification (to carry away
waste that is toxic), purify the blood, digest food and deliver nutrients,
balance cholesterol, feed the brain and optimize energy availability and
production. All these serve to strengthen the immune system and boost
your energy level.

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