Unit 1

Fundamentals of Robotics
1.1 Robot- definition and introduction

1.1.1 Definition

● Machines that can replace human beings as regards to physical work and decision making are
categorized as Robots and their study as Robotic.

● Robotics deals with the design and manufacturing of robots.

● Robotics is interdisciplinary since it requires the knowledge of physics, mathematics, mechanical

engineering, electrical engineering, and computer science engineering and information technology.

● A Robot is defined by the International Standard of Organization (ISO) as a reprogrammable

multifunctional manipulator designed to perform the orders given to it by the human being through
the programmed motion.

1.1.2 Brief history

● The origin of the word robot is from a Czech word called Robota which means forced or
compulsory labour.

● The first use of the word ‗robot‘ appeared in 1921 in the play Rossum‘s Universal Robots (RUR)
written by the Czech writer Karel Capek (1890–1938). In the play RUR, a fictional manufacturer of
mechanical creatures designed a robot to replace human workers.

● In 1942 the term Robotics was introduced by Isaac Asimov in his story named Runaround. He
introduced three basic rules for robots

● Inspired by Asimov‘s books on robots, Joseph F. Engelberger tried to design a working robot in the
1950s. He, along with George C. Devol, started the UNIMATION Robotics Company in the USA in
1958. The first Unimate robot was installed in 1961 in a General Motors automobile factory in New
Jersey.

1.1.3 Asimov‘s laws of robot

 A robot must not harm a human being, nor through inaction allow one to come to harm.
 A robot must always obey human beings, unless that is in conflict with the first law.
 A robot must protect from harm, unless that is in conflict with the first two laws.

1.1.4 The anatomy of a robot refers to the key components that make up a robotic system, each playing a
specific role in the robot's ability to perform tasks. Below are the primary components of a robot
 Figure 1.1: Robot Anatomy

Base: The base is the stationary or foundational part of the robot, which provides stability. It typically
supports the entire structure of the robot and often houses the main power supply and control system.

Manipulator Arm: The manipulator arm is the part of the robot responsible for movement. It functions
similarly to a human arm, enabling the robot to perform tasks such as picking up, moving, or manipulating
objects. The arm typically consists of multiple joints and links, allowing for various degrees of freedom.

End Effectors: End effectors are the tools or devices attached to the end of the robot arm, used to interact
with the environment. They can perform specific tasks such as gripping, welding, or painting. Examples of
end effectors include Mechanical grippers Pneumatic grippers, Magnetic grippers Vacuum grippers,
Adhesive grippers.

Sensors: Sensors are the "senses" of a robot, enabling it to perceive and interact with its environment.
They gather data from the surroundings and feed it into the robot's control system.

Control System: The control system is the "brain" of the robot. It processes inputs from the sensors and
uses algorithms to determine the robot's movements and actions. The control system sends commands to
the actuators, directing the robot to perform specific tasks based on its programming.

Actuators: Actuators are the "muscles" of the robot, responsible for movement. They convert electrical
signals from the control system into physical motion. Actuators can be motors (for rotational movement) or
hydraulic/pneumatic systems (for linear movement). They enable movement in robot joints, the manipulator
arm, and end effectors.

1.2 Robot arm configurations: Cartesian coordinate, polar, cylindrical, jointed arm, SCARA (Selective
Compliance Assembly Robot Arm)

1.2.1 Cartesian coordinate : When the arm of a robot moves in a rectilinear mode, that is, to the directions
of x, y, and z coordinates of the rectangular right-handed Cartesian coordinate system, as shown in Fig. it
is called Cartesian or rectangular type. The associated robot is then called Cartesian robot. The
movements are referred to as travel x, height or elevation y, and reach z of the arm. Its workspace has the
shape of a rectangular box or prism. A Cartesian robot needs a large volume to operate. It has, however, a
rigid structure and provides an accurate position of the end-effecter. Maintenance of such robots is difficult,
as the rectilinear motions are generally obtained through the sets of rotary electric actuators coupled with
nut and-ball screws. Dust accumulated on the screws may jam the smooth motion of the robot. Hence, they
have to be covered with bellows. Moreover, maintaining the straightness of the screw demands higher
rigidity in those components. Hence, such robots tend to be more expensive.

Figure 1.2: Cartesian coordinate

1.2.2 Cylindrical: When the arm of a robot possesses one revolute and two prismatic joints, i.e., the first
prismatic joint of the Cartesian type, Fig. 1.3 , is replaced by a revolute one with its axis rotated by 90˚
about the reach z-axis, the points that it can reach conveniently be specified by the cylindrical coordinates,
i.e., angle θ, height y, and radius z, as in Fig. 1.2 A robot with this type of arm is termed as cylindrical robot
whose arm moves, θ, y, and z, i.e., it has base rotation, elevation, and reach, respectively. Since the
coordinates of the arm can assume values between specified upper and lower limits, its end effector can
move in a limited volume that is a cut section from the space between the two concentric cylinders. Note
that for a Cartesian arm, this is not the case. A robot of this type may have difficulties in touching the floor
near the base. Cylindrical robots area successfully used when a task requires reaching into small openings
or working on cylindrical surfaces, e.g., welding pipes.
 Figure 1.3: Polar coordinate

1.2.3 Spherical or Polar: When the arm of a robot can change its configuration by moving its two revolute
joints and one prismatic joint, i.e., the second prismatic joint along the height y of the cylindrical type is
replaced by a revolute joint with its axis rotated by 90˚ about the reach z-axis, the arm position is
conveniently described by means of the spherical coordinates, i.e., θ, φ, and z. The arm is shown in Fig.
1.4, and is termed a spherical or polar robot arm. The arm movements represent the base rotation,
elevation angles, and reach, respectively.

Figure 1.4: Polar coordinate

1.2.4 A Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA) robot is highly suitable for high-precision
tasks. It is widely used in industries like electronics, automotive, and pharmaceuticals for applications such
as pick-and-place, assembly, and small part handling. The SCARA robot is a manipulator with four degrees
of freedom. SCARAs are four-axis robots, with motion in the X-Y and Z planes, and 360-degree rotational
movement about the Z-axis. Inverse kinematics and data interpolation allow the robot to move dynamically,
quickly, and intelligently.
 Figure 1.5: A Selective Compliance Assembly Robot Arm (SCARA) Robot

1.3 Types of mechanical joints in robotics system: Linear, orthogonal, rotational, twisting, revolving

1) A collinear joint in robotics refers to a type of joint where two or more prismatic (linear) joints are aligned
along the same axis. This means that both joints move in the same direction, allowing the robotic
component to extend or retract along a straight line without changing its orientation. Since collinear joints
are purely translational, they are useful in applications where controlled and stable linear motion is
required.

Figure 1.6: Linear Joint

2) An orthogonal joint refers to a robotic joint configuration where two prismatic (linear) joints are arranged
perpendicular to each other (at a 90-degree angle). This setup allows movement along two independent
axes in a Cartesian coordinate system (X, Y, or Z). It has two prismatic joints move at right angles to each
other. Unlike revolute joints, orthogonal joints provide only linear motion. Frequently used in Cartesian
(gantry) robots that operate in an X-Y-Z coordinate system. Enables precise positioning, making it ideal for
automated material handling, pick-and-place tasks, and CNC machining.
 Figure 1.7: Orthogonal Joint

3) A rotational joint (also called a revolute joint) is a type of robotic joint that allows rotational movement
around a fixed axis. It is one of the most common joints in robotic arms, providing flexibility similar to human
elbow or knee movements. Rotational Motion: Moves around a fixed pivot point, allowing rotation in one
direction. Single Degree of Freedom (DOF): Rotation occurs around a single axis. Angle-Limited or
Continuous: Some joints rotate within a restricted range (e.g., 0° to 180°), while others rotate freely (360°).
Used in Robotic Manipulators: Found in robotic arms, humanoid robots, and industrial automation.

Figure 1.8: Rotational Joint

4) A twisting joint is a type of rotational (revolute) joint in robotics that allows a rotational movement around
a vertical axis. This joint is responsible for enabling a robot to rotate a part of its structure without changing
its position. Rotational Motion Allows rotation around a single fixed axis, usually aligned vertically. Single
Degree of Freedom (DOF) The joint rotates without any linear motion. Common in Robotic Arms & Wrists:
Often used in robotic manipulators, humanoid robots, and end-effectors. Used for Object Rotation &
Orientation Helps robots turn or twist tools and objects.
 Figure 1.9: Twisting Joint

5) A revolute joint is a fundamental robotic joint that allows rotational movement around a fixed axis. It is
one of the most commonly used joints in robotic arms, providing a single degree of freedom (DOF) similar
to a hinge or elbow joint. rotational Motion: Moves around a fixed pivot point. Single Degree of Freedom
(DOF): Can rotate within a limited or full 360° range. Common in Robotic Manipulators: Used in robotic
arms, humanoid robots, and industrial robots. Requires Actuators & Sensors controlled using motors,
servos, or hydraulic systems.

Figure 1.10: Revolute Joint

1.4 Robot specification

1.4.1 Degree of Freedom: In robotics, Degrees of Freedom (DOF) refer to the number of independent
movements a robot can make. Each DOF represents a possible motion in a different direction, which
determines the robot‘s flexibility and range of motion. A robot‘s DOF is determined by the number of joints
(also called axes) it has. More DOF means greater manoeuvrability, allowing the robot to reach more
complex positions. Typically, industrial robotic arms have 6 DOF to replicate human-like movement. Higher
DOF allows robots to work in complex environments with obstacles. Lower DOF robots are used for
simpler, repetitive tasks. Optimizing DOF is crucial in robot design to balance flexibility, cost, and ease of
control.
1.4.2 Work Envelope: The work envelope in robotics refers to the total space or range of movement that a
robotic arm or manipulator can reach while performing tasks. It defines the boundaries within which the
robot can operate, based on its design, joint configuration, and degrees of freedom (DOF).

Factors that affect a robot's work envelope:

 Joints: The number and type of joints determine how freely the robot can move.
 Arm length: The length of the robot's arm and any extensions impact how much area it can cover.
 Payload capacity: Heavier payloads typically mean a smaller area of movement.
 End-effector: The type of end-effector the robot has, such as a claw, impacts its work envelope.

Standard Working Envelope Shapes

1. Cartesian Configuration: The working envelope of the Cartesian configuration is a rectangular prism.
There are no dead zones within the working envelope and the Robot can manipulate its maximum payload
throughout the working volume.

Figure 1.11: Cartesian configuration envelope

2. Cylindrical Configuration: The working envelope of this configuration is as its name suggests a
cylinder. The cylinder is hollow, since there is a limit to how far the arm can retract, this creates a cylindrical
dead zone around the Robot structure.
 Figure 1.12: Cylindrical configuration envelope

3. Polar Configuration: The working envelope of this configuration sweeps out a volume between two
partial spheres. There are physical limits imposed by the design on the amount of angular movement in
both the vertical and horizontal planes. These restrictions create conical dead zones both above and below
the Robot structure.

Figure 1.13: Polar configuration envelope

4. Revolute Configuration: This configuration has a large working envelope relative to the floor space it
occupies. The shape of the working envelope Provides three rotary motions about three mutually
perpendicular axes. Configuration is similar to that of human arm. Consists of two straight links,
corresponding to the human forearm and upper arm, connected by a rotary joint. Provides spherical work
envelope, has excellent work areas to floor area ratio. Used to spray painting, seam welding, spot welding,
assembly, heavy material handling, etc.
 Figure 1. 14: Revolute configuration envelope

5. SCARA Configuration: The SCARA configuration has a working envelope that can be loosely
described as a heart or kidney shaped prism, having a circular hole passing through the middle. This allow
a large area coverage in the horizontal plane but relatively little in the vertical plane.

Figure 1.15: SCARA configuration envelope

6. Spine Configuration: The envelope of the spine Robot will approximate that of a true hemisphere the
size being dependent on the number of articulations in the spine.

Figure 1.16: Spine configuration envelope

7. Pendulum Configuration :The working envelope of the pendulum configuration resembles that of a
simple horseshoe having a segmented shaped cross section. The limited working envelope is offset by the
fact that this Robot can be mounted in almost any position, allowing the envelope to be finely positioned in
relation to its task.

Figure 1.17: Pendulum configuration envelope

1.4.3 Payload: It is the maximum mass which a robot can carry in any configuration and any location of its
workspace. The load-carrying ability depends on the actuators‘ capacity. Note that depending on
configuration or workspace, the mass-carrying capacity may change. If the working zone of a robot is
chosen to be its comfortable zone, which can be identified from its manipulability. The load-carrying
capacity can be higher.

1.4.4 Resolution: Resolution in robotics refers to the smallest possible movement, measurement, or
change a robot can detect or execute in its motion, sensing, or control system. It plays a crucial role in
determining precision, accuracy, and overall performance in robotic applications.

1.4.5 Accuracy: In robotics accuracy refers to how closely a robot‘s actual position, movement, or action
matches the desired or programmed target. High accuracy ensures that a robot performs tasks correctly
and reaches the intended location or state with minimal error.

1.4. 6 Repeatability: In robotics reputability refers to the ability of a robot to return to the same position or
perform the same task consistently over multiple attempts. It is a crucial factor in industrial automation,
ensuring that robots perform precise and predictable operations every time.
1.5 End effectors of robot: This is the part attached at the end of a robot manipulator. Hence, the name
follows. This is equivalent to the human hand. An end-effector could be a mechanical hand that
manipulates an object or holds it before they are moved by the robot arm.

1.5.1 Mechanical Grippers

Mechanical gripper is used as an end effector in a robot for grasping the objects with its mechanically
operated fingers. In industries, two fingers are enough for holding purposes. More than three fingers can
also be used based on the application. As most of the fingers are of replaceable type, it can be easily
removed and replaced. A robot requires either hydraulic, electric, or pneumatic drive system to create the
input power. The power produced is sent to the gripper for making the fingers react. It also allows the
fingers to perform open and close actions. Most importantly, a sufficient force must be given to hold the
object.

Figure 1.18: Mechanical Gripper

1.5.2 Pneumatic gripper

A pneumatic Holding Gripper can be thought of as a large flexible mechanical structure that is moved by
control system which move the mechanical structure. The high performance and highly powerful,
Pneumatic holding Gripper together with the capacity for high volumes are suited for holding heavy objects.
One form of inefficiency in current systems is due to the link between the flows of the two ports of the
cylinder. This is because most valves use a single spool to control the flow in both ports. Because of this
link, it is impossible to set the pressure levels in the two sides of the cylinder independently. Therefore, the
outlet side will develop a back pressure, which acts in opposition to the direction of travel, which increases
the pressure required on the inlet side to maintain motion.
 Figure 1.1: Pneumatic Gripper

1.5.3 Magnetic grippers

Magnetic grippers are most commonly used in a robot as an end effector for grasping the ferrous materials.
It is another type of handling the work parts other than the mechanical grippers and vacuum grippers.

The magnetic grippers can be classified into two common types, namely: Magnetic grippers with

 Electromagnets
 Permanent magnets

Electromagnets:

Electromagnetic grippers include a controller unit and a DC power for handling the materials. This type of
grippers is easy to control, and very effective in releasing the part at the end of the operation than the
permanent magnets. If the work part gripped is to be released, the polarity level is minimized by the
controller unit before the electromagnet is turned off. This process will certainly help in removing the
magnetism on the work parts. As a result, a best way of releasing the materials is possible in this gripper.

Permanent magnets:

The permanent magnets do not require any sort of external power as like the electromagnets for handling
the materials. After this gripper grasps a work part, an additional device called as stripper push –off pin will
be required to separate the work part from the magnet. This device is incorporated at the sides of the
gripper.

The advantage of this permanent magnet gripper is that it can be used in hazardous applications like
explosion-proof apparatus because of no electrical circuit. Moreover, there is no possibility of spark
production as well.

Figure 1.20: Magnetic Gripper

1.5.4 Vacuum grippers

Vacuum grippers are a type of end effector that uses suction to lift and manipulate objects. They are widely
used for robotic palletising, which is the process of stacking and arranging products on pallets for
transportation or storage. A vacuum gripper works by using suction to lift and place objects onto a pallet.
The vacuum gripper‘s design and construction can vary depending on the application requirements. Some
grippers have multiple suction cups arranged in an array for increased gripping capacity and flexibility,
whereas other vacuum grippers have a foam pad. The vacuum pump creates a negative pressure inside
the hose and the head, which causes the suction cups or foam pad to stick to the surface of the object. The
robot arm then moves the object to the desired location on the pallet and releases the suction by turning off
the pump or opening a valve. Vacuum grippers are particularly useful in situations where traditional
mechanical grippers may not be suitable, such as when handling delicate or irregularly shaped objects.
They are commonly used in industries such as manufacturing, warehousing, and logistics.

Figure 1.21: Vacuum Gripper

1.5.5 Adhesive grippers

Adhesive grippers are a type of robot gripper that use an adhesive substance to grasp objects. They are
flexible, lightweight, and cost-effective, and can be used for a variety of tasks. Adhesive grippers use an
adhesive substance to grasp objects. The adhesive substance is loaded into a feeding mechanism
attached to the robot wrist. The gripper grips the object on one side. The gripper typically consists of a pad
or surface coated with a specially designed adhesive material that can be activated or deactivated to grip or
release an object.
 Figure 1.22: Adhesive Gripper

1.6 Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for safety in robotics: Industrial robots can be dangerous. They
are exceptionally powerful devices, especially models with larger capacity and reach. Their misuse may
constitute a risk to life and limb or cause damage to the robots and to other material property. This means
that safety is paramount during the installation and in production. Safety guidelines vary from country to
country and are essential to ensure that any installation complies with local legislation. Mostly, safety is
about isolating personnel from the robot‘s work envelope and ensuring that the movements can be easily
halted in an emergency.

Following standards are given by BIS system to be used in robotics

 IS/ISO 10218 (Part 1): 2024 – Robotics — Safety Requirements — Part 1: Industrial Robots
 IS/ISO 10218 (Part 2): 2024 – Robotics — Safety Requirements — Part 2: Industrial Robot
Applications and Robot Cells Integration
 IS 17193:2019 – Robots and Robotic Devices — Safety Requirements for Collaborative Industrial
Robots Design, safe guards, awareness means, provisions for emergency movements of robot

1.6.1 Safety in Design of Robots Safety in the design of robots is a critical aspect of ensuring that robots
operate efficiently without posing risks to humans, the environment, or themselves. It involves integrating
safety principles at every stage of the design and development process to prevent accidents, malfunctions,
and hazards.

1. Risk Assessment: Identifying potential hazards such as mechanical failures, electrical issues, or
software malfunctions.
2. Fail-Safe Mechanisms: Incorporating redundant systems and fail-safe features to ensure the robot
operates safely even in case of component failures.
 3. Collision Avoidance Systems: Using sensors (LiDAR, cameras, ultrasonic sensors) to detect
obstacles and avoid collisions.
4. Physical Barriers and Enclosures: Designing robots with protective guards, cages, or physical
barriers to prevent accidental contact with humans.
5. Speed and Force Limitations: Ensuring that robots operate within safe speed and force limits,
especially when working alongside humans.
6. Emergency Stop Systems: Implementing easily accessible emergency stop buttons to halt
operations instantly if needed.
7. Human-Robot Interaction (HRI) Safety: Ensuring robots that work with humans (collaborative
robots or cobots) have soft padding, force-limited actuators, and smooth movements to minimize
injury risks.

1.6.2 Safe Guards in Robotics: Safeguards are measures designed to protect workers, users, and
bystanders from hazards associated with robotic systems types of robot safeguards are as follows.

1. Physical Guards: Barriers, fences, and enclosures that prevent unauthorized access to dangerous
robot work areas.
2. Interlocked Guards: Safety devices that shut down the robot if the guard is opened or removed.
3. Light Curtains and Sensors: Infrared or laser-based sensors that detect human presence and stop
the robot if someone enters the work zone.
4. Pressure-Sensitive Mats: Floor-based safety mats that detect human presence and stop the robot if
someone steps into a hazardous zone.
5. Safety Shields: Transparent shields to protect workers from flying debris, sparks, or hazardous
materials.
6. Two-Hand Control Systems: Requiring an operator to use both hands to start the robot, ensuring
their hands are clear of moving parts.

1.6.3 Awareness Means in Robotics Safety : Awareness methods help inform and educate people
working around robots about potential risks and safe practices. Following are the awareness means.

1. Warning Labels & Signs: Clearly marking danger zones, emergency stops, and restricted areas.
2. Training & Safety Protocols: Educating employees and users on proper robot handling, emergency
procedures, and risk awareness.
3. Audible and Visual Alarms: Using beeping sounds, flashing lights, or voice warnings to indicate
robot movement or potential hazards.
 4. Standard Operating Procedures (SOPs): Clear guidelines on safe robot operation, troubleshooting,
and emergency handling.
5. Safety Drills & Simulations: Conducting regular safety drills to ensure workers are prepared for
potential emergencies.

1.6.4 Provisions for Emergency Movements of Robots : Emergency movements refer to controlled
actions taken to safely stop, disable, or move a robot during emergency situations. Emergency provisions
are as follows.

1. Emergency Stop (E-Stop): A large, easy-to-access button that immediately halts all robot functions.
2. Power Cut-Off Mechanisms: A system to disconnect power to the robot in case of a fault or
emergency.
3. Manual Override Controls: Allowing human operators to take manual control and move the robot to
a safe position.
4. Safe Mode Activation: Robots may switch to a low-power or safe mode if they detect an abnormal
condition.
5. Battery Backup for Controlled Shutdown: In case of power failure, robots may have a backup
battery to complete a safe shutdown or return to a home position.
6. Escape Routes & Evacuation Plans: Ensuring workers have clear escape paths in case of robotic
malfunctions or emergencies.

Resent Trends Safety Aspects in Robotics

The rapid integration of robotics across various sectors has underscored the critical importance of safety in
human-robot interactions. Recent developments in this field have focused on enhancing safety protocols,
standards, and technologies to ensure secure and efficient collaboration between humans and robots.

Advancements in Safety Standards

The Association for Advancing Automation (A3) has highlighted new and revised standards for industrial
mobile robots (IMRs), mobile service robots, and driverless industrial trucks. These updated guidelines aim
to address the evolving landscape of robotics applications, ensuring that safety measures keep pace with
technological advancements.

Innovations in Safety Technologies

Researchers are exploring advanced safety monitoring systems, such as programmable light curtains, to
create dynamic safety zones around moving robots. These systems can detect intrusions in real-time,
allowing for immediate response to potential hazards. Additionally, the development of soft robotics
introduces mechanical compliance and damping directly at the design level, enhancing safety during
physical human-robot interactions. This approach reduces the risk of injury by allowing robots to absorb
impacts more effectively.

Addressing AI Vulnerabilities

Recent studies have identified critical vulnerabilities in AI-enabled robots, where safety guardrails can be
bypassed, leading to unintended behaviours. To mitigate these risks, researchers are developing
algorithms like Robo PAIR to enhance the robustness and security of robotic systems.

Collaborative Robot Safety

The increasing deployment of collaborative robots (cobots) in shared workspaces necessitates new safety
strategies. Innovations such as robotic tech vests have been introduced to protect workers by enabling
robots to detect human presence from a distance and adjust their movements accordingly.

Important questions

1. State the laws of robotic.

2. Define a robot and state any two applications of it.
3. Explain with neat sketch SCARA robot.
4. Explain with neat sketch any two types of joints in robotics.
5. Explain with neat sketch anatomy of robot.
6. Define Repeatability and accuracy in robotics.
7. Draw the diagram for Magnetic Gripper and vacuum gripper and explain its working
8. Define work envelope? Draw work envelope for Cartesian coordinates.
9. Explain payload and resolution in robotics.
10. State any four safety measures while working with robots.
11. Explain the principle of mechanical gripper and adhesive gripper.
12. Suggest the safety measures taken w.r.t. Robots.
13. List different safety standards and explain them in details.
 Unit 2
Basics of Engineering Mechanics for Robotics

Introduction:

Engineering Mechanics forms the foundation for understanding the behavior of physical systems, and in
robotics, this knowledge is crucial to ensure that robots can function efficiently, safely, and predictably.
Mechanics deals with the study of forces, motion, and energy in mechanical systems, which directly
translates to how robots interact with their environment and perform tasks.
This learning material covers fundamental concepts of engineering mechanics, such as force, motion
and equilibrium, them specifically to robotic systems. A solid understanding of these principles allows
engineers to design robots that can move, manipulate objects, and interact with their surroundings in a
controlled and precise manner. Through the study of rigid body dynamics, kinematics, and dynamics,
learners will gain insights into how robots can be modeled, analyzed, and controlled effectively.
By grasping these core concepts, students will be prepared to tackle more advanced robotics topics,
including robot design, control, and automation.

2.1 Introduction of mechanics:

2.1.1 Engineering mechanics: Mechanics is the branch of physical science which deals
with study of forces and their effects on bodies in motion or rest..
 Divisions of Engineering Mechanics:
Engineering Mechanics is divided into the following two groups:
1. Statics 2. Dynamics.
 Statics: It is that branch of Engineering Mechanics, which deals with the action of forces on the bodies
at rest.
 Dynamics: It is that branch of Engineering Mechanics, which deals with the bodies in motion.

 Kinetics: It is the branch of Dynamics, which deals with action of forces on bodies in motion
considering mass of the body and forces causing motion.
 Kinematics: It is the branch of Dynamics, which deals with action of forces on bodies in motion without
considering mass of the body and forces causing motion.
2.1.2 Concept of rigid body
 In mechanics, a rigid body is a solid object that doesn't deform or change shape under the influence
of forces. The distance between any two points on a rigid body remains the same, regardless of any
external forces
 The concept of a rigid body is an idealization, and there are no perfect examples of rigid bodies in nature.
In reality, all objects deform when they move, but the deformation is often negligible compared to the
object's overall motion

2.1.3 Force: Definition, unit

 Newton’s first law: Its States ―A body remains in a state of rest or of uniform motion unless acted
upon by an external force.‖
 In mechanics, force is a push or pull that can change an object's motion, shape, or direction. It's a vector
quantity, which means it has both magnitude and direction.
 Definition of Force: Force is defined as ―an external agency either push or pull which changes the
condition of rest or motion of a body.‖
 The formula for force is F= ma, where (F) is force, (m) is mass, and (a) is acceleration.
 The SI unit of force is the Newton (N) where N= Kg m/s2

2.1.4 Bow’s notations:

Bow's notation is a graphical method for representing forces and members in a structure.
It is used to create force diagrams, which help to analyze the forces in a structure. Force diagrams can
help determine the magnitude and direction of each force, as well as the resultant force.

Here every force (or load) is named by two capital letters, placed on both sides of line of action of force
and then those letters are used to draw force diagrams.
Steps for Bow‘s notation:
 Label the spaces between forces with capital letters. (Capital letters are marked on both
sides of line of action of force)
 Draw a line for each force.
 Label the line with the two letters that label the spaces on either side of the force.
EX:1

P
F=400N

Q
SPACE DIAGRAM

Figure no 2.2

Scale, 1 cm = 100 N, pq =400/100 = 4 cm

magnitude of the force= length ‗pq‘*scale = 4*100 = 400N

p q
4 cm

Vector diagram

Figure no 2.3

EX:2

Figure no 2.4
 2.1.5 Characteristics of Force

 In order to determine the effects of a force, acting on a body, the following characteristics of force
have to be considered:
1. Magnitude of the force (i.e., 10 KN, 5 KN, 25 KN, 15 KN, etc.)
2. The direction of the line, along which the force acts (i.e., 25 KN at 40° West of South etc.). It is also
known as line of action of the force.
3. Nature of the force (push or pull). This is denoted by placing an arrow head on the line of action of
the force.
4. The point at which (or through which) the force acts on the body.

Figure no 2.5
 2.1.6 Types of force system:
When two or more forces act on a body, they are called to form a system of for the types of force system:

Following are

Force
System

Coplanar Non-
forces coplanar
force

Collinear Concurrent Non-

forces forces concurrent
force system

Like Unlike
Parallel Parallel
Parallel
Figure no 2.6

1) Coplanar forces: The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same plane, are known as coplanar forces.
2) Non-coplanar force syste m: When the lines of action of all the forces do not lie on the same
plane it is called non coplanar force system.
3) Collinear forces: The forces, whose lines of action lie on the same line, are known as collinear forces.
When all the forces have the same line of action or are parallel to each other are known as
collinear forces.
P Q R

Figure no 2.7

4) Concurrent forces: The forces, which meet at one point, are known as concurrent forces. The concurrent
forces may or may not be collinear. When all the forces' lines of action pass through a single point it is
called concurrent forces.
 Figure no 2.8

5) Non-concurrent force system: When the lines of action of all the forces do not pass through a single
point

Figure no 2.9

6) Like Parallel force system: When forces are parallel to each other and acting in same direction .

Figure no 2.10
7) Unlike Parallel force system: When forces are parallel to each other but acting in opposite direction
.

Figure no 2.11

2.2 Moment of force: Definition, unit, sign conventions

 The moment of a force about a point is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance
between the point and the line of action of the force. It is the turning effect produced by a force, on the
body, on which it acts.
 Mathematically, moment, M = P × l
Where P = Force acting on the body, and l = Perpendicular distance between the point, about
which the moment is required and the line of action of the force.

Figure no 2.12

 Units of Moment
Since the moment of a force is the product of force and distance, the units of the moment will depend upon the
units of force and distance. Thus, if the force is in Newton and the distance is in meters, then the units of
moment will be Newton-meter (N-m).
 Sign conventions
The moments are of the following two types:
1. Clockwise moments. 2. Anticlockwise moments.
 Clockwise Moment
It is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, about the point in thesame direction in
which hands of a clock move as shown in Fig below.
 Anticlockwise Moment
It is the moment of a force, whose effect is to turn or rotate the body, about the point in the opposite direction
in which the hands of a clock move as shown in Fig below.
 Normally clockwise moment is positive and anticlockwise moment is negative.

Figure no 2.13

2.3 Equilibrium of forces: Definition, conditions, Simple numerical on equilibrium

2.3.1 Equilibrium of forces:

 Equilibrium of forces is a state where the forces acting on an object are balanced,
resulting in no net force.
 If the resultant of a number of forces acting on an object is zero, the objects said be in
equilibrium. Set of forces which keeps the body in equilibrium is called equilibrium forces or
equilibrant. The equilibrant is equal to the resultant force in magnitude but opposite in
direction.
 An object in equilibrium will remain at rest or continue moving at a constant speed.
 Equilibrium is based on Newton's first law of motion

2.3.2 Conditions of Equilibrium:

The sum of all external forces acting on the body is zero , and the sum of all external torques from
external forces is zero (second condition of equilibrium)
2.3.3 Simple numerical on equilibrium

1) Determine the magnitude of the force P for the below force system to be in equilibrium.

Figure no 2.14

Ans:
For the system to be horizontal (balanced condition), as per the first condition of equilibrium, sum of all
external forces acting on the body should be zero. Here, the forces are in vertical direction. So, ∑ 𝐹F =
0 (by taking ↑ direction as positive and ↓ direction as negative,)

100𝑁 − 60𝑁 − 𝑃 = 0
𝑃 = 40𝑁

2) Determine the magnitude of the forces P and Q for the below force system to

be in equilibrium.

Figure no 2.15
Ans:
 For the system to be horizontal (balanced condition), as per the first condition of
equilibrium, sum of all external forces acting on the body should be zero.
 50 N force has vertical component 50 sin 300 and horizontal component 50 cos 300
50N 50 sin 300
300

50 cos 300
 Force P has vertical component P sin 600 and horizontal component P cos 600 P sin
600 P

600

P cos 600

Figure no 2.16

Case1: The forces in horizontal direction.

∑ 𝐹X = 0 (By taking→ direction as positive and← direction as negative,)
P cos 600 + 30 - 50 cos 300 = 0
0.5 P + 30 – 43.3 =0
0.5 P = 13.3 P
= 26.6 N
Case 2: The forces in vertical direction.
∑ 𝐹F = 0 (By taking ↑ direction as positive and ↓ direction as negative,)
P sin 600 - Q + 50 sin 300 = 0
26.6 × 0.866 – Q + 25 = 0
23.04 – Q+ 25 = 0 Q
= 48.04 N
3) A cantilever beam is loaded as in figure below. How far along the beam

should the vertical force ‘P’ be placed to keep the beam horizontal?

Figure no 2.17

Ans:
 For the beam to be horizontal (balanced condition), as per the second condition of
equilibrium, sum of moment about the hinge should be zero. ∑ 𝑀Hinge = 0
 Let ‗A‘ be the hinged support and ‗x‘ be the distance such that the vertical force P keeps the beam
horizontal. The free body diagram is shown below:

Figure no 2.18

400 × 𝑥 − 300 × 2.5 = 0

400 × 𝑥 = 750
𝑥 = 1.875 𝑚
4) A crank ABC with a sytem of forces acting on it is shown in fig.obel w. Find the force
P.

Figure no 2.18

Ans:
 For the crank to be in equilibrium, as per the second condition of equilibrium, sum of moment
about the hinge ‗B‘ should be zero.∑ 𝑀Hinge = ∑ 𝑀B = 0
 70 kN force has vertical component 70 sin 300 and horizontal comp nent 70ocos 300 The free
body diagram is shown below:

Figure no 2.19

 For the equilibrium of the crank ABC, ∑ 𝑀B = 0

 Here, the moment of force about the hinge B is equal to the product of the force and the
perpendicular distance between the hinge B and the line of action of the force.
 By taking clockwise direction as positive and anti-clockwise directi n as negative,
o
Σ 𝑀B = 0

70 sin 300× 250mm + 70 cos300× 0 – P ×300 mm = 0

70 × 10 × sin 30 × 250 × 10–3 + 0 = 𝑃 × 300 × 10–3
P =29166 N=29.17 KN
  Note: force 70 cos300is acting in the same direction towards hinge B; so the
perpendicular distance between force 70 cos300 and hinge B is 0.

2.4 Centroids and centre of gravity: Concept, definition

2.4.1 Centre of gravity: Centre of gravity is a point where the whole weight of the body is assumed to
act, i.e., it is a point where entire distribution of gravitational force (weight) is suppose to be
concentrated.
 The term centre of gravity is usually denoted by 'G' for all three-dimensional rigid bodies.
 Everybody has one and only one centre of gravity.

2.4.2 Centroid: Centroid is a point where the whole area of a plane lamina (figure) is assumed
to act.
 The plane figures (like triangle, quadrilateral, circle etc.) have only areas, but no mass.
 The centre of area of such figures is known as centroid.
 The method of finding out the centroid of a figure is the same as that of finding out the centre of gravity
of a body.
 Important questions

1. Define engineering mechanics. State its classifications

2. Define Statics, dynamics. State the classifications of dynamics
3. Define 1. Kinetics 2. Kinematics
4. Describe the concept of rigid body
5. Describe Bow‘s notation
6. Describe characteristics of force
7. Describe types of force system
8. Define Coplanar forces, Collinear forces, Concurrent forces
9. Define Moment of force. Show its sign conventions
10. Describe the concept of equilibrium of forces
11. Define centroids and centre of gravity
12. A horizontal force P as shown in fig keeps the weight of 100 N in equilibrium. Find magnitude P
and tension in the string T.

Figure no 2.20
 Chapter 3

Transformations used in Robotics

3.1 Kinematics:

● Kinematics: It is the branch of Dynamics, which deals with action of forces on bodies in motion without considering
mass of the body and forces causing motion. It is the study of motion without considering the forces which cause the
motion.
● Kinematics in robotics is the study of movement of the links and joints in robotics.

3.1.1 Significance of Kinematics

● For the purpose of controlling a robot, it is necessary to know the relationships between the motion of the joints (input)
and the end-effector motion (output), because the joint motions control the movements of the end-effector.
● In order to control the end-effector with respect to the base, the position and orientation of the end effector wrt base
have to be found out.
● For that, it is necessary to find the relation between the coordinate frames attached to the end effector and the base.
● This can be obtained from the coordinate transformations (ie, translation + rotation) between the coordinate frames
attached to all the links and forming the overall description in a repeated manner
● Thus, in kinematics, transformations between the coordinate frames attached to different links of the robot need to be
performed
● For this purpose, the methods given in this section for describing the position and orientation of the rigid body are
useful for obtaining the coordinate transformations between the consecutive frames.

3.1.2 Coordinate system and frames in robotics: Reference and body frames

 In robotics, a coordinate system is a set of axes used to define the position and orientation of a robot's components
within a given space
 It is the reference point to describe movement and location within the robot's environment
 A Frame defines a coordinate system in a robot. It determines where it is in space and the locations of relevant
objects or areas around it relative to the robot.
 To identify the position and orientation of a body,( i.e., its 'pose’ or ‘configuration’), a fixed reference
coordinate system is established, which is called the 'fixed frame.' or reference frame. It is the static
coordinate system from which translations and rotations are based.
 ‘U’ indicates universal coordinate system or fixed reference coordinate system and its axes are 𝑥 , and
which are independent and mutually perpendicular to each other.
 ‘B’ indicates body coordinate system attached to the moving body and its axes are 𝑥 , and
 Fig: 3.1

3.1.3 Pose of a Rigid Body- Representation of an object in the 3-D space

● The location of an object in 3-D space can be specified by position (or translation) and orientation (or rotation)
values.

● Consider an object which has to be represented in 3-D space. For that, its position and orientation
have to be considered.
● ‘U’ indicates universal coordinate system or fixed reference coordinate system and its axes are 𝑥
, and which are independent and mutually perpendicular to each other.
● ‘B’ represents body coordinate system of an object and its axes are 𝑥 , and
● To represent a particular position of the object in the 3-D space, consider a point Q of the object
and move it along the x, y and z axis. This will be the position coordinate system and it needs
three parameters. Refer to the figure below.
● To consider the orientation or rotation, we have to consider the rotation about x axis, rotation about
y axis and rotation about z axis. This will be the orientation coordinate system and it needs three
parameters.
● Thus, a total of six parameters are required to represent the object in 3-D space.
Position Description or representation of the position

Fig: 3.2
● The position of a rigid body in space is expressed in terms of the position of a suitable point Q on the body with
respect to the origin of the fixed frame, U.
● In order to represent the position of any point Q on a rigid body in motion with respect to the universal reference
 frame ‗U‘, move it along x axis, y axis and z axis starting from the origin and thus the point Q will have the
coordinates . This will be the position coordinate system
● The point Q is represented by a vector which is the position vector or a 3-D Cartesian vector, 𝑄̅ . It is a
matrix

𝑄̅ [ ]

3.2 Rotation matrices: representation of orientation, Roll, pitch, yaw

● In order to represent the orientation / rotation of a rigid body in 3-D space, consider two coordinate frames. One of
them is the main or universal coordinate frame ‗U‘. The other is the body coordinate frame ‗B‘ of the rigid body. The
rigid body is in motion with respect to the fixed reference frame.
● The orientation of a rigid body in space is expressed in terms of the unit vector components of the body frame, ‗B‘,
attached to the body.
 Roll indicates motion in the plane perpendicular to the end of the arm. Roll is a rotation about the rigid body's z axis.
 Pitch indicates the motion in vertical plane passing through the arm. Pitch is a rotation about the rigid body's x axis.
 Yaw indicates motion in the horizontal plane that also passes through the arm. Yaw is a rotation about the rigid
body's y axis (pointing up)

Fig: 3.3

 An aircraft in flight is free to rotate in three dimensions: yaw, nose left or right about an axis running up and down;
pitch, nose up or down about an axis running from wing to wing; and roll, rotation about an axis running from nose
to tail

3.2.1 Elementary rotation matrix about Z axis: Expression for rotation about Z axis by in anticlockwise direction
given by the matrix 𝒁 ̅ :

● The orientation of a rigid body in space is expressed in terms of the unit vector components of the body frame, B,
pointing along the frame's x, y, z axis with a reference frame.
● It is derived as follows.
● Consider two coordinate frames with a common origin. One of them is the fixed or universal coordinate frame ‗U‘
with axes X, Y and Z and origin O. The other is the body coordinate frame ‗B‘ of a rigid body with axes
𝑥
● The rigid body is in motion with respect to the fixed reference frame.
● Consider any point, Q, on the rigid body. It‘s coordinates in the universal coordinate frame ‗U‘ along the axes X, Y
 and Z are ̅ .
whose vector representation is 𝑄
● So,

𝑄̅ [ ] …….. eqn. 1

● The coordinates of Q in the body coordinate frame ‗B‘ along the axes 𝑥 are
whose vector representation is 𝑄̅ . So,

𝑄̅ [ ] …….. eqn. 2

● The coordinates of Q in the fixed coordinate frame U can be found out as:
𝑂 𝑄 𝑂 𝑄

Y qX,
E
Q qY

U
X
O B

Fig: 3: 4

● Consider that the body coordinate frame ‗B‘ is rotated by an angle about the axis Z of the fixed frame in an
anticlockwise direction. Therefore, axis will be same as Z, but axis 𝑥 will be different from X and axis will be
different from Y.
● The coordinates of Q in the body coordinate frame B can be found out as follows:
 Y
(qX,
Y1 qY)
E Q (qx1,
qy1)
ϴ ‘B’
F X1
A
‘U D
’ ϴ
X
O B C
Z1

Fig: 3: 5

𝑂 𝑄𝐹
𝑂𝐹 𝑄 also,

Consider the triangle OCD for an angle .

, 𝑂

Consider the triangle AQD for an angle .

, 𝑄

Therefore, the relationships between the coordinates of point Q in the two coordinate frames ( ie; U &B) are given as
follows:

𝑂 𝑂
Therefore,

(note: z coordinate is zero since the rotation is about Z axis.)

 Similarly,

𝑄 𝑄 𝑄
Therefore,

(note: z coordinate is zero since the rotation is about Z axis.)

Similarly,

(note: x & y coordinates are 0 and z coordinate is 1 since the rotation is about Z axis.)
Convert the above equations in matrix form:

[ ] [ ][ ]

● ̅ and 𝑄
Since 𝑄 ̅ are the vector representations of point Q in frames U & B (refer eqn 1 & 2) and ‗B‘ is rotated
𝑈
by an angle about the axis Z, the above equation can be written as: 𝑄̅ 𝑅 ̅ 𝑄̅

● So, rotation about Z axis by an angle is given by the matrix 𝑅 ̅ :

𝑅 ̅ [ ]

● Here, the row and column associated with the Z axis is empty which indicates that any vectors along the Z axis
remain unchanged.
● Matrix 𝑅 ̅ here or in general 𝑅 represents the orientation of the frame, B, with respect to the fixed
̅ from frame B, to another frame U with the same
frame, U, and transforms the representation of the vector 𝑄
origin

● Summary:
1. Consider two coordinate frames with a common origin. One of them is the main or universal coordinate
frame ‗U‘ with axes X,Y and Z and origin O. The other is the body coordinate frame ‗B‘ of a rigid body with
axes 𝑥
2. The rigid body is in motion with respect to the fixed reference frame.
3. Consider any point, Q, on the rigid body. It‘s coordinates in the universal coordinate frame ‗U‘ along the
axes X,Y and Z are
4. It‘s coordinates in the body coordinate frame ‗B‘ along the axes 𝑥 are
5. Let 𝑄̅ and 𝑄 ̅ are the vector representations of point Q in frames U & B. (𝑄 ̅ is the coordinates of
𝑈
̅
point Q in frame B, 𝑄 is the coordinates of point Q in frame U).
 6. ‗B‘ is rotated by an angle about the axis Z.
7. The relationships between the coordinates of point Q in the two coordinate frames are

8. It is clear from the above equations that 𝑄̅ 𝑅 ̅ 𝑄̅

9. Matrix 𝑅 ̅ here or in general 𝑅 represents the orientation of the frame, B, with respect to the
fixed frame, U, and transforms the representation of the vector 𝑄̅ from frame B, to another frame U
with the same origin

3.2.2 Elementary rotation matrix about X axis:

Expression for rotation about X axis by in anticlockwise direction is given by the matrix 𝑅 ̅ :

● Here, the row and column associated with X axis is empty which indicates that any vectors along X axis
remains unchanged

Convert the above equations in matrix form:

3.2.3 Elementary rotation matrix about Y axis:

Expression for rotation about Y axis by in anticlockwise direction is given by the matrix 𝑅 ̅ :

● Here, the row and column associated with Y axis is empty which indicates that any vectors along Y axis
remains unchanged
 ● Numerical problem:

1. If the rotation about X axis is by an angle 45 degree and rotation about Y Axis is by an angle 90 degree then find
out Rot ( ̅ 45) Rot ( ̅

So,

Therefore,

3.3 Coordinate transformation

● Transformation: Transformation is the change of position and orientation of a frame attached to a body with respect to
a frame attached to another body.
● In robotics, it is the process of converting between coordinate systems to represent the position, orientation, and
movement of a robot. To move between different coordinate frames, "coordinate transformations" are used to
mathematically calculate the position and orientation of a point in one frame relative to another.
● A robot manipulator consists of several links connected by joints.
● In order to find out the position and orientation of the end-effector to control it with respect to the base, it is necessary
to find the relation between the coordinate frames attached to the end-effector and the base. This can be obtained
from the coordinate transformations between the coordinate frames attached to all the links and forming the overall
description in a repeated manner. For this, it is necessary to assign coordinate systems at different joints
● Coordinate transformations are performed using matrix and vector operations. Transformation matrices are stored
and operated on frequently in robotics.

● Some examples of coordinate transformations:

Translation: A change in position

 Rotation: A change in orientation

Coordinate transformation equation:

● It is the relation between the two coordinate frames which are the universal reference coordinate frame U and body
coordinate frame B of the rigid body.
● Each joint of the robot manipulator has its own reference frame with its own origin and unit vectors pointing along
the frame‘s x, y, z axes.
● The position of a rigid body with coordinate frame B in space is expressed in terms of the position of a suitable point
Q on the body with respect to the origin O, of the fixed coordinate frame, U.
● The orientation of a rigid body in space is expressed in terms of the unit vector components of its body frame, B,
with the fixed frame U.
● The relation between the two coordinate frames, namely, U and B, are derived as follows:
● Consider a point Q on the rigid body with which the frame B is attached at OB.
● Let 𝑄 ̅ and 𝑄 ̅ are the vector representations of point Q in frames U & B. (𝑄 ̅ is the coordinates of point Q in
𝑈
̅
frame B, 𝑄 is the coordinates of point Q in frame U).

Fig: 3: 6

● ̅ is the position vector denoting the translation of the origin of frame B (which is OB) from that of frame U (which
is OU).

̅ [ ]
 ● Vector 𝑄 ̅ can be found out, as per the vector addition, 𝑄 ̅ ̅
𝑄 ̅ .
𝑈
● But for this, both vectors should be in the universal coordinate frame U.
● ̅ is already in frame U; but 𝑄 ̅ is not in frame U.
● 𝑄̅ can be related / converted to frame U by rotating it with respect to frame ‗U‘ since 𝑄̅ is the coordinates of
point Q in frame B.
● So, if ‗ 𝑅 ‘ is the orientation of frame B with respect to frame U, then vector 𝑄̅ in frame ‗U‘ will be 𝑅 𝑄̅ .
(already proved)
● Matrix 𝑅 represents the orientation of the frame, B, with respect to the fixed frame, U and transforms the
representation of a vector from frame B, i.e., 𝑄 ̅ , to another frame U with the same origin, i.e., 𝑄̅
● Hence, the vector, 𝑄 ̅ , in the fixed frame U, can be obtained as 𝑄̅ 𝑅 𝑄̅ ̅
● The above equation represents the 'coordinate transformation,' of point Q of the rigid body from moving frame B to
the fixed frame, U, while both translation and rotation are involved.
3.3.1 Homogeneous transformation matrix -HTM

● Each joint of the manipulator has its own reference frame with its own origin and unit vectors pointing along the
frame‘s x, y, z axes. The change in position and orientation between joints and their reference frames is described
using transformation matrices.
● Transformation= Translation + Rotation
● The 'coordinate transformation,' given by the equation 𝑄 ̅ 𝑅 𝑄̅ ̅
can be rearranged as
̅ 𝑈
[𝑄 ] [ 𝑅 ̅ ] [𝑄̅ ]

Where,

𝑄̅ [ ] ̅ [ ] 𝑄̅ [ ]

● 𝑄̅ 𝑇 𝑄̅ where T is the transformation matrix which includes both translation and rotation. It is called
Homogeneous Transformation Matrix
● Homogeneous Transformation Matrix is the matrix which represents both the translation and rotation of the frame
attached to the body with respect to the fixed frame.

● Homogeneous Transformation Matrix (HTM) T:

𝑥
𝑈
𝑇 [ 𝑅 ̅ ] [ ]
 Rotation of frame B wrt frame U:

𝑅 [ ] ̅ [ ]

4 HTM for pure transformation

● HTM can be obtained for pure translation when there is no rotation and pure rotation when there is no rotation.

● HTM for Pure Rotation (when there is no translation):

𝑇 [ 𝑅 ̅ ]

If the rotation is along X axis without translation, HTM will be:

𝑇 𝑅 𝑥 [ ]

𝑇 𝑅 [ ]

𝑇 𝑅 [ ]

● HTM for Pure translation (when there is no Rotation):

̅
𝑇 [ ] Where I=Identity matrix

If the translation is along X axis without rotation, HTM will be:

 𝑥
𝑇 𝑥 [ ]

similarly,

𝑇 𝑥 [ ]

𝑇 𝑥 [ ]

3.3.2 Numerical:
1. Find out the HTM for rotation by 90 degree along Z axis of the Universal coordinate system without
translation for a point Q in frame B

2. Find out the HTM for translation by 4 units along Y axis of the Universal coordinate system without rotation
for a point Q in frame B

3. A frame B is rotated about the X axis of the Universal coordinate system by 90 degrees and then about the
Z axis by 90 degrees without translation. Find out HTM
4. A frame B is rotated about the X axis of the Universal coordinate system by 90 degrees and then about Z
axis by 90 degree followed by translation by 4, 0,2 units along X, Y and Z axis of the Universal coordinate
system. Find out HTM

5. A frame B is rotated about the X axis of the Universal coordinate system by 90 degrees without translation.
̅
Let the position of a point Q in B is given by [10 2 8]T . Find out 𝑄

,
 6. A frame B is translated along the Z axis of the Universal coordinate system by 10 units without rotation. Let
̅
the position of a point Q in B is given by [0 5 3]T . Find out 𝑄

7. A frame B is rotated about the X axis of the Universal coordinate system by 90 degrees and translated
along Xu, Yu and Zu by 1,2 and 1 unit(s), respectively. Let the position of a point Q in B is given by [1 2
̅
3]T . Find out 𝑄
Solution:

Equation to be considered:

……. eqn 1
 ̅
It is given as Q in B = 𝑄 𝑇

So,

̅ ̅
[𝑄 ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

Substituting in eqn 1,

3.4 Denavit - Hartenberg (DH) Parameters or Kinematic parameters or Joint-Link parameters , DH rules, DH
table for the given manipulator such as 2R, 2P, 3P, 3R, SCARA

Introduction:
● A robot manipulator consists of several links connected by joints.
● In order to find out the position and orientation of the end-effector to control it with respect to the base, it is
necessary to find the relation between the coordinate frames attached to the end-effector and the base. This can be
obtained from the coordinate transformations between the coordinate frames attached to all the links and forming
the overall description in a repeated manner.
● For this, it is necessary to assign coordinate systems at different joints.
● To assign the coordinate systems at different joins, certain rules have to be followed and these are DH rules. Then
the position and orientation of the particular end effector with respect to the base coordinate frame can be found out
easily and vice versa.
● The DH parameters represent each joint of the robot with four parameters, each taken with reference to the
previous joint. They are calculated in reference to the "common normal" which is the shortest orthogonal line
between the previous Z-axis and the current Z-axis.

DH Rules:
● To assign the coordinate systems at different joins, certain rules have to be followed and these are DH rules. These
rules are:
 1. Z axis is the axis of rotation for a revolute joint or direction of motion for a prismatic joint.
2. X axis must be perpendicular to its own Z axis and Z axis of the frame before it.
3. The Y-axis is determined from the X-axis and Z-axis by using the right-hand coordinate system.(thumb for
Z axis, fingers for X axis and palm for Y axis)
4. Each X axis must intersect the Z axis of the frame before it.(rule does not apply to frame 0).

DH parameters:

● The DH parameters are Joint offset, Joint angle, Link Length and Twist angle.
● Three of them are fixed and one is a variable called a joint variable. For a revolute joint, the joint variable is the joint
angle. For a prismatic joint, the joint variable is the joint offset.

● The four DH parameters are defined as follows:

1. Joint offset (d or bi ): (Translation along Z axis)

❖ It is the translation along the previous Z-axis, needed to make the previous X axis intersects with the
current X axis.
❖ This is the distance between the previous X-axis and the current X-axis, along the previous Z-axis. It is the
distance from one link to the next along the axis of the joint.

2. Joint angle (θi ): (Rotation along Z axis)

❖ It is the rotation about the previous Z axis needed to make the previous X axis parallel with the current X
axis. It is the rotation of one link wrt the next about the joint axis.
❖ This is measured as the angle around the previous Z-axis between the previous X-axis and the current X-
axis. Rotation is positive when it is made counter clockwise.

3. Link length (ai or r): (Translation along X axis)

❖ It is the translation along the current X-axis needed to make the previous Z axis intersect with the current Z
axis.
❖ This is measured as the length of the common normal, which is the distance between the previous Z-axis
and the current Z-axis along the current X axis. If the previous Z-axis intersects the current Z-axis, the
common normal has a length of zero.
❖ It is the distance between the origin of the previous frame and the origin of the current frame along the
current X direction

4. Twist angle ( i): (Rotation along X axis)

❖ It is the rotation about the current X axis needed to make the previous Z axis parallel with the current Z
axis. It is the axis twist angle of two adjacent joints.
❖ This is measured as the angle around the current X axis between the previous and current Z-axes ( to be
taken positive when rotation is made counter clockwise.)
(Note: check how much the previous Z axis need to be rotated to make it parallel to the current Z
axis)

3.4.1 Form the DH parameter table for the following:

 1. Find D-H parameters of 2P manipulator given in the figure:

D-H parameters:

Frame i d or bi (Joint offset) θi (Joint angle) ai or r (Link length) i (Twist angle)

1 (joint variable) a1 0

2 (joint variable) a2 0

2. Find D-H parameters of 3P manipulator given in the figure:

D-H parameters:

Frame i d or bi (Joint offset) θi (Joint angle) ai or r (Link length) i (Twist angle)

1 (joint variable) a1 0

2 (joint variable) a2 0
2 (joint variable) a3 0

3. DH Parameters of a 2R manipulator given in the figure:

(Axis Z is perpendicular to the plane of page)

Frame i d or bi (Joint offset) θi (Joint angle) ai or r (Link length) i (Twist angle)

1 0 (joint variable) a1 0

2 0 (joint variable) a2 0

4. DH Parameters of a 3R manipulator given in the figure:

Axis Z is perpendicular to the plane of page;

DH table:

Frame i d or bi (Joint offset) θi (Joint angle) ai or r (Link length) i (Twist angle)

1 0 a1 0

2 0 a2 0

3 0 a3 0

5. DH Parameters of SCARA given in the figure:

● SCARA has 3 rotary joints and one prismatic joint. The DH table is shown below:

Frame i d or bi (Joint offset) θi (Joint angle) ai or r (Link length) i (Twist angle)

1 b1 (joint variable) a1 0

2 b2 (joint variable) a2 0
3 b3 (joint variable) 0 0 0

4 -b4 (joint variable) 0 0

3.5 Transformation between DH frames and the corresponding HTM, Ti (from the frame i to the frame i + 1)

● To obtain the transformation between DH frames and the corresponding HTM, obtain the four elementary
transformations corresponding to the DH parameters as follows and then multiply them.
● The four elementary transformations corresponding to the DH parameters:
1. Translate frame i by joint offset along axes Zi:
● The transformation matrix will be

𝑇 [ ]

2. Rotate the translated frame about Zi axis by joint angle :

● The transformation matrix will be

𝑇 [ ]

3. Translate the rotated frame i by link length along axes Xi+1

● The transformation matrix will be

𝑇 [ ]

4. Rotate the translated frame i about Xi+1 axis by twist angle

● The transformation matrix will be
 𝑇 [ ]

● The resulting coordinate transformation Ti of the frame i+1 with respect to its previous frame i (which are
attached to links i-1 and i) is obtained by post-multiplying the above four elementary transformations. It is the
individual HTM from the four elementary transformations corresponding to the DH parameters
● i = 1, …, n

DH Transformation matrix Ti (from the frame i to the frame i + 1) = TbiTθiTaiTαi

𝑇 [ ] [ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ] [ ]

[ ] [ ]

𝑇 [ ]
Or,

● The expression, Ti, can also be read as the transformation matrix or the HTM of the frame i + 1 attached to the link
i, represented in the frame i attached to the link i − 1.
● The transformation matrix from the frame i to the frame i + 1 is a function of only the ith joint variable, i.e., for a
revolute joint, and bi for a prismatic joint, because the other three DH parameters are constants.
3.5.1 Numerical to find out the DH parameters and form the DH transformation matrix:

1. Find out the DH parameters and form the DH transformation matrix for the following figure:

DH Table:

Frame i d or bi (Joint offset) θi (Joint angle) ai or r (Link length) i (Twist angle)

1 a1 (joint variable) a2 0

2 a3 (joint variable) a4 0

𝑇 [ ]

Here, i=1, 2

Since there are two joints here, there will be two DH transformation matrices, T1 and T2.
 2. Find the D-H parameters and transformation matrix for a 2R planar robot arm given in the figure:

D-H parameters:

Frame i d or bi (Joint offset) θi (Joint angle) ai or r (Link length) i (Twist angle)

1 0 (joint variable) a1 0

2 0 (joint variable) a2 0
 𝑇 [ ]

After substituting the DH parameters for each frames, there will be two HTMs as below

Therefore,

3. Find out the HTM from the DH parameters for the following Three-link Planar Arm given in the figure:

DH-Table:

Frame i d or bi (Joint offset) θi (Joint angle) ai or r (Link length) i (Twist angle)

1 0 (joint variable) a1 0

2 0 (joint variable) a2 0

3 0 (joint variable) a3 0

HTM:

𝑇 [ ]

After substituting the DH parameters for each frames, there will be three HTMs as below:

First DH Transformation matrix =

Second DH Transformation matrix =

Third DH Transformation matrix =

 4. Find out the HTM from the DH parameters for the following SCARA given in the figure:

DH Table:

Frame i d or bi (Joint offset) θi (Joint angle) ai or r (Link length) i (Twist angle)

1 b1 (joint variable) a1 0

2 b2 (joint variable) a2 0

3 b3 (joint variable) 0 0 0

4 b4 (joint variable) 0 0

HTM:
 𝑇 [ ]

After substituting for i=1,2,3,4 HTMs will be:

, , 𝑆 , 𝑆 , , 𝑆
Important questions
1. Define kinematics. State its significance in Robotics
2. Explain Coordinate transformation in Robotics
3. Explain roll, pitch yaw motion
4. Derive the rotational operator matrix for 𝑅 ̅
5. State the formula of elementary rotation matrix about X axis and Y axis
6. If the rotation about X axis is by an angle 45 degree and rotation about Y Axis is by an angle 90 degree then find out
Rot ( ̅ 45) Rot ( ̅
7. Define HTM. State its formula
8. A frame B is rotated about the X axis of the Universal coordinate system by 90 degrees and then about the Z axis by 90
degrees without translation. Find out HTM
9. A frame B is rotated about the X axis of the Universal coordinate system by 90 degrees and then about Z axis by 90
degree followed by translation by 4, 0,2 units along X, Y and Z axis of the Universal coordinate system. Find out HTM
10. A frame {B} is rotated about 𝑿u axis of the universal coordinate system by 45 degrees and translated along 𝑿u, 𝒀u, 𝒁u
by 1, 2, and 3 units, respectively. Let the position of a point Q in {B} is given by [3.0 2.0 1.0] 𝑻. Determine 𝑄̅
11. Define D-H parameters and D-H rules.
12. Find the D-H parameters and transformation matrix for a 2R planar robot.
13. Derive the D-H parameters and homogeneous transformation matrix for SCARA robot.
 Unit 4
Kinematics of the Robotic Arm

4.1 Introduction to Kinematics of Robotics

The kinematics of a robotic arm refers to the study of its motion and the relationship between its joint
parameters and the position and orientation of its end effector (the "hand" or tool). In robotic arms, the kinematics is
fundamental for understanding how the arm moves in space and how to control its motions to achieve specific
tasks.

Figure no 4.1: Kinematics of Robotic Arm

4.1.1 Position analysis

It is the relationships between the joint variables and the orientation and position (or location) of the end
effector. It is of two types: Forward position analysis and Inverse position analysis. For a robot to perform a
specific task, the position and orientation of the end-effector, i.e., its pose or configuration, relative to the base should
be established first. Therefore, position analysis is important.

4.1.1 Forward position analysis or forward kinematics or direct kinematics

Forward kinematics: the method to find out the end-effector‘s orientation and position (configuration or
location) with respect to the base coordinate system from the given joint variables or length of the links and
the joint angles.
4.1.2 Inverse position analysis /Inverse kinematics
In the Inverse position analysis or inverse kinematics, the joint variables have to be found out
from the given end-effector‘s orientation and position or location provided the length of the links are
known.
The inverse kinematics problem is much more complex for the following reasons:
1. The algebraic equations to be solved are, in general, nonlinear in the joint variables, and thus it
is not always possible to find a closed-form solution.
2. Multiple solutions may exist. Infinite solutions may also exist in certain situations.

3. There might be no admissible solution in view of the manipulator architecture.

Methods to find out the inverse kinematics problem:
1. Find a closed-form solution using algebra or geometry- find the joint angles through algebraic
transformations or using geometrical heuristics.
2. Find a numerical solution by some successive-approximation algorithm.
4.2 Forward position analysis for 2R and 2P planar arm

4.2.1 Forward position analysis for 2R Planar arm

Figure no 4.4

The forward kinematics T for 2R Planar arm will be

𝑇 = 𝑇1 𝑇2

Table no.4.1: D-H parameters:

Frame d or bi (Joint θi (Joint angle) ai or r (Link i (Twist

i offset) length) angle)

1 0 1(joint a1 0
variable)

2 0 2(joint a2 0
variable)
4.2.2 Forward position analysis for 2P Planar arm

● The forward kinematics T for 2P Planar arm will be 𝑇 = 𝑇1 𝑇2

4.3 Definition of linear and angular displacement, linear and angular velocity, linear and angular
acceleration

4.3.1 Linear Displacement, Linear Velocity and linear Acceleration

1) Linear Displacement: It is the movement of an object in a straight line.
2) Linear Velocity: It is the rate of change of displacement with respect to time when the object
moves along a straight path
3) Linear Acceleration: It is the rate of change of Linear Velocity with respect to time when the object
moves along a straight path

4.3.2 Angular Displacement, Angular velocity, Angular Acceleration

1) Angular Displacement: It is the angle of the movement of an object in a circular path
2) Angular velocity: It is the rate of change of the angular displacement with respect to time of a
rotating body.
3) Angular Acceleration: It is the rate of change of the angular velocity with respect to time of rotating
body

4.4 Differential motion and velocities of robot: Jacobian equation in robotics, Jacobian matrix in
robotics

4.4.1 Introduction to Jacobian Matrix

1. The coordinate transformation

 4.4.2 The Jacobian matrix

The Jacobian matrix is the matrix which relates angular and linear velocities of the
end effector with the joint velocities.

 Significance and use of Jacobian :

1. Finding singular configurations (singularity is a point where a robot loses one or more degrees of
freedom. It's impossible to move the end effector in a particular direction. This usually happens when
the end-effector is at the edges of the workspace i.e., when the robot is fully stretched)
2. Analyzing redundancy
3. Determining inverse kinematics algorithms for velocity analysis
4. Describing the relationship between the forces applied at the end-effector and the resulting torques at
the joints
5. Deriving dynamics algorithms.

4.4.3 Jacobian equation in robotics

The Jacobian matrix relates angular and linear velocities of the end effector with the joint velocities.
This relationship is shown in the equation below. The matrix on the left side of the equation is the end-
effector velocity matrix. It has two parts. The first three elements are linear velocities
𝜈e of the end effector [rate of change of position] and the last three elements are the angular velocities
𝜔e of the end effector [rate of change of orientation] in (x,y,z) direction respectively.
𝐽 is the Jacobian matrix.

OR
4.4.4 Jacobian matrix in terms of relation to linear and angular velocity of the end effector

● Jacobian can be calculated by taking the derivative of each position equation of the end effector with respect to all
joint variables.
● Jacobian matrix J is a 6× dimensional matrix and it is a function of the joint variables.
● The number of columns 𝑒 in the Jacobian matrix is equal to the number of joints in the manipulator.
● Rows of the Jacobian matrix can be split into two parts. The first three rows are associated with linear velocities of
the end-effector and the last three rows are associated with the angular velocities of the end-effector
● Hence the upper part of the Jacobian matrix is known as Linear velocity Jacobian ( 𝐽𝑣) and
Principles of Robotics
the lower part as Angular velocity Jacobian ( 𝐽𝜔).
● Linear velocity 𝑣𝑒 of the end effector can be expressed as a function of the joint velocities as follows:
𝑣𝑒=𝐽𝑣
𝐽𝑣 is the 3× matrix relating the contribution of the joint velocities to the end-effector linear velocity 𝑣𝑒. It is the
function of the joint variable
● Angular velocities 𝜔𝑒 of the end effector can be expressed as a function of the joint velocities as follows:

𝜔𝑒=𝐽𝜔
𝐽𝜔 is the 3× matrix relating the contribution of the joint velocities to the end-effector angular velocity 𝜔𝑒. It is the
function of the joint variable .

● Therefore, Jacobian matrix J consists of 𝐽𝑣 and 𝐽𝜔

● Methods to derive 𝐽𝑣 and 𝐽𝜔 are different. Both should be found out separately and later combined to get the final
Jacobian matrix.

● Representation of 𝐽𝑣

Velocity is the derivative of position. Since 𝐽𝑣 is related to linear velocities of the end-effector due to joint
velocities, 𝐽𝑣 can be obtained by derivation the position functions for x, y and z of the end-effector w.r.t joint
variables [ 1, 2... ]

Representation of 𝐽𝜔
Angular Velocity is the derivative of the angular displacement. Since 𝐽𝜔 is related to angular velocities of the end-
effector due to joint velocities, 𝐽𝜔 can be obtained by derivating the angular displacements along axes x, y and z of
the end-effector w.r.t joint variables
● Thus it can be seen that the Jacobian matrix consists of a differential translation and rotation
vector corresponding to the differential change of each joint variable.

● Jacobian matrix J=

Question :
1. Define forward kinematics and inverse kinematics.
2. Derive the forward kinematics matrix equation of a 2R & 2P planar robot .
3. Describe Jacobian matrix.
4. A 2 DOF serial manipulator with the links having lengths of L1 and L2 has the joint angles
represented by θ1 and θ2. The end-effector‘s coordinates are represented by (X, Y) where X = L1
cosθ1 + L2cos (θ1+θ2), Y = L1 sinθ1 + L2 sin (θ1+θ2)
Find out the Jacobian matrix for the given configuration.
5. Define (i) Linear Velocity (ii) Linear Displacement (iii) Linear Acceleration (iv) Angular Acceleration.

6. What is meant by the kinematics of a robotic arm?

7. How is the homogeneous transformation matrix (HTM) used in robotic kinematics?
8. How do you determine the position and orientation of a robotic arm‘s end-effector using forward
kinematics?
9. What are the common challenges faced in solving inverse kinematics?
10. Given a robotic arm with two revolute joints, how would you determine the end-effector position
using forward kinematics?
11. How can numerical methods be used to solve inverse kinematics problems?
 Chapter 5
Overview of Dynamics of the Robotic Arm and Motion Planning

Introduction:
In this chapter, the equations of motion for a robot, i.e., the way in which motion of the robot arises due to
torques and forces applied at the joints by the actuators, will be studied. A set of equations that describe the
dynamical behaviour of a robot, also referred as the dynamic model of the robot, will be developed. This
development is important in several ways:
(i) A dynamic model can be used to develop suitable control strategies. A sophisticated controller
requires the use of a realistic dynamic model to achieve optimal performance of the robot under high-speed
operations. Some control schemes depend directly on a dynamic model to find actuator torques and forces
required to follow a desired trajectory.
(ii) The derived dynamic model can be used for computer simulation of a robotic system. By examining
the behaviour of the model under various operating conditions, it is possible to predict how a robot will behave
when it will be built.
(iii) The dynamic analysis of a robot gives all the joint reaction forces and moments needed for the design
and sizing of the links, bearings, and actuators.
Figure 5.1 Dynamic Model of 3R Robot Model in Robo-analyzer
5.1 Dynamics: Definition, concept of forward dynamics and inverse dynamics

5.1.1 Definition:
Dynamics is the study of Forces & Moments which causes the motion in system or bodies.

Dynamic model of a robot is the study of relation between the forces/ torques applied at the joints by
the actuators and the resulting motion of the manipulator. It describes the trajectory or path of the end
effector due to torques and forces applied at the joints by the actuators. Dynamic equations of motions of
a manipulator are a set of mathematical equations describing the dynamic behavior of the manipulator. It
is of two types: Forward or Direct Dynamics and Inverse Dynamics.

5.1.2 Forward dynamics:

Determines the motion of a robot from a set of applied forces and torques. It is mainly used for
simulation. It is used to find out the resulting joint motions and trajectories of the end effector for a given
set of forces / torques applied at the joints by the actuators. It is shown as:

… .................................................... eqn. (1)

where,

5.1.3 Inverse dynamics:

Determines the forces and torques required to produce a desired motion of the end effector. It's used for
robot control, trajectory design and optimization, and designing robot mechanisms. The inverse dynamics
problem is to find the actuator torques and/or forces required to generate a desired trajectory of the robot‘s
end-effector. This formulation of dynamics is useful for the problem of controlling the robot
It is the evaluation of forces/ torques required to apply at the joints by the actuators for a set of desired joint
motions and trajectory of the end effector. It is shown as in equation 2.

… ................................................... eqn. (2)

The dynamic behavior of the robot motion can be described by the Lagrange-Euler & Newton- Euler
methods by which dynamic equations of motion for joints of robot manipulators can be developed. Newton–
Euler equations are known as vector approach, whereas the Euler– Lagrange equations are based on
energy approach.
 5.2 Dynamic equations of motion for joints of robot manipulators:
The dynamic equations of motion can be formulated by several methods. One approach is to apply the Euler–
Lagrange equations of motion. The advantage of employing this approach is that it eliminates the forces of
constraints from the dynamic equations of motion if the generalized coordinates are independently chosen .

This method is based on the methods of calculations of kinetic and potential energies of a rigid body system.
The Lagrangian is defined as the difference between the kinetic and potential energies of the mechanical
system under study, i.e.,
L = T – U, where L denotes the Lagrangian, and T and U are respectively the total kinetic and potential energies of the
system. The kinetic energy depends on configuration (i.e. position and orientation) and the velocity of the links of
a robotic system, whereas the potential energy depends only on the configuration of the links. Euler–Lagrange
equations of motion are then given by

… .............................. eqn. (3)

where;
n is the number of independent generalized coordinates used to define the system‘s configuration, qi‘s are
the generalized coordinates (the variables used to specify the position of the object in Lagrangian
formulation)
𝜙i are the generalized forces due to applied forces corresponding to the generalized coordinates

5.2.1 Kinetic energy:

1
General equation of Kinetic energy = 𝑚𝑣2 where m is the mass and v are the velocity. Consider
2

a robot consisting of n rigid links. Then, the kinetic energy of a typical link i, denoted as Ti, is given by,

…………………eqn. (4)
5.2.2 Potential energy:

General equation of potential energy is U= m.g.h. The total potential energy stored in a robot is given by
the sum of the contributions of potential energy of each link. For the rigid links of the manipulator, the potential
energy stored in link i is defined as the amount of work required to raise the center of mass of link i from a
horizontal reference plane to its present position under the influence of gravity.

With reference to the inertia frame, the work required to displace link i to the position
Ci is given by

−𝑚 𝑇

where g is the vector due to acceleration due to gravity.

Hence, the total potential energy stored in a robot manipulator is given by

… ........................ eqn. (5)

The vector Ci is a function of joint variables, i.e., qi‘s of the robot. Hence, the total potential energy is a function
of joint variables only, and not of the joint velocities.

5.2.3 Lagrange-Euler equation:

…………….
eqn. (6)
5.2.4 The Newton-Euler equation
The Newton–Euler equations describe the combined translational and rotational dynamics of a rigid
body. It describes dynamic systems in terms of force and momentum. It is based on Newton‘s second law
= 𝑚 2. It relates the motion of the center of gravity of a rigid body with the sum of forces and torques acting
on the rigid body. It is based on a balance of all the forces acting on the generic link of the manipulator.
5.3 Motion planning: Joint space planning, Cartesian space planning

For the robot to accomplish a particular task, the end effector has to move in a particular path or trajectory
(the space curve that the manipulator moves along from initial position and orientation to final position). The
robot‘s path needs to be decided through motion planning.
The main objective of motion planning for robots is to determine the sequence of actions to move from
an initial position to a final position or to generate a function according to which a robot‘s joints will move. The
objective of trajectory planning is to make the end-effector move continuously and smoothly from an initial state
to a desired state
This function generation depends on the tasks of the robot, for example, to pick up an object from one
point to place it in another point, or to weld two metal pieces along a curve. In the former case, initial and final
points are assigned, i.e., point-to-point motion, whereas in the latter situation a finite sequence of points needs
to be specified, i.e., continuous-path motion. A robot user typically specifies a number of parameters to
describe a point-to-point or continuous-path task. An algorithm then computes the inputs for the motion
controller of the robot. Motion planning can be done either in the Joint space, i.e., in terms of joint positions,
velocities, and accelerations, or Cartesian space (also called operational space) i.e., in terms of the end-
effector positions, orientations, and their time derivatives.
The motion planning is of two types which are
1. Joint space planning
2. Cartesian space planning

5.3.1 Joint space planning:

The motion planning in the joint space is called joint space planning. It is the method to determine a
desired trajectory of joint variables over time.

Joint space is defined by a vector whose components are the positions, velocities, and
accelerations of each joint of the manipulator. So, in joint space, joint angles and displacements are used to
define the robot's configuration. The control action on the robot is carried in the joint space. In joint space, the
trajectory is defined in terms of joint angles
5.3.2 Cartesian space planning:
The motion planning in cartesian space is called cartesian space planning. It is the method to
determine a desired trajectory in terms of the position and orientation of the end effector over time. Cartesian
space (or Task space or operational space) is defined by a vector whose components are the position,
orientation and their time derivatives of the end effector of a robot. So, in cartesian space, cartesian coordinates
are used to define the robot's configuration.
Usually, the motion planning in Cartesian space is preferred by an operator since it allows a natural
description of the task the robot has to perform because the task the robot has to perform is done in this
space. However, the control action on the robot is carried in the joint space. Thus, a suitable inverse
kinematics algorithm is to be used to reconstruct the time sequence of joint variables corresponding to the
above sequence in the Cartesian space. Cartesian space describes the end-effector position and orientation
in the coordinate system.

5.3.3 Differentiate between Joint space trajectory and Cartesian trajectory planning
Ans: -
Joint Space Trajectory planning Cartesian Space Trajectory planning
The motion planning in the joint space is called The motion planning in cartesian space is called
joint space planning. cartesian space planning.

Joint space trajectory planning refers to the It is the method to determine a desired trajectory in
process of determining a path for a robotic terms of the position and orientation of the end
manipulator by specifying the desired joint angles effector over time.
over time to achieve a target position and
orientation.

Joint space is defined by a vector whose Cartesian space (or Task space or operational space)
components are the positions, velocities, and is defined by a vector whose components are the
accelerations of each joint of the manipulator. position, orientation and their time derivatives of the
end effector of a robot.

The control action on the robot is carried in the The task the robot has to perform is done in this space
joint space

In joint space, joint angles and displacements are In cartesian space, cartesian coordinates are used to
used to define the robot's configuration. define the robot's configuration.
 5.3.4 Joint space trajectory
Key points about joint space trajectory interpolation:

5.3.4.1 Joint angles as input:

Instead of specifying the desired end-effector position directly, the user defines the desired joint angles at
specific points in time (waypoints).
Mathematical interpolation:

Techniques like linear interpolation, cubic splines, or B-splines are used to calculate the joint angles at
intermediate points between the waypoints, ensuring smooth transitions.
Inverse kinematics not needed frequently:

Unlike task-space trajectory planning, joint space interpolation often requires less frequent inverse
kinematics calculations, which can be computationally expensive.
5.3.4.2 Benefits of joint space interpolation:

Computational efficiency:

Solving inverse kinematics only at waypoints can be faster than solving it continuously for a task- space trajectory.
Smooth motion:

By carefully selecting interpolation methods, the robot's motion can be made smooth and avoid jerky
movements.
 Easy to implement:

 Joint space trajectories are often easier to design and implement compared to task- space
trajectories, especially for simple motions.
 5.4 Path vs. Trajectory:
5.4.1 Path:
 A sequence of robot configurations in a particular order without regard to the timing of these
configurations is called a path.
 It is a set of all points which leads from an initial to a final configuration.
 It is the space curve that the manipulator moves along from initial position and orientation to final
position without regard to the timing.

5.4.2 Trajectory:
 A trajectory or flight path is the path that an object with mass in motion follows through space as a
function of time.
 A sequence of robot configurations in a particular order as a function of time is called a trajectory.
 A trajectory is a path with specified timing.
 It is the space curve that the manipulator moves along from initial position and orientation to final
position as a function of time.
(A path is a spatial construct and tells us how we get from A to B through the world. A trajectory is a path
plus a schedule. It tells us how quickly we should move along the path, at what time we should be at what
point along the path.)

5.4.1 Cartesian trajectories, Point to point vs continuous path planning

Two types of trajectories are
1. Point-to-Point motion
2. Continuous-path motion.
This depends on the nature of the robot's tasks.
1. Point-to-point motion (PTP): here, initial and final points of the path are assigned. The robot end effector
has to move from an initial to final joint configuration in a given time t f. Here, the actual end-effector
trajectory is not important.
Application of PTP Motion: In pick-and-place operations which are required to pick up an object from
one point to place it in another point.
2. Continuous-path motion (CP): here, a finite sequence of points of the path needs to be
specified. The path needs to be described in terms of a number of points which are typically greater
than two. It generates a trajectory with N points either in joint or Cartesian space. Application of CP
Motion: Where continuous motion of the end effector along a path is required. Example: to weld
two metal pieces along a curve.
 5.4.2 Applications of Cartesian space trajectory interpolation:
 Robot manipulation:
Precisely controlling the movement of a robot's end-effector for tasks like pick-and-
place, welding, painting, etc.
 CNC machining:
Generating toolpaths for milling or drilling operations where smooth transitions
between different cuts are necessary.
 Autonomous vehicles: Planning smooth driving trajectories for vehicles navigating
complex environments.

Exercise: State the difference between CP Motion and PTP Motion

Ans: -

Continuous Path (CP) Motion Point to point (PTP) Motion

A finite sequence of points of the path needs to be Initial and final points of the path are assigned
specified.
The path is described in terms of a number of The robot has to move from an initial to final joint
points which are typically greater than two. configuration in a given time tf.

A trajectory with N points either in joint or The actual end-effector trajectory is not
Cartesian space. important.

Application: - Arc Welding, Painting, Gluing, etc. Application: - Pick and place, Spot welding, etc.

Questions
1. State the significance of Forward dynamics and Inverse dynamics

2. Define the following (i) Path (ii) Trajectory of a robot.

3. Differentiate between Joint space trajectory and Cartesian trajectory planning

4. State the difference between CP Motion and PTP Motion

5. Compare Kinematic model and Dynamic model (two points each).

6. Describe Lagrange- Euler method and state it‘s equation of motion in dynamics.

7. Perform Forward and Inverse Dynamics of Two link Robot arm using any
Open-Source Software.