TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO ICT

ICT is an acronym that stands for Information and Communications Technology.

ICT is concerned with the storage, retrieval, manipulation, transmission or receipt of

digital data. Importantly, it is also concerned with the way these different uses can work
with each other.

ICT Facilities and Equipment

1. Computers 5. Mobile phones 9. Cctvs

2. Printers 6. Fax machines 10. Scanners etc.
3. TVs 7. Robots
4. Radios 8. Digital Cameras

Others

1. Interactive Whiteboards,
2. Video Conferencing.

1. Interactive Whiteboards: An interactive whiteboard (IWBs) is a large board

that is normally placed at the front of the classroom. It is connected
to a PC and projector and provides interactivity via a keyboard,
mouse, pen, finger and other peripheral devices. They are used in
classrooms with pupils of all ages and within various subjects. It acts
as an aid to the teacher for teaching within a whole class or allows pupil interaction for
peer-to-peer learning.

2. Video Conferencing: Video conferencing affords new ways for communication

and collaboration between people at almost any location
within the world. It involves the transmission of visuals and
sound to two or more separate locations through the use of
cameras, monitors, speakers and microphones. With the

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developments of ICT learners no longer have to be in the same location as the teacher,
the use of video conferencing allows lectures to take place in one location and the teacher
to be in a completely different location. Video conferencing enables learners to
communicate directly with others, immediately and at the same time (synchronously) or
at different times (asynchronously).

Uses of ICT

Supermarkets
- For stock control i.e. records of what is in store, what has been sold, and
what is out of stock
- For calculating customer’s change
- For production of receipts
- It can be used as a barcode reader
Banks
- Manage financial transactions through the use of special cash dispensing
machines called ATMs used for cash deposit & withdrawal services
- Processing of cheques
- For preparation of payrolls
- Better record keeping & processing of documents
- Provide electronic money transfer facilities
Homes
- Entertainment e.g. watching movies, playing music, playing computer
games
- For storing personal information/ documents
- For calculating & keeping home budgets
Industries
- To monitor and control industries processes through the use of robots
- For management control, i.e. to keep track of elders, bills and transactions
- For advertisement purposes, which enable an industry to attack more
customers
Police stations

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 - Matching, analyzing & keeping databases of fingerprints
- For taking photographs & other identification details
- For record keeping
- For face recognition, scene monitoring & analysis which help the police
carry out criminal investigations speedily
Transport industry
- Airports; to control the movement of aircrafts, their take off & landing
using radar equipment
- For making reservations (booking purposes)
- Storing flight information
- Automobile traffic control; to monitor vehicle traffic in busy towns
- In Railways corporations; to coordinate the movement of goods & wagons
- In shipping control, for efficient management of fleets, cargo handling &
communication
Offices
- For receiving & sending of information through e- mails, fax, etc
- Production of documents

- Keeping of records

Assignment 1

Write short notes on the impact of ICT in the contemporary society.

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 TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO COMPUTERS

Computer Systems
A computer is an electronic device that operates under the control of a set of instructions
that is stored in its memory unit. A computer accepts data from an input device and
processes it into useful information which it displays on its output device.

Data
Refers to all facts, letters, symbols, figures, multi-media, graphics that has not been
manipulated and cannot be used for decision making.

Information
Refers to data that has been manipulated and can be used in decision making.

Information Communication Technology

Refers to the use of computers, telecommunication equipment’s, human skills and other
technologies for the purpose of communicating.

Types of Computers

Can be categorized according to :

1. Computer generations (classification by age)
2. Classification by size
3. Classification by technology
4. Classification by purpose

1. Computer Generations (Classification By Age/ History of computers)

First Generation (1951-1958)

 Used vacuum tubes in electronic circuits. These tubes controlled internal operations
and were huge. As a consequence the machines were large.
 Used Magnetic drum; used as primary internal-storage medium: Electric currents
passed through wires which magnetized the core to represent on and off states

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 Limited main-storage capacity:
 Input and output operations were performed through the use of punched cards hence
so slow
 The computer used machine language which was cumbersome and accomplished
through long strings of numbers made up of Zeroes and Ones. In 1952, Dr. Grace
Hopper (University of Pennsylvania) developed a symbolic language called
mnemonics (instructions written with symbolic codes). Rather than writing
instructions with Zeroes and Ones, the mnemonics were translated into binary code.
Dr. Hopper developed the first set of programs or instructions to tell computers how
to translate the mnemonics.
 The vacuum tubes gave off tremendous amounts of heat.
Examples: IBM 650 UNIVAC I

Second Generation Computers (1959-1964)

 Use of transistors for internal operations: tiny solid state transistors replace vacuum
tubes in computers. The heat problem was then minimized and computers could be
made smaller and faster. The cost of the computers also reduced. Data access time
was measured in micro-seconds.
 Magnetic core was used as primary internal-storage medium: Electric currents pass
through wires which magnetize the core to represent on and off states. Data in the
cores can be found and retrieved for processing in a few millionths of a second.
 Increased main-storage capacity: The internal or main storage was supplemented by
use of magnetic tapes for external storage. These tapes substituted for punched cards
or paper. Magnetic disks were also developed that stored information on circular
tracks that looked like phonograph records. The disks provided direct or random
access to records in a file.
 Faster input/output; tape orientation: Devices could be connected directly to the
computer and considered "on-line". This allowed for faster printing and detection and
correction of errors.
 Used High-level programming languages (COBOL,FORTRAN):These languages
resembled English.

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 Increased speed and reliability: Modular-hardware was developed through the design
of electronic circuits. Complete modules called "breadboards" could be replaced if
malfunctions occurred, or the machine "crashed". This decreased lost time and also
new modules could be added for added features such as file-processing, editing and
input/output features.
 Batch-oriented applications: billing, payroll processing, updating and inventory files:
Batch processing allowed for collection of data over a period time and then one
processed in one computer run. The results were then stored on magnetic tapes.
Examples:IBM 1401*(most popular business-oriented computer. Honeywell 200
CDC 1604

Third generation computers (1965-1970)

 Use of integrated circuits: The use of integrated circuits (Ics) replaced the transistors
of the second-generation machines.
 Used Magnetic core and solid-state main storage which enhanced greater storage
capacity
 Advances in solid-state technology allowed for the design and building of smaller and
faster computers. The small circuitry that resulted improved the processing speed i.e.
10 times the past. The speed of these machines was described in nanoseconds
(1/1,000,000,000 of a second).
 Extensive use of high-level programming languages: The software industry evolved
during this time. Many users found that it was more cost effective to buy pre-
programmed packages than to write the programs themselves.
 Emergence of minicomputers: The mini computers offered many of the same features
as the mainframe computers only on a smaller scale. These machines filled the needs
of the small business owner.
 Remote processing and time-sharing through communication: Computers were then
able to perform several operations at the same time. Remote terminals were
developed to communicate with a central computer over a specific geographic
location. Time sharing environments were established.

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 Availability of operating-systems (software) to control I/O and do tasks handled by
human operators: Software was developed to take care of routine tasks required of the
computer freed up the human operator.
 Applications such as airline reservation systems, market forecasting, credit card
billing: The applications also included inventory, control, and scheduling labor and
materials. Multitasking was also accomplished. Both scientific and business
applications could be run on the same machine.
Examples: IBM System/360 NCR 395 Burroughs B6500

Fourth Generation (1970-)

 Used Large Scale Integrated (LSI) and very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) circuits
which housed hundreds of transistors and very large IC which are between 200,000 to
400, 000 in one IC.
 Smaller and cheaper
 Increased storage capacity and speed. Memory used includes magnetic disc and
optical disc. Memory size expanded up to several MB and speed was 10 times faster.
 Modular design and compatibility between equipment
 Special application programs
 Versatility of input/ output devices
 Increased use of minicomputers
 Enabled creation of Local Area Networks (LAN) and Wide Area Networks (WAN)
which facilitates connection and communication of hundred of computers located
across multiple locations.
 Operating systems includes; DOS and Windows. Use of GUI – Graphical User
Interface – a user friendly interface that provides ICONS and Menus to the user to
interact with the various computer applications.

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Fifth generation computers (1990-current)
 The design of these computers was based on VLSI (very large scale integration)
technology, the micro chip technology that gave rise to the smaller computers known
as the micro computers in use today.
 These computers are used in networking .examples of micro computers are IBM PCs
BBC micro etc. the micro computers are usually described as PCs or stand alone or
desktop computers because they were designed primarily to serve single person at a
time.
 The fifth generation is still a state of the art technology that relies on predictions and
further technological refinements. It has been predicted that such a computer will be
able to communicate in natural spoken language with its user; store vast knowledge
databases; search rapidly through these databases, making intelligent inferences and
drawing logical conclusions; and process images and ‘see’ objects in the way that
humans do.

2. Classification by Size
Super computers
They are very large in size and use multiple processors and superior technology. It can
process trillions of instructions in seconds. Governments specially use this type of
computer for their different calculations and heavy jobs. Different industries also use this
huge computer for designing their products.
Mainframe computers
A mainframe is another giant computer after the super computer and can also process
millions of instruction per second and capable of accessing billions of data .They are
physically very large in size with very high capacity of main memory. This computer is
commonly used in big hospitals, air line reservations companies, and many other huge
companies prefer mainframe because of its capability of retrieving data on a huge basis.
They can be linked to smaller computers and handle hundreds of users they are also used
in space exploitation.

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Minicomputers
They are smaller than the main frame but bigger than minicomputers. They support
concurrent users. They can be used as servers in companies. They are slower and less
costly compared to mainframe computers but more powerful, reliable and expensive than
micro computers.

Micro computers
It is the smallest of the three computers. They are usually called personal computers since
they are designed to be used by individuals. They use micro chip technology which has
enabled reduction of size of computers. Examples of microcomputers include;
o Notebook computer An extremely lightweight personal computer. Notebook
computers typically weigh less than 6 pounds and are small enough to fit easily in a
briefcase. Aside from size and portability,. Notebook computers use a variety of
techniques, known as flat-panel technologies, to produce a lightweight and non-
bulky display screen.
o Desktop Computer is an independent personal computer that is made especially for
use on a desk in an office or home. The term is used mainly to distinguish this type
of personal computer from portable computers and laptops, but also to distinguish
other types of computers like the server or mainframe.
o Laptop A small portable computer light enough to carry comfortably, with a flat
screen and keyboard that fold together. Laptops are battery-operated, often have a
thin, backlit or sidelit LCD display screen, and some models can even mate with a
docking station to perform as a full-sized desktop system back at the office.
Advances in battery technology allow laptop computers to run for many hours
between charges, and some models have a set of business applications built into
ROM. Today's high-end (Advanced) laptops provide all the capabilities of most
desktop computers.
o Palmtop A small computer that literally fits in your palm. Compared to full-size
computers, palmtops are severely limited, but they are practical for certain functions
such as phone books and calendars. Palmtops that use a pen rather than a keyboard
for input are often called hand-held computers or PDAs.

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3. Classification by Technology

Digital computers
Operations are based on two or more discrete states, binary digital computers are based
on two states a logical “on” and “off’ represented by two voltage levels of 0 and 1.
These arrangement of zeros and ones are used to represent all kinds of characters such as
numbers, letters, graphics, symbols and graphic instructions.

Analog computers
Are used in measurement of quantities such as thermometers and voltmeters with pointers
on circular dials. These computers measure data varying continuously in value such as
speed, temperature, voltages, frequency, pressure, humidity etc

Hybrid computers
Is a combination computer using all qualities/features of both the analog and digital
computers. eg petropumps

4. Classification By Purpose

Special purpose computers

Are designed for a particular job only; to solve problems of a restricted nature (a specific
problem domain). e.g. computers designed for use in petrol pumps.

General purpose computers

Are designed to solve a wide variety of general user problems. It can be adopted to
perform particular tasks or solve problems with special written programs. The range of
the application s/ware available in the personal computer is a clear indication of the
problem areas it can be applied eg word processing, graphic design etc.

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ELEMENTS OF A COMPUTER SYSTEM
The main components of the computer system are;
 Input unit: They are used to enter information and issue commands to the computer
 Processor (C.P.U): Composed of the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) and the
Control unit. The CPU is the brain of the computer. The CPU of a microcomputer is
called a microprocessor. The processor has the following functions:
o It controls the transmission of data from input devices to memory;
o It processes the data held in main memory;
o It controls the transmission of information from main memory to output
devices.
 Output unit: An output device displays information on a screen, creates printed copies
or generates sound
C.P.U

CONTROL
UNIT

A.L.U

Input Main memory/ Out put

internal storage

BACKING
STORAGE

- Shows the data/ instruction movement in the computer

Assignment TWO
Discus the advantages and disadvantages of using a computer.

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 TOPIC: COMPUTER HARDWARE AND ORGANISATION
Refers to the physical components that make up a computer system. Hardware
components of a computer can be categorized into five units;
I. Input devices
II. Output devices
III. Central processing unit (CPU) or processor
IV. Main Memory
V. Secondary storage/Backing Storage

INPUT DEVICES
Generally input is the process of entering and translating incoming data into machine
readable form so that they can be processed by a computer. Computer input involves
moving data from an input medium into the main store of the computer.

Types of input devices

1. Optical character Reader (OCR)
This is a device which reads digits, letters and symbols in documents. The document is
directly printed, typed or handwritten. OCR devices can read character printed by
typewriters, accounting machines, cash registers etc upto 300 pages per hour. Characters
are converted into machine code and recorded on disc. OCR is used in invoicing e.g.
electricity, sales, insurance etc.
Advantages of OCR
1. Does not require special equipment
2. Data is captured at source hence errors are limited
3. Documents can be revised hence cost saving
4. Easier method.
Disadvantages
1. Limited types and styles because of accuracy
2. Hand printing does not allow for the full alphabet
3. the OCR may require redesigning quite frequently
4. Optical readers are expensive

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2. Optical Mark Reader (OMR)
Uses the concept of light-sensing to interpret marks made in a certain position on an
output document. The device senses the absence and presence of a mark. The device is
used to mark examination papers with multiple choice questions where the answers are
filled in a form with special pencils. The answer sheet is graded by an OMR machine that
uses a light beam to recognize the marks and convert them to electric signals that can be
processed by the computer.
Advantages of OMR
1. Fairly straight forward to use
2. Low cost
3. No manual keying of data
4. No special equipment
Disadvantages
1. Not widely used in business
2. Unsuitable for alphabetic data
3. Requires strict format specification
3. Magnetic- Ink Character Reader/ Recognition (MICR)
This is a character reading machine, made of ink containing magnetized particles. The
concept behind MICR is that human-readable characters are printed on documents in
magnet sable ink. This enables a magnetic ink reader to recognize the character for input
to the computer. Usually found in various banking cards.
Advantages of MICR
1. Its fast, accurate and automatic
2. Cods are both machines and human readable
3. Low error rates
4. Reduces forgery – altering MICR characters is extremely difficult
Disadvantages
1. Requires some manual keying
2. Limited to only 14 characters
3. MICR system is based on magnetism and can easily be destroyed by heat,
vibration etc.

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4. Keyboard
It’s a device which enables the user to communicate with the computer. Used to enter
data or instructions into the computer which appears simultaneously on the screen.
The following are the keys:

5. Voice Data Entry (VDE)/ Microphone

This is a device which is capable of recognizing particular spoken words and converts
them into computer code. The code is stored in the main memory. When a word is spoken
into a microphone, it is displayed on the screen for visual verification to confirm that the
input is correct. Used in areas like stock control etc.
Advantages of V.D.E
1. Input is controlled with great accuracy
2. Input is readily verified and corrected
3. The users hands free to perform other tasks
4. Can be used by an operator with no keyboard skill.
Disadvantages
1. Such systems are very expensive
2. vocabulary is very limited
3. speed of entry is slow

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6. Bar Code Reader
Bar Code Reader is a device used for reading bar coded data (data in form of light and
dark lines). Bar coded data is generally used in labeling goods, numbering the books, etc.
It may be a hand-held scanner or may be embedded in a stationary scanner. Bar Code
Reader scans a bar code image, converts it into an alphanumeric value, which is then fed
to the computer to which bar code reader is connected.
8. Digitizer
Digitizer is an input device, which converts analog information into a digital form.
Digitizer can convert a signal from the television camera into a series of numbers that
could be stored in a computer. They can be used by the computer to create a picture of
whatever the camera had been pointed at. Digitizer is also known as Tablet or Graphics
Tablet because it converts graphics and pictorial data into binary inputs. A graphic tablet
as digitizer is used for doing fine works of drawing and images manipulation
applications.
9. Scanner
Scanner is an input device, which works more like a photocopy machine. It is used when
some information is available on a paper and it is to be transferred to the hard disc of the
computer for further manipulation. Scanner captures images from the source which are
then converted into the digital form that can be stored on the disc. These images can be
edited before they are printed.
10. Mouse
Mouse is most popular Pointing device. It is a very famous cursor-control device. It is a
small palm size box with a round ball at its base which senses the movement of mouse
and sends corresponding signals to CPU on pressing the buttons. Generally, it has two
buttons called left and right button and scroll bar is present at the mid. Mouse can be used
to control the position of cursor on screen, but it cannot be used to enter text into the
computer.
Mouse clicking techniques:
1. Click – refers to pressing the left mouse button once.
2. Right click – refers to pressing the right mouse button once.
3. Double click – refers to pressing the left mouse button twice in quick succession.

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11. Light Pens
Light pen is a pointing device, which is similar to a pen. It is used to select a displayed
menu item or draw pictures on the monitor screen. It consists of a photocell and an
optical system placed in a small tube. When light pen's tip is moved over the monitor
screen and pen button is pressed, its photocell sensing element, detects the screen
location and sends the corresponding signal to the CPU.
12. Joystick
Joystick is also a pointing device, which is used to move cursor position on a monitor
screen. It is a stick having a spherical ball at its both lower and upper ends. The lower
spherical ball moves in a socket. The joystick can be moved in all four directions. The
function of joystick is similar to that of a mouse. It is mainly used in Computer Aided
Designing (CAD) and playing computer games. Commonly used for video games, flight
simulators, training simulators, and for controlling industrial robots.
13. Track Ball
Track ball is an input device that is mostly used in notebook or laptop computer, instead
of a mouse. This is a ball, which is half inserted and by moving fingers on ball, pointer
can be moved. Since the whole device is not moved, a track ball requires less space than
a mouse. A track ball comes in various shapes like a ball, a button and a square.

OUTPUT DEVICES
Output is the process of translating data in a machine- readable form into a form
understandable to humans, or storing data/information in a to storage device readable by
other machines. The information which is the end result of processing is also referred to
as output. There are 3 major methods of outputting information from a computer
namely:-
(i) Printing
(ii) Visual Display
(iii) Computer output to microfilm/microfiche (COM)

Data output devices may be classified as hardcopy or softcopy. Hard copy output devices
generate a permanent physical copy or print out of information that may be filed,

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 duplicated, mailed etc. Softcopy output devices provide only temporary copy of
information e.g. information on (V.D.U)
Types of output devices
1. Printers
Usually make hard copies. Printers can be classified into 3 categories namely:-
(i) Line printers
(ii) Serial/character printer
(iii) Page printers

The following tree diagram illustrate the various categories:

Printers

Line Printers Serial Printers Page Printers

Laser Electrostatic Magnetic Ion

Deposition
Chain Drum

Impact Non - Impact

Dot Matrix Daisy Thimble Thermal Inkjet

Wheel

1. Line Printers
Print a complete line at a time within a fraction of a second.
Characteristics

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  Prints from 300-3000 lines per minute
 Work on a character set of 48, 64 or 96 per set
 Can produce multiple copies
 Used with computers where speed of printing is necessary.
There are 2 types of line printers namely:-
a. Drum printers
b. Chain/train/band printers
2. Page Printers
 Create a full page of print at a time.
Characteristics
 Prints 8-600 pages per minute
 Has 128-256 characters per set with a range of fonts and sizes stored in a printer
storage
 Produces copies by reprinting
 Has stationery handling facility.

Types of page printers

a. Laser Printers
b. Ion Deposition printers

3. Serial /Character Printers

 Prints a character at a time across the line of print.
 Allows only one print head in operation a one instant in a similar way to a
typewriter.
Categories of serial/character printers
1. Impact printers
Transfer the image onto paper by striking the paper ribbon and character together and
create carbon copies
Examples
a. Dot Matrix
b. Daisy Wheel

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 c. Thimble Printers
2. Non-Impact printers
They produce characters without physically striking the paper. Cannot create carbon
copies.
Examples
a. Inkjet Printer
b. Thermal printers.
2. Computer output on micro film/COM
It is the process of transforming digital data produced by the computer into human
readable form recording it in reduced physical size onto a photographic film. The system
consists of a computer for producing original documents or images and a recording
machine for preparing the microfilm, miniature photography images.
Advantages
 Last longer than other chemical based printing
 Cost of producing microfilm is cheaper
 Works faster than a printer
 Capable of producing many copies
Disadvantages
 Require special equipment for viewing and producing hardcopy
 COM records are not easily updatable
 Use of COM causes eye strain.
3. VDU (Visual Display Unit)/ Screen/ monitor
This is a soft copy device that is used to display instructions and information.
Advantages
 Display of output is almost instantaneous
 Minimizes paper work hence great reduction in the use of stationeries.
 Hardware costs are minimal since no extra equipment are needed.
Disadvantages
 Can lure computer operator into not keeping hardcopy records.
 Screen may not allow the viewing of the full array of data.

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Types of VDUs
There are two kinds of viewing screen used for monitors:
• Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT)
• Flat-Panel Display a) Cathode-Ray Tube (CRT) Monitor

In the CRT, display is made up of small picture elements called pixels for short. The
smaller the pixels, the better the image clarity or resolution. It takes more than one
illuminated pixel to form whole character, such as the letter 'e' in the word help.

The flat-panel display refers to a class of video devices that have reduced volume, weight
and power requirement compared to the CRT. You can hang them on walls or wear them
on your wrists. Current uses for flat-panel displays include calculators, video games,
monitors, laptop computer, graphics display.

The flat-panel display is divided into two categories:

• Emissive Displays - The emissive displays are devices that convert electrical energy
into light.
Examples are plasma panel and LED (Light-Emitting Diodes).
• Non-Emissive Displays - The Non-emissive displays use optical effects to convert
sunlight or light from some other source into graphics patterns. Example is LCD (Liquid-
Crystal Device)
4. Graph Plotters
They produce printed output in the form of graphs, charts and diagrams. It can display
both alphanumeric and graphic data such as charts and maps.
Advantages
 Present information is easily understandable form
 Their presentation is quick and reliable
Disadvantages
Graphic software is expensive.

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5. Voice Output Device/ Speakers
This device presents output in a spoken form like a human voice. It makes sounds that
seem like human voices but actually are pre-recorded vocalized sounds. Used in cars,
airports, post office message e.g. the number you dialed had been changed. The following
factors must be considered when designing a voice output device.
 Speech quality must be acceptable to the listeners
 Stored vocabulary must be capable of being amended
 The amount of information to be conveyed at one go.
6. CAD (Computer Aided Design)
This is the integration of computers and graphics to aid in the design and drafting
processes. A computer, special software, video screen and a light pen are used as
common equipment. It is capable of producing 3 dimension view, of various sizes. It is
easy to use and saves time. The technique is used in architectural designs etc.

CENTRAL PROCESSING UNIT (CPU)

The C.P.U consists of 3 main components namely:-
(a) The Main Memory
(b) The control unit
(c) The Arithmetic Logic & Unit (A.L.U)
Arithmetic Logic Unit (A.L.U)
Part of the C.P.U that performs all mathematical and logical operations. It has registers
for storing data being processed and accumulators for storing the results of calculations
The operations include:-
(i) Carrying out the arithmetic operations i.e. addition, subtraction, multiplication &
division.
(ii) Performing logical operations e.g. comparison of two numbers to determine which is
greater.
Control Unit
Part of the C.P.U that controls the sequence of events necessary to execute an instruction.
It directs and coordinates the sequence of operations, interprets the coded instructions and
initiates the proper commands to the computer to execute instructions.

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Main Memory
Refers to primary holding place in a comp

uter system. Also known as the main storage Its functions are:-
(i) Holds data for processing
(ii) Hold instructions being executed.
(iii) Holds processed data waiting to be output
(iv) Storage for temporary results.
It is classified into two major categories
 RAM (Random Access Memory)
 ROM (Read Only Memory).

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Random Access Memory (RAM)
Is the basic kind of internal memory that holds data and instructions while the computer
is in use. It can be read from and written to. It is called random access because the
processor or computer can access any location in memory in any order as contrasted with
sequential access devices which must be accessed in order. RAM is volatile; losing the
stored information in an event of power loss, and quite expensive.

There are two basic types of RAM.

 Static RAM does not need to be refreshed, which makes it faster; but it is also more
expensive than dynamic RAM.
 Dynamic RAM needs to be refreshed thousands of times per second. Both types of
RAM are volatile, meaning that they lose their contents when the power is turned off.

ROM (Read Only Memory)

Contains programs and/or data ``burned in'' at the time of manufacture. Commonly used
to contain programs to ``boot up'' the computer when it is switched on. It refers to special
memory used to store programs that boot the computer and perform diagnostics. Most
personal computers have a small amount of ROM (a few thousand bytes). It retains its
contents even when the computer is turned off and is therefore referred to as being
nonvolatile.
There are various types of ROM;
 PROM (``Programmable Read Only Memory'').
ROM which is ``blank'' and into which programs and/or data can be written, but only
once.
 EPROM (``Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory'').
PROM which can be erased, usually by exposure to Ultra-Violet light through a
transparent window above the chip.

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SECONDARY STORAGE /BACKING STORAGE/AUXILIARY STORAGE
Secondary storage is a storage used to supplement the main storage by holding data and
programs not currently in use, outside the computer itself. A secondary storage medium
is usually used for the storage of large amounts of data or programs permanently.

There are 3 basic types of secondary storage media are;

a. Magnetic tapes
b. Magnetic discs
c. Optical media
Advantages of secondary storage:
1. More cheaper to store on secondary devices than in a filing cabinet or main memory
2. offers a large storage capacity
3. offers safety of data stored
4. Facilitates movement of data stored electronically

Magnetic Tape
This is storage medium that consists of a plastic ribbon that has been coated with material
that can be magnetized to represent data. It is the oldest form of secondary storage. It is
still used, mostly for backup or archival storage, and for batch processing. Data is stored
on tracks on the tape - most tapes have 9 tracks.
Examples include:
- 14" reels of 1/2" wide tape (2400' long)
- Cartridges of 1/4" tape
- Cassettes (very similar to audio cassettes)
- Digital Audio Tape (DAT).

Advantages:

 It is very inexpensive

 It can store large amounts of data

 It is relatively robust

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Disadvantages

 It only allows access to data sequentially and is therefore very slow compared to
other secondary storage technologies

 May need manual intervention to mount/dismount.

Magnetic Disks
Hard disks are (usually but not always) permanently mounted inside the computer. All
magnetic disks have a magnetized iron oxide coating and read/write heads that can move
over the surface of the disk, which is spinning underneath it. The disk head works in a
similar way to the head in an audio tape recorder. The read/write head in a floppy disk
drive actually contacts the magnetic disk, but that in a hard disk ``flies'' a few thousandths
of an inch above it.

1. Hard Disks
Data on the disk surface is recorded on tracks which form concentric circles on the disk.
Each disk has a set number of tracks. Depending on type of disk drive, there may be from
100 to over 10,000 tracks on the disk. Tracks with the same number on each disk
(recording) surface form a cylinder. The disks spin at a fixed speed, typically at 3600 rpm
(IDE) or 7500 -15,000 rpm (SCSI). Tracks on a disk are organized into sectors. To get to
a particular piece of data on the disk a track number and a sector number are needed.

Data is read/written when the required sector on the track rotates into position under the
read/write head (note that data can be accessed from any track of the cylinder). The time
taken to position the head over the correct track/cylinder is called the seek time. The time
needed for the sector to arrive (once the head is in position over the correct
track/cylinder) is called the latency time.

Creating the magnetic tracks on a previously blank disk is called formatting the disk.
Formatting destroys any data that might have been on the disk previously. Typical data
access times for modern hard disks (i.e. latency + seek) are about 10-15 milliseconds

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2. Floppy Disks
A floppy disk is a magnetic storage medium for computer systems. The floppy disk is
composed of a thin, flexible magnetic disk sealed in a square plastic carrier. In order to
read and write data from a floppy disk, a computer system must have a floppy disk drive
(FDD). A floppy disk is also referred to simply as a floppy. Since the early days of
personal computing, floppy disks were widely used to distribute software, transfer files,
and create back-up copies of data. When hard drives were still very expensive, floppy
disks were also used to store the operating system of a computer.

Optical Disks
They record data using the principle of light. Optical disks are becoming more common.
They come in several types:

 CD-ROM (Compact Disk Read Only Memory)

 CD-R (Compact Disk Recordable)

 CD-RW (compact Disk Re-Writable)

 DVD (Digital Versatile/Video Disk)

 DVD-R (Digital Versatile Disk Recordable)

 DVD-RW (Digital Versatile Disk Re-Writable)

CD-ROM

Stands for ``Compact Disk - Read Only Memory''. Comes with data already stored on it -
like a music compact disk. Useful for distributing information that should not be
changed (e.g. encyclopaedias) and programs (e.g. new versions of software) and,
inevitably, games. Typical storage capacity: 650 Mb.

WORM

Stands for ``Write Once, Read Many''. Data can be written onto the initially blank optical
disk. Once written, the data cannot be erased. Useful for storing data that needs to be
permanently retained. Similar in other respects to CD-ROM disks.

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CD-R

These are the optical version of magnetic hard disks - that is, data can be written to them
and erased from them. Similar in storage capacity and access time to the other types of
optical disks.

Data is written by heating a spot on the disk with a laser beam, in the presence of a
magnetic field, the direction of which determines whether a `0' or `1' is written.

Data is read by shining a lower power laser beam onto the disk spot (without the
magnetic field) and detecting the polarization of the light that is reflected.

CD-RW
Compact Disc – ReWritable: write many, read many

Digital Versatile/Video Disc (DVD)

DVD’s can store 4.7 GB to 17 GB on a single disk

DVD-ROM
Written at manufacturing plant, read many

DVD-R DVD+R
Write once, read many. Tend to cost more than CD writable disks

DVD-RW DVD+RW DVD-RAM

Write many, read many

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 TOPIC: COMPUTER SOFTWARE
Software is a set of instructions; they can be divided into 2 types
a) System
b) Application

a) System software

These are sets of instructions designed to manage and support the computer resources i.e.
hardware & software
It is used within the computer for organizing the internal functions of the computer.
Systems can be divided into the following categories
 Operating system
 Utility software
 Translation programs

b) Application software

They are a set of instructions that help the user to perform specific tasks

 Off the shelf e.g.

 Word processing
 Spread sheets
 Graphical packages
 Accounting packages
 Desktop publishing

 In house be spoke/Tailor made e.g.

 Payroll systems
 Hotel booking systems

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OPERATING SYSTEM

This is an integrated collection of programs that manage the operations of the CPU and
other peripherals devices therefore it manages the computer system to enhance its
optimum utilisation and efficiency.

Functions of the operating system

1. Memory management
It allocates memory locations to data and other programs
It defines how much memory is used up and how much is available for use.
2. File management
Provides creation / deletion of files
Automatic management of disk space
Protection of files from accidental or deliberate corruption
3. Scheduling
Refers to the lining up of jobs which need to be passed over to other devices e.g. several
jobs awaiting printing
4. Security
Enables use of passwords and user names which the computer recognizes to identify the
legitimate user
5. Logging & accounting
Allows records or jobs performed to be maintained indicating the times and dates when
they were created. It accounts for who logged in and when
6. Peripheral device control
Coordinates all the peripheral devices connected to the CPU
7. Interface between user and computer system
Relieves and interprets commands for the user.

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CLASSES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
Operating systems can be designed as:
a) Proprietary operating systems
These are operating systems designed for use by a specific architecture e.g Ms-Dos and
PC Dos which run on IBM & compatible computers using the intel services of
microprocessors
Apple Macintosh – used on Macintosh which use the Motorola services of micro
processors
b) Generic operating systems
Are designed for use by a wide variety of computer architecture e.g unix which runs on
both intel and Motorola micro processor
TYPES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS
A particular operating systems may in corporate one or more of these capabilities
i. Single user : Only one user at a time can access a computer e.g Dos
ii. Multi – user: Allows two or more users to access a computer at the same. The
actual number of users depend on the hardware and the design of the operating
systems
iii. Single tasking: Allows one program to execute at a time and that program must
finish executing before the next program can begin
iv. Multi – tasking ( Multi programming) : Allows a single processor to execute
what appears to be more than one program at a time. The processor switches its
attention between two or ore programs in main memory as it receives requests
for processing from one program and another. This happens so quickly that the
programs that the appears to execute simultaneously ( concurrently )
v. Time – sharing : Allows multi user to access a single computer. The operating
systems are found on large computers where many users need to access the
computers at the same time.
vi. Distributed operating systems – these allows application to run on several
processors at the same time. They require more complex scheduling algorithms in
order to optimize the amount of parallelisms.

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vii. Real time processing: Allows a computer to control / monitor the task
performances of other machines and people by responding to data in a specified
amount of time. To control processes immediate response is usually necessary e.g
flight reservation, traffic control e.t.c
Examples of operating systems
Ms Dos, Windows 3 – 11/98, 2000, ME, XP, NT, UNIX, LINUX, NOVELL

FEATURES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

Command based operating systems e.g. ms dos:

 For the user to interact or communicate with the computer system they have to enter
commands by typing them via the keyboard
 The DOS environment is not usually very user friendly because the user has to
memorize commands required to allow the user execute certain functions
 DOS only supports single-user, single-tasking environment and therefore doesn’t
allow optimum utilization of the available memory of at any time

Windows based os:

 The user input the actions using the mouse

 They use graphics i.e. icons or images are used to give commands and hence the user
does not have to memorize all the commands
 They are easier to use but slower
 They support multi-tasking
 They allow optimum utilization of the available memory

UTILITY PROGRAM
They are programs written to enhance the efficiency of carrying out routine repetitive
tasks. These tasks can also be done by the operating system but not as efficiently as
utility programs, Utility programs are therefore system programs that provide useful
services to the user of the common tasks

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Examples of utility programs
Editors
These are instructions that provide a series of commands, which the user can use to make
any alteration on data
Used to make necessary changes to programs

Debuggers
They are used to as an aid to removing bugs or errors from a program

Dump utility
Dumping means to copy the contents of the main memory out e.g. copying of data from
the main memory on to the storage media like a diskette and this is useful when errors
have occurred during the running of a program

Merge utility

This program is used to enhance the combining of two file contents into a single file
Screen saver
this is a screen that prevents the monitor displaying screen from being tampered with by
putting moving patterns on the screen.

Back up utility

This enables the user to move duplicate copies of the files or information on the hard
disk.
Anti virus utility
It’s a utility program that scans the hard disk – diskettes and computer memory to
detect viruses

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Data compression

This utility removes redundant elements and unnecessary data from the computer
memory

TRANSLATION PROGRAMS

They are programs that convert the source code programs (written in 2nd 3rd & 4th
generation languages into machine language i.e. 0’s and 1’s
Examples
Compilers- transform programs written in a high level language into machine code
program
Interpreters – transform the source code of HLL one statement at a time into the machine
code
Assembler- transform programs written in assembly language (2nd generation) into
machine code.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
These are set of instructions/programs designed to help the user to solve specific
applications /problems/ tasks
They can be bought- off the shelf or developed - in house depending on the needs of the
organisation to solve general or specific problems
Note.
Microsoft office is a suite of programs with word, excel, access, PowerPoint etc

OFF THE SHELF

They are standardized ready-made programs that can be bought from the manufacturer
readily they are designed to solve particular problems but not made for a particular user.

They are suitable when

(a) The problem to be solved is of a general nature

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(b) When programmers are not available in the organisation
(c) When it’s cheaper to buy them than developing one in house.
(d) When implementation time required is short i.e problem at hand is very urgent.

Examples

Accounting packages - sage, quickbooks, pastel, sunsystem

Spread sheets – ms excel, lotus 1-2-3, Quattro pro, super calc
Word-processing- ms word, word perfect, word star, word pro
Database management – ms access, dbase, oracle, fox pro, etc
Desktop publishing – PageMaker, Ventura, Harvard graphics, ms publisher

Advantages of Off the Shelf

1. They are portable- most of them can run in different computer

2. They are developed by experts
3. Well tested and tried, therefore error free
4. They are cheap- customers share cost.
5. They are readily available and takes less time to implement
6. They are user friendly i.e. they use WIMP and Graphical User Interface
7. They are well documented- well designed user manuals
Disadvantages
1. They may not solve unique needs of the user
2. The user doesn’t have the ownership rights (copyrights) and cannot modify or sell
the package
3. Require regular training especially when a new version comes into the market
4. They become out of date soon

IN HOUSE: TAILOR MADE

It is software designed to meet the unique needs of the user

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It is developed by the user in particular regard to a specific problem
It is suitable under the following circumstances
i. there is enough time to allow development
ii. when the user problem is unique
iii. when there is availability of programmers in the organisation

Advantages

i. Capable of meeting specific user needs

ii. Security- only users within the org. know about the software
iii. Users require less training because they were involved in development
iv. Users/org. have ownership rights and can modify or copy it
v. Maintenance can be done in-house and hence no risk of obsolescence

Disadvantages

i. Require a lot of time to implement

ii. Not highly portable
iii. May not be well documented
iv. Costly because the user has to meet all the costs/ expenses
v. Likely to have errors due to improper testing

PROGRAMMING LANGUAGES

The computer system is simply a machine and hence it cannot perform any work;
therefore, in order to make it functional different languages are developed, which are
known as programming languages or simply computer languages.

Over the last two decades, dozens of computer languages have been developed. Each of
these languages comes with its own set of vocabulary and rules, better known as syntax.
Furthermore, while writing the computer language, syntax has to be followed literally, as
even a small mistake will result in an error and not generate the required output.

Following are the major categories of Programming Languages −

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  Machine Language
 Assembly Language
 High Level Language
 System Language
 Scripting Language

Machine Language

This is the language that is written for the computer hardware. Such language is effected
directly by the central processing unit (CPU) of a computer system.

Assembly Language

It is a language of an encoding of machine code that makes simpler and readable.

High Level Language

The high level language is simple and easy to understand and it is similar to English
language. For example, COBOL, FORTRAN, BASIC, C, C+, Python, etc.

High-level languages are very important, as they help in developing complex software
and they have the following advantages −

 Unlike assembly language or machine language, users do not need to learn the
high-level language in order to work with it.
 High-level languages are similar to natural languages, therefore, easy to learn and
understand.
 High-level language is designed in such a way that it detects the errors
immediately.
 High-level language is easy to maintain and it can be easily modified.
 High-level language makes development faster.
 High-level language is comparatively cheaper to develop.
 High-level language is easier to document.

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Although a high-level language has many benefits, yet it also has a drawback. It has poor
control on machine/hardware.

Factors to consider when selecting appropriate software

a. Cost –
b. User friendliness – have GUI and offer online help facilities to the user
c. Flexibility - change with time
d. Maintainability – should give room for modification
e. User needs /requirement – need for user influences the type of software to be
acquired
f. Compatibility – fit in the existing technology
g. Portability – run in a variety of machines.
h. Reliability- perform desired task without failure
i. Vendor support – suppliers of the software to offer maintenance , training etc
j. Security – have facility to stop hackers
k. Documentation – should have instruction manual highlighting how to use ,
install etc
l. Fault tolerate – allow users to easily handle mistakes,

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 TOPIC: COMPUTER PERSONNEL

The IT field requires qualified and trained employees who can design and develop a new
information system.

Types of Computer Related Jobs

In recent times, a number of jobs have come up that are done with the assistance of
computer. We will discuss the different job titles performing computer related jobs −

Programmer

A person who is qualified enough to write a creative code for the computer program is
known as Programmer. The codes written by programmer are the instructions given to the
computer over what to do, how to do, when to do, etc. There are dozens of languages,
which are written by the different programmers. E.g. Java, C, C++, python, Ajax, etc.

System Analyst

A system analyst fundamentally designs, develops, and implements new systems or adds
some additional features in the existing system to give instructions to perform additional
tasks. System analyst also specializes in fields such as engineering, science &
technology, finance, business, accounting, etc.

Database Administrator

A database administrator or simply DBA is a trained person who is accountable for the
storage of and management of the database system.

Network Administrator

Computer networking is another specialized field where a qualified person is required. A

network administrator specializes in installing, configuring, and supporting computer
network system. Likewise, he manages the local area network, wide area network, the
Internet system or the segment of a network system in the respective organization.

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The job of a network administrator is a very crucial one as almost every network in an
organization requires at least one network administrator.

Web Designers

A web designer is an architect who designs an effective and communicative website. He

places the images, contents, and other such information on right places to make the
website interactive and user friendly.

Information Security Analysts

This is one of the most significant jobs under which an Information Security Analyst
designs, implements, and supports the security system of a computer or whole network.

Computer operator

A role in IT, computer operators oversee the running of computer systems, ensuring that
the machines and computers are running properly. The role also includes maintaining
records and logging events, listing each backup that is run, each machine malfunction and
program abnormal termination. Operators assist system administrators and programmers
in testing and debugging of new systems and programs prior to their becoming
production environments.

39
 TOPIC: COMPUTER SECURITY
What is Computer security?
Refers to safeguarding the computer & the related equipments from the risk of damage or
fraud. It also refers to protection of data & information against accidental or deliberate
threats which might cause unauthorised modification, disclosure, or destruction.

A computer system can only be claimed to be secure if precautions are taken to safeguard
it against damage or threats such as accidents, errors & omissions. The security measures
to be undertaken by the organization should be able to protect:
i) Computer hardware
ii) Computer software.
iii) Data and information
THREATS TO COMPUTERS & INFORMATION SYSTEMS.
1). Fire.
Fire destroys data, information, software & hardware.
Security measures against fire:
 Use fire-proof cabinets & lockable metal boxes for floppy disks.
 Use of backups.
 Install fire fighting equipments, e.g., fire extinguishers.
2). Water, floods & moisture.
This causes rusting of the metallic components of the computer.
Security measures against water, floods & moisture:
 Set up computer rooms on higher grounds to avoid floods & humidity.
 Avoid installing computer components in the basement.
 There should be adequate drainage system.
 Use water-proof ceilings & floors.
3). Lightening, electricity & electrical storms.
This causes power failure that can cause damage to data, which has not been transferred
to permanent storage devices.

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Security measures:
 Install facilities to control power fluctuations, e.g., use of Uninterrupted power
source (UPS)
 Use power stabilizers.
 Have standby power generators/sources.
 Have lightening arresters in the building.
4). Excessive Heat or Temperature.
Excessive heat or temperature from the computer itself or from the surrounding
environment can destroy computer storage media or devices.
Security measures:
 There should be efficient ventilation system.
 Use a cooling system in the computer rooms, e.g., cooling fans & air conditioners.
5). Smoke and Dust.
Dust and Smoke particles settle on storage devices and may scratch them during
Read/write operation.
Security measures:
 Have dust mats or carpets to prevent entry of dust.
 Fit the computer room with special Curtains to reduce entry of dust particles.
 Cover the devices with Dust covers when cleaning the room.
6). Unauthorised access
Data & information is always under constant threat from people who may want to access
it without permission. Such persons will usually have a bad intention, either to commit
fraud, steal the information & destroy or corrupt the data. Unauthorized access may take
the following forms:
a). Eavesdropping:
This is tapping into communication channels to get information, e.g., Hackers mainly use
eavesdropping to obtain credit card numbers.
b). Surveillance (monitoring):
This is where a person may monitor all computer activities done by another person or
people. The information gathered may be used for different purposes, e.g., for
spreading propaganda or sabotage.

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 c). Industrial espionage:
Industrial espionage involves spying on a competitor so as to get or steal information that
can be used to finish the competitor or for commercial gain.The main aim of espionage is
to get ideas on how to counter by developing similar approach or sabotage.

Control measures against unauthorized access.

i). Enforce data & information access control policies on all employees to control
access to data
ii). Keep the computer room closed when nobody is using it.
iii). Reinforce weak access points, e.g., doors & windows with metallic grills &
burglar alarms.
iv). Use file passwords to prevent any person from getting access to the electronic
files.
v). Enforce network security measures, e.g., use of firewalls.
vi). Encrypt the data & information during transmission.
vii). Perform frequent Audit trails to identify threats to data & information.

7) Computer viruses
A computer virus is a destructive program that attaches itself to other files when the
files are opened for use, and installs itself on the computer, without the knowledge of
the user.
A computer virus is a program designed specifically to damage other programs or
interfere with the proper functioning of the computer system.
It is usually designed to carry out 2 tasks:

(a) To copy itself from one computer system to another.

(b) To locate itself within a computer system enabling it to amend/destroy program
& data files, by interfering with the normal processes of the operating system.

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 Types of computer viruses.
1. Boot sector viruses – they destroy the booting information on storage devices.
2. File viruses – they attach themselves to files either erasing or modifying them.
3. Hoax viruses – they come as e-mails with an attractive subject & activate
themselves when the e-mail is opened.
4. Trojans – they appear to perform necessary functions, but perform other
undesirable activities in the background without the knowledge of the user.
5. Worms – viruses that stick in the computer memory.
6. Backdoors – may be a Trojan or Worm that allows hidden access to a computer
system.
Sources of viruses.
 Contact with contaminated systems:
 Use of pirated software:
 Fake games:
 Freeware and Shareware:
 Updates of software distributed via networks:
Symptoms of viruses in a computer system.
The following symptoms indicate the presence of a virus in your computer:
 Boot failure.
 Files & programs disappearing mysteriously.
 Unfamiliar graphics or messages appearing on the screen, e.g., the virus might flash
a harmless message such as “Merry Christmas” on the computer terminal.
 Gradual filling of the free space on the hard disk.
 Corruption of files and programs.
 Programs taking longer than usual to load.
 Unusual error messages occurring more frequently.
Control measures against viruses.
i). Install up-to-date (or the latest) antivirus software on the computers.
ii). Restrict the movement of foreign storage media, e.g., diskettes in the computer
room. If they have to be used, they must be scanned for viruses.
iii). Avoid opening mail attachments before scanning them for viruses.

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 iv). Backup all software & data files at regular intervals.
v). Avoid pirated software. If possible, use the software from the major software
houses.
9) Theft
The threat of theft of data & information, hardware & software is real. Some information
is so valuable such that business competitors or some governments can decide to pay
somebody a fortune so as to steal the information for them to use.
Control measures
i). Create backups & store them in locations away from the main computing centre.
ii). Reinforce weak access points, e.g., the windows, doors, & roofing with metallic
grills and strong padlocks.
iii). Put burglar proofs in the computer room.
iv). Employ guards to keep watch over data & information centres and backups.
COMPUTER CRIMES
A computer crime is a deliberate theft or criminal destruction of computerized data. It
also involves the use of computer hardware, software, or data for illegal activities, e.g.,
stealing, forgery, defrauding, etc.
Types of computer crimes.
The following are the major types of computer crimes:
1. Trespass. 8. Alteration of data.
2. Hacking. 9. Theft of computer time / Theft of
3. Tapping. service.
4. Cracking. 10. Theft of data, information or
5. Piracy. programs.
6. Fraud (Theft of money) 11. Damage of software.
7. Sabotage.
Trespass.
Refers to the illegal physical entry to restricted places where computer hardware,
software & backed up data is kept. It can also refer to the act of accessing information
illegally on a local or remote computer over a network.
Hacking.

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Is an attempt to invade the privacy of a system, either by tapping messages being
transmitted along a public telephone line, or through breaking security codes &
passwords to gain unauthorized entry to the system data and information files in a
computer.
Tapping.
Refers to listening to a transmission line to gain a copy of the message being transmitted.
Tapping may take place through the following ways:
a) A person may send an intelligent program to a host computer that sends him/her
information from the computer.
b) Spying on a networked computer using special programs that are able to intercept
messages being sent & received by the unsuspecting computer.
Cracking.
Is the use of guesswork by a person trying to look for a weakness in the security codes of
a software in order to get access to data & information. These weak access points can
only be sealed using sealed using special corrective programs called Patches, which are
prepared by the manufacturing company.
A program patch is a software update that when incorporated in the current software
makes it better. Cracking is usually done by people who have some idea of passwords or
user names of the authorized staff.
Piracy.
Software, information & data are protected by copyright laws. Piracy means making
illegal copies of copyrighted software, data, or information either for personal use or for
re-sale.

Ways of reducing piracy:

i) Enact & enforce copyright laws that protect the owners of data & information
against piracy.
ii) Make software cheap enough to increase affordability.
iii) Use licenses and certificates of authenticity to identify originals.
iv) Set installation passwords that prevent illegal installation of software.

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Fraud.
Is the use of computers to conceal information or cheat other people with the intention of
gaining money or information. Fraud may take the following forms:
a). Input manipulation:
Data input clerks can manipulate input transactions, e.g., they can create dummy (ghost)
employees on the Salary file or a ghost supplier on the Purchases file.
b). Production & use of fake documents:
E.g., a person created an intelligent program in the Tax department that could credit his
account with cents from all the tax payers. He ended up becoming very rich before he
was discovered.
Sabotage.
Is the illegal or malicious destruction of the system, data or information by employees or
other people with grudges with the aim of crippling service delivery or causing great loss
to an organization. Sabotage is usually carried out by discontented employees or those
sent by competitors to cause harm to the organization.
Alteration.
Is the illegal changing of stored data & information without permission with the aim of
gaining or misinforming the authorized users. Alteration is usually done by those people
who wish to hide the truth. It makes the data irrelevant and unreliable.
DETECTION & PROTECTION AGAINST COMPUTER CRIMES
The following measures can be taken to detect & prevent computer crimes, and also seal
security loopholes.
Audit trails
This is a careful study of an information system by experts in order to establish (or, find
out) all the weaknesses in the system that could lead to security threats or act as weak
access points for criminals.

An audit of the information system may seek to answer the following questions: -

1. Is the information system meeting all the design objectives as originally intended?

46
2. Have all the security measures been put in place to reduce the risk of computer
crimes?
3. Are the computers secured in physically restricted areas?
4. Is there backup for data & information of the system that can ensure continuity of
services even when something serious happens to the current system?
5. What real risks face the system at present or in future?

Data encryption
Data being transmitted over a network faces the dangers of being tapped, listened to, or
copied to unauthorized destinations. To protect such data, it is mixed up into a form that
only the sender & the receiver can be able to understand by reconstructing the original
message from the mix. This is called Data encryption.

Log files
These are special system files that keep a record (log) of events on the use of the
computers and resources of the information system. Each user is usually assigned a
username & password or account. The information system administrator can therefore
easily track who accessed the system, when and what they did on the system. This
information can help monitor & track people who are likely to violate system security
policies.

Firewalls
A Firewall is a device or software system that filters the data & information exchanged
between different networks by enforcing the access control policy of the host network.

A firewall monitors & controls access to or from protected networks. People (remote
users) who do not have permission cannot access the network, and those within cannot
access sites outside the network restricted by firewalls.

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 TOPIC:COMPUTER NETWORKS
What is a Computer Network?
A computer network is a system in which multiple computers are connected to each other
to share information and resources.
Characteristics of a computer network
 Share Resources from one computer to another
 Create files and store them in one computer, access those files from the other
computer(s) connected over the network
 Connect a printer, scanner, or a fax machine to one computer within the network
and let other computers of the network use the machines available over network.
HARDWARE REQUIREMENTS
 Network Cables
 Distributors
 Routers
 Internal Network Cards
 External Network Cards
1. Network Cables
Network cables are used to connect computers. The most commonly used cable is
Category 5 cable RJ-45.

2. Distributors
A computer can be connected to another one via a serial port but if we need to connect
many computers to produce a network, this serial connection will not work. The solution
is to use a central body to which other computers, printers, scanners etc. can be connected
and then this body will manage or distribute network traffic.

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3. Router
A router is a type of device which acts as the central point among computers and other
devices that are part of a network. A router is equipped with holes called ports and
computers and other devices are connected to a router using network cables. Now-a-days
router comes in wireless modes using which computers can be connected without any
physical cable.

4. Network Card
Network card is a necessary component of a computer without which a computer cannot
be connected over a network. It is also known as network adapter or Network Interface
Card (NIC). Most branded computers have network card pre-installed. Network cards are
of two types : Internal and External Network Cards.
 Internal Network Cards
Motherboard has a slot for internal network card where it is to be inserted. Internal
network cards are of two types in which first type uses Peripheral Component
Interconnect (PCI) connection while the second type uses Industry Standard Architecture
(ISA). Network cables are required to provide network access.

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  External Network Cards
External network cards come in two flavours : Wireless and USB based. Wireless
network card need to be inserted into the motherboard but no network cable is required to
connect to network

Universal Serial Bus (USB)

USB card are easy to use and connect via USB port. Computers automatically detect
USB card and can install the drivers required to support the USB network card
automatically.

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TYPES OF COMPUTER NETWORKS
Computer networks are distinguished based on their geographical span. A network can be
as small as distance between your mobile phone and its Bluetooth headphone and as large
as the internet itself, covering the whole geographical world,

 Personal Area Network

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is smallest network which is very personal to a user.
This may include Bluetooth enabled devices or infra-red enabled devices. PAN has
connectivity range up to 10 meters. PAN may include wireless computer keyboard and
mouse, Bluetooth enabled headphones, wireless printers and TV remotes.

 Local Area Network (LAN)

A computer network spanned inside a building and operated under single administrative
system. It covers an organization’ offices, schools, colleges or universities. Number of
systems connected in LAN may vary from at least as two to as much as 16 million. LAN
provides a useful way of sharing the resources between end users. The resources such as
printers, file servers, scanners, and internet are easily sharable among computers.

LANs are composed of inexpensive networking and routing equipment. It may contains
local servers serving file storage and other locally shared applications. It mostly operates
on private IP addresses and does not involve heavy routing. LAN works under its own
local domain and controlled centrally.

LAN can be wired,wireless, or in both forms at once.

 Metropolitan Area Network

The Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) generally expands throughout a city such as
cable TV network. It can be in the form of Ethernet, Token-ring, ATM, or Fiber
Distributed Data Interface (FDDI).

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Metro Ethernet is a service which is provided by ISPs. This service enables its users to
expand their Local Area Networks. For example, MAN can help an organization to
connect all of its offices in a city.

Backbone of MAN is high-capacity and high-speed fiber optics. MAN works in between
Local Area Network and Wide Area Network. MAN provides uplink for LANs to WANs
or internet.

 Wide Area Network

As the name suggests, the Wide Area Network (WAN) covers a wide area which may
span across provinces and even a whole country. WANs use very expensive network
equipment.

WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM),
Frame Relay, and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET). WAN may be managed by
multiple administration.

 Internetwork

A network of networks is called an internetwork, or simply the internet. It is the largest

network in existence on this planet. The internet hugely connects all WANs and it can
have connection to LANs and Home networks. Internet uses TCP/IP protocol suite and
uses IP as its addressing protocol. Present day, Internet is widely implemented using
IPv4. Because of shortage of address spaces, it is gradually migrating from IPv4 to IPv6.

Internet enables its users to share and access enormous amount of information
worldwide. It uses WWW, FTP, email services, audio and video streaming etc. At huge
level, internet works on Client-Server model.

Internet uses very high speed backbone of fiber optics. To inter-connect various
continents, fibers are laid under sea known to us as submarine communication cable.

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Internet is widely deployed on World Wide Web services using HTML linked pages and
is accessible by client software known as Web Browsers. When a user requests a page
using some web browser located on some Web Server anywhere in the world, the Web
Server responds with the proper HTML page. The communication delay is very low.

Internet is serving many proposes and is involved in many aspects of life. Some of them
are:

 Web sites
 E-mail
 Instant Messaging
 Blogging
 Social Media
 Marketing
 Networking
 Resource Sharing
 Audio and Video Streaming

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
A Network Topology is the arrangement with which computer systems or network
devices are connected to each other. Topologies may define both physical and logical
aspect of the network. Both logical and physical topologies could be same or different in
a same network.

Point-to-Point
Point-to-point networks contains exactly two hosts such as computer, switches or routers,
servers connected back to back using a single piece of cable. Often, the receiving end of
one host is connected to sending end of the other and vice-versa.

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If the hosts are connected point-to-point logically, they may have multiple intermediate
devices. But the end hosts are unaware of underlying network and see each other as if
they are connected directly.

Bus Topology
In case of Bus topology, all devices share single communication line or cable. Bus
topology may have problem while multiple hosts sending data at the same time.
Therefore, Bus topology either uses CSMA/CD technology or recognizes one host as Bus
Master to solve the issue. It is one of the simple forms of networking where a failure of a
device does not affect the other devices. But failure of the shared communication line can
make all other devices stop functioning.

Both ends of the shared channel have line terminator. The data is sent in only one
direction and as soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from
the line.

Advantages Disadvantages
if the main cable fails or gets damaged the whole network
easy to install
will fail
cheap to install, as it as more workstations are connected the performance of the
doesn’t require much cable network will become slower because of data collisions
every workstation on the network "sees" all of the data on

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 Advantages Disadvantages
the network – this is a security risk
Star Topology
In this topology, all hosts are connected to a central device, known as hub device, using a
point-to-point connection. In a star network each device on the network has its own cable
that connects to a switch or hub. A hub sends every packet of data to every device,
whereas a switch only sends a packet of data to the destination device.

If the hub fails, connectivity of all hosts to all other hosts fails. Every communication
between hosts, takes place through only the hub. Star topology is not expensive as to
connect one more host, only one cable is required and configuration is simple.

Advantages and disadvantages of a star network

Advantages Disadvantages
very reliable – if one cable or device
expensive to install as this type of network uses
fails then all the others will continue to
the most cable (network cable is expensive)
work
high performing as no data collisions can extra hardware required (hubs or switches)
occur which adds to cost

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 Advantages Disadvantages
if a hub or switch fails all the devices
connected to it will have no network
connection

Ring Topology
In ring topology, each host machine connects to exactly two other machines, creating a
circular network structure. In a ring network each device (workstation, server, printer) is
connected to two other devices, this forms a ring for the signals to travel around. Each
packet of data on the network travels in one direction and each device receives each
packet in turn until the destination device receives it.

Advantage
This type of network can transfer data quickly, even if there are a large number of
devices connected because the data only flows in one direction, so there won’t be any
data collisions.

Disadvantage
If the main cable fails or any device is faulty then the whole network will fail.

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Failure of any host results in failure of the whole ring. Thus, every connection in the ring
is a point of failure. There are methods which employ one more backup ring.

Mesh Topology
In this type of topology, a host is connected to one or multiple hosts. This topology has
hosts in point-to-point connection with every other host or may also have hosts which are
in point-to-point connection to few hosts only.

Hosts in Mesh topology also work as relay for other hosts which do not have direct point-
to-point links. Mesh technology comes into two types:

 Full Mesh: All hosts have a point-to-point connection to every other host in the
network. Thus for every new host n(n-1)/2 connections are required. It provides
the most reliable network structure among all network topologies.
 Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every other host.
Hosts connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This topology exists
where we need to provide reliability to some hosts out of all.

Tree Topology

Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of network
topology in use presently. This topology divides the network in to multiple levels/layers

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of network. Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices.
The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached. The middle layer is known
as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper layer and lower layer. The
highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point of the network, i.e. root of the
tree from which all nodes fork.

All neighboring hosts have point-to-point connection between them.Similar to the Bus
topology, if the root goes down, then the entire network suffers even.though it is not the
single point of failure. Every connection serves as point of failure, failing of which
divides the network into unreachable segment.

Daisy Chain
This topology connects all the hosts in a linear fashion. Similar to Ring topology, all
hosts are connected to two hosts only, except the end hosts. Means, if the end hosts in
daisy chain are connected then it represents Ring topology.

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Each link in daisy chain topology represents single point of failure. Every link failure
splits the network into two segments.Every intermediate host works as relay for its
immediate hosts.

Hybrid Topology
A network structure whose design contains more than one topology is said to be hybrid
topology. Hybrid topology inherits merits and demerits of all the incorporating
topologies.

The above picture represents an arbitrarily hybrid topology. The combining topologies
may contain attributes of Star, Ring, Bus, and Daisy-chain topologies. Most WANs are
connected by means of Dual-Ring topology and networks connected to them are mostly
Star topology networks. Internet is the best example of largest Hybrid topology

Advantages and disadvantages of networks

Advantages
 Sharing devices such as printers saves money.

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  Site (software) licences are likely to be cheaper than buying several standalone
licences.
 Files can easily be shared between users.
 Network users can communicate by email and instant messenger.
 Security is good - users cannot see other users' files unlike on stand-alone
machines.
 Data is easy to backup as all the data is stored on the file server.

Disadvantages
 Purchasing the network cabling and file servers can be expensive.
 Managing a large network is complicated, requires training and a network
manager usually needs to be employed.
 If the file server breaks down the files on the file server become inaccessible.
Email might still work if it is on a separate server. The computers can still be used
but are isolated.
 Viruses can spread to other computers throughout a computer network.
 There is a danger of hacking, particularly with wide area networks. Security
procedures are needed to prevent such abuse, eg a firewall.

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