LEARNING CONTENT TO RESEARCH

1. Basic Concepts: Educational Measurement; Assessment; Evaluation of

Learning & Programs

2. Types of Measurement, indicators, variables & factors

o Variables
 A quantity or function that may assume any given value or set of
values.
 An educational variable (denoted by an English alphabet, like X)
is a measurable characteristic of a student.
 It may be directly measurable (e.g. Xage of student, Xheight
of a student).
 Most often cannot be directly measured (e.g. Xclass
participation of a student).
o Indicators
 The building blocks of educational measurement upon which all
other forms of measurement are built.
 A group of indicators constitute a variable.
 They were introduced when direct measurements are not
feasible.
 An indicators Idenotes the presence or absence of a measured
characteristic. thus:
11, if the characteristic is present
10, if the characteristic is absent
 For the variable Xclass participation, we can 1₁, 12, 13, 14 ………… denote
the participation of a student in n recitations and let X=sum of the I's divided by
n recitations. Thus, if there were n=10 recitations and the students participated in
5 of theses 10 then X-5/10 or 50%.
o Factors
 A group of variables form a construct or a factor
 Formed through a group of variables, and the variables which
form a factor correlate highly with each other but have low
correlations with variables in another group.
3. Various roles of assessment
o Integrate grading
o Learning
o Motivation for your students
4. Clarity of Learning Targets
a. cognitive targets- skills, competencies & abilities targets
 skills refer to specific activities or task that a student can
proficiently do.
 Abilities are the qualities of being able to do something.
 It is important to recognize a student’s ability in order that the
program of study can be so designed as to optimize his/her
innate abilities.
5. Learning Domains
 o The cognitive learning domain involves intellect—the understanding
of information and how that develops through application on a scale
that increases from basic recall to complex evaluation and creation.
o The affective learning domain involves our emotions toward
learning and how that develops as we progress from a low order
process, such as listening, to a higher order process, like resolving an
issue.
o The psychomotor learning domain involves our physicality and how
that develops from basic motor skills to intricate performance.
6. Bloom’s Taxonomy of cognitive objectives
 Bloom’s taxonomy of cognitive objectives describes learning in six
levels in the order of: knowledge, comprehension, application,
analysis, synthesis and evaluation:
o Knowledge: rote memorization, recognition, or recall of facts
o Comprehension: understanding what the facts mean
o Application: correct use of the facts, rules, or ideas
o Analysis: breaking down information into component parts
o Synthesis: combination of facts, ideas, or information to make a
new whole
o Evaluation: judging or forming an opinion about the information or
situation
7. Appropriateness of Assessment Methods
o Written-Response Instruments - This includes objective tests
(multiple-choice, true or false, matching type or short answer test),
essays, examinations, and checklists.
Examples:
Objective test – appropriate for the various levels of the hierarchy of
educational objectives.
Essay – when properly planned, can test the students’ grasp of high-
level cognitive skills particularly in areas of application, analysis,
synthesis, and evaluation.
o Product-Rating Scale - These scales measure products that are
frequently rated in education such as book reports, maps, charts,
diagram, notebook, essay and creative endeavor of all sorts.
Example:
Classic “Handwriting” Scale–is used in the California Achievement Test,
Form W. Prototype handwriting specimens of pupils are moved along
the scale until the quality of handwriting sample is most similar to the
prototype handwriting.
o Performance Test - One of these is the performance checklist which
consists of the list of behaviors that makes up a certain type of
performance. It is used to determine whether or not an individual
behaves in a certain way when asked to complete a particular task.
Example: Performance Checklist in Solving a Mathematics Problem
Behavior
 Identifies the given information
 Identify what is being asked
 Use a variable to replace the unknown
 Formulate the equation
  Performs algebraic expressions
 Obtain the answer
 Checks of the answers make sense.
o Oral Questioning - An appropriate assessment method when the
objectives are: To the students’ stock knowledge; and to determine the
student’s ability to communicate ideas in a coherent verbal sentence.

8. Properties of Assessment Methods

o Validity of test
- The instrument’s ability to measure what it purports to measure.
- The appropriateness, correctness, meaningfulness and
usefulness of the specific conclusions that a teacher reaches
regarding the teaching-learning situation
Types of Validity
- CONTENT VALIDITY
- FACE VALIDITY
- CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY
- CONSTRUCT VALIDITY
 Content Validity – refers to the content and format of the
instrument.
 Face Validity - refers to the outward appearance of the test.
- It is the lowest form of test validity
 Criterion-Related Validity - also called predictive validity.
- The test is judge against a specific criterion.
- It can also be measured by correlating the test with a
known valid test.
 Construction Validity - the test is loaded on a “construct” or
factor.
o Reliability of test
- Reliability is the degree to which a test consistently measures
whatever it measures.
- Something reliable is something that works well and that you
can trust.
- It is a term synonymous with depend ability and stability.
Types of Reliability
- EQUIVALENCY RELIABILITY
- STABILITY RELIABILITY
- INTERNAL CONSISTENCYRELIABILITY
- INTER-RATER RELIABILITY
 Equivalency Reliability
- also called equivalent forms reliability or alternative-
forms.
- Is the extent to which two items measure
- Identical concepts at an identical level of difficulty.
- Equivalency reliability is determined by relating two sets
of test scores to one another to highlight the degree of
relationship or association.
 Stability Reliability
- Sometimes called test, re-test reliability
- Is the agreement of measuring instruments over time.
 - Equivalency reliability is determined by
- relating two sets of test scores to one another
- to highlight the degree of relationship or
- association.
 Internal Consistency Reliability
- Used to assess the consistency of results across items
within a test (consistency of an individual’s performance
from item to item & item homogeneity)
- To determine the degree to which all items measure a
common characteristic of the person
 Inter-Rater Reliability
- Used to assess the degree to which different raters or
observers give consistent estimates of the same
phenomenon.
o Fairness of assessment
- The concept that assessment should be 'fair' covers a number of
aspects.
- Students need to know exactly what the method of assessment
will be used.
- Assessment has to be viewed as opportunity to learn rather than
an opportunity to weed out poor and slow learners.
o Practicality & efficiency of assessment
- Something efficient is being able to accomplish a purpose and is
functioning effectively.
- Practicality is defined as something that is concerned with
actual use rather than theoretical possibilities.
o Ethics in assessment
- Refers to questions of right and wrong.
- Webster defines ethical (behavior) as conforming to the
standards of conduct of a given profession or group
9. Types of Tests
· true-false type test
· matching type test
· supply type test
· multiple choice test
· short answer test
· essay test
10. Measures of Central Position
o Mean
- The mean (or average) is the most popular and well-known
measure of central tendency. It can be used with both
discrete and continuous data, although its use is most often with
continuous data.
o Median
- Median is the value which occupies the middle position when all
the observations are arranged in an ascending/descending
order. It divides the frequency distribution exactly into two
halves. Fifty percent of observations in a distribution have
scores at or below the median. Hence median is the 50th
percentile. Median is also known as ‘positional average’.
 - It is easy to calculate the median. If the number of observations
are odd, then (n + 1)/2th observation (in the ordered set) is the
median. When the total number of observations are even, it is
given by the mean of n/2th and (n/2 + 1)th observation.

o Mode
- Mode is defined as the value that occurs most frequently in the
data. Some data sets do not have a mode because each value
occurs only once. On the other hand, some data sets can have
more than one mode. This happens when the data set has two
or more values of equal frequency which is greater than that of
any other value. Mode is rarely used as a summary statistic
except to describe a bimodal distribution. In a bimodal
distribution, the taller peak is called the major mode and the
shorter one is the minor mode.
11. Measures of Variability
o Fractiles
- Are measures of location or position which include not only
central location but also any position based on the number of
equal divisions in a given distribution into four equal divisions,
then we have quartiles denoted by Q 1, Q2, Q3 and Q4. The most
commonly used fractiles are the quartiles, deciles and
percentiles.
o Quartile deviation
- Quartile Deviation (Q) - Next to range quartile deviation is
another measure of variability. It is based upon the interval
containing the middle fifty percent of cases in a given
distribution. One quarter means 1/4th of something, when a
scale is divided in to four equal parts. “The quartile deviation or
Q is the one-half the scale distance between the 75t and 25th
percentiles in a frequency distribution.”
o Mean absolute deviation
o Standard deviation & variance
- Standard deviation - The standard deviation is the average
amount of variability in your dataset. It tells you, on average,
how far each score lies from the mean. The larger the standard
deviation, the more variable the data set is.
- Variance - is the average squared difference of the values from
the mean. Unlike the previous measures of variability, the
variance includes all values in the calculation by comparing each
value to the mean. Variance is the square of the standard
deviation. This means that the units of variance are much larger
than those of a typical value of a data set. While it’s harder to
interpret the variance number intuitively, it’s important to
calculate variance for comparing different data sets in statistical
tests like ANOVAs.
12.Grading System
- The two most common types of grading systems used at the university
level are norm-referenced and criterion-referenced. Many professors
combine elements of each of these systems for determining student
 grades by using a system of anchoring or by presetting grading
criterion which is later adjusted based on actual student performance.
o Norm-referenced grading
- In norm-referenced systems students are evaluated in relationship to
one another (e.g., the top 10% of students receive an A, the next 30%
a B, etc.). This grading system rests on the assumption that the level
of student performance will not vary much from class to class. In this
system the instructor usually determines the percentage of students
assigned each grade, although this percentage may be determined (or
at least influenced) by departmental expectations and policy.
o Criterion-referenced grading system
- In criterion-referenced systems students are evaluated against an
absolute scale (e.g. 95-100 = A, 88-94 = B, etc.). Normally the criteria
are a set number of points or a percentage of the total. Since the
standard is absolute, it is possible that all students could get as or all
students could get Ds.
o Alternative grading system
- Alternative grading emphasizes providing detailed and frequent
feedback to students, giving students further agency in how they will
be assessed. These methods are meant to reduce students' anxiety
and fixation on grades by emphasizing the learning process.
- alternative grading forgoes a conventional points-based approach to
grading and favors holistic and continuous forms of assessment and
feedback.
o Cumulative & averaging grading system
- The cumulative grading system, the grade of a student in
the grading [period equals his current grading period grade which is
assumed to have the cumulative effects of the previous grading
periods.
- In the averaging system, the grade of a student on a particular grading
period equals the average of the grades obtained in the prior grading
periods and the current grading period.
LEARNING CONTENT TORESEARCH

21st Century Assessment

1. Characteristics of 21st Century Assessment

✓ Responsive
Visible performance-based work (as a result of assessment)
generates data that
inform curriculum and instruction. Teachers can adjust instructions, school
leaders can
consider additional educational opportunities for students and policy makers
can modify
programs and resources to cater to the present needs of the school
community.
Processes for responding to assessments are thoughtfully
developed,
incorporating best practices in feedback and formative assessment. Feedback
is to be
targeted to the goal and outcome. Rather than just a single test grade,
students are
informed of progress toward the attainment of goal. Self-reflection, peer
feedback, and
opportunities for revision will be a natural outcome.

✓ Flexible
Lesson design, curriculum, and assessment require flexibility,
suppleness, and
adaptability. Assessments and responses may not be fitted to expected
answers. Assessment need to be adaptable to students' settings. Rather than
the identical approach that works in traditional assessment. 21 st century
approaches are more versatile. These approaches best fit for the demands of
the learning environment at present since as students' decisions, actions and
applications vary, the assessments and the system need to be flexible, too.

✓ Integrated
Assessments are to be incorporated into day-to-day practice rather
than as add-ons at the end of instructions or during a single specified week of
the school calendar.
 Assessments are enriched by metacognition. Assessment is about
stimulating thinking, building on prior learning, constructing meaning, and
thinking about one’s thinking. It offers opportunities for students to consider
their choices, identify alternative strategies, transfer earlier learning, and
represent knowledge through different means.

✓ Informative
The desired 21st century goals and objectives are clearly stated and
explicitly taught. Students display their range of emerging knowledge and
skills. Exemplars routinely guide students toward achievement of targets.

Learning objectives, instructional strategies, assessment methods,

and reporting processes are clearly aligned. Complex learning takes time.
Students have opportunities to build on prior learning in a logical sequence.
As students develop and build skills. i.e. learning and innovation skills,
information, communication and technology skills, and life and career skills;
the work gets progressively more rigorous.
Demonstration or 21 st century skills are evident and support
learning. Students show the steps they go through and display their thought
processes for peer and teacher review.

✓ Multiple Methods
An assessment continuum that includes a spectrum of strategies is
the norm. Students demonstrate knowledge and skills through relevant tasks,
projects, and performances. Authentic and performance-based assessment is
emphasized. There is recognition of and appreciation for the processes and
products of learning.
✓ Communicated
Communication of assessment data is clear and transparent for all
stakeholders. Results are routinely posted to a database along with
standards-based commentary, both of which must be available and
comprehensible at all levels. Students receive routine feedback on their
progress, and parents are kept informed through access to visible progress
reports and assessment data.
The educational community recognizes achievement of students
beyond standardized test scores. Large-scale measures, including all the
results of traditional and authentic assessments, include and report on 21 st
century skills.

✓ Technically Sound
Adjustments and accommodations are made in the assessment
process to meet the student needs and fairness. Students demonstrates what
they know and how they can apply that knowledge in ways that are relevant
and appropriate for them.
To be valid, the assessments must measure the stated objectives and 21 st
century skills with legitimacy and integrity.
 To be reliable, the assessment must be precise and technically sound
so that users
are consistent in their administration and interpretation of data. They
produce accurate
information for decision-making in all relevant circumstances.

✓ Systemic

Twenty-first century assessment is part of a comprehensive and well-

aligned assessment system that is balanced and inclusive of all students,
constituents, and stakeholders and designed to support improvement at all
levels.
These eight characteristics of 21 st century assessment, are essential
guide for the preparation of assessment activities by educators. It is
necessary to refer to these characteristics to ensure that the learners are
being assessed towards the skills and demand of the 21 st century.

2. Instructional Decisions in Assessment

The major objective of educational assessment is to have a holistic
appraisal of a learner, his/her environment and accomplishments.
The educational assessment process starts in analyzing the criterion
together with the teaching-learning environment. It is done to determine the
effect of the environment to the teaching- learning situation after which, the
kind of evidence that are appropriate to use for assessment of the individuals
are set. This helps to determine the strengths, weaknesses, needs and
personality characteristics, skills and abilities of the learner (Bloom, 1970).
It is clear that educational assessment encompasses the total
educational setting and not limited to the teacher-student engagement. It is
not merely based on a single aspect such as taking a test, and checking it. In
totality, the processes of measurement and evaluation are subsumed in the
educational assessment process.

2.1 Decision-making at different phases of teaching-learning phases

Assessment is constantly taking place in educational settings.
Decisions are made about content/subject matter and specific targets, nature
of students and faculty, morale and satisfaction of both the teachers and the
students, as well as the extent of which student performances meet the
standard and/or deliver the outcomes expected from them by the teacher.
Assessments can be used as basis for decision-making at different
phases of the teaching-learning process. The table below depicts the different
phases of the teaching-learning process, how and what decisions are made
by the teachers:

Phase Decision(s) to be made Source(s) of information

Before start teaching  Content to cover during  Informal observation of
following day, week, month, students during class
 grading period, and so on.  Conversation with
 Abilities of students students’ previous
considering the cultural teachers
background, interests and  Scholastic aptitude test
skills of students in planning results
the teaching activities.  Students’ past grades and
 Materials appropriate to use standardized test results
with the students  Knowledge of student’s
 Learning activities that will personal family
engage both the teacher and circumstances
students as the lesson being
taught
 Learning targets that the
teacher wants to achieve as a
result of teaching
 Organization and
arrangement of students in
class in consideration of the
lessons and activities.
 Students learning on what and  Observation of students
how the lesson is presented during learning activities
 Improvement needed to make  Students’ response to
the lesson work better questions the teacher
 What feedback to give each asked them
student about how well the  Observation of student’s
student is learning interaction
 Readiness of the students to  Diagnosis of the types of
During Teaching move to the next activity as errors the students made
planned in the learning or erroneous thinking the
sequence students are using
 Look for alternative ways
to teach the materials
 Identify if there are
students who are not
participating and acting
appropriately
After a Teaching  How well students achieve  Classroom tests, projects,
Segment the short and long term observations
instructional targets  Interviews with students
 Strengths and weaknesses to  Standardized test results
be given as feedback to  Observations of each
parents or guardian of student’s classroom
students participation
 Grade to be given to each  Review each student’s
student for the lesson or unit, homework results
grading period or end of the  Review each student’s
course standardized achievement
 Effectiveness of teaching the and scholastic aptitude
lesson to the students test results
 Effectiveness of the  Review information
curriculum and materials used about a student’s personal
 for the lesson family circumstances
 Informal observation of
how well the student has
attained the intended
learning targets
 Summaries of the class’
performance on the
important instructional
targets
 Summaries of the class’
performance on selected
questions on standardized
tests
 Summaries of how well
the students liked the
activities and lesson
materials
 Summaries of the class’
achievement on
classroom tests that
match the curriculum

The list of decisions and possible sources of information that could be

used as input in decision-making process is not exhaustive. More can be
included, based on teaching-learning observations and experience during
Field Study and Observation courses. Suggested sources of information for
decision-making is not limited to a single choice. A combination of two or
more if necessary may be used to make decision making process as sound as
possible.
Based on what was presented, it can be inferred that there is a very
close relationship between assessment and instruction. The data on
observation and evidences and other sources of information serve as basis
for the teacher to decide what action he/she needs to do to help the learner
achieve the desired learning outcome. Note that data used may be from
informal assessments such as observation from interaction of teacher and
learner and through formal one, such as giving of actual case/problem for
calculation as what mentioned in the above example.

2.2 Assessment in Classroom Instruction

Linn and Gronlund (2000) described the relevance of assessment in
instructional decision by classifying the varied assessment procedures
according to use in classroom instruction. The following are the categories
and purposes of each category:

Assessment in Classroom Instruction

CATEGORY PURPOSE
1. Placement Assessment Measures entry behavior
2. Formative Assessment Monitors learning progress
3. Diagnostic Assessment Identifies causes of learning problems
 4. Summative Assessment Measures end-of-course achievement

Linn (1999) said that informed decision-making in education is very

important because of the benefits it can bring about. Topmost of these
benefits is the enhancement of students learning and development. In
addition, there is the boost on morale and feeling of greatness in knowing
one’s competence in the area of academic skill and self-worth in knowing
one’s capability to function effectively in society. Lastly, the affective side of
development is equally important, such as personal dimensions, including
being able to adjust to people and coping with various situations that will lead
to a better life adjustment.

2.3 Types of Educational Decision

On a greater scale, the use of assessment in decision-making is not
just within the bounds of the classroom. It extends to the whole education
community. Results of assessment may trigger updates in the existing
curriculum and other policies governing the school system. Or it may be the
other way around, so as to plan for changes or development in school
assessments and in what particular aspect of the school system these
changes are necessary.
Kubiszyn and Borich (2002) classified the different educational
decisions into eight (8) categories. These types of decisions are described
briefly below.

Types of Educational Decision

DECISION DESCRIPTION EXAMPLE
This decision is normally made by After a test was given by the teacher, the
individual classroom teacher, as result is not so satisfactory thus the
necessary to meet the targets or teacher may decide to re-teach the
Instructional objectives set during classroom lesson using a different strategy so as to
engagement. Decisions are reached improve the learning and meet the
according to the results of test objective/target set for that particular
administered to a class. lesson.
It is usually based on teacher-made A quarterly grade is based on the
tests. Grades are assigned to the following: result of the teacher-made
Grading
students using assessment as one of test, class participation, projects, and
the factors. attendance.
Diagnostic It is made to determine a student’s A teacher gave an essay test. The
strengths and weaknesses and the teacher noticed that the students were
reason or reasons. able to write more than five
grammatically correct sentences but the
coherence of the ideas contained in the
paragraph is poor. So the result shows
that the students still need more help in
 understanding the principles of writing
a good paragraph.
It involves accepting or rejecting the
examinee based on the results of College or University Entrance
assessment, for admission or Examination, Choosing School
qualification to a program or school Representative for a National Quiz Bee
Selection activity. The decisions are made not
by classroom teachers but by
specialists such as guidance
counselors, administrators or the
selection committee.
It is made after a student has been A diagnostic test for English and Math
admitted to school. It involves the were given to freshmen to determine
process of identifying students who who among them may encounter
needs remediation or may be difficulty in these areas. Those who will
Placement
recommended for enrichment get a below-average scores will be
program of the school. included in the remediation program to
help the students cope with the lessons
in English and Math.
It utilizes test data to assist students
in making their personal choices for The NCAE helps to identify which
future career and help the know their career path the students may pursue that
strengths and weaknesses by means matches his/her interests and skills,
of standardized tests. whether academic, vocational or
technical programs.
Guidance and
On the other hand, teachers may use
Counseling
the results of socio-metric tests to
identify who among the students are
popular or unpopular. Those who are
unpopular may be given help for
them to gain friends and become
more sociable.
It is made not at the level of the The decisions to implement the K-12
teachers but on higher level such as Curriculum in order to avoid mismatch
division, regional or national level. among graduates and the industry and
Program or Based on the result of assessment and to be at par with the Curriculum
Curriculum evaluation, educational decisions may implemented in the Philippines’
be reached: to continue, discontinue, neighboring countries.
revise or replace a curriculum or
program being implemented.
It involves determining the To conduct a remediation class,
implications to resources including additional budget is necessary for the
financial consideration in order to logistics (classroom, instructional
improve the student learning as a materials, assessment materials, etc.)
Administrativ
result of assessment. It may entail and also the additional pay for the
e Policy
acquisitions of instructional materials, teachers that ill handle the remedial
books, etc. to raise the level of classes.
students’ performance in academic,
or non-academic or both.
3. Outcome-Based Assessment
Knowing what is expected from the learners by their teachers at the
end of a particular lesson helps them to meet those targets successfully. In
relation to this, teachers who have set clear targets for their lessons, will be
guided accordingly as they deliver their lesson through instructional learning
activities to meet the desired outcomes. Thus, all assessment and evaluation
activities must be founded on the identified student intended learning
outcomes (ILO). These ILOs should be identified and clarified with students so
that it will be an effective teaching-learning process as the teachers
commence the learning activities through delivery of the lessons.

3.1 Student Learning Outcome

Student Learning Outcome is the totality of accumulated knowledge,
skills, and attitudes that students develop during a course of study. And this
serve as the basis for assessing the extent of learning in an Outcome Based
Education (OBE). Outcome Based Assessment must be continuously done
during the entire teaching learning both by the teachers and students to
ensure that the activities are aligned with the expected outcomes set for the
students by the teacher. Providing feedback including the results of
assessment is important to identify the next steps (to be done by the teacher
and student) toward the realization of the intended learning outcome.

3.2 Sources of Student Expected Learning Outcome

As aforementioned, outcomes or targets for every lesson is to be
defined and clarified by the teacher at the start of the course/learning
activities. This is necessary so as both the students and teachers will be
guided to what steps taken during the course of the teaching-learning
activities. There are several factors that need to be considered in defining the
outcomes, to ensure that these are with the set directions of the program and
evaluation setting in general. Following are the factors that need to be
considered in crafting the student expected learning outcomes.
1. Mission statement of the school.
2. Mandated policies on competencies and standards issued by
government education agencies.
3. Competencies expected by different professions, business and
industry.
4. Development plan and goals as well as the current thrusts of both
the national and local governments.
5. Current global trends and developments so that graduates can
compete globally.
6. General 21st century skills focusing on the following:
 Oral and written communication
 Quantitative reasoning ability together with scientific
methodology
 Analyzing, synthesizing and developing creative solutions.
 Use or technology
 Information literacy
 3.3 Characteristics of Good Learning Outcome
It is important to define outcomes as clearly and explicitly as possible.
Good learning outcomes give emphasis to the application and integration of
the knowledge and skills acquired in a particular unit or instruction (e.g.
activity, course program, etc.), and emerge from a process of reflection on
the essential contents of the activity, course, program. etc.

1. Very specific, and use verbs (that makes expectations clear). By

being very specific, it informs students of the standards by which
they will be assessed, and ensures that student and instructor goals
in the course are aligned.
2. Focused on the learner: rather than explaining what the instructor
will do in the course, good learning outcomes describe knowledge
or skills that the student will employ, and help the learner
understand why that knowledge and those skills are useful and
valuable to their personal, professional, and academic future.
3. Are realistic: all passing students should be able to demonstrate the
knowledge or skill described by the learning outcome at the
conclusion of the course. In this way, learning outcomes establish
standards for the course.
4. Focus on the application and integration of acquired knowledge and
skills: good learning outcomes reflect and indicate the ways in
which the described knowledge and skills may be used by the
learner now and in the future.
5. Good learning outcomes prepare students for assessment and help
them feel engaged in and empowered by the assessment and
evaluation process.
6. Offer a timeline for completion of the desired learning.

Types of Assessment
1. Traditional and Authentic Assessment
13.Traditional assessment are the conventional methods of testing
14.which usually produce a written document, such as quiz, exam,
15.or paper
Traditional assessment are the conventional methods of testing
which usually produce a written document, such as quiz, exam,
or paper
raditional assessment are the conventional methods of testing
which usually produce a written document, such as quiz, exam,
or pape
Traditional Assessment is a type of assessment in which the
students choose their answer from a given list of choices. Students are
expected to recognize that there is only one correct or best answer for
the question asked.
 Authentic assessment in which students create an original
response to answer a certain question. Students respond to a question
using their own ideas, in their own words.

4.1 Traditional as Direct and Indirect Measure

Traditional assessments are indirect and inauthentic
measures of
students learning outcomes. This kind of assessment is
standardized
and for that reason, they are oneshot, speed-based, and
norm-
referenced (Bailey, 1998)- Traditional assessment often
focus on
learner's ability of memorization and recall, which are lower
level of
cognition skills (Smaldino, 2000).

4.2 Authentic as Direct Realistic Performance Based Activity

Assessment is authentic when it measures performances or
products
which have realistic meaning that can be attributed to the
success in
school. Activities, questions and problems with "real world"
satisfy the
criterion that it needs to be an authentic intellectual work
within the
given situation or contextual realism of the tasks.

2. Formative Evaluation and Summative Evaluation

Assessment for Learning pertains to the use of formative
evaluation to determine and improve students' learning outcomes. On
the other hand, Assessment of Learning uses summative evaluation
which provides evidence of students' level of achievement in relation
to curricular learning outcomes.

5.1 Formative as Measure of Teaching / Learning Effectiveness

Formative assessment can be defined more specifically as,
"All those activities undertaken by teachers, and by their
students in assessing themselves, which provide information
to be used as feedback to modify the teaching and learning
activities in which they are engaged" (Black & William, 1998).
Formative assessment occurs at three (3) points of
instruction: (1) during instruction; (2) between lessons; and
(3) between units. Most formative assessments occur during
instruction (William & Leahy, 2007). This is typically based on
quizzes, observation, student self-assessment, and other
major assessment which are given at the end of these time
frames.

5.2 Summative as Measure of Learning at the End of Instruction

 Summative assessments are conducted at the end of each
section or unit
to find out student achievement. Summary of evidences
indicate extent
of learning achievements which can classify or for
certification or
giving of honors / awards. Moreover, summative assessments
are
typically, traditional paper-and-pencil measures such as unit
tests, long
tests, exams, essays, or projects that Corm a portion of a
student's final
grade These serve as evaluative function at the end of the
unit.

3. Norm and Criterion-Referenced Assessment

Norm-referenced assessment gives us information on what the
studentcan perform by comparing to another student. It describes
student performance in the class by comparing to others. Teachers can
actually rank the achievement of their students; as a result, there is a
limited percentage of competition for those who are high scorers.

6.1Norm-Referenced as a Survey Testing

A norm referenced test uses a normative or
standardization sample from the general population to
determine what is “typical” or “normal” in that
population. Test designers choose a population they feel
represents the target population to be evaluated using the
test.

6.2Criterion-Referenced as Mastery Testing

Criterion-referenced evaluations are used in schools
to examine specific knowledge and abilities that
students have most likely gained. This determines how
close they are to mastering a standard. They allow teachers
to assess how they can assist students improve in specific
areas.

4. Contextualized and Decontextualized Assessment

Contextualized assessment, the focus is on the students'
construction
of functioning knowledge and the students' performance in
application of
knowledge in the real work context of the discipline area.
Assessment tasks
reflect the goal of learning. It uses performance-based tasks which
are authentic
in nature.
 Decontextualized assessment includes written exams and
term papers,
which are suitable for assessing declarative knowledge, and do not
necessarily
have a direct connection to a real-life context. It focuses on
declarative
knowledge and /or procedural knowledge in artificial situations
detached from
the real work context.

7.1 Contextualized as Measure of Functioning Knowledge

Contextualization is proposed here as a construct that (a)
indicates curricular intention, cognitive process, and learning
outcomes; (b) is a measurable variable that can be
correlated to measures of learning; (c) is broadly applicable
and thus represents a comparison variable across diverse
scenarios; and (d) represents an important link between
existing theory and practice

7.2 Decontextualized as Assessment of Artificial Situation

Focus on declarative knowledge and/ or procedural
knowledge in artificial situations detached from real work
context.

5.Analytic and Holistic Assessment

Analytic assessment refers to assessing specific learning
outcomes and providing feedback on each aspect of a task. Holistic
assessment takes a global approach, where the assessor develops
an overall mental response to a student's work and assigns a grade
with justification.

8.1 Analytic as Specific Approach

Analytic assessment refers to specific approach in the
assessment
of learning outcomes. In this procedure, students are
given
feedback on how well they are doing on each important
aspect of
specific task expected from them. Assessment 'then
is made
specific based on the importance of the performance.
With this,
assessment shouldn't be undertaken in part but
must address the
whole performance.

8.2 Holistic as Global Approach

Holistic assessment refers to a global approach in the
assessment of a student-learning outcome. Sadler
 (2009) pointed out that in holistic assessment, the
teacher or the assessor has to develop complex mental
responses to a student's work and in evaluating the
student's work, the assessor provides a grade and
supports it with a valid justification for assigning the
grade. Holistic assessment could be in the form of
reflection papers and journals, peer assessment, self-
assessment, group presentation and portfolio.

Nature of Performance-Based Assessment (PBA)

1.Meaning and Characteristics

9.1 PBA as Defined by Authorities
Performance-Based Assessment is one in which the
teacher
observes and makes a judgment about the student’s
demonstration
of a skill or competency in creating a product,
constructing a
response, or making a presentation (McMillan, 2007). In
this
assessment, the emphasis is on the students’
ability to perform tasks
by producing their own authentic work with their
knowledge and
skills. Performance-Based Assessment (PBA) is an
alternative form
of assessment that moves away from traditional
paper-and-pencil
tests (Ferman, 2005). It involves students
producing a project,
whether it is an oral, written, individual or group
performance. The
students are engaged in creating a final project that
exhibits
understanding of concepts they have learned.

9.2 Features of PBA

Performance products are outputs produced by the
students that
provide concrete examples of their knowledge and
understanding
of the subject matter. These performances allow them to
demonstrate the application of what they have learned
with their
schemata as well. Students may also engage in some
tasks which
 are useful not only within the four walls of the school such
as doing
field work, demonstrating rules and guidelines, and
engaging into
extension services. Process oriented assessments provide
insights
on the students’ critical thinking, logic and reasoning
skills. These
will lead them to independent learning and set goals for
future use.
Some performance assessment proponents contend that
genuine
performance assessments must possess at least three
features
(Popham, 2011):
 Multiple evaluation criteria. The student’s
performance must be judged using more than one
evaluation
criterion.
 Pre-specified quality standards. Each of the evaluative
criteria on
which a student’s performance is to be judged is clearly
explicated in advance of judging the quality of the
student’s
performance.

 Judgmental appraisal. Unlike the scoring of selected-

response
tests in which electronic computers and scanning
machines can,
once programmed, carry on without the need of
humankind,
genuine performance assessments depend on human
judgments to
determine how acceptable a student’s performance really
is.

2. Types of Performance Tasks

The main objective of the performance task is to capture all the learning targets
which shall be aligned to
the teaching and learning objectives, activities and assessment. Thus, the focus of
performance-based
assessment is the final output that must be developed or completed. These could
be inform of problem-
solving, demonstration, tasks and other authentic experiences that would influence
the thinking
processes, skills and products required from performance tasks.
The main objective of the performance task is to capture all the learning targets
which shall be aligned to
the teaching and learning objectives, activities and assessment. Thus, the focus of
performance-based
assessment is the final output that must be developed or completed. These could
be inform of problem-
solving, demonstration, tasks and other authentic experiences that would influence
the thinking
processes, skills and products required from performance tasks.
The main objective of the performance task is to capture
all the
learning targets which shall be aligned to the teaching
and learning
objectives, activities and assessment. Thus, the focus of
performance-based assessment is the final output that
must be
developed or completed. These could be informing of
problem-
solving, demonstration, tasks and other authentic
experiences that
would influence the thinking processes, skills and
products
required from performance tasks.

10.1 Solving a Problem

Critical thinking and problem solving are important
skills
that need to be sharpened and developed
by the learners.
Teachers may include activities and make
sense of complex
authentic problems or issues to be solved
by the students.
This helps the students become
independent thinkers and
learners for life, and help them meet the
challenges of the
21st century.

10.2 Completing an Inquiry

An inquiry tasks is one in which the students are
asked to
collect data in order to develop their
understanding about a
topic or issue. Students determine what
data are needed and
under what conditions that data should be
collected, present
data and develop conclusions.

10.3 Determining Position

 This task requires students to make decision or
clarify a
position. Case analysis and issue related
activities or debate
are some examples of this task.

10.4 Demonstrations
This task shows how the students use knowledge
and skills
to complete well-defined complex tasks.
Students explain
or describe how something works or how
to do something
when they perform these tasks. Examples
are:
demonstrating steps or procedures of
cooking, explaining
the earthquakes safety procedures and
demonstrating how
to set up microscope for viewing slides.
The focus of
demonstration tasks is accuracy in
clarifying the steps of
process as well as careful reasoning
concerning the
rationale for each step of the process.

10.5 Developing Exhibits

Exhibits are visual presentations or displays that
need little
or no explanation from the creators. An
exhibit is offered to
explain, demonstrate or show something.
Classroom
applications include exhibit of best works,
pictures or
paintings, projects or even portfolios.

10.6 Presentation Tasks

This is a work or task performed in front of an
audience.
Storytelling, singing and dancing , musical
play or theatrical
acting are some presentations which demonstrate presentation
tasks.

10.7 Capstone Performances

 These are tasks that occur at the end of a program
of study
and enable students to show knowledge and skills
in the
context that matches the world of practicing
professionals.
These tasks include the research paper, practice
teaching,

internship or on-the-job training.

3. Strengths and Limitations

As we explored the nature of performance assessment
and
examined the different types of assessment tasks, several
authorities
discussed the advantages of performance assessments
over other
assessments.

Designing Meaningful Performance-Based Assessment

1. Designing the Purpose of Assessment

The first step in designing performance-based assessment is to
define the purpose of assessment. Defining the purpose and target
of assessment provides information on what students need to be
performed in a task given. By identifying the purpose, teachers are
able to easily identify the weaknesses and strengths of the
students’ performance. Purpose must be specified at the beginning
of the process so that the proper kinds of performance criteria and
scoring procedures can be established.

1. Defining the
purpose and target of
assessment provides
information on what
students
2. need to be
performed in a task
given. By identifying
the purpose, teachers
are able to easily
3. identify the
weaknesses and
strengths of the
students' performance.
Purpose most be
specified
4. at the beginning of
the process so that
the proper kinds of
performance criteria
and scoring
 5. procedures can be
established.
12.1 Learning Targets Used in Performance Assessment

ln defining the purpose of assessment, learning targets

must be
carefully identified and take in consideration. Performance
assessments primarily use four types of learning targets which
are
deep understanding, reasoning, skill, and products (McMillan,
2007).
Deep Understanding
The essence of performance assessment
includes the development of students’ deep
understanding.
The idea is to involve students meaningfully in
hands-on
activities for extended periods of time so that their
understanding is rich and more extensive than
what can be
attained by more conventional and traditional
paper-and-
pencil assessments. This focuses on the use of
knowledge
and skills.
Reasoning
Reasoning is essential with performance
assessment as the
students demonstrate skills and construct products.
Typically, students are given a problem to solve or
are
asked to make a decision or other outcome, such
as a letter
to the editor or school newsletter, based on
information that
is provided.

Skills
ln addition to logical and reasoning skills, students
are
required ro demonstrate communication,
presentation, and
psychomotor skills. These targets are ideally suited
to
 performance assessment. Psychomotor skills
Psychomotor
skills describe clearly the physical action required
for a
given task. These may be developmentally
appropriate
skills or skills that are needed for specific task: fine
motor
skills (holding a pen, focusing a microscope, and
using
scissors), gross motors actions (jumping and
lifting), more
complex athletics skills (shooting a basketball or
playing
soccer) some visual skills, and verbal/ auditory
skills for
young children. These skills also identify the level
at which
the skills is to be performed. Generally, deep
understanding
and reasoning involve in-depth, complex thinking
about
what is known and application of knowledge and
skills in
novel and more sophisticated ways. Skills include
student’s
proficiency in reasoning, communication and
psychomotor
task.
Product
Are complete works, such as term papers, projects,
and
other assignments in which students use their
knowledge
and skills.

12.2 Process and Product-Oriented Performance-Based Assessment

ln defining the purpose of assessment, the teacher should
identify whether
the students will have to demonstrate a process or a product. lf
the learning
outcomes deal on the procedures which you could specify, then
it focuses
on process assessment. ln assessing the process, it is essential
also that
assessment should be done while the students are performing
the
procedures or steps. Learning targets which require students to
demonstrate process include the procedures of proper
 handling/manipulating of microscope, or steps to be done when
in an
earthquake drill. Mathematical operations, reciting a poem, and
constructing a table of specification are other examples of this
target.

12.3 Authentic as Direct Realistic Performance-Based Activity

Authentic assessment is a form of evaluation that requires students to
demonstrate their knowledge and skills through real-world tasks that are
meaningful and relevant. This type of assessment emphasizes the
application of knowledge in practical contexts, allowing students to
engage in activities that replicate challenges they may face outside the
classroom.

2. Identifying Performance Tasks

Having clear understanding of the purpose of assessment, the next
step is
to identify performance tasks which measure the learning target
you are
about to assess. Some targets imply that the tasks should be
structure; other
require unstructured tasks.

13.1 Suggestions for Constructing Performance Tasks

The development of high quality performance assessment
effectively
measures complex learning outcomes request attention to task
development and to the ways performance are rate. Linn (1995)
suggested
ways to improve the development of task.

3. Developing Scoring Schemes

There are different useful ways to record the assessment of student's performance.
Some ways of assessing the student's performance could be the utilization of
anecdotal
records, interviews, direct observations using checklist or Likert scale and the use of
rubrics especially for the performance-based assessment.

14.1 Rubric as an Assessment Tool

- Scoring tool that lays out specific expectations for assignment (Levy 2005)
- The scoring procedures for judging student's responses to the performance
Tests (Popham, 2011)
- Set of rules specifying the criteria used to find out what the students know
and
are able to do so (Musical,2009)

14.2 Types of Rubrics

 * Analytic Rubric- it requires to list and identify the major knowledge
and skills
which are critical in the development of process or product.
*Holistic Rubric- it requires the teacher to make a judgement about the overall
quality of each student response.

14.3 Rubric Development

During the process of developing a rubric, instructors might:
* Select an assignment for your course - ideally one you
identify as
Time intensive to grade, or students report as having
unclear
expectations.
* Decide what you want students to demonstrate about their
learning
through that assignment. These are your criteria.
* Identify the markers of quality on which you feel
comfortable
evaluating students’ level of learning - often along with a
numerical
scale (i.e., "Accomplished," "Emerging," "Beginning" for a
developmental approach).
* Give students the rubric ahead of time. Advise them to use
it in
guiding their completion of the assignment.
Affective Learning Competencies

Affective Learning Competencies

1. Importance of Affective Targets

In the affective domain, there are constructs that we consider.
Among the
affective targets are attitudes, interest, motivation, values, self-
concept and
self-efficacy.

2. Affective Traits and Learning Targets

16.1 Attitude Targets
- refer to a person’s tendency to rate certain objects
favorably or
unfavorably. Attitudes are composed of four components:
a. Cognitions: This component is a statement of belief or
notion
b. relative to a person or things. b. Affect: This
component is the feeling that drives the thought and
reflects the person’s evaluation of a thing or a person.
 For instance, individuals have different feelings
towards studying some like to study while some hate
to study.
c. Behavioral: This component is the explicit behavior,
goals or expectations aimed at a specific person or
object.
d. Evaluation: This component is often considered as the
key element of attitudes. It is the judgement towards
a person or object on how good or bad they are.
Evaluation is a function of cognitive, affect and
behavioral intentions of the object.

16.2 Value Targets

are mental orientations towards ideas. It is the importance
attached to
certain activities or objects that serve as guiding principles
in the life
of a person. However, the majority of educators believe
that not all
values should be taught in classrooms i.e. liberal and
religious beliefs.
As a result, teachers do not advocate for the adoption of
some faiths
or the exclusion of others.

16.3 Motivation Targets

is defined as the forces that account for arousal,
choice, direction, and
continuity of action (Snowman & Biehler, 1997). It is the
level of
involvement of students in their interest in learning.

16.4 Academic Self-Concept Targets

is a person's perception of himself. The perceptions
are created as a
result of interactions with the environment, with
substantial impacts
from environmental reinforcements and significant
individuals in
one's life (Gable, 1986). Several school activities have
goals for
improving self-concept. Typical statements read as follows:
Students
will grow optimistic feelings of self-worth; Students will
demonstrate
optimistic self-perceptions in relation to their classmates.

16.5 Social Relationship Targets

 A complex set of interaction skills, including identification
of and
appropriate responses to social indications

2.6 Classroom Environment Targets

In every classroom there is a unique climate that is felt at
every point
in time. Some manifest a comfortable atmosphere, others
have relaxed
and productive ambiance.

3. Affective Domain of the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

17.1 Receiving
The student is passively aware that a thing exists. Is
focused during
instruction or project.

17.2 Responding
The student actively participates.

17.3 Valuing
Student sees worth or value in the activity, student is
motivated not
by the teacher to comply but his underlying value guiding
the
behavior.

17.4 Organization
Bringing together different values, resolving conflicts
among them,
and starting to build an internally consistent value system
and
developing a philosophy of life.

17.5 Characterization
Acting consistently with the new value; person known by
the value.

Development of Affective Assessment Tools

4. Methods of Assessing Targets

Three feasible methods of assessing affective traits and
dispositions:
1. Teacher observation
-it starts with a vivid definition of the trait, then followed
by list of student behavior and actions that corresponds to
positive and negative dimensions of the trait
2. Student Self-report
 -the most common and direct way to express students’
affect as self-
report is while having casual conversation or interview
3. Peer ratings
-teachers can accurately observe what is being assessed
in peer
ratings since teachers are very much engaged and
present inside
the classroom and this can verify the authenticity of
results of peer
rating.

19.1 Type of Affects

•A general reaction to something or someone can best be
gathered through observation.
•However, if attitude components are to be diagnosed, a
self-report will give a better information.
•Observation can be supported by peer rating method if
the target is socially-oriented target

19.2 Grouped or Individual Responses

If grouped response and tendencies are needed, selected
response
self-report method is suited because it assures anonymity
and is
easily scored.

19.3 Use of Information

If the intention of the affective assessment is to utilize the
results as
supporting input to grading, then multiple approaches is
necessary
and be mindful of the possibility of having fake results
from self-
report and even from peer judgment

5. Affective Assessment Tools

20.1 Checklists
is one of the effective formative assessment strategies to
monitor
specific skills, behaviors, or dispositions of individual or
group of
students (Burke, 2009)

20.2 Rating Scale

Rating scales helps students understand the learning
target /
outcomes and to focus students’ attention to
performance.
 20.3 Likert Scale
Another simple and widely used self-report method in
assessing
affect, wherein a list of clearly favorable and unfavorable
attitude
statements are provided; the students are asked to
respond to each
of the statement.

20.4 Semantic Differential Scale

Another common approach to measuring affective traits is
to use
variations of semantic differential.
These scales use adjective pairs that provide anchors for
feelings or
beliefs that are opposite in direction and intensity.

20.5 Sentence Completion

The advantage of using the incomplete sentence format is
that it
captures whatever comes to mind from each student. • A
disadvantage is students’ faking response thinking that
the teacher
will notice their penmanship, hence students will tend to
give
answers favorable to the liked response of the teacher.

Nature of Portfolio Assessment

1. Purposes
Portfolios are collections of student work representing a selection of
performance. Portfolios in classrooms today are derived from the
tradition of
the visual and performing arts in which they serve to showcase
artists'
accomplishments and personally favored works. A portfolio may be
a folder
containing a student's best pieces and the student's evaluation of
the strengths
and weaknesses of the pieces. It may also include one or more
works-in-
progress that illustrates the creation of a product, such as an essay,
evolving
through various stages of conception, drafting, and revision.

21.1 Why Use Portfolio?

Portfolios can be used for many purposes. The utilization of a
portfolio should be identified before the collection of the work.
Johnson and Johnson (2002) gave a comprehensive discussion on
the uses of a portfolio, viz:
1. Portfolios give students the opportunity to direct their
own learning. Students can: a. Document their efforts,
achievements, development, and growth in knowledge skills,
expressions, and attitudes. b. Use a variety of learning styles,
modalities, and bits of intelligence. c. Assess their own learning and
decide which items best represent their achievement and growth.
d. Set their future learning goals. With these, portfolios make the
students as part of the assessment process by requiring them to
reflect and analyze their work.
2. Portfolios can be used to determine students' level of
achievement. Portfolios allow students to present a holistic view of
their academic achievements, skills, and outcomes. Portfolios allow
students to present their work over a period of time and show their
progress in achieving learning outcomes.
3. Portfolios can be used to understand how students think,
reason, organize, investigate, and communicate. Portfolios
can provide insight into students' reasoning and intellectual
competencies by documenting students' progression of thought and
work in achieving their learning goals.
4. Portfolios can be used to communicate student efforts,
progress toward accomplishing learning goals, and
accomplishments. Portfolios allow student to present their work
as a whole in relation to standards and criteria to peers, teachers,
parents, college admission officers, and so forth.
5. Portfolios can be used to evaluate and improve
curriculum and instruction. Portfolios provide a broad view on
the effectiveness of the curriculum and instruction, thereby
allowing teachers to improve and enhance their instructional
methods and curriculum materials. Portfolios can encourage
students to take more ownership and responsibility for the learning
process. In some schools, portfolios are a way for students to
critique and evaluate their own work and academic progress, often
during the process of deciding what will be included in their
portfolios.

21.2 Characteristics
Portfolio assessment is a multi-faceted process characterized by
the following recurrent qualities:
1. It is continuous and ongoing, providing both formative (i.e.,
ongoing) and summative (i.e., culminating) opportunities for
monitoring students' progress toward achieving essential
outcomes.
2. It is multidimensional, i.e., reflecting a wide variety of
artifacts and processes reflecting various aspects of students'
learning process(es).
3. It provides for collaborative reflection, including ways for
students to reflect on their own thinking processes and meta-
cognitive introspection as they monitor their own
 comprehension, reflects upon their approaches to problem-
solving and decisionmaking, and observe their emerging
understanding of subjects and skills.

2. Types
22.1 Showcase
Showcase portfolio are designed to display a learner's best
quality of work.
This might be to highlight student success, or to showcase a
variety of
accomplishments a student has achieved over a period of time.
In
showcasing a student's work, this portfolio allows them to
describe and tell
their own story.

22.2 Documentation
Documentation Portfolio is to highlight the development and
improvement of student learning during a given period of time.
It often
contains a range of artefacts from brainstormed lists to rough
drafts to
finished products.

22.3 Process
Process Portfolio is similar to documentation portfolio, in which
it
contains all the evidences required to prove the learning
outcomes in the
given time, in addition, it integrates reflection and higher-order
cognitive
activities. It emphasizes metacognitive functioning and
encourages
students to become active participants in understanding their
own
learning. Process portfolio often contains documentation of
reflection such
as learning logs, journals and diaries.

22.4 Product
Product Portfolio is a portfolio to demonstrate a student's best work. This type of
portfolio is typically used for interview. It is more of a summative assessment
and
has no reflection on the learning process.

22.5 Standard-Based
Standards-based refers to systems of instruction, assessment, grading,
and academic reporting that are based on students demonstrating
understanding or mastery of the knowledge and skills they are expected to
learn as they progress through their education
 3. Elements
The elements of design are the fundamental aspects of any visual
design
which include shape, color, space, form, line, value, and texture.
Graphic
designers use the elements of design to create an image that can
convey a
certain mood, draw the eye in a certain direction, or evoke a
number of
feelings. While the elements of design form the basics of any
image,
designers also lean on the principles of design, which are a set of
practices
of working with the elements of design that make a composition
look
pleasing to the eye.

23.1Parts and Designs

1. Color: Color helps establish a mood for your composition.
When light
waves strike an object and reflect back to the optic nerve in a
human’s
eyes, the sensation they perceive is called color. Artists and
designers
use color to depict and describe the subject. Color is used by
designers
to portray mood, light, depth, and point of view. Designers use
the color wheel and the tenets of color theory—a set of
guidelines for mixing, combining, and manipulating colors—to
create color schemes.

2. Line: Line refers to the way that two points in space are
connected. Whether they’re horizontal lines, diagonal lines, or
vertical lines, lines can help direct the eye toward a certain
point in your composition. You can also create texture by
incorporating different types of lines such as curved or
patterned lines instead of just straight lines.

3. Value: In design, value refers to the lightness or darkness

of a color. The values of a color are often visualized in a
gradient, which displays a series of variations on one hue,
arranged from the lightest to the darkest. Artists can use the
various values of color to create the illusion of mass and
volume in their work.

4. Space: Making proper use of space can help others view

your design as you intended. White space or negative space is
the space between or around the focal point of an image.
 Positive space is the space that your subject matter takes up
in your composition. The spacing of your design is important
because a layout that’s too crowded can overwhelm the
viewer’s eye.

Grading and Reporting System

1. K to 12 Grading of Learning Outcome

-The K to 12 curriculum have specific assessment requirements and
design catering to the delivery modes of learning,i.e ., the formal
education and alternative learning system.The K to 12 assessment
is learner-centered and carefully considers its learning environment
system. The 21st centuryskills such as research, analytical/critical,
practical and creative are part of the indicators included in the K to
12 assessments.Both cognitive and non-cognitive skills which
includes values, motivation, attitude, behavior traits, and
interpersonal relationsare part of the assessment.Formative
assessment (assessment FOR learning) is given importance to
ensure learning. Learners are encouraged totake part in the process
of self-assessment (assessment AS learning). Summative forms of
assessment (assessment OF learning) are also part of the
curriculum assessment under the K to 12.The K to 12 curriculum
prescribes that the assessment process should utilize the wide
variety of traditional and authenticassessment tools and techniques
for a valid, reliable, and realistic assessment of learning. Traditional
and authentic assessmentscomplement each other though they are
not mutually exclusive. Furthermore, it gives greater importance on
assessingunderstanding and skills development rather than
on mere accumulation of content.In K to 12 curriculum, assessment
will be standards-based to ensure that there is standardization in
teaching andlearning. Department of Education (DepEd) issued an
order (DepEd Order No. 31, s. 2012) stating that assessment will be
donein four levels and will be weighted accordingly.

2. The Effects of Grading on Students

-The effects of grading systems on students has both upsides and downsides.
In some cases, they are unavoidable, and in others, it may be better to learn
without incorporating grades into the picture.

3. Building a Grading and Reporting System

-The Basis of Good Reporting is Good Evidence
Whaever is preferred and required of the teacher when it comes to
format, grading and reporting should provide high-quality
information to interested person by means of any schema they can
understand and use.
 4. Major Purposes of Grading and Reporting
-The following are the major purposes of grading and reporting:
•To communicate the achievement status of students to parents
and other
•To provide information that students can use for self-evaluation
•To select, identify or group students for certain educational parts
or programs
•To provide incentives for students to learn
•To evaluate the effectiveness of instructional programs
•To provide evidence of students’ lack of effort or
inappropriate
Responsibility

5. Grading and Reporting Methods

*Letter and Grades
•The most common and best known of all grading methods
•Mostly composed of five-level grading scale
•Letter Grade Descriptors

*Percentage Grades
 Are the ultimate multi-category grading method
 Can range from 0 to 100
 Generally, more popular among high school teachers than
elementary
Teachers

*Standards-Based Grading
In an effort to bring greater clarity and specificity to the grading
process,
many schools initiated standards-based grading procedures and
reporting
forms. Guskey and Bailey (2001) identify four steps in developing
standards-based grading.
These steps are:
 Identify the major learning
goals or standards that students will be expected to achieve
at each
grade level or in each course of study.
 Establish performance indicators for the learning goals. 
Determine
graduated level of quality (benchmarks) for assessing each
goal or
standard.

*Pass/Fail Grading
Simplest alternative grading method available to educators reduce the
number of grade categories to just two: Pass or Fail. In the late 1800s
Pass/Fail grading was originally introduced in college-level courses in the
 college in order for students to give more importance to learning and less to
grades they attained. By lessening the emphasis on grades, many educators
believed that students would be encouraged to take more challenging
subjects.

6. Developing Effective Reporting System

- The most critical issue to be addressed in selecting the tools included in
reporting system is what purpose or purposes it is to serve. Why we need to
convey this information and what we need to accomplish.

7. Tools for Comprehensive Reporting

-Reporting systems most highly regarded by parents typically include
a mix of
traditional and more modern reporting tools.
Tools that might be included in comprehensive reporting system:
1. Report card is issued by the school to the student or the
student's parents once to four times yearly. A typical report
card uses a grading scale to determine the quality of a
student's school work.
2. Notes attached to Report Card Report card comments
should be personalized for each student and provides
meaningful feedback to help parents understand their child's
progress. The most important concept to remember when
writing report card comments is to frame each statement in
encouraging and positive language.
3. School Open House. The open house gives parents and
students the chance to get acquainted with the teacher (or
teachers), see the school building and classrooms, and
perhaps get a quick overview of class expectations and the
year's curriculum.
4. Weekly/Monthly Progress Report. It is like a document
that explains in detail how far you've gone towards the
completion of a project. It outlines the activities you've
carried out, the tasks you've completed, and the milestones
you've reached your project plan.
5. Homework Assignments. The most common purpose of
homework is to have students practice material already
presented in class so as to reinforce learning and facilitate
mastery of specific skills. Preparation assignments introduce
the material that will be presented in future lessons.
6. Portfolios or Exhibits of Students’ Work. Portfolio enables students
to reflect their real performance, to show their weak and strong domain
 and to observe student's progress during the learning process, and
encourages students to take responsibilities for their own learning.
7. Newsletter to Parents. A parent newsletter is a great way to keep
parents in the loop about what is happening in your classroom. A
newsletter can include classroom stories, details about upcoming
events, and suggestions for how families can support their children's
academic growth at home.

8. Guidelines for Better Practice

To ensure better practice of grading and reporting systems, the
following
statements serve as guide on how to utilize effectively the
grading and
reporting systems:
1. Begin with a clear statement of purpose.
2. Provide accurate and understandable descriptions of
learning.
3. Use grading and reporting to enhance teaching and learning.
9. Planning and Implementing Parent-Teacher Conference
Parent-Teacher Conferences Is a face to face meeting between one teacher
and one or both parents (or guardians) of a student. It is an opportunity to
discuss a student’s academic progress and social behavior.

A Parent-Teacher conference is a great opportunity to:

• Share academic progress and growth based on classroom
observations, testing data, assessments, portfolios and assignments.
• Learn from parents or guardians so you can be better informed
about student’s strengths, needs, behavior, and learning styles.
• Discuss enrichment or intervention strategies to support students
Learning
• Discuss issues that may be interfering with students learning

The following points provide helpful reminders when preparing

and conducting Parent-Teacher conference:
1. Make plans for the conference. Set the goals and
objectives of the conference ahead of time. Before
anything you must need to make plan to know what the
flow of the conference is.
2. Begin the conference in a positive manner. Starting the
conference by making a positive statement about the
student sets the tone for the meeting. You need have a
positive manner when starting the conference to tell that
parents about the positive manners of their child.
3. Present the students strong points before describing the
 areas needing improvement. It is helpful to present
examples of the students work when discussing the
students’ performance.
4. Encourage parents to participate and share
information.
Although as a teacher you are in charge of the
conference, you must be willing to listen to
parents and share information rather than "talk
at" them. You must need to tell the parents that
they need to participate on the school to
monitor their children, and also parents need to
listen on the teacher and the teacher also need
to listen to the teacher in short they need to
cooperate to each other for the child.
5. Plan a course of action cooperative. The
discussion
should lead to what steps can be taken by the
teacher and parent to help the student. We
need a plan course of action to identify what
steps they need for the students that can help
for them.
6. End the conference with positive comment. At
the end
of the conference, thank the parents for coming
and say something positive about the students.
You need the end the conference with a positive
comment because by commenting positive it
can help the student to continue their dreams
7. Use good human relation skills during the
conference.
By the good human relation, it can help the
student to monitor by the cooperation on the
parents and teacher.

Statistics and Computer: Tools for Analyzing Assessment Data

6. Statistics
Statistics is concerned with the organization, analysis, and
interpretation of test scores and other numerical data. Statistical
techniques help teachers to (1) analyze and describe results of
measurement obtained in their own classrooms, (2)
understand the
statistics used in test manuals and research reports, and (3)
interpret
the various types of derived scores used in assessment.

7. Descriptive and Inferential Statistics

 This is used to describe a group of individuals or describe the data
that have
been collected; to describe variables that were grouped in order to
determine
the measure of certain dependent variable that needs to be
measured. Various
data analysis techniques provide meaningful description of scores
with small
number of numerical indices. Such indices are calculated using
samples
drawn from a population and are called statistics. On the other
hand, when
indices are calculated using the entire population, it is called
parameters.

8. Statistical Tools for: Grouped and Individual Data

To carry out meaningful comparisons among sets of tests scores, a
statistical
tool is needed. Measures of central tendency and measures of
variability are
the most commonly used statistical tools.

35.1Measures of Central Tendency

Measures of Characteristics
Central
Tendency
The Mean  Most frequently used index of distribution's central
tendency.
 It is simply an arithmetic average of all the scores in the
distribution.
 Since it is computed using every score in the distribution,
it is an extremely representative measure.
 Its strength is also its weakness because several
atypically high or atypically low scores (sometimes called
liars) can distort the value of the mean.
The Median  The second most frequently used index of central
tendency.
 It is the point that divides the scores into two equal
halves.
 One advantage of median as a measure of central
tendency is that it is not unduly affected by peculiarly large
or small scores.
 Unlike the mean, the median treats each of these wild
scores as merely another score, no more no less than other
scores.
The Mode  It is the most frequently occurring score in the
 distribution.
 With most reasonably large set of scores, the mode will
occur somewhere near the middle of the distribution, so it
can also serve as an index of the distribution's central
tendency.
 In some cases, a distribution has two or even three most
frequently occurring scores. In such cases, statistician refer
to it as bimodal or trimodal distribution. Multimodal
distribution refers to those with three or more frequently
occurring Scores.  Since the mode takes into account even
fewer data than the median, and fewer than the mean, it is
not used often in describing a distribution's central
tendency.

35.2 Measures of Variability

Aside from describing how a set of scores tends to the center of
distribution, the information about how variables the score are, is also
important. It is also relevant to know how spread out the scores are.

Measures of Characteristics
Variability
The Range  Most readily calculated index of distribution's variability.
 It is calculated by subtracting the lowest score from the
highest score.
 The simplicity of the range's computation is just the only
redeeming virtue, because there are only two scores
involved in its computation. If there is an abnormally
highest and/or lowest score, the resulting range will yield a
misleading indication of the distribution's overall
variability.
The Quartile  It is based on the range of the middle 50% of the scores,
Deviation instead of the range of the entire set.  Itis also called semi-
interquartile range.  Quartiles are points on the scale (like
averages and percentiles), the quartile deviation represents
a distance on the scale. It indicates the distance that is
necessary to go above and below the median to include
approximately the middle 50% of the scores.
The Standard  It offers a way of thinking about the average variability
Deviation of a set of scores when they compute the mean.
 It tells the average distance from the mean for each of
the scores in the distribution.
 The more spread out the scores are, the larger the value
of the standard deviation. The less spread out the scores,
the smaller the standard deviation is.
 The most useful measure of variability
 Because it takes into account the amount that each score
 deviates from the mean, it is a more stable measure of
variability than the others.

35.3 Standard Scores

Aside from the Measures of Central Tendency and Measures of
Variability, another group of standard scores that may be used in
assessment is discussed in the following table.

Standard Characteristics
Score
Z-Score  The simplest of the standard scores, and the one on which
others are based.
 It expresses test performance simply and directly as the
number of standard deviation units a raw score is above or
below the mean.
 A Z-Score is always negative when the raw score is
smaller than the mean. Thus z-score is seldom used
directly in test norms, but are transformed into a standard
score system that uses only positive numbers.
T-Score  It was originally given to a type of normalized score
based on a group of unselected twelve-year-old children. 
It refers to any set of normally distributed standard scores
that has a mean of 50 and a standard deviation of 10.  T-
score is obtained by multiplying the z-score by 10 and
adding the product to 50. This formula is true only when
the original distribution of raw scores is normal.  The
reason that T-scores is preferred reporting test results is
that only positive integers are O to z-scores for produced.
The Stanines  These are simple type of normalized standard score that
illustrates the process of normalization.
 They are a single digit scores ranging from 1 to 9.
 It is named as such because the distribution of raw score
is divided into nine parts wherein stanine 5 is precisely the
center of the distribution and includes all cases within one-
fourth of a standard deviation on either side of the mean.
 Major strengths of stanines are the following: o The
Stanine system uses a nine-point scale in which 9 is high, 1
is low and 5 is average o Stanines are normalized standard
scores that make it possible to compare student's
performance on various assessments. o It makes easy to
combine different types of data because it is computed as
percentile ranks but are expressed in standard score form. o
It uses a single-digit score, it is easily recorded and takes
up less space than others scores.
 The Percentile Indicates student's relative position in a group in terms of
Rank the percentage of students' scoring lower (Linn &
Gronlund, 2000). One of the most widely used and easily
understood methods of describing assessment performance.

35.4 Indicators of Relationship

There are techniques of describing the relationships of the
scores in
different subject areas. These are:
(1) Graphic Presentation;
(2) The Product-Moment Correlation Coefficient;
and
(3) The Rank-Order Correlation Coefficient.

3.4.1 Graphic Presentation

 By using graphic display techniques, the
relationships between two variables can be
described according to its magnitude (strong
or
weak) and its direction (positive negative).
This
technique though shows that it is difficult to
get a
firm grasp on graphically displayed
relationship
because of the imprecision of visually
derived
estimates.
3.4.2 The Product-Moment Correlation
 This is the most widely used indicator or
the
magnitude and direction of the relationship
between two variables, the product-moment
correlation coefficient (popularly known as
Pearson
correlation coefficient named after the
English
statistician, Karl Pearson.
 This product-moment correlation coefficient
ranges from +1.00 to -1.00. An r of +1.00
represents
a perfect positive relationship while a value
of -1.00
represents a perfect negative relationship.
An r of
zero indicates that there is no linear
relationship that
exist between two variables. This correlation
approach is used with linearly related data,
 meaning, data whose scatterplots shows a
more or
less straight-line relationship.

9. Computer: Aid in statistical computing and data presentation

- In the previous paragraphs of this chapter, fundamental concepts of
statistics
and statistical tools used for different statistical methods were
discussed. In
the succeeding paragraph, simple computations of statistical
treatment will be
discussed with emphasis on the use of computer and the software
MS Excel, a
software developed by Microsoft, to make computation more
efficient and less
prone to error.