WU/CoBE Dep’t of

Accounting & Finance

CHAPTER FOUR
FINANCIAL MARKETS
Introduction
Financial markets are markets in which funds are transferred from people who have a surplus of available funds to
people who have a shortage of available funds. Financial market is also defined as a place in which financial assets
are bought or sold. One party transfers funds in financial markets by purchasing financial assets previously held by
another party. Financial markets facilitate the flow of funds and thereby facilitate financing and investing by
households, firms, and government agencies.

The Role of Financial Markets

Financial markets provide three economic roles. First, the interactions of buyers and sellers in a financial market
determine the price of the traded assets; or equivalently, the required return on a financial asset is determined.
The inducement for firms to acquire funds depends on the required return that investors demand, and it is this
feature of financial markets that signals how the funds in the economy should be allocated among financial assets.
This is called the price discovery process.

Second, financial markets provide a mechanism for investor to sell a financial asset. Because of this feature, it is
said that a financial market offers liquidity, an attractive feature when circumstances either force or motivate an
investor to sell. In the absence of liquidity, the owner will be forced to hold a debt instrument until it matures and an
equity instrument until the company is either voluntarily or involuntarily liquidated. While all financial markets
provide some form of liquidity, the degree of liquidity is one of the factors that characterize different markets.

The third economic role of a financial market is that it reduces the search and information costs of
transacting. Search costs represent explicit costs, such as the money spent to advertise the desire to sell or
purchase a financial asset, and implicit costs, such as the value of time spent in locating counterparty. The presence
of some form of organized financial market reduces costs. Information costs are those entailed with assessing the
investment merits of financial assets; that is, the amount and the likelihood of the cash flow expected to be
generated. In an efficient market, prices reflect the aggregate information collected by all market participants.

Participants of financial market

Participants of financial market can be broadly grouped in to two: Lenders & Borrowers
 Lenders (surplus unit): it includes individuals and corporations with capital in excess of their current
requirement.
 Individual savers: A person lends money when he/she puts money in a saving or fixed account at a bank;
contributes in a pension plan; pays premiums to an insurance company; invest in a government bonds; or
invest in a company shares.

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 Firms/Companies: those having surplus cash which is not needed for a short period of time, they may
seek to make money from their cash surplus by lending it via short term market called money market.
 Borrowers (deficient units); includes individuals, companies, central or local government, public corporations
or institutions with different investment opportunities (expansion, replacement, additions or making new
investment), but lack adequate internal capital to finance their investment.
 Individual borrowers: borrow money via banker’s loans for short term needs or longer term mortgage to
help finance a house purchases.
 Government: borrow to finance their deficit and to on behalf of nationalized industries, local authorities,
municipalities and other public sectors.
 Municipalities and local authorities: may borrow in their own name as well as receiving fund from
national governments.
 Companies: firms those having deficit of fund needs money to finance their operation.
 Public corporations: these may include governmental owned service providers with customer charging
basis: such as, public enterprise, utility companies, etc.

Classification of Financial Markets

Now that we understand the basic role and participants of financial markets, let’s look at their structure. The
following descriptions of several categorizations of financial markets illustrate essential features of these markets.

1. On the basis of financial claim

A. Equity (stock) market: deals with variable income securities
B. Bond (debt) market: deals with fixed income securities
2. On the basis of maturity of security traded (period)
A. Money market; which provides short term debt financing and investment.
B. Capital market: the market for debt and equity instruments with a maturity of more than one
year.
3. On the basis of timing (time of delivery)
A. Spot market: market for immediate delivery
B. Future market: a market in which delivery is after certain future time
4. On the basis of by origin
A. Primary market: markets dealing with financial assets that are issued for first time (deals with
newly issued securities).
B. Secondary market: markets deals with previously issued financial instruments.
5. On the basis of market structure:
A. Auction market: market on the floor of stock exchange

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B. Over-the-counter (OTC) market: market by interconnected computers. That is, it does not
denote a particular place where dealers assemble and transact securities.
6. Other classifications:
A. Derivatives market: this provides instruments or the management of financial market.
B. Foreign exchange market: deals with the trading of foreign currency
C. Commodity market: deals with the trading of commodities (agricultural and industrial products;
such as precious metals)

Primary vs. Secondary Market

A. Primary Market

Primary market is a market in which newly-issued securities are sold to initial buyers by the corporation or
government borrowing the funds. Securities available for the first time are offered through the primary market. That
is, in the primary market, companies interact with investors directly while in the secondary market investors interact
with themselves.

The securities offered may be a new type for the issuer or additional amounts of a security used frequently in the
past. The company receives the money and issues new security certificates to the investors.

The traditional middleman in the primary market is called an investment banker. Investment banking firms play an
important role in many primary market transactions by underwriting securities: they guarantee a price for a
corporation’s securities and then sell those securities to the public. That is, it buys the new issue form the issuer at
an agreed upon price and hopes to resell it to the investing public at a higher price.

Usually, a group of investment bankers joins to underwrite a security offering and form what is called an
underwriting syndicate. Companies raise new capital in the primary market through:
a) Public issues ( initial public offering) or IPO
b) Right issue
c) Private placement

 Public issue/ offering: The established companies may sell new securities directly to the general public,
i.e. to individuals and institutions.
 Right issue: Offering of securities may be made only to the existing shareholders. Thus, when securities
are offered only to the company’s existing shareholders to buy, it is called right issue.

 Private placement: Instead of public issue of securities, a company may offer securities privately only to
a few selected investors. This is referred to as private placement. The investment bankers may act as a
finder, that is, he locates the institutional buyer for a fee.

B. Secondary Market

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The secondary market is also known as, the aftermarket, is the financial market where previously issued securities
and financial instruments such as stock and bonds are bought and sold.

Secondary market is a market where already issued or existing or outstanding financial assets are traded among
investors. In the secondary market the issuer of the asset does not receive funds from the buyer unlike primary
market. Rather, the existing issue changes hands and funds flow from the buyer of the asset to the seller in
secondary market.

Function of secondary Market

In short it has the following are economic functions of secondary market both for the issuer and investors:

Benefits to the issuers

Provides regular information about the value of the security.

For example, higher value of shares indicates- higher goodwill (public image) from the investors’ point
of view, good management of funds raised from earlier primary markets by the firm.
Help determining fair prices based on demand and supply forces and all available information.

Benefits to investors (buyers) or security holders.

Secondary market offers them high liquidity for their assets as well as information about their assets fair
market values.
They can sell their shares at readily available market.
Provide marketability and liquidity for investors
It helps investors feel confidence that they can shift from one financial asset to another.

Thus, by keeping the cost of both searching & transaction costs low, secondary market encourages investors to
purchases financial assets.

Money vs. Capital Markets

Another way of distinguishing between financial markets is on the basis of the maturity of the securities traded in
each market. The money market is a financial market in which only short-term debt instruments (maturity of less
than one year) are traded. Capital market is the market in which long-term debt (maturity of one year or greater) and
equity Instruments are traded. Money market securities are usually more widely traded than longer-term securities
and so tend to be more liquid.

A. Money Market

The money market is where short-term debts such as treasury bills (TB), commercial paper, banker’s acceptance…
etc are bought and sold. Participants borrow and lend for short periods of time, typically up to one year.

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Money market is the term designed to include the financial institutions which handle the purchase, sale & transfers
of short term credit instruments. It includes the entire machinery for the channelizing of short term funds.

Characteristics of money market

The general characteristics of a money market are given below:

i) Short term funds are borrowed & lent

ii) No fixed place for conduct of operations, the transaction being conducted even over the horizontal &
therefore there is an essential need for the presence of well developed communications system.

iii) Dealings may be conducted with or with out the help of brokers.

iv) Funds are traded for a maximum period of one year.

B. Capital Markets

Capital market is the market in which intermediate or longer-term debt (generally those with original maturity of
more than one year) and equity instruments are traded. In capital market, firms commonly issue securities such as
stocks and bonds to finance their long-term investments in corporate operations and the government also issues debt
securities in this market. Institutional and individual investors purchase securities with funds that they wish to invest
for a longer time.

Even though stocks do not have maturities, they are classified as capital market securities because they provide
long-term funding. The New York Stock Exchange, where the stocks of the largest U.S. corporations are traded, is a
prime example of a capital market. However, when describing maturity of debt securities in capital market,
“intermediate term” means 1 to 10 years, and “long term” means more than 10 years.

Debt Markets vs. Equity Markets

Another way of classifying financial markets is based on the type of claim associated with the fund transferred
through the transaction in that market. Accordingly, if the transaction represents a simple borrowing and does not
give ownership title to the buyer of the security, the market is termed as debt market. For example, a firm may raise
fund by issuing a debt instrument, such as a bond or a mortgage, which is a contractual agreement by the borrower
to pay the holder of instrument fixed dollar amounts at regular intervals (interest and principal payments) until a
specified date (the maturity date), when a final payment is made. The buyer of the debt instrument will then will get
his money with some return. In cases of loss or bankruptcy, he will have first claim over the assets of the firm. This
means, if the firm that issues the instrument went bankrupt and could not pay its debt, the holder of the instrument
has the right to enforce the firm to liquidate its assets and get his money. On the other hand, the holder of the
instrument will not have ownership title over the firm and hence his return will not depend on the profitability of the
firm.
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In contrast, if the transaction gives ownership title to the buyer of the instrument, the market is termed as equity
market. In this case, the buyer of the financial asset will be one of the owners of the firm and unlike in the case of
debt market he will not expect a predetermined return. He will rather expect to get a series returns in terms of
dividend and capital gain. Thus, unlike the buyer of a debt instrument, his return will depend on the profitability of
the firm and in case of bankruptcy he will have a residual claim like the other owners of the firm.

Auction Market vs. Over-The-Counter (OTC) Market

The other classifications of financial market can be made on the basis of structure of the market. Accordingly, the
following are the two major classifications.

Auction market: It is also called open outcry market. It is where some transactions are carried out on a trading
floor, by a method known as open outcry. This type of auction is used in stock exchange and commodity exchanges
where traders may enter “verbal” bids and offers simultaneously.

Stock Exchange

Stock exchange are organized market places in which stocks and other securities are traded by members of the
exchange, acting as both agents (brokers) and principals (dealers or traders).These exchanges are physical locations
and are made up of members that use the exchange facilities and systems to exchange or trade listed stocks. Stocks
traded on an exchange are said to be listed stocks. To be listed, a company must apply and satisfy requirements
established by the exchange for minimum capitalization, shareholder equity, average closing share price and other
criteria. Even after being listed exchanges may delist a company’s stock it is no longer meets the exchange
requirements.

The right to trade securities or make markets in an exchange floor is granted to a firm or individual who becomes a
member of the exchange by buying a seat on the exchange. The number of seats is fixed by the exchange and the
cost of a seat is determined by its demand and supply.

Functions of stock exchange market

The stock exchanges perform a number of functions useful to both the investors and corporations. They carry out
the following functions.

i) Central trading place: they provide a central place where the brokers and dealers regularly meet and transact
business.
ii) Settlement of transaction: they provide convenient arrangements for the settlement of transaction.
iii) Continuous market: these are markets for the existing securities. These are places for the holder of securities
to buy and sell their securities and for those who want to invest their savings. The stock exchange thus
provides liquidity to their investment.
iv) Supply of long term funds: since the securities can be negotiated and transferred through stock exchanges, it
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becomes possible for the companies to raise long term funds from investors. In the stock exchange, one
investor is substituted by another when a security is transacted. Therefore, the company is assured of long term
availability of funds.
v) Setting up of rules and regulations: stock exchanges set up rules and regulations governing the conduct and
finance of their members. It ensures that a reasonable measure of safety is provided to investors and the
transactions take place under competitive conditions.
vi) Evaluation of securities: stock exchange helps to evaluate the securities as they publish the prices of securities
regularly in newspapers. They also enable the holders of securities to know the worth of their holdings at any
time.
vii) Control over company management: a company which wants to get its shares listed in a stock exchange has to
follow the rules framed by the stock exchange. Though these rules and requirements, the stock exchanges
exercise some control on the management of the company.
viii) Helps capital formation: stock exchanges helps capital formation. The publicity given by the stock
exchanges about the different types of securities and their prices encourage even the disinterested persons to
save and invest in securities.
ix) Directs the flow of savings: a stock exchange directs the flow of savings of the community between different
types of competitive investments. It also helps to meet the investment needs of entrepreneurs.

Over the Counter (OTC) market

The over-the-counter (OTC) is not physically existing market as that if stock exchange, but transactions between
traders are made electronically via network of computers. The OTC market is also called the market for unlisted
stocks.OTC market includes trading in all stocks not listed on one of the exchanges. It can also include trading in
listed stocks, which is referred to as the third market. The OTC market is not a formal organization with
membership requirements or a specific list of stocks deemed eligible for trading. In theory, any security can be
traded on the OTC market as long as a registered dealer is willing to make a market in the security (willing to buy
and sell shares of the stock).

There is tremendous diversity in the OTC market because it imposes no minimum requirements. Stocks that trade
on the OTC range from those of small, unprofitable companies to large, extremely profitable firms.
As any stock can be traded on the OTC as long as someone indicates a willingness to make a market whereby the
party buys or sells for his/ her own account acting as a dealer. This differs from most transactions on the listed
exchanges, where some members act as brokers who attempt to match buy and sell orders. Therefore, the OTC
market is referred to as a negotiated market, in which investors directly negotiate with dealers.
The four major types of markets on which stocks are traded are referred to as follows:

1. First market: trading on exchanges of listed stocks

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2. Second market: trading in the OTC market of stocks not listed on an exchange.

3. Third market: trading in the OTC market of listed stocks.

4. Fourth market: direct trading of securities between two parties with no broker intermediary.

Spot Market vs. Future markets

 Financial markets can also be classified based on the timing of the contract and the transaction. Spot markets
are markets where the transaction is made at the time of lag-on the spot. For example, if we consider a spot
foreign exchange market, the exchange will be made at the time of agreement except for some short time lag in
delivery like hours or maximum of 2 days. While future markets are markets where the contract is made today
and transaction/delivery is made in a future time specified in the contract. They are markets where future
contracts are traded.
 Future contracts are contracts which are agreements to deliver items on a specified future date at a price
specified today but not paid until delivery. To use the same example of a foreign exchange market, a buyer and
a seller may agree today to transact a foreign currency after some time say three months at rate they fix now.
Future markets are important to avoid risk arising from fluctuations in the spot market.

Derivatives markets

Derivatives markets are a market in which derivatives securities are bought and sold. What is a derivatives
security? A derivative security is a security whose value depends on the values of other more basic underlying
securities or assets. Some contracts give the contract holder either the obligation or the choice to buy or sell a
financial asset. Such contracts derive their value from the price of the underlying financial asset. Consequently,
these contracts are called derivative instrument.

The derivative securities are also known as contingent claims. Very often, the variables underlying the derivative
securities are the prices of traded securities. For example, a stock option is a derivative security whose value is
contingent on the price of a stock. The following are the important derivative securities:

 Forward contracts
 Options contracts
 Futures contracts
Forward contract
A forward contract is a simple derivative security. It is an agreement to buy or sell an asset at certain future time for
certain price. The contract is usually between either two financial institutions or a financial institution and one of its
corporate clients. It is not traded on a stock exchange.

One of the parties to a forward contract assumes a long position and agrees to buy the underlying security on certain

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specified future date for certain specified price. The other party assumes a short position and agrees to sell the asset
on the same date for the same price. A forward contract is settled at maturity. The holder of the short position
delivers the security to the holder of the long position in return for cash equal to the delivery price.

Option contract

Options are defined “marketable securities that give a buyer of contract the right but not the obligation to buy/sell a
stated number of shares at a fixed price within a per-determined time period. So, it is a contract which involves the
right to buy or sell securities at specified prices within a stated time.

Options provide the investors with the opportunity to hedge investments in the underlying shares and share
portfolios and can, thus, significantly reduce the overall risk related to investments. In addition, options contract
increase liquidity

Future contracts

A futures contract is an agreement between two parties to buy or sell an asset at certain price at certain time in the
future. The futures contracts are normally traded on an exchange. The most important feature of futures contract is
that, as the two parties to the contract do not necessarily know each other, the exchange also provides a mechanism
which gives the two parties a guarantee that the contract will be honored.

The distinction between futures and options

Futures
i) Futures create an obligation to make or take delivery at some future date.
ii) No payment is involved.
iii) Futures contracts are usually larger in value.
iv) They establish a price.
v) In the case of futures position, the loss can exceed the original margin commitment
Options
i) Options confer right but not the obligation to do the same.
ii) Premium paid on options is non-refundable.
iii) Options are smaller in value.
iv) Options set a range within or outside which a position proves profitable.
v) In the case of option position, the original deposit represents the maximum possible loss.

Foreign Exchange Market (FOREX) Market

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Different countries have different currencies and the settlement of all business transactions with in a country is done
in the local currency. However, the foreign exchange market provides a forum where the currency of one country
is traded for the currency of another country.

Example, suppose an Ethiopian importer import goods from the USA and has to make payments in US Dollars. To
do so, an Ethiopian importer has to purchase US Dollars in the foreign exchange market and make payment to US
firm/importer.

Therefore, the foreign exchange market is a market where foreign currencies are bought and sold. Since foreign
exchange market deals with a large volume of funds as well as a large number of currencies (belonging to various
countries), it is not only world wide market but also the world’s largest financial market.

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