Lesson 1: Moral and Non-Moral Standards

Definition of Ethics
• Ethics comes from the Greek word ethos (custom), while moral is its Latin
equivalent.
• Ethics is the study of moral standards, focusing on the rightness or wrongness
of human behavior.

Moral vs. Non-Moral Standards

• Moral Standards: Norms that determine what ought to be done or what is right
or wrong.
• Examples:
• Do not lie.
• Do not steal.
• Do not cheat others.
• Do not kill.
• Non-Moral Standards: Social rules, etiquette, and good manners that guide
actions but do not involve morality.
• Examples:
• No talking while your mouth is full.
• Wear black or white for mourning.
• Observe correct grammar.
• Maintain a good body figure.

Classification of Theories of Moral Standards

1. Consequence Standard (Teleological Ethics)
• The rightness or wrongness of an act is based on its outcome.
• Example: Going to school is right because it allows you to learn.
2. Not-Only-Consequence Standard (Deontological Ethics)
• Rightness or wrongness is based on duty, natural law, or virtue,
not just consequences.

What Makes Standards Moral?

• For Theists: Moral standards are commandments revealed by God (e.g., Ten
Commandments).
• For Non-Theists: Moral standards are based on philosophical ideas, such as:
• Confucius’ Golden Rule:
 • “Do unto others what you would like others
to do unto you.”
• Immanuel Kant’s Categorical Imperative:
• “Act only according to that maxim whereby
you can at the same time will that it should become a
universal law.”

Origin of Moral Standards

• Theist View: Moral standards come from divine revelation and natural law.
• Evolutionary View: Moral standards evolved over time as human societies
developed.

Lesson 2: Moral Dilemmas

Definition of a Moral Dilemma

• A situation where a person must choose between two conflicting moral values
or duties.

Types of Moral Dilemmas

1. Epistemic Dilemma
• A conflict between two moral requirements, and the agent does
not know which takes precedence.
2. Obligation Dilemma
• More than one option is obligatory, but only one can be chosen.
3. Self-Imposed Dilemma
• Caused by the individual’s own errors in judgment.

Four Techniques for Solving Moral Dilemmas

1. Utilitarianism
• The right action is the one that produces the most good or the
least harm.
2. Deontology
• Actions are right or wrong in themselves, regardless of their
consequences.
3. Evaluate Different Outcomes
• Consider how different ethical theories would view the possible
results.
4. Promoting the Greater Good
 • Think beyond the immediate situation to its broader impact on
morality.

Lesson 3: Three Levels of Moral Dilemmas

1. Individual-Level Moral Dilemmas

• Personal ethical choices based on self-chosen principles.
• Example: Choosing to speed and run a red light to take someone to the
hospital.

2. Organizational-Level Moral Dilemmas

• Conflict between personal morals and workplace rules.
• Example: Sexual harassment in the workplace is unethical.

3. Structural-Level Moral Dilemmas

• Dilemmas caused by larger social or institutional systems.
• Examples of Structural Dilemmas:
1. Differentiation vs. Integration: The challenge of
balancing different roles in an organization.
2. Gap vs. Overlap: When responsibilities are unclear,
leading to inefficiency.
3. Lack of Clarity vs. Lack of Creativity: Employees
unsure of their roles may act based on personal preference
rather than organizational goals.
4. Excessive Autonomy vs. Excessive Interdependence:
Too much independence can cause isolation, while too much
interdependence can cause inefficiency.

How to Overcome Moral Dilemmas

1. Figure out the reason behind the dilemma.
2. Set a clear ethical standard.
3. Use ethical principles to guide decisions.
4. Evaluate different solutions based on ethical frameworks.

Lesson 4: Freedom as the Foundation of Moral Acts

What is Freedom?
• The power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or
 restraint.

Types of Freedom
1. Freedom of Association – Right to form and participate in groups.
2. Freedom of Belief – Right to think freely and hold ideas based on personal
beliefs.
3. Freedom of Speech – Right to express ideas and opinions without government
restriction.
4. Freedom to Express Oneself – Right to organize and participate in groups.
5. Freedom of the Press – Right to report news and circulate opinions without
censorship.
6. Freedom to Choose One’s State in Life – Right to choose between family life,
priesthood, or religious life.
7. Freedom of Religion – Right to change and practice religion publicly or
privately.
8. Freedom from Bondage and Slavery – Prohibits ownership or forced labor of
people.
9. Freedom to Bear Arms – Right to possess weapons for self-preservation.

What is a Moral Act?

• An action that is freely chosen and comes into existence through reason and
will.

Three Elements of Moral Acts

1. The Objective Act – What we do.
2. The Subjective Goal or Intention – Why we do the act.
3. The Concrete Situation or Circumstances – Where, when, how, and with whom
the act is performed.

Why is Freedom the Foundation of Moral Acts?

• Kant states that freedom is the only immediate good, essential to human beings,
and the source of moral worth.

Lesson 5: Culture – How Does It Define Our Behavior?

What is Culture?
• The integrated pattern of human knowledge, beliefs, and behavior.
• Includes language, customs, morals, laws, taboos, institutions, tools,
 • Includes language, customs, morals, laws, taboos, institutions, tools,
techniques, rituals, and works of art.

Two Categories of Culture

1. Nonmaterial Culture – Language, values, rules, knowledge, and meanings
shared by society.
2. Material Culture – Physical objects produced by society, such as tools, homes,
and toys.

How is Culture Passed On?

• Through learning, not genetics or heredity.

The Human Person and Culture

• A person is born into a culture and does not choose it.

Ways Culture Changes

1. Enculturation – Process of learning one’s culture from infancy to death.
2. Inculturation – Process of integrating the Gospel into a culture while
transforming the culture.
3. Acculturation – Cultural modification by adopting traits from another culture.

How Culture Shapes the Moral Agent

• Culture influences how people evaluate and judge right and wrong.
• Some cultural practices are morally unacceptable, such as vengeance and
gender inequality.

Cultural Relativism
• The idea that a person’s beliefs, values, and practices should be understood
based on their own culture.
• Allows individuals to see values and morals within their cultural context rather
than comparing them to others.

Cultural Relativism vs. Cultural Perspective

• Cultural Relativism – The belief that moral systems vary by culture and are
equally valid.
• Cultural Perspective – Understanding the morals of other cultures without
making judgments.

Advantages of Cultural Relativism

Advantages of Cultural Relativism
1. Promotes cooperation.
2. Creates a society where equality is possible.
3. Allows people to pursue their own interests.
4. Encourages respect for different perspectives.
5. Preserves human cultures.
6. Reduces judgment from others.
7. Allows moral codes to be defined by each culture.
8. Helps individuals create moral codes based on societal standards.
9. Prevents cultural conditioning.

Disadvantages of Cultural Relativism

1. Encourages personal bias.
2. Can lead to chaos, as there is no universal right or wrong.
3. Assumes people will always act morally, which is unrealistic.
4. May reduce cultural diversity.
5. Can cause division among people.
6. Limits moral progress.
7. Limits overall progress in human society.
8. Allows biased perceptions to become “truths.”